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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
VOLUME the T H I R D,
Encyclopaedia Britannica;
O R, A
DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS and S C I E N C E S,
COMPILED UPON A NEW PLAN.
IN WHICH
The different Sciences and Arts are digefted into
diftinCl Treatifes or Syftems;
AND
The various Technic alTerms, <&c. are explained as they occur
in the order of the Alphabet,
ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY COPPERPLATES.
By ^Society of GENTLEMEN in Scotland.
IN THREE VOLUMES.
V O L. III.
EDINBURGH:
Printed for A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar;
And lold by C o l I n M a c f a r q^u h a r, at his Printing-office, Nicolfon-ftreet.
M.DCC.LXXr.
$22#JNS
0 1965^
^/V
Encyclopaedia Britannica;
Or, A NEW
dictionary
0 F
ARTS and SCIENCES.
MAC MAC
MACAO, an ifland of China, in the province
of Canton, fifty miles fouth of Canton.
Macao, in ornithology. See Psittacus.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of
fcripture; fo called from Judas Mattathias,
furnamed Maccabeus. The firft book of the Maccabees
is an excellent hiftory, and comes neareft to the llyle and
manner of the facred hiftorians of any extant. It contains
the hiftoryof forty years, from the reign of Antioch us E-
piphanes to the death of Simon the high prielt; that is,
from the year of the world 3829 to the year 3869, 131
before Chrift. The feqond book of the Maccabees
begins with two epiftlea fent from the Jews of Jerofa-
Jem to the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria, to exhort
them to obferve the feaft of the dedication of the new
altar eredted by Judas on his purifying the temple.
After thefe epiftles follows the preface of the author
to his hilfory, which is an abridgment of a larger work,
compofed by one Jafon, a Jew of Cyrene, who* wrote
the hillory of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren, and
the wars againft Antiochus Epiphanes and Eupator
his fon. This fecond book does not, by any means,
equal the accuracy and excellency of the firft. It con¬
tains a hiftory of about fifteen years, from the execu¬
tion of Heliodorus’s commiflion, who was fent by Se-
leucus to fetch away the treafures of the temple, to
the vidtory obtained by Judas Maccabeus overNicanor;
that is, from the year of the world 3828, to the year
3843, 147 years before Chrift.
AIACCLESFIELD, a market-town of Oheftiire, thir¬
ty-five miles eaft of Chefter, from whence the noble
.family of Parker take the title of earl.
Vol. III. N° 69. 2
MACE, the fecond coat or covering of the kernel of the
nutmeg, is a thin and membranaceous fubftance, of an
oleaginous nature and a yellowilh colour ; being met
with in flakes of an inch and more in length, which are
divided into a multitude of ramifications. It is of an
extremely fragrant, aromatic and agreeable flavour,
and of a pleafant, but acrid and oleaginous tafte.
. Mace is carminative, ftomachic, and aftringent; and
poflefles all the virtues of nutmeg, but is lefs aftrin¬
gent.
MACEDONIA, a province of European Turky, bound¬
ed by Servia and Romania, on the north and eaft; by
the gulphs of Salonichi, Contefla and Theflaly, on the
fouth ; and by Albania and Epirus, on the weft.
MACERATION, is an infufion of, or foaking ingre¬
dients in water or any other fluid, in order either to
foften them, or draw out their virtues.
MACHI AN, a fmall ifland of the Moluccas, which pro¬
duces the beft cloves : it is fituated under the equator,
in 1250 E. long, and is fubjedt to the Dutch.
MACHINE, in general, whatever hath force fufficient
to raife or ftop the motion of a heavy body. See M«-
Chanics.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is when
the poet introduces the ufe of machines, or brings
fome fupernatural being upon the ftage, in order to
folve fome difficulty, or to perform fome exploit out
of the reach of human power. See Composition.
MACKERAN, or Mackan, the capital of a province
in Perfia of the fame name ; fituated in E. long. 66°,
and N. lat. 26°. ^
MACKEREL, in ichthyology. See ScomWr.
A MACRSCERCI,
M AD (s
MACR.OCERCI, a name given to that clafs of animal¬
cules, with tails longer than their bodies.
MACROPYRENIUM, in natural hiftory, a genus of
foffils, confiding of'cruftated feptarite, with a long
nucleus Handing out at each end of the mafs.
MACROTELOSTYLA, in natural hiflory, a name of
a genus of cryftals, which are compofed of two pyra¬
mids, joined to the end of a column;, both the pyra¬
mids, as alfo the column, being hexarigular, and the
whole body confequently compofed of eighteen planes.
MACULiE, in aftronomy, dark fpots appearing on the
luminous faces of the fun, moon, and even fonie of
the planets. See Astronom y.
Thefe fpots are moft numerous and eafily obferved
in the fun. It is not uncommon to fee them in va¬
rious forms, magnitudes, and numbers, moving over
the fun’s dilk. They were firft of all difcovered by
the lyncean adronomer Galileo, in the year 1610, foon
after he had finifhed his new-invented telefcope.
MAD APPLE. SeeSoLANUM.
MADAGASCAR, or St Laurence, an ifland of A-
frica, fituated between 43° and 510 of eaft longitude,
and between 120 and 26° fouth latitude; three hun¬
dred miles fouth-eaft of the continent of Africa. It
is about a thoufand miles in length from north to
fouth, and generally between two and three hundred
miles broad. The country is divided among a great
number of petty fovereigns.
MADDER. SeeRuaiA.
MADERA8, fome iflands fituated in the Atlantic ocean,
three hundred miles weft of Skllee, in Africa; in 160
W. long, and between 320 and 330 of N. lat.
The largeft of them, called Madera, or rather Mat-
tera, by the Portuguefe, is about an hundred and
twenty miles in circumference, and produces incre¬
dible quantities of wine, which has the peculiar qua¬
lity of keeping beft in hot climates, where other wines
turn four.
MADNESS, a moft dreadful kind of delirium, without
a fever. See Medicine.
MADRAS, a town on the coaftof Cormandel, inhabited
by blacks, and fituated juft without the walls of the
White town of Fort St George.
MADRE de Pop a, a town and convent of Terra Fir*
ma, in South America, fituated on the river Grande,
fifty miles eaft of Carthageni, almoftas much reforted
to by the pilgrims of America, as the chapel of Lo-
retto is by the pilgrims of Europe: W. long. 76° N.
lat. ii°.
MADRID, the capital of the province ofNew Caftile,
and of the whole kingdom of Spain : W. long. 40 I5',
and N. lat. 40 30,.
MADRIGAL, is a fhort amorous poem, compofed of a
number of free and unequal verfes, neither confined
to the regularity of a fonnet, nor to the point of an epi¬
gram, but only confiding of fome tender and delicate
thought, exprefled with a beautiful, noble, and ele¬
gant fimplicity
Madrigal, in geography, a city of the province of
Popayan, in fouth America: W. long. 750 30', and
N. lat. 30'.
, ) MAG
MADURA, the capital of the province of the fame
name in the hither India : E. long. 770, and N. lat..
io°.
MiEMACTERION, the fourth month of the Athenian
year, confifting of only twenty-nine days, and anfwer-
ing to the latter part of September and the beginning
of Oflober.
MA£NA, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
MAES, a river which arifes in Burgundy, and runs-
through Lorrain and Champaign into the Netherlands,
and at laft, after palling by many confiderable towns,
difchargesitfelfinto the German fea, a little below the
Briel.
MAESTRICHT, a town in the provine of Brabant,
fituated on the river Maes, thirteen miles north of
Liege: E. long. 50 4c/, and N. lat. yo° yy'.
MAGADOXA, the capital of the territory of the fame
name, at the mouth of the river Magadoxa, on the
coaftof Anian, in Africa: E.lon.410, andN.lat.20.
MAGAZINE, a placein which ftores are kept, of arms,
ammunition, provilions, &c. Every fortified town
ought to be furnilhed with a large magazine, which,
fhould contain ftores of ail kinds, fufficient to enable
the garrifon and inhabitants to hold out a long fiege,
and in which fmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, t&c,
may be employed, in making every thing belonging to
the artillery, as carriages, waggons, Ac.
MAGDALEN, or Nuns of St Magdalen, an order
of religious in the Romilh church, dedicated to St
Mary Magdalen, and fometimes called Magdalenettes.
Theie chiefly confift of Courtezans, who, quitting their
profeflion, devote the reft of their lives to repentance
and mortification.
MAGDEBURG, the capital of the duchy of the fame
name, fituated on the river Elbe, feventy miles weft
of Berlin: E. long. 120, and N lat y2° xy'
MAGDELENA, a large river of South America^ which,
rifing near the equator, runs north through Terra Fir-
ma, and, uniting its waters with the river Cance, ob¬
tains the name of the river Grande,- and falls into the
north fea. Below the town of Madre de Popa.
MAGELLAN streights, or rather Streights of
Magellan. Thefe ftreights are about three hundred
miles in length from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean,
but of a very unequal breadth; and were at firft difco¬
vered and paffed by Ferdinand Magellan, from Whom
they had their name: they are fituated between the
ifland Terra del Fuego and the moft fouthern part of
the continent of America, between 76° and 84° of
W. long, and between y2° and y4° of fouth lat.
MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious fe<ft in Per-
fia and other eaftern countries who maintained, that
there were two principles, the one the caufe of all good,
the other the caufe of all evil; and, abominating the
adoration of images, worfhipped God only by fire,
which they looked upon as the brighteft and moft glo¬
rious fymbol of Oromafdes*, or the good God; as
darknefs is. the trueft fymbol of Arimanius, or the evil
god. This religion was reformed by Zoroafter, who
maintained that there was one fupreme independent be¬
ing,-' and under him two principles or angels, one the angel
MAG ( 5
of goodnefs and light, and the other of evil and dark-
nefs : that there is a perpetual ftruggle between them,
which (hall iaft to the end of the world ; that then the
ang:l of darknefs and his difciples (hall go into a world
of their own, where they (hall be punifhed in everlatt-
ing darknefs ; and the angel of light and his difciples
fnall alfo go into a world of their own, where they (hall
be'rewarded in everlading light.
The priefts of the magi were the mod (kilful mathe¬
maticians and philofophers of the ages in which they
lived, infomuch that a learned man and a magian be¬
came equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowledge as more than natural, and imagined them
infpired by fo.me fupernatural power; and hence thofe
who praiftifed wicked and mifchievous arts, taking up¬
on themfelves the name of magians, drew on it that
ill fignification which the word magician now bears a-
mong us.
This fedt dill fubfids in Perfia, under the denomi¬
nation of gaurs, where they watch the facred fire with
tha greated care, and never fufFer it to be extinguidied.
MAGIC, originally fignified only the knowledge of the
more fublime parts of plulofophy ; but as the magi
likewife profefled adrology, divination and forcery,
the term magi became odious, being ufed to fignify an
unlawful diabolical kind of fcience, acquired by the
aflidance of the devil and departed fouls.
Magic lantern, in optics. SccOptiCs.
MAGISTERY, in chemidry, a very fine powder made
by folution and precipitation.
Magistery of Bifmuth. See Chemistery, p. 90.
• 142.
MAGISTRATE, any public officer to whom the exe¬
cutive power of the law is committed, either wholly or
in part.
MAGNA as sis A eligenba, is a writ anciently direc¬
ted to the (heriff for fummoning four lawful knights
before the judices of affize, in order- to chufe twelve
knights of the neighbourhood, <&c. to pais upon the
great affize between* fuch a perfon plaintiff, and fuch a
one defendant.
Magna charta, the great charter of the liberties of
Britain, and the balls of our laws and privileges.
This charter may be faid to derive its origin from
king Edward the Confeffor, who granted feveral privi¬
leges to the church and (late by charter: thefe liber¬
ties and privileges were alfo granted and confirmed by
king Henry I. by a celebrated great charter now lod ;
but which was confirmed or re-ena<ded by king Henry
II and kihg John. Henry III, the fucceffor of this
lad prince, after having caufed twelve men to make
inquiry into the liberties of England in the reign of
Henry I. granted a new charter, which was the fame
as the prefent magna charta: this he feveral times
confirmed, and as often broke ; till, in thirty-feventh
year of his reign, he went to Wedminider-hall, and
there, in the prefence of the nobility and biffiops,
who held lighted candles in their hands, magna charta
was jead, the king all the while holding his hand to
his bread, and at, lad folemnly fwearing faithfully and
, inviolably to obferve. all the thing: therein contained.
) M A H
6v. then the biffiops extinguiffiing the candles, and
throwing them on the ground, they all cried out,
“ Thus let him be extinguiffied, and dink in hell, who
violates this charter.” It is oblerved, that notwith-
danding the folemnity of this confirmation, king Hen¬
ry, the very next year, again invaded the rights of his
people, till the barons entered into a war againd him,
when, after various fuccefs, he confirmed this charter,
and the charter of the fared, in the fifty fecond year
of his reign. This excellent charter, fo equitable
and beneficial to the fubjedl, is the anciented written
law in the kingdom : by the 25 Edw. I. it is ordained
that it (hall be taken as the common law ; and by the
43 Edward III. ail datutes made againd it are decla¬
red to be void.
MAGNESIA. See Chemistry, p. 119.
MAGNET, or Loadstone, in natural hidory, a very
rich iron ore, found in large detached maffes, ef a
dnffiy iron-grey, often tinged with browniffior reddiffi,
and when broken appearing fomething like the common
emery, but lefs fparkling. It is very heavy, confide-
rably hard, of a perfectly irregular and uneven fur-
face, and of a firm drudure, but ufually with fome
porous irregularities within. It is found in Britain,
and all otheVplaces where there are iron mines. See
Mechanics.
MAGNIFYING, the making of objeds appear larger
than they would otherwife do; whence, convex lenfes,
which have the power of doing this, are called magni¬
fying glaffes. See Optics.
MAGNITUDE, whatever is made up of part? locally
extended, or that hath feveral dimenfions ; as a line,
furface, folid,
MAGNOLIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria po-
lygynia clafs . The calix confids of three leaves, and
the corolla of nine petals ; the capfules are imbricated,
and have two valves; and the feed is a pendulous
berry. There are four fpecies, all natives of America.
MAGPY, in ornithology. See Cgrvus.
MAHOMETANS, thofe who believe in the religion and
divine miffion of Mahomet, or Mohammed.
It will not be improper here to give a general ac¬
count of this extraordinary perfon, and the religion
which he had the addrefs to propagate over mod of
the eadern nations.
Mohammed was born in the reign of Anuffiirwan the
Jud, emperor of Perfia, about the end of the 6th cen¬
tury of the Chridian tera. He came into the world
under fome difadvantages. His father Abd’allah was a
younger fon of Abd’almotalleb, and, dying very young,
and in his father’s life time, left his widow and infant
fon in very mean circumdances, his whole fubdance
confiding but of five camels and one Ethiopian ffie-
flave. Abd’almotalleb was therefore obliged to take
care of his grandchild Mohammed, which he not only
did during his life^ but at his death enjoined his elded
fon Abu Taleb, who was brother to Abd’ailah by the
fame mother, to provide for him for the future ; which
he very affectionately did, and indruCted him in the
hufinefs of a merchant which he followed ; and to that
end he took him into Syria when he was but thirteen,
and
MAH ( ,
and afterwards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and
rich widow, for her faftor ; in whofe fervice he behaved
himfelf fo well, that by making him her hufband fhe foon
raifed him to an equality with the richeft in Mecca.
After he began by this advantageous match to live at
bis eafe, it was that he formed the fcheme of eftabliihing
a new religion, or, as he expreffed it, of replanting the
only true and ancient one, profefled by Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Mofes, Jefus, and all the prophets, by de-
ftroying the grofs idolatry into which the generality of
his countrymen had fallen, and weeding out the corrup¬
tions and fuperftitions which the latter Jews and Chri-
ftians had, as he thought, introduced into their ^religion,
and reducing it to its original purity, which confided
chiefly in the worfnip of one only God.
Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightlyjudged
that it was neceflary for him to begin with the conver-
fion of his own houfehold. Having therefore retired
with his family, as he had done feveral times before,
to a cave in mount Hara, he there opened the fecret of
his million to his wife Khadijah; and acquainted her that
the angel Gabriel had jult before appeared to him, and
told him that he was appointed the apoftle of -God : he
alfo repeated to her a paflage which he pretended had
been revealed to him by the miniftry of the angel, with
thofe other circumftances of this firll appearance, which
are related by the Mohammedan writers. Khadijah re¬
ceived the news with .great joy; fwearing by him in whofe
hands her foul was, that Ihe trufted he would be the pro¬
phet of his nation; and immediately communicated what
flie had heard to her coufin Warakah Ebn Nawfal, who,
being a Chriftian, could write in the Hebrew charadter,
and was tolerably well verfed in the fcriptures ; and he
as readily came into her opinion, afiuring her that the
fame angel who had formerly appeared unto Mofes was
now fent to Mohammed. The firft overture the prophet
made in the month of Ramadan, in the fortieth year of
his age, which is therefore ufually called the year of his
miflion.
Encouraged by fo good a beginning, he refolved to
proceed, and try for fome time what he could do by pri¬
vate pejfuafion, not daring to hazard the whole affair by
expofing it too fuddenly to the public. He foon made
profelytes of thofe under his own roof, viz. his wife
Khadijah, his fervant Zeid Ebn Haretha (to whom he
gave his freedom on that occafion, which afterwards be¬
came a rule to his followers) and his coufin and pupil AH,
the fon of Abu Taleb, though then very young: but this
lad, making no account of the other two, ufed to flyle
himfelf the firji of believers. The next perfon Moham-
med.applied to was Abd’allah Ebn Abi Kohafa, furnamed
Abu Beer, a man of great authority among the Koreifh,
and one whofe intereft he well knew would be of great
fervice to him ; as it foon appeared : for Abu Beer, being
gained over, prevailed alfo on O.thman Ebn Affan, Abd’
alraham Ebn Awf, Saad Ebn Abi Wakkas, al Zobeir
Ebn al Awam, and Telha Ebn Obeid’allah, all principal
men of Mecca, to follow his example. Thefe men were
,the fix chief companions, who, with a few more, were
•converted in the fpa 'e of three years; at the end of
^vhichj JVIobammed having, as he hoped, a fufEcient in-
l ) MAH
tereft to fupport him, made his miflion no longer a fecret,
but gave out that God had commanded him to admonifli
his near relations, and, in order to do it with more con¬
venience and prbfped of fuccefs, he dire&ed Ali to pre¬
pare an entertainment, and invite the fons and defeen-
dants of Abd’almotalleb, intending then to open his
mind to them : this was done, and about forty of them
came; but Abu Laheb, one of his uncles, making the
company break up before Mohammed had an opportu¬
nity of fpeaking, obliged him to.give them a fecond invi¬
tation the next day ; and When they were come, he made
them the following fpeech : “ it know no man in all Ara¬
bia who can offer his kindred a more excellent thing than
I now do you: I offer you happinefs both in this life,
and in that which is to come ; God Almighty hath com¬
manded me to call you unto him ; Who therefore among
you will be afliftant to me herein, and become my bro¬
ther and my vicegerent ?” All of them hefitating, and
declining the matter, Ali at length rofeup, and declared
that he would be his afliftant; and vehemently threaten¬
ed thofe who fhould oppofe him. .Mohammed upon this
embraced Ali with great demonftrations of affedtion, and
defired all who were prefent to hearken to and obey him, as
his deputy ; at which the company broke out into a great
laughter, telling Abu Taleb that he muft now pay obe¬
dience to his fon.
This repulfe however was fo far from difeouraging
Mohammed, that he began to preach in public to the peo¬
ple, who heard him with fome patience, till he came to
upbraid them with the idolatry, obftinacy, and perverfe-
nefs of themfelves and their fathers; which fo highly
provoked them, that they declared themfelves his ene¬
mies, and would foon have procured his ruin, had he
not been protedled by Abu Taleb. The chief of the
Koreifh warmly folicited this perfon to defect his ne¬
phew, making frequent remonftrances againft the inno¬
vations he was attempting; which proving ineffedtual,
they at length threatened him with an open rupture, if
he did not prevail on Mohammed todefift. At this Abu
Taleb was fo far moved, that he earneftly diffuaded his
nephew from purfuing the affair any farther, reprefenting
the great danger he and his friends muft otherwife run.
But Mohammed was not to be intimidated, telling his
uncle plainly, that if they fet the fun again]} him on his
right hand, and the moon on his left, he would not leave
his enterprize : and Abu Taleb, feeing him fo firmly
refolved to proceed, ufed no further arguments, butpro-
mifed to ftand by him againft all his enemies.
The Koreifh, finding the/ could prevail neither by fair
words nor menaces, tried what they could do by force
and ill treatment; ufing Mohammed’s followers fo very
injurioufly, that it was not fafe for them to continue at
Mecca any longer; whereupon Mohammed gave leave
to fuch of them as had not friends to protedl them to
feek for refuge elfewhere. And accordingly, in the fifth
year of the prophet’s miflion, fixteen of them, four of
whom were women, fled into Ethiopia; and among them
Othman Ebn Affan and his wife Rakiah, Mohammed’s
daughter. This was the firft flight; but afterwards fe¬
veral others followed them, retiring one after another,
to the number of eighty-three men and eighteen women,
befidts
MAH ( 5 ) MAH
Refutes ’children. Thefe refugees were kindly received
by the Najafhi, or king of Ethiopia, who refufed to de¬
liver them up to thofe whom the Koi eilh fent to demand
them, and, as the Arab writers unanimoufly atteft, even
profefied the Mohammedan religion.
In the fixth year of his million Mohammed had the
pleafure of feeing his party llrengthened by the conver-
fion of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valour and me-
i it, and of Omar Ebn al Khattab, a perfon highly e-
lleemed, and once a violent oppofer of the prophet. As
perfecution generally advances rather than obltrudls the
fpreading of a religion, Illamifm made fo grtat a progrefs
among the Arab tribes, that the Koreilh, to fupprefs it
effedually, if pollible, in the feventh year of Mohammed’s
million, made afolemn league or covenant againft the Ha
Ihemites and the family of Abd’almotalleb, engaging them
felves to contraft no marriages with any of them, and to
have no communication with them; and, to give it
the greater fan&ion, reduced it into writing, and laid
it up in the Caaba. Upon this the tribe became divided
into two factions ; and the family of Hafhem all repaired
to Abu Taieb, astheirhead; except only Abd’iil Uzza,
furnamed Abu Laheb, who, out of his inveterate hatred
to his nephew and his doftrine, went over to the oppo-
fite party, whofe chief was Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, of the
family of Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for three
years ; but, in the tenth year of his million, Mohammed
told his uncle Abu Taieb, that God had manifelllylhewed
his difapprobation of the league which the Koreilh had
made againft them, by fending a worm to eat out every
word of the inftrument, except the name of God. Of
this accident Mohammed had probably fome private no¬
tice; for Abu Taieb went immediately to the Koreilh
and acquainted them with it; offering, if it proved falfe,
to deliver his nephew up to them ; but, in cafe it \yere
true, he infilled that they ought to lay afide their animo-
fity, and annul the league they had made againft the
Halhemites. To this they acquiefced, and, going to in-
fpedt the writing, to their great aftonilhment found it to
be as Abu Taieb had faid; and the league was thereupon
declared void.
In the fame^ear Abu Talebdied, at the age of above
fourfcore.; and it is the general opinion that he died an
infidel; though others fay, that when he was at the point
of death he embraced Mohammedifm, and produce fome
palfages out of his poetical compofitions to confirm their
alfertion. About a month, or, as fome write, three days
after the death of this great benefattor and patron, Mo¬
hammed had the additional mortification to lofe his wife
Khadijah, who hadfo generoully made his fortune. For
which reafon this year is called the jear of mourning.
On the death of thefe two perfons the Koreilh began
to he more troublefome than ever to their prophet, and
efpecially fome who had formerly been his intimate
friends ; infomuch that he found himfelf obliged to feek
for Ihelter elfewhere, and firft pitched uponTayef. about
fixty miles call from Mecca, for the place for his retreat.
Thither therefore he went, accompanied by his fervant
Zied, and applied himfelf to two of the chief of the tribe
of Thakif who were the inhabitants of that place ; but
Vot. Ill, No. 69. ' 2
they received them very coldly. However, he ftaid there a
month; and fome of thetnore confiderate and better fort of
men treated him with a little refpe<5t: but the Haves and in-
feriorpeople at length rofe againft him, and, bringing him
to the wall of the city, obliged him to depart, and re¬
turn to Mecca; where heput himfelf under the protedlion
of al Motaam Ebn Adi.
This repulfe greatly difcouraged his followers : how¬
ever, Mohammed was not wanting to himfelf, but boldly
continued to preach to the public aflemblies at the pilgri¬
mage, and gained feveral profelytes, and among them
fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb of the Jewilh tribe of
Khazraj, who, on their return home, failed not to fpeak
much in commendation of their new religion, and ex¬
horted their fellow-citizens to embrace the fame.
In the twelfth year of his million it was that Moham¬
med gave out that he had made his night journey from
Mecca to Jerufalem, and thence to heaven, fomuch fpo-
ken of by all that write of him. Dr Prideaux thinks he
invented it, either to anfwer the expeflations of thofe
who demanded fome miracle as a proof of his million ; or
elfe, by pretending to have converfed with God, to efta-
bliflt the authority of whatever he Ihould think fit to leave
behind by way of oral tradition, and make his fayings to
ferve the fame purpofe as the oral law of the Jews. But
it does not appear that Mohammed himfelf ever expefted
fo great a regard Ihould be paid to his fayings, as his
followers have fince done ; and feeing he all along dif-
claimed any power of performing miracles, it feems ra¬
ther to have been a fetch of policy to raife his reputation,
by pretending to have aftually converfed with God in
heaven, as Mofes had heretofore done in the mount, and
to have received feveral inftitutions immediately from him,
whereas before he contented himfelf with perfuading
them that he had all by the miniftry of Gabriel.
However, this ilory feemed fo abfurd and incredible,
that feveral of his followers left him upon it; and had pro¬
bably ruined the whole defign, hadnot Abu Beer vouched
for his veracity, and declared that, if Mohammed af¬
firmed it to be true, he verily believed the whole. Which
happy incident not only retrieved the prophet’s credit,
but increafed it to fuch a degree, that he was fecure of
being able to make his difciples (wallow whatever he
pleafed to impofe on them for the future. And this fic¬
tion, notwithftanding its extravagance, was one of the
moft artful contrivances Mohammed ever put in pradtice,
and what chiefly contributed to the raifing of his reputa¬
tion to that great height to which it afterwards arrived.
In this year, called by the Mohammedans the
year, twelve men of Yathreb or Medina, of whom ten
were of the tribe of Khazraj, and the other two of that
of Aws, came to Mecca, and took an oath of fkklity to
Mohammed at al Akaba, a hill on the north of that city.
This oath was called ’womens oath ; not that any wo¬
men were prefent at this time, but becaufe a man was
not thereby obliged to take up arms in defence of Mo¬
hammed or his religion; it being the fame oath that was
afterwards exadled of the women, the form of which we
have in the Koran, and is to this effedl; viz. That they
Ihould renounce all idolatry; and they fhould not fteal,
nor commit fornication, nor kill their children (as the
B Pagan
M A H (
Pagan Arabs ufed to do when they apprehended they
fliould not be able to maintain them,) nor forge calumnies ;
and that they (hould obey the prophet in all things that
were reafonable. When they had folemnly engaged to all
this, Mohammed fent one of his difciples, named Mafab
Ebn Omair, home with them, toin ftrudt them more fully
in the grounds and ceremonies of his new religion
Mafab being arrived at Medina, by the afliltance of
thofe who had been formerly converted, gained feveral
profelytes, particularly Ofaid Ebn Hodeira, a chief man
of the city, and Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the tribe of
Aws ; Mohammedifm fpreading fo faft, that there was
fcarce a houfe wherein there were not fome who had em¬
braced it.
The'next year, being the thirteenth of Mohammed’s
million, Mafab returned to Mecca, accompanied by
fe^enty-three men and two women of Medina who had
profeffed Iflamifm, befides fome others who were as yet
unbelievers. On their arrival, they immediately fent to
Mohammed, and offered him their affiftance, of which
he was now in great need; for his adverfaries were by
this time grown fo powerful in Mecca, that he could not
flay there much longer without imminent danger. Where¬
fore he accepted their propofal, and met them one night,
by appointment, at alAkaba above-mentioned, attended by
his uncle al Abbas, who, though he was not then a be¬
liever, wilhed bis nephew well, and made a fpeech to
thofe of Medina, wherein he told them, that as Moham¬
med was obliged to quit his native city, and feek an
afylum elfewhere, and they had offered him their pro-
tedfion, they would do well not to deceive him ; that if
they were not firmly refolved to defend, and not betray
him, they had better declare their minds, and let him
provide for his fafety in fome other manner. Upon their
protefting their fmcerity, Mohammed fwore to be faith¬
ful to them, on condition that they fltould protedl him
againfi: all infults, as heartily as they would their own
wives and-families. They then allied him what recom-
pence they were to expeff jf they {hould happen to be
killed in his quarrel ; he anfwered, paradife. Where¬
upon they pledged their faith to him, and fo returned
home ; after Mohammed had chofen twelve out of their
number, who were to have the fame authority among
them as the twelve apoflles of Chrift had among his dif¬
ciples.
Hitherto Mohammed had propagated his religion by
fair means, fo that the whole fuccefs of his enterprize,
before his flight to Medina, muff be atributed to perfua-
libn only, and not to compulfion. For before this fecond
oath of fealty or inauguration at al Akaba, he had no
permiflion to ufe any force at all; and in feveral places
of the Koran, which he pretended were revealed during
his flay at Mecca, he declares his bufinefs was only to
preach and admonifh; that he had no authority to compel
any perfon to embrace his religion j and that, whether
people believe or not, was none of his concern, but be¬
longed folely unto God. And he was fo far from allow¬
ing his followers to ufe force, that he exhorted them to
bear patiently thofe injuries which were offered them <>n
account of their faith ; and, when perfecuted himfelf,
ehofe rather to quit the glace of his birth and retire to
6 ) MAH
Medina, than to make any refiftance. But this great
paflivenefs and moderation feem entirely owing to his
want'of power, and the great fuperiority of his oppofers
for the firlt twelve years of his million ; for no fooner
was he enabled, by the alfiflance of thofe of Medina, .to
make head again!! his enemies, than he gave out, that
God had allowed him and his followers to defend them-
felves again!! the infidels ; and at length, as his forces
increafed, he pretended to have the divine leave even to
attack them ; and to deflroy idolatry, and fet up the true
faith by the fword ; finding, by experience, that his de-
ligns would otherwife proceed very flowly, if they were
not utterly overthrown; and knowing, on the other hand,
that innovators, when they depend folely on their own
llrength, and can compel, feldom run any rifque ; from
whence, fays Machiavel, it follows, that all the armed
prophets have fucceeded, and the unarmed ones have
failed. Mofes, Cyrus, Thefeus, and Romulus, would
not have been able to ellablilh the obfervance of their in-
ftitutions for any length of time, had they not been armed.
The firll paflage of the Koran which gave Mohammed
the permiflion of defending himfeh by arms, is faid to
have been that in the twenty-fecond chapter ; after which
a great number to the fame purpofe were revealed.
That Mohammed had a right to take up arms for his
own defence againlthis unjult perfecutors, may, perhaps,
be allowed ; but whether he ought afterwards to have
made ufe of that means for the eftablilhing of his religion,
is not fo eafy to determine. How far the fecular power
may or ought to interpofe in affairs pf this nature, man¬
kind are not agreed. The method of converting by the
fword gives no very favourable idea of the faith which is
fo propagated, and is difallowed by every body in thofe
of another religion, though the fame perfons are willing
to admit of it for the advancement of their own ; fuppo-
fing that, though a falfe religion ought not to be ellablilh-
ed by authority, yet a true one may ; and accordingly
force is almolt as conllantly employed in thefe cafes by
thofe who have the power in their hands-, as it is con¬
llantly complained of by thofe who fuffer the violence.
It is certainly one of the moll convincing proofs that
Mohammedifm was no other than a human invention,,
that it owed its progrefs and ellablilhment almolt entirely
to the fword ; and it is one of the llrongell deihonllrations
of the divine original of Chriflianity, that it prevailed a-
gainlt all the force and powers of the world by the mfere
dint of its own truth, . after having flood the aflaults of
all manner of perfecutions, as well as other oppofitions,
for three hundred years together, and at length made the
Roman emperors themfelves fubmit thereto ; after which
time, indeed, this proof feems to fail, Chriflianity being
then eftablilhed, and Paganifm abolilhed, by public autho¬
rity, which has had great influence in the propagation of
the one and deflruftion of the other ever fince. But to
return :
Mohammed, having provided for the fecurity of his
companions as well as his own, by the league offenfive
and defenfive which he had now concluded with thole of
Medina, diredled them to repair thither, which they ac¬
cordingly did ; but. himfelf with Abu Beer and Ali flaid
behind, having not yet received the divine permiflxon, as
MAH (
he pretended, to leave Mecca, The Koreifh, fearing
the confequence of this new alliance, be'gan to think it
abfolutely neceffary to prevent Mohammed’s efcape to
Medina ; and having held a council thereon, after feveral
milder expedients had been reje&ed, they came to a re-
folution that he {hould be killed ; and agreed that a man
fhould be chofen out of every tribe for the execution of
this defign ; and that each man fhould have a blow at him
with his fword, that the guilt of his blood might fall
equally on all the tribes, to whofe united power the
liafhemites were much inferior, and therefore durft not
attempt to revenge their kinfman’s death.
This confpiracy was fcarce formed, when, by fome
means or other, it came to Mohammed’s knowledge; and he
gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel,
who had now ordered him to retire to Medina. Where¬
upon, to amufe his enemies, he directed Ali to lie down
in his place, and wrap himfelf up in his green cloak,
Which he did ; and Mohammed eGaped miracuioufly, as
they pretend, to Abu Beer’s houfe, unperceived by the
conipirators, who had already affembled at the prophet s
door. They, in the mean time, looking through the
crevice, and feeing Ali, whom they took to be Mohamnned
himfelf, afleep, continued wat. hing there till morning,
when Alt arofe, and they found themfelves deceived.
From Abu Beer’s Koufe Mohammed and he went to a
cave in mount Thur, to the fouth-eaft of Mecca, accom¬
panied only by Amer Ebn Foheirah, Arm Beer’s fervant,
and Abd’allah Ebn Oreitah, an idolater whom they had
hired for a guide In this cave they lay hid -hree days,
to avoid the fearch of their enemies; which they very
narrowly efcaped, and not without the affiftance of more
mbacles than one : for Tome fay that the Koreilh were
ftruck with blindnefs, fo that they could not rind the
cave; others, that after Mohammed-and his companions
were got in, two pigeons laid their eggs at the entrance,
and a fpider covered the mouth of the cave with her web,
which made them look no farther Abu Beer, feeing'the
prophet in fuch imminent danger, became very forrowful ;
whereupon Mohammed comfor&ed him with thefe words,
recorded in the Koran, Be not grieved, for God is’with us.
Their enemies being retired, they left the cave, and fet out
for Medina, by a by road; and having fortunately, or, as
the Mohammedans tell us, miraculoudy efcaped fome
who were fent to purfue them, arrived fafely at that ci¬
ty ; whither Ali folio ved them in three days, after he
had fettled fome affairs at Mecca.
The firft thing Mohammed did after his arrival atMe-^
dina, was to build a temple for his religious worfhip,
and a houfe for himfelf, which he did on a parcel of ground
which had before ferved to put camels in, or, as others
tell us, for a marying-ground and belonged to Sahal and
Soheil the ions of Amru. who were orphans. This ac¬
tion Dr Prideaux exclaims agamft, reprefenting it as a
flagrant indance of injuftice; for that, fays he,he violently
difpcffeffed thefe poor orphans, the fons of an inferior ar¬
tificer (whom, the author he quote; call's a carpenter) of
this ground, and fo founded the firft fabric of bis worfhp
with the like wickedneis as he did his religion . But, to fay
nothing of the tmp'-obability that Mohammed fhould afV
in fo impolitic a manner at his firft coming, the Moham*
7 ') M A 11
medan writers fet this affair in a quite different light s;
one tells us that he treated with the lads about the price
of the ground, but they defired he would accept it as a
prefent : however, as hiftorians of good credit affure us,
he actually bought it ;vand the money was paid by Abu
Beer. Befides, had Mohammed accepted it as a prefent,;
the orphans were in circumftances fufficient to have afforded
it; for they were of a very good family, of the tribe of Naj¬
jar, one of the moft illuftnous among the Arabs, and not
the fons of a carpenter, as Dr Prideaux’s author writes,,
who took the word Najjar, which fignifies a carpenter,
for ^n appellative, whereas it is a proper name.
Mohammed, .being fecurely fettled at Medina, and able
not only to defend himfelf againft the infults of his ene-
nemies, but to attack them, began to fend out fmall par¬
ties to make reprifals on the Koreifh; the firft party con-
fifting of no more than nine men, who intercepted and
plunde. ed a caravan belonging to that tribe, and in the
adfion took two prifoners. But what eftablifhed his affairs
very much, and was the foundation on which he built all
his fucceeding greatnefs, was the gaining of the battle of
Bedr, which was fought in the fecond year of theHejra,.
and is fo famous in the Mohammedan hiftory. Some
reckon nolefs than twenty-feven expeditions wherein Mo¬
hammed was perfonally prefent, in nine or which he gave
battle, befides feveral other expeditions in which he was
not prefent His forces he maintained partly by the con¬
tributions of his followers for this purp.ofe, which he called
by the name of zacat or alms, and the paying of which
he very artfully made one main article of his religion ; and
partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to be brought
into the public treafury for that purpofe, in which mat¬
ter he likewife pretended to a<ft by the divine dire&ion.
In a few yeass by the fuccefs of his arms (notwith-
ftancfcng herfometinics cameoff by the worft) he confider-
ably raifed his credit and power. In the fixth year of the
Hejra he fet out with 1400 men to vifn the temple of
Mecca, not with any inrent of committing hoftilities, but
in a peaceable manner. However, when he came to ai
Hodeibiya, which is fituate partly within and partly with¬
out the facred territory, the Koreifh-fent to let him know
that they would not permit him to enter Mecca, unlefs
he forced his way ; whereupon he called his troops about
him and they all took afoltmnoath of fealty or homage
to him, and he rTelved to attack the city; but thofe of '
Mecca fending Arwa Ebn Mafud, prime of the tribe of
Tbakif, as their ambaffador, to defi;e peace, , a truce was .
concluded between them for ten years, by which any per-
fon was allowed to enter into league either with Moham¬
med, or v/ith the Koreifh; as he thoug t fit.
It may not be improper, tofhewtbe inconceivable vene¬
ration and refpeift the Mohammedans by this time had
for their prophet, to mention the account which the a-
bove-mentioned ambaffador gave the Koreifh, at his re¬
turn of their behaviour. He faid he had been at the
courts both of the Roman emperor and of the king of Per-
fia. and never faw any prince fo highly refpedled by his.
fubjeAs as Mohammed was by his companions ; for, when¬
ever he made the ablution, in order to fay his prayers,,
they fan and catched the water that he had ufed ; and,,
whenever he fpit, they immediately licked it up, and gather-
MAH ( !
ed up every hair that fell from him with great fuperftition.
In the feventh year of the Hejra, Mohammed began
to think of propagating his religion beyond the bounds of
Arabia, and fent meffengers to the neighbouring princes,
with letters to invite them to Mohammedifm. Nor was
this projedf without fome fuccefs. Khofru Parviz, then
king of Perfia, received his letter with great difdain, and
tore it in a paifion, fending away the meffenger very ab¬
ruptly ; which when Mohammed heard, he faid, God
floatt tear bis kingdom. And foon after a meffenger came
to Mohammed from Badhan king of Yaman, who was a
dependent on the Perfians, to acquaint him that he had
received orders to fend him to Khofru. Mohammed put
off his anfwer till the next morning, and then-told the
meffenger it had been revealed to him that night that
Kholru was flain by his fon Shiruyeh ; adding, that he
was well aflured his new religion and empire (hould rife
to as.great a height as that of Khofru ; and therefore bid
him advife his mailer to embrace Mohammedifm. The
meifenger being returned, Badhan in a few days received a
letter from Shiruyeh, informing him of his father’s death,
and ordering him to give the prophet no further diiturb-
ance. Whereupon Badhan and the Perfians with him
turned Mohammedans.
The emperor Heradius, as the Arabian hiilorians afiure
us, received Mohammed’s letter with great refped, laying
it on his pillow, and difmifled the bearer honourably.
And fome pretend that he would have profefled this new
faith, had he not been afraid of lofing his crown.
Mohammed wrote to the fame effed to the king of E-
thiopia, though he had been converted before, according
to the Arab writers; and to Mokawkas, governor of E-
gypt, who gave the meffenger a very favourable reception,
and lent feveral valuable prefents to Mohammed, and a-
mong the rcfi: two girls, one of which, named Mary, be¬
came a great favourite with him. He alfo fent letters of
the like purport to feveral Arab princes ; particularly one
to al Hareth Ebn Abi Shamer king of Ghaffean, who re¬
turning for anfwer that he would go to Mohammed him-
felf, the prophet faid, May his kingdom perifh ; another
to Hawdha Ebn Ali, king of Yamama, who was a Chri-
ftian, and, having fome time before profefled Iflamifm, had
lately returned to his former faith ; this prince fent back
a very rough anfwer, upon which Mohammed curfing him,
he died foon after; and a third to al Mondar Ebn Sawa,
king of Bahrein, who embraced Mohammedifm, and all
the Arabs of that country followed his example.
The eighth year of the Hejra was a very fortunate
year to Mohammed. In the beginning of it, KhaledjEbn
al Walid and Amru Ebn al As, both excellent foldiers,
the firfl: of whom afterwards conquered Syria and other
countries, and the latter Egypt, became profelytes of
Mohammedifm. And foon after the prophet fent 3000
men againfl: the Grecian forces, to revenge the death of
one of his ambafladors, who being fent to the governor of
Bofraon the fame errand asthofe who went to the above-
mentioned princes, were flain by an Arab, of the tribe of
Ghaflan, at Muta, a town in the territory of Balka in
Syria, about three days journey eafhvard from Jerufalem,
near which town they encountered. The Grecians being
daftly fuperior in number (for, including the auxiliary
3 ) MAH
Arabs, they had an army of 100,000 men) the Moham¬
medans were repulled in the lirll attack, and loft fuccef-
.fively three of their generals, viz. Zeid Ebn Haretha
Mohammed’s freedtnan, Jaafar the fon of Abu Taleb,
and Abdallah Ebn Rawaha; but Khaled Ebn al Walid,
fucceeding to the command, overthrew the Greeks with a
great flaughter, and brought away abundance of rich
fpoil ; on occafion of which aftion Mohammed gave him
the honourable title of Seif min foyuf Allah, one of the
favords of God.
In this year alfo Mohammed tookethe city of Mecca,
the inhabitants whereof had brojcen the' truce concluded
on two years before. For the tribe of Beer, who were
confederates with theKoreilh, attackingthofe ofKhozaah,
who were allies of Mohammed, killed feveral of them,
being fupported in the a&ion by a party of the Koreilh
themfelves. The confequence of this violation was foon
apprehended ; and Abu Sofian himfelf made a journey
to Medina on purpofe to heal the breach and renew the
truce; but in vain : forMohimmed, glad of this opportuni¬
ty, refufed to fee him : whereupon he applied to Abu Beer
and Air; but they giving him no anfwer, he was obliged
to return to Mecca as he came.
Mohammed immediately gave orders for preparations
to be made, that he might furprife. the Meccans while
they were unprovided to receive him : in a little time
he began his march thither, and by that time he came
near the city his forces were increafed to 10,000 men.
Thofe of Mecca, being not in a condition to defend them¬
felves againft fo formidable an army, furrendered at dif-
cretion ; and Abu Sofian faved his life by turning Mo¬
hammedan. About twenty-eight of the idolaters were
killed by a party under the command of Khaled; but this
happened contrary to Mohammed’s orders, who, when
he entered the town, pardoned all the Koreifli, on their
fubmiflion, except only fix men and four women, who
were more obnoxious than ordinary (fome of them having
apoftatifed) and were folemnly proferibed by the prophet
himfelf; but of thefe no more than threemen and one
woman were put to death, the reft obtaining pardon on
their embracing Mohammedifm, and one of the women ma¬
king her efcape.
The remainder of this year Mohammed employed in
deftroying the idols in and round Mecca, fending feveral
of his generals on expeditions for that purpofe, and to
invite the Arabs to Iflamifm ; wherein it is no wonder if
they now met with fuccefs.
The next year, being the ninth of the Hejra, the
Mohammedans call the year of esnbajfies; for the Arabs
had been hitherto expecting the iflue of the war between
Mohammed and the Koreifh; but, fo foon as that tribe,
the principal of the whole nation, and the genuine de-
feendants of Khmael, whofe prerogatives none olfered to
difpute, had fubmitted, they were fatisfied that it was not
in their power to oppofe Mohammed, and therefore began
to come in to him in great numbers, and to fend embaffies
to make their fubmiflions to him, both to Mecca, while
he ftaid there, and alfo to Medina, whither he returned
this year. Among the reft; five kings of the tribe of Ha-
myar profefled Mohammedifm, and fent ambafladors to
notify the fame.
M AH ( <
In the tenth year AH was fent into Yaman to pro-
. fagate the Mohammedan faith there, and, as it is faid,
converted the whole tribe of Hamdan in one day. Their
example was quickly followed by all the inhabitants of
that province, except only thofe of Najran, who, being
Chriftians, chofe rather to pay tribute.
Thus_ was Mohammedifm eftablilhed, and idolatry
rooted out, even in Mohammed’s life-time (for he' died
the next year) throughout all Arabia, except only Yama
ma, where Mofeilama, who fet up alfo for a prophet as
Mohammed’s competitor, ha3 a great party, and was
not reduced till the Khalifat of Abu Beer: and the A-
rabs, being then united in one faith and under one prince,
found themfelves in a condition of making thofe conquefts,
which extended the Mohammedan faith over fo great a
part of the world.
Of the Koran. The word Koran, derived from the
verb karaa, to read, lignifies properly, in Arabic, the
reading, or, rather, that •which ought to he read; by
which name the Mohammedans denote not only the entire
book or volume of the Koran, but alfo any particular
chapter or fedtion of it; juft as the Jews call either the
whole feripture, or any part of it, by the name of Karah,
orMikra, wordsof the fame origin and import. SccAl-
coran.
Befide this peculiar name, the Koran is alfo honoured
with feveral appellations, common to other books of
feripture: as, al Farkan, from the verb forata, to di¬
vide or difinguijh ; not, as the Mohammedan dofiors
fay, becaufe thofe books are divided into chapters or fec-
tions, or diftinguifh between good and evil ; but in the
fame notion that rhe.Jews ufe the word Perek, or Pirka,
from the fame root, to denote a fedtion or portion of
feripture. It is alfo called al Molhaf, the volume, and
all Kitab, the book, by way of eminence, which anfwers
to the Bihlia of the Greeks ; and al Dhikr, the admo¬
nition, which name is alfo given to the Pentateuch and
Gofpel.
The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of very
unequal length, which we call chapters, but the Arabians
Sowar, in the lingular Sura, a word rarely ufed on any
other occafion, and properly fignifying a row, order, or
a regular feries ; as a courfe of bricks in building, or a
rank of foldiers in an army; and is the fame in ufe and
import with the Sura, or Tora of the Jews, who alfo
call the fifty three fedlions of the Pentateuch Sedarim, a
word of the fame fignification.
Thefe chapters are not in the manufeript copies diftin-
guifhed by their numerical order, but by particular titles,
which are taken fometimes from a particular matter treat¬
ed of, or perfon mentioned therein ; but ufuallyfrom the
firft word of note, exadtly in the fame manner as the
Jews have named their Sedarim ; though the word from
which fome chapters are denominated be very fat diftant,
towards the middle, or perhaps the end of the chapter;
which feems ridiculous But the occafion of this feems
to have been, that the verfe or palfage wherein fuch word
occurs, was, in point of time, revealed and committed
to writing before the other verfes of the fame chapter
which precede it in order ; and the title being given to
She chapter before it was completed, or the paflages re-
V01. III. N° 69. 2
> ) MAH
duced to their prefent order, the verfe from whence fudt
title was taken did not always happen to begin the chap¬
ter. Some chapters have two or more titles, occafioned
by the difference of the copies
Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mecca,
and others at Medjna, the noting this difference makes a
part of the title : but the reader will obferve that leveral
of the chapters are faid to have been revealed partly at
Mecca, and partly at Medina; and, as to others, it is
yet a difpute among the commentators to which place of
the two they belong
Every chapter is fubdivided into fmaller portions, of
very unequal length alfo, which we cuftomarily call verfes:
but the Arabic word is Ayat, the fame with the Hebrew
Ototh, and fignifies fsgns, or •wonders; fuch as are the
fecrets of God, his attribute;-, works, judgments', and
ordinances, delivered in thofe verfes; many of which
have their particular tides alfo, impofedin the fame man¬
ner as thofe of the chapters.
* Befides thefe unequal divifiohs of chapter and verfe,
the Mohammedans have alfo divided their Koran into
fixty equal portions, which they call Abzab, in the An¬
gular Hizb, each fubdivided into four equal parts; which
is alfo an imitation of the Jews, who have an ancient di-
vifion of their Milhfna into fixty portions called Maflic-
toth : but the Koran is more ufually divided into thirty
fe&ions only, named Ajza, from the Angular Joz, each
of twice the length of the former, and in the like manner
fubdivided into four parts. Thefe divifions are for the
ufe of the readers of the Koran in the royal temples, or
in the adjoining chapels where the emperors and great
men are interred. There are thirty of thefe readers be¬
longing to every chapel, and each reads his fedion every
day, fo that the whole Koran is read over once a-day.
Nextafter the title, at the head of every chapter, except
only the ninth, is prefixed the following folemn form, by
the Mohammedans called the Bifmallah, Ik the name of
the most merciful God ; which form theyconftant-
ly place at the beginning of all their books and writings
in general, as a peculiar mark or diftinguilhing charac-
teriftic of their religion, it being counted a fort of impiety
to omit it. The Jews, for the fame purpofe, make ufe
of the form. In the name of Lord, or. In the name
of the great God : andthe eaffern Chrifians that of, In
the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghoft. But Mohammed probably took this form, as he
did many other things, from the Perfian Magi, who ufed
to begin their books in thefe words, Benam lezdan
bakhjhaijhgher dadar ; that is, In the name of the mojl
merciful juft God.
There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which
have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters
of the alphabet, fome with a Angle one, others with more.
Thefe letters the Mohammedans believe to be the pecu¬
liar marks of the Koran, and to conceal feveral profound
myfteries, the certain underftanding of which, the more
intelligent confefs, has not been communicated to any
mortal, their prophet only excepted. Notwitbftanding
which, fome will take the liberty of guefling at their mean¬
ing by that fpecies of Cabala called by the Jews Notart-
kon, and fuppofe the letters to (land for as many words,
C expreffing
MAH ( i
expreffing the names and attributes of God, his works,
ordinances, and decrees; and therefore thefe myfterious
letters, as well as the verfes themfelves, feem in the
Koran to be called ligns. Others explain the intent of
thefe letters from their nature or organ, hr elfe from
their value in numbers, according to another fpecies of
the Jewilh Cabala called Gematria; the uncertainty of
which conje&ures fufhciently appears from their difagree-
itient. Thus, for example, five chapters, one of which
is the fecond, begin with thefe letters, A. L M which
feme imagine to Hand for, Allah latif magid; God is
gracious and to he glorified; or, Ana li minni, to me
and from me, viz. belongs all perfection, and proceeds
all good; or elfe for Ana Allah alam, I am the mofi 'wife
God, talcing the firft letter to mark the beginning of the
fir ft word, the fecond the middle of the fecond word, and
the third the laftof the third word; or for Allah, Gabriel,
Mohammed, the author, revealer, and preacher of the
Koran. Others fay, that as the letter A belongs to the
lower part of the throat, the firft of the organs of Ipeech;
L to the palate, the middle organ ; and M to the lips,
which are the laft organ ; fo thefe letters fignify that God
is the beginning, middle, and end, or ought to be prai
fed in the beginning, middle, and end, of all our words and
adHons: or, as the total value of thofe three letters, in
numbers, is feventy-one, they fignify, that, in the fpace
of fo many years, the religion preached in the Koran
fhould be fully eftablilhed. The conjecture of a learned
Chriftian is at leaft as certain as any of the former, who
fuppofes thofe letters were fet there by the amanuenfis,
for Amur li Mohammed, i. e. At the command of Mo¬
hammed, as the five letters prefixed to the nineteentn
chapter feem to be there written by a Jewilh fcribe, for
Coh yaas, i. e. Thus he commanded.
The Karan is univerfally allowed to be written with
the utmoft elegance a.:d purity of language, in the dialeCt
of the tribe of Koreilh, the moft noble and polite of all
the Arabians, but with fome mixture, though very rarely,
of other dialeCls. It is confeffedly the ftandard of the
Arabic tongue, and, as the more orthodox believe, and
are taught by the book itfelf, inimitable by any human
pen, (though fame feCtaries have been of another opinion)
and therefore infifted on as a permanent miracle, greater
than that of r&ifing the dead, and alone fufficient to con¬
vince the world of its divine original.
And to this miracle did Mohammed himfelf chiefly
Appeal for'the confirmation of his million, publicly chal
lengingahe moft eloquent men in Arabia, which was at
that time flocked with thoufands, Whofe foie ftudy and
ambition it was to excel in elegance of ftyle and compo-
fition, to produce even a Angle chapter that might be
Compared with it.
The general defign of the Koran feems to be this : to
unite the profeflbrs of the three different religions then
followed in the populous country of Arabia, who, for
the moft part, lived promifcuoufly, and wandered with¬
out grrides, the far greater number being idolaters, and
the reft Jews and Ohriftians moftly of erroneous and he¬
terodox belief, in the knowledge and worlhip of one e-
ternal, invifible God, by whofe power all things were
made, and thofe which are not may be; the fupreme
o ) MAH
Governor, Judge, and abfolute Lord of the creation ;
eftablilhed under the fanftion of certain laws, and the
outward ligns of certain ceremonies, partly of ancient,
and partly of novel mftitution, and inforced by fetting
before them rewards and punifhments, both temporal and
eternal: and to bring them all to the obedience of Mo¬
hammed, as the prophet and ambaflador of God, who,
after the repeated admonitions, promifes and threats of
former ages, was at laft to eftabliih and propagate God’s
religion on earth by force of arms, and to be acknowled¬
ged chief pontiff in fpiritual matters, as well as fupreme
prince in temporal.
The great doftrine then of the Koran is the unity of
God ; to reftore which point Mohammed pretended was
the chief end of his miflion ; it being laid down by him,
as a fundamental truth, that there never was, nor ever
can be, more than one true orthodox religion. For,
though the particular laws or ceremonies are only tem^
porary, and fubjeft to alteration, according to the divine
direffion ; yet, the fubftance of it, being eternal truth,
is not liable to change, but continues immutably the fame.
And he taught, that, whenever this religion became ne¬
glected, or corrupted in effentials, God had the goodnefs
to re-inform and re-admonifh mankind thereof, byfeveral
prophets, of whom Mofes and Jefus were the moft dif-
tinguilhed, till the appearance of Mohammed, who is
their feal, no other being to be expected after him. And
the more effectually to engage people to hearken to him,
great part of the Koran is employed in relating examples
of dreadful punilhments formerly inflicted by God on
thofe who rejected and abufed his meffengers; feveral of
which ftories, or fome circumftances'of them, are taken
from the Old and New Teftament, but many more from
the apocryphal books and traditions of the Jews and
Chriftians of thofe ages, fet up in the Koran as truths in
oppofition to the fcriptures, which the Jews and Chrifti¬
ans are charged with having altered ; and indeed few or
none of the relations or circumftances in the Koran were
invented by Mohammed, as is generally fuppofed, it
being eafy to trace the greateft part of them much higher,
as the reft might be, were more of thofe books extant,
and it was worth while to make the inquiry.
The other part of the Koran is taken up in giving ne-
ceffary laws and direClions, in frequent admonitions to
moral and divine virtues, and, above all, to the worlhip-*
ping and reverencing of the only true God, and refigna-
tion to his will; among which are many excellent things
intermixed, not unworthy even a Chriftian’s perufal.
But befides thefe, there are a great number of paffages
which are occafional, and relate to particular emergencies.
For whenever any thing happened which perplexed and
gravelled Mohammed, and which he could not other wife
. get over, he had conftant recourfe to a new revelation,
as an infallible expedient in all nice cafes ; and he found
the fuccefs of this method anfv er his expectation. It
' was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his
to bring down the whole Koran at once to the loweft
heaven only, and not to the earth as a bungling prop! et
would probably have done ; for if the whole had been
publiftied at Once, innumerable objections might h ive
been made, which it would have been very hard if not
impoflible.
MAH (
impoflible, for him to folve : but as he pretended to have
received it by parcels, as God faw proper that they Ihould
be publilhed for the converfion and inftru&ion of the peo¬
ple, he had a fu e way to antwer all emergencies, an , to
extricate himfelf with honour from any difficulty which
might occur.
That Mohammed was really the author and chief con¬
triver of-the Ko an, is beyond difpute ; though it be
highly probable that he had no fmall ..ffidance in his de-
fign from others, as his countrymen tailed not to objeft
to him; however, they differed fo much in their conjeiffures
as to the particular peilons who gave him fuch affiffance,
that they were not able, it feems, to prove the charge ;
Mohammed, it is to be prefumed, having taken his mea-
f res too well to be difcovered. Dr. Ptideaux has given
the moft probable account of this matter, though chiefly
from Chriftian writers, who generally mix fuch ridicu¬
lous fables with what they deliver, that they deferve not
much credit.
However it be, the Mohammedans abfolutely deny the
Koran was compofed by their prophet himfelf, or any o
ther for him ; it being their general and orthodox belief
that it is of divine original, nay, that it is eternal and
uncreated, remaining, as fome exprefs it. in the very
effence of God : that the firft tranfciipt has been from e-
verlafting by God's throne, written on a table of vail
bignefs, called the prsferveti tahlr, in which are alfo re¬
corded the divine decrees paft and future : that a copy
from this table, in om volume on paper, was by the mi-
niftiy of the angel Gabriel fent down to the loweft heaven,
in the month of Ramadan, on the night of power : from
whence Gabriel revealed it to Mohammed by parcels,
fome at Mecca, and fome at Medina, at different times,
during the fpace of twenty-three years, as the exigency
of affairs required ; giving him, however, the confola
tion to fhew him the whole (which they tell us was bound
in filk, and adorned with gold and .precious Hones of pa-
r.adife) once a year ; but in the latl year of his life he
had the favour to fee it twice They fay that few chap¬
ters were delivered entire, the moft part being revealed
piece-meal, and written down from time to time by the
prophet’s amanuenfes i’n fitch ordhch a part of fuch or
fuch a chapter till they were compleat d according to
the direflions of the angel. The firft pare:! that was
revealed is generally agreed to bare been the firft five
verfes of the ninety fixth chapter
After the new reveakd paffages had been from the
prophet’s mouth tak-.n down in writing by his feribe,
they wert puhliihed to his followers, fe-ve-ral of whom
took copies for their private uf , but the far greater
number got them by-heart The originals, when re¬
turned, were put promifcuoufly into a cheft, obferving
no order of time, ior which feafon it is uncertain when
many paffages were revealed.
When Mohammed died, he left his revelations in the
ffim diforder, and not digefted into the method, fuch as
it is which we now find them in This was the Work
of his fucceffor Abu Beer, who, confidering that a great
number of paffages Were committed to the memory of
Mohammed’s followers, many of whom were flain in
their wars, ordered the whole to be colledled, not only
ii ) MAH
from the palm-leaves and fkins on which they had been
written, and which were kept between two boards or
covers, but alfo from the mouths of fuch as had gotten
them by heart. And this tranfeript, when completed,
he committed to the cuftody of Hafsa the daughter of
Omar, one of the prophet’s widows.
From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu
Beer was really the compiler of the Koran ; though, for
aught appears to the contrary, Mohammed left the chap¬
ters complete as we now have them, excepting fuch paf¬
fages as his fucceffor might add or cerreft fiom thofe
wffio had gotten them by heart ; what Abn Beer-did elfe
being, perhaps, no more than to range the chapters
in their prefent order, which he feems to hav-e done with
o t any regard to time, having generally placed the long-
eft firft.
However, in the thirtieth year of the Hejra, Othman
being then Khalif, and obferving the greai difagreement
in the copies ot the Khoran in the ieveral provinces of
the empire, thofe of Irak, for example, following the
reading of Abu Mufa al Affiari, and the Syrians that of
Mai dad Ebn \fwad, he, by advice of the companionst
ordered a.great number of copies to be tranferibed from
that of Abu Beer, in Hafsa’s care, under the infpe&ion
•of Zeid Ebn Thabet, Abd’aliah Ebn Zobair, Said Ebn
al As, and Ad’airahman Ebn al Hareth the Makhzumite;
whom he diredted, that, where-ever they diJagreeh about
any word, they ffiould write it in the dialedtof the Koreiffi,
in which it » as at firft delivered. Thefe copies, when
made-, were difperled in the feveral provinces of the em¬
pire, and the old ones burnt and fuppreffed. Though
many things in Hafsa’s copy were corrected by the above-
mentioned fuperviiors, yet fome few various readings ftili
occur
The fundamental pofition, on which Mohammed e-
redled the foperltruAure of his religion, was, That, from
the beginning to the end of the world, there has been,
and for ever will be, but one true orthodox belief; con-
filling, as to matter of faith, in the acknowledging of the
only true God, and the believing in and obeying fuch
meffengers or prophets as he fhould from time to time
fend, with proper credentials, to reveal his vvill to man¬
kind ; and, as to matter of practice, in the obfervance
of the immutable and-eternal laws of right and wrong,
together with Inch other precepts ^nd ceremonies as God
ffiould think fit to order for the time being, according to
the different difpenfations in different ages-of the world ;
for theie laft, he allowed, were things indifferent in their
own nature, and became obligatory by God’s pofitive
precept only ; and were therefore temporary, and fubjedt
to alteration, according to his will and pleafure. And
to this religion he gives the name of Iflam, wbi h word
fignifies rejignation, or fubmiffir.n to the lei vice and com¬
mands ol God ; and is uled as the proper name of the
Muhammedanireligion. wffiich they will alfo have to be the
fame it bottom with that of all the prophets from Adam.
Under pretext that this eternal religion was in his t me
corrupted, and profeffed in its purity by no one fed of
men, Mohammed pretended to be a prophet fent by God,
to reform thofe abides which had crept into it, and to
reduce it to its primitive fimplicity; with the addition-
* however.
MAH ( i
however of peculiar laws and ceremonies, fome of which
had been ufed in former times, and others were now firft
inftituted. And he comprehended the whole fubftance
of his doArine under thefe two propofitions, or articles
of faith, viz. that there is but one God, and that him-
felf was the apoltle of God ; in confequence of which
latter article, all fuch ordinances and inftitutions as he
thought fit to eltablifh mull be received as obligatory
and of divine authority.
The Mohammedans divide their religion, which they
call Iflam, into two diftinA parts ; Iman, \.s. faith, or
theory; and Din, i. e. religion, or praftice; and teach
that it is built on five fundamental points, one belonging
to faith, and the other four to practice. ^
The firfl; is, that there is no god but the true God ;
and that Mohammed is his apofle. Under which they
comprehend fix diftind branches, r/z. i. Belief in Go&\
2. In his angels \ 3. In his fcriptures ; 4. In his pro¬
phets ; 5. In the refurreftionand day of judgment; and,
6. In God’s abfolute decree and predetermination both of
good and evil.
The four points relating to pradice are, 1. Prayer,
under which are comprehended thofe walhings Or purifi¬
cations which are necefiary preparations required before
prayer; 2. Alms ; 3. Farting; and, 4. The pilgrimage to
Mecca.
That both Mohammed, and thofe among his followers
who are reckoned orthodox, had and continue to have
juft and true notions of God and his attributes, appears
fo plain from the Koran itfelf, and all the Mohammedan
divines, that it would be lofs of time to refute thofe who
fuppofe the God of Mohammed to be different from the
true God, and only a fiditious deity, or idol of his own
creation.
The exiftence of angels, and their purity, are abfolutely
required to be believed in the Koran ; and he is reckon-
an infidel who denies there are fuch beings, or hates any
of them, or afferts any diftindion of fexes among them.
They believe them to have pure and fubtile bodies,
created of fire ; that they neither eat nor drink, nor pro¬
pagate their fpecies ; that they have various forms and
offices ; fome adoring God in different poftures, others
finging praifes to him, or interceding for mankind. They
hold, that fome of them are employed in writing down
the adions of men, others in carrying the throne of God
and other fervices.
The four angels, whom they look on as more eminent¬
ly in God’s favour, and often mention on account of the
offices affigned them, are Gabriel, to whom they give
feveral titles, particularly thofe of the holy fpirit, and
the an^el of revelations, fuppofing him to be honoured
by God with a greater confidence than any other, and to
be employed in writing down the divine decrees; Michael,
the friend and protedor of the Jews ; Azrael, the angel
of death, who feparates mens fouls from their bodies ;
and Ifrafil, whofe office it will be to found the trumpet
at the refurredion. The Mohammedans alfo believe, that
two guardian angels attend on every man, to obferye and
write down his adions, being changed every day, and
therefore called al Moakkibat, or the angels who conti-
pually fucceed one another.
i ) MAH
The devil, whom Mohammed names Eblis, from hi*
dtfpair, was once one of thofe angels who are neareft to
God’s prefence, called Azazil; and fell, according to the
dodrine of the Koran, for refufing to pay homage to A*
dam at the command of God.
Befides angels and devils, the Mohammedans are taught
by the Koran to believe an intermediate order of creatures,
which they call Jin or Genii, created alfo of fire, but of
a groffer fabric than angels ; fince they eat and drink,
and propagate their fpecies, and are fubjed to death.
Some of thefe are fuppofed to be good, and others bad,
and capable of future falvation or damnation, as men are;
whence Mohammed pretended to be fent for the conver-
fion of genii as well as men.
As to the fcriptures, the Mohammedans are taught by
the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world, gave
revelations of his will in writing to feveral prophets, the
whole and every word of which it is abfolutely neceffary
for a good Mofleip to believe. The number of thefe fa-
cred books were, according to them, 104. Of which
ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Edris
or Enoch, ten to Abraham ; and the other four, being
the Pentateuch, thePfalms, the Gofpel, and the Koran,
were fucceflively delivered to Mofes, David, Jefus, and
Mohammed; which laft being the feal of the prophets,
thofe revelations are now clofed, and no more are to be
expefled. All thefe divine books, except the four laft,
they agree to be now entirely loft, and their contents
unknown ; though the Sabians have feveral books which
they attribute to fome of the antediluvian prophets. And
of thofe four, the Pentateuch, Pfalms, and Gofpel, they
fay, have undergone fo many alterations and corruptions,
that, though there may poflibly be fome part of the true
word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given to the
prefent copies in the hands of the Jews and Chriftians.
The Mohammedans have alfo a gofpel in Arabic, attri¬
buted to St Barnabas, wherein the hiftory of Jefus Chrifl:
is related in a manner very Afferent from what we find in
the true Gofpels, and correfpondent to thofe traditions
which Mohammed has followed in his Koran. Of this
Gofpel the Morifcoes in Africa have a tranflation in
Spaniffi ; and there is, in the library of prince Eugene
of Savoy, a manufeript of fome antiquity, containing an
Italian tranflation of the fame Gofpel, made, it is to be
fuppofed, for the ufe of renegades. This book apppears
to be no original forgery of the Mohammedans, though
they have no doubt interpolated and altered it fince, the
better to ferve their purpofe ; and in particular, inftead
of the Paraclete or Comforter, they have in this apocry¬
phal gofpel inferred the word Periclyte, that is, the
famous or illufrious, by which they pretend their pro¬
phet was foretold by name, that being the fignification of
Mohammed in Arabic : and this they fay to juftify that
paffage of the Koran, where Jefus Chrift is formally af-
ferted to have foretold his coming, under his other name
of Ahmed, which is derived from the fame root as Mo¬
hammed, and of the fame import. From thefe or fome
other forgeries of the fame ftamp, it is that the Moham¬
medans quote fever^paffages, of which there are not the
leaft footfteps.in the New Tef ament.
The number of the prophets, which have been from
time
MAH ( 13 ) MAH
time to time fent by God into the world, amounts to no of the fruits and drink of the rivers of paradife ; and th
hefs than 224,000, according to one Mohammedan fra- third of other believers, concerning the (fate of whofe
dition, or to 124,000, according to another among fouls before the refurredion there are various opinions,
whom 313 were apoftles, fent with fpecial commiflions Though fome among the Mohammedans have thought
to reclaim mankind from infidelity and fuperftition; and that the refiirredion will be merely fpiritual, and no
fix of them brought new law's or difpenfations, which more than the returning of the foul to the place whence
fucceflively abrogated the preceding : thefe were Adam, it firll came (an opinion defended by Ebn Sina, and call-
Noah? Abraham, Mofes. Jefus, and Mohammed. All ed by (omz the opinien of the pbilofophen -,) and others,
the prophets in general, the Mohammedans believe to who allow man to confrll of body only, that it will be
have been free from great fins and errors of confequence, merely corporeal ; the received opinion is, that both body
and profefibrs of one and the fame religion, that is, Iflam, and foul will be 1 aifed; and their do&ors argue ftrenuoufly
notwithftanding the different laws and inftitutions which for the poflibility of the refurredtion of the body, and
they obferved. They allow of degrees among them, and difpute with great fubtilty concerning the manner of it.
hold fome of them to be more excellent and honourable But Mohammed has taken care to preferve one part of
than others. The firft place they give to the revealers the body, whatever becomes of the reft, to ferve for a
and eftablifhers of new difpenfations, and the next to bafis of the future edifice, or rather a leaven for the mafs
the apoftles. which is to be joined to it. For he taught, that a man’s
In this great number of prophets, they not only reckon body was entirely confumed by-the earth, except only
divers patriarchs and perfons named in fcripture, but not the bone called al Ajb, which we name the os coccygis,
recorded to have been prophets, (wherein the Jewilh and or rump bone ; and that, as it was the firft formed in the
Chriftianlvriters have fometimes led the way,) as Adam, human body, it will alfio remain uncorrupted till the laft:
Seth, Lot, Ifmael, Nun, Jolhua, &c. and introduce day, as a feed from whence the whole is to be renewed:
fome of them under different names, as Enoch, Heber, and this, he faid, would.be effetfed by a forty days rain,
and Jethro, who are called, in the Koran, Edris, Hud, which God fhould fend, and which would cover the earth,
and Shoaib ; but feveral others whofe very names do not to the height of twelve cubits, and caufe the bodies to
appear in fcripture (though they endeavour to find fome fprout forth like plants. Herein, alfo, is Mohammed
perfons there to fix them on) as, Saleh, Khedr, Dhu’lkefl, beholden to the Jews ; who fay the fame things of the
bone Luz, excepting that what he attributes to a great
The next article of faith required by the Koran is the rain, will be effe&ed, according to them, by a dew, im-
belief of a general refurredion and a future judgment. pregnating the duft of the earth.
When a corpfe is laid in the grave, they fay he is re- The time of the refurreftion the Mohammedans allow
ceived by an angel, who gives him notice of the coming to be a perfect fecret to all but God alone ; the angel
of the two Examiners ; which are two black livid angels, Gabriel himfelf acknowledging his ignorance in this point,
of a terrible appearance, named Monker and Nakir. when Mohammed allied him about it. However, they
Thefe order the dead perfon to fit upright, and examine fay, the approach of that day may be known from certain
him concerning his faith, as to the unity of God, and the figns which are to precede it. Thefe figns they dillin-
miflion of Mohammed : if he anfwer rightly, they fuffer guilh into two forts, the leffer, and the greater,
the body to reft in peace, and it is refrelhed by the air of The lefler figns are, i.-The decay of faith among
paradife ; but, if not, they beat him on the temples with men. 2. The advancing of the meaneft perfons to emi-
iron maces, till he roars out for anguifh fo loud that he nent dignity. 3. That a maid-fervant fhail become the
is heard by all from eaft to weft, except men and genii, mother of her millrefs (or mafter;) by -hich is mean.t.
Then they prefs the earth on^he corpfe, - hich is gnawed either that towards the end of the world men ftiall be
and ftung till the refur/edtion by ninety-nine dragons, much given to fenfuality, or that the Mohammedans ftiali
with fe'ven heads each ; or, as others fay, their fins will then take many captives. 4. Tumults and 1'editions. 5.
become venomous beafts, the grievous ones flinging like A war with the Turks. 6. Great diftrefs in the world,
dragons, the fmaller like fcdrpions, and the others like fo that a man when he pafles by another’s grave, fliall
ferpents : circumftances which fome underftand in a figu- fay, Would to God I were in his place. 7. That the
rative fenfe, provinces of Irak and Syria {hall refufe to pay their tri-
As to the foul, they hold, that, when it is feparated bute. And, 8. That the buildings of Medina fhail reach
from the body by the angel of death, who performs his to Ahab, or Yahab.
office with eafe and. gentlenefs towards the good, and- The greater figns are,
with violence towards the wicked, it enters into that ftate I. The fun’s rifing in the weft ; which fome have
which they call al Berzakh, or the interval between imagined it originally did.
death and the refurreftion If the departed perfon was 2. The appearance of the beaft, which ffiali rife out
a believer, they fay two angels meet it, who convey it to of the earth, in the temple of Mecca, or on mount Safa,
heaven, that its place there may be affigned, according to or in the territory of Tayef, or fome other place. This
its merit and degree For they-diftinguifh the fouls of beaft, they fay, is to be fixty cubits high ; though others,
the faithful into three claftes ; the firft of prophets, whofe not fatisfied with fo fmall a fize, will have her re ch to
fouls are..admitted into paradife immediately; the fecond the clouds and to heaven, when her head only is out;
of martyrs, whofe fpirits, according to a tradition of and that fhe will appear for three days, but ffiew only a
Mohammed, reft in the crops of green birds, which eat third part of her body. They defcribe this monfter
Voi.. III. N°. 69. 2 D
as
to
M A H
( 14 ) M A H
to her form, to be a compound of various fpecies ; having
the head of a bull, the eyes of a hog. the ears of an ele
phant, the horns of a flag, the neck of ^n oftrich, the
breaft of a lion, the colour of a tiger, the back of a cat,
the tail of a ram, the legs of a camel, and the voice of an
afs. Some fay this bead is to appear three times in feve-
ral places, and that (he will bring with her the rod of Mo-
fes and the feal of Solomon ; and, being fo fwift that none
can overtake or efcape her, will with the firft ffrike all
the believers on the face, and mark them with the word
mumen /'.<?. believer; and with the latter will mark the
unbelievers on the face likewife, with the word Cafer, i e.
infidel, that every perfon may be known for what he really
is. They add that the fame bead ft to demondrate the
vanity of all religions except Idam, and to fpeak Arabic,
All this duff feems to be the refult of a confufed idea of
the bead in the Revelations.
3. War with the Greeks, and the taking Condantino-
ple by 70,000 of the poderity of If>ac, who (hall not wim
that city by force of arms, but the walls (hall fall down'
while they cry out, There is no God but God : God is
moft great! As they are dividing the fpoil, news wdll
come to them of the appearance of Antichrid ; whereupon
they (hall leave all. and return back.
4. The coming of Antichrid, whom the Mohamme¬
dans call Mafib al Dajjal, e the falfe or lying Chrid,
and limply al Dajjal. He is to be one eyed, and marked
on the fore' ead with the letters C. F. R. fignifying Ca
fer. or infidel. They fay that the Jews give him the
name of Mefliah Ben David, and pretend he is to come in
the lad days, and to be lord both of land and fea, and
that he will redore the kingdom to them.
5. The deicent of Jefus on earth They pretend that
he is to defcend near the white tower to the ead of Da-
mafcus, when the,people are returned from the taking of
Condantinople ; that he is to embrace the Mohammedan
religion, marry a wife, get'children, kill Antichrid, and
at length die after forty years, or, according to others,
twenty four years continuance on earth. Under him,
they fay, there will be great fecurity, and plenty in the
world, all hatred and malice being laid alide; when lions
and camels, bears and Iheep, lhall live in peace, and a
child lhall play with ferpents un. urt.
6. War with the Jews ; of whom the Mohammedans
are to make a prodigious daughter, the very trees and
dones difcovering fuch of them as hide themfelves, except
only the tree called Gharkad, which is the tree of the
Jews.
7. The eruption of Gog and Magog, or, as they are
called in the ead, Yajuj and Majuj; of whom many things
are related in the Koran and the traditions of Mohammed.
Thefe barbarians, they tell us, having palfed the lake of
Tiberias, which the vanguard of their vad army willdrink
dry. will come to Jerufalem, and there greatly didrefs
Jefus and his companions; till, at his requed, God will
dedroy them, and fill the earth with their carcafes,. which,
after fome time, God will fend birds to carry away, at
the prayers of Jefus and his followers. Their bows, ar
rows, and quivers, the Modems will burn for feveri years
together ; and, at lad, God will fend a rain to cleanfe the
earth, and to make it fertile..
8. A fraoke, which lhall fill the whole earth.
9. An'eclipfe of'the moon. Mohammed is reported
to have faid, that there would be three eclipfes before the
lad hour; one to be feen in the ead, another in the wed,
and the third in Arabia
to. The returning of the Arabs totheworlhip of AHat
and al Uzza, and the red of their ancient idols, after
the deceafe of every one in whole heart there was faith
equal to a grain of mudard-feed, none but the very word
of men being left alive. For God, they fay, will fend a
cold odorifeous wind, blowing from Syria Damafcena,
which (hall fweep away the fouls of all the faithful, and
the Koran itfelf, fo that men will remain in the grolfed
ignorance for an hundred years.
11 The difcovery of a vad heap of gold and lilver by
the retreating of the Euphrates, which will be the de-
druftion of many.
12. The demolition of the Caaba, or temple of Mecca,
by the Ethiopians
13 The fpeaking of beads and inanimate things.
14. The breaking out of fire in.the province of Hejaz j
or, according to others, in Yaman.
15. The appearance of a man of the decendants of
Kahtan, who lhall drive men before him with his daff.
16 The coming of the Mohdi, or director; concern¬
ing whom Mohammed prophefi d, that the world fhould
not have an end till one ofhis own family Ihould govern the
Arabians, whofe name {hould be the lame with his own
name, and vhofe father’s name Ihould alfo be the fame
with his father’s name; and wholhouid fill the earth with
righteoufnefs. This perfon the Shiites believe to be now
alive, and concealed in fome fecret place, till the time ofhis
manifedatipn ; for they fuppofe him no other than the
lad of the twelve Imams, named Mohammed Abu’lkafem,
as their prophet was : and the fon of Hadan a.l Alkeri, the
eleventh of that fuccellion. He was born at Sermanrai
in the 255th year of the Hejra From this tradition, it
is to be prefumed, an opinion pretty current among the
Chridians took its rife, that the Mohammedans are in
expedlation of their prophet’s return.
17. A wind which Ihall fweep away the fouls of all who
have but a grain of faith in their hearts, as has been men¬
tioned under the tenth lign.
Thefe are the greater ligns, which, according to their
do&rine, are to precede the refurredtion, bur dill leave
the hour of it uncertain; for the immediate fign of its
being come will be the fird blad of the trumpet; which
they believe will be founded three times. The fird they
call the blaji of confternation ; at the hearing of which
all creatures in heaven and earth (hall be druck with ter*
1 ror, except thofe whom God (hall pleafe to exempt from
it. The effedts attributed to this fird found of the trum¬
pet are very wonderful ; for they fay, the earth will be.
(haken, and not only all buildings, but the very moun¬
tains levelled * that the heavens (hall melt, the fun be
darkened, the dars fall, on the death of the angels, who,
as fome imagine, hold them fufpended between heaven
and earth ; and the fea (hall be troubled and dried up, or,
according to others, turned into flames, the fun, moon,
and dars being thrown into it: the Koran, to exprefs the
greatnefs of the terror of that day, adds, that women who-
MAH ( 15
give fuck (hall abandon the care of tl\eir infants, and even
the (he camels which have gone ten months with young
(a mod valuable part of the lubftance of that nation) (hall
be utterly neglefted A farther e-ffed of this blali: will
be that concourfe of beads mentioned in rheKoran, though
fome doubt whether it be to precede the refurreftion or
not. They who fuppofe it will precede, think that all
kinds of animals, forgetting their refpedive natural tierce-
nefs and timidity, will run together into one place, being
terrified by the found of the trumpet and the hidden ihoqk,
of nature.
The Mohammedans believe that this firfl blaft will be
followed by a fecond, which they call the blaft of exani-
matron; when all creatures both in heaven and earth (hall
die or be annihilated, except thofe which God (hall pleafe
to exempt from the common fate; and this, they fay, (hall
happen in the twinkling of an eye, nay in an intiartt; no¬
thing furviving except God alone, with paradife and hell,
and the inhabitants of thofe two places, and the throne
of glory. The lad who (hall die will be the angel of
death.
Fo ty years after this will be heard the hi aft of refur-
rertion, when the trumpet (hall be founded the third time
by Ifrafil, who, together with Grabriel and Michael,
will be previoufly redored to life, and, danding on the
rock of the temple of Jerufalem, (hall, at God’s command,
call together all the diy and rotten bones, and other dif
perfed parts of the bodies,'and the very hairs, to judgment.
This angel, having, by the divine order, fet the trumpet
to his mouth, and called togethe all the fouls from all
parts, will throw them into his trumpet, from whence,
on his giving the lad found, at the command of God, they
will fly forth like bees, and fill the whole fpace between
heaven an earth, and then repair to their refpedlive bodies,
which the opening earth will fufFer to arbe: and the fird
who (hall fo arife, a cording to a tradition of Mohammed,
will be himfelf. For this birth the earth will be prepa¬
red by the rain above mentioned, v hich is to fall conti
nuaily for forty years and will refemble the feed of a
man, and be fupplied from the water under the throne of
God, which is called living •water ; by the efficacy and
virtue of which the dead bodies (hall fpring forth from
their graves, as they did in their mother’s womb, or as
corn fprouts forth by common rain, .till they become per-
fetf ; after which breath will be breathed into them, and
they will deep in their fepulchres till they are raifed to
life at the lad trump.
When thofe whohave rifen (hall have waited the limit
ed time, the Mohammedans believe God w ll at length
appear to judge them ; Mohammed undertaking the of
fice of interceflbr. after it (hall have been declined by
dam. Noah, Abraham, and Jefus, who (hall beg deli¬
verance only for/their own fouls They fay, that on this
folemn occafion God will come in the clouds furrounded'
by angels, and will produce the books wherein the affioos
of everyperfon are recorded by their guardian angels, and
will command the prophets to bear witnefs again!! thofe
to whom they have been refpe&ively fent Then every
one will be examined concerning all his words and aftions,
uttered and d m by him in this life ; not as if God need¬
ed any information in thefe refpeds, but to .oblige the per-
) MAH
fon to make public confeflion and acknowledgment of GodV
juftice. The particulars of which they (hall give an ac¬
count, as Mohammed himfelf enumerated them, are, of
their time, how they fpent it; of their wealth, by what
means they acquired it, and how they employed it; of
their bodies, wherein they exercifed them ; of their know¬
ledge and learning, what ufe they made of them. To the
queftions we have mentioned each perfon (hallanfwer, and
make his defence in the bed manner he can endeavour¬
ing to excufe himfelf by catting the blame of his evil deeds
on others ; fo that a difpute (hall arife even between the
foul and the body, to which of them their guilt ought to
be imputed: the foul faying, 0 Lord, my body l received
from thee ; for thou created/! me •without a hand to lay
hold wth, a foot to avalknuith, an eye to fee •with or an
underftanding to apprehend •with, till l came and entered
into this body; therefore punifh it eternally, but deliver
me. The body, on the otherfide, will make this apology:
0 Lord, thou created/ me like a flock of •wood, having
neither hand that I could lay hold •with, nor foot that I
could walk with, till this foul, like a ray of light, entered
into me, and my tongue began to/peak, my eye to fee, and
my foot to walk ; therefore punifh it eternally, but deliver
me. But God will propound to them the following pa¬
rable of the blind man and the lame man, which, as well
as the preceding difpute, was borrowed by the Mohamme¬
dans from the Jews. A certain king, having a pleafmt
garden, in which were ripe fruits, fet two perfons to keep*
it, one of whom was blind, and the other lame; the for¬
mer not being able to fee the fruit, nor the lamer to ga¬
ther it s the lame man, however, feeing the fruit, per-
fuaded the blind man to take him upon his (boulders and
by that means he eafily gathered the rrgt; which they di¬
vided between them. The lord of the garden coming
fome time after, and inquiring after his fruit, each began
to excufe himfelf; the blind man faid he had no eyes to
fee with, and the lame man that hr had no feet to ap¬
proach the trees. But the king, ordering the lame man
to be fet on the blind, patted fentence on and punched
them both. And in the fame manner will God deal with
the body and the foul. As th-re apoiog es w .l not avail
on that day, fo will it alfo be in vain for any one to deny
his evil a&ions, fince men and angels, and his o > n mem¬
bers, nay, the very earth itfelf, will be ready to bear
witness againtt him.
At this examination they alfo believe, that each perfon
will have the book wherein all the aittions of his life are
written delivered to him ; which books the righteous will
receive in their right hand, and read with great pleafure and
fatisfaclion ; but the ungodly will be obliged to take them,
againtt their wills, in their left, which will- be bound
behind their backs, their right hand being tied up to-
their necks.
To (hew the exa£t juftice which will be obferved on
this great day of trial, the next thing they defcribe is the
balance, wherein all things (hall be weighed They
fay it will be held by Gabriel; and that it is of fo vart a
fize, that its two fcales, one of which hangs over para¬
dife, and the odier over hell, are capacious enough tq
contain both heaven and earth. Though fome are will¬
ing to- underttand w-hat is faid in the Koran concerning
this
M A II (
fnis balance allegorically, and only as a figurative repre-
fentation of God’s equity; yet the more ancient and or¬
thodox opinion is, that they are to be taken literally;
and fince words and a£Hons, being mere accidents, are
trot capable of being themfelves weighed, they fay that
the books wherein they are written will be thrown into
the fcales, and according as thofe wherein the good or
evil anions are recorded {hail preponderate, fentence
will be given : thofe whofe balances laden with good works
fli.ill be heavy, will be faved;.but thofe whofe balances
are light, will be condemned. Nor will any one have
caufe to complain that God fuffers any good adtion topafs
unrewarded, becaufe the wicked for the good they do have
their reward in this life, and therefore can expedt no fa¬
vour in the next.
This examination being pad, and every one’s works
weighed in a juft balance, that mutual retaliation will
follow, according to which every creature will take ven¬
geance one of another, or have fatisfadlion made them
for the injuries which they have fuffered. And, fince
there will then be no other way of returning like for like,
the manner of giving this fatisfadfion will be by taking
away a {proportional part of the good works of him who
offered the injury, and adding it to thofe of him who
fuffered it. Which being done, if the angels (by whofe
miniftry this is to be performed) fay^ Lord, we have gi¬
ven to every one his due, and there remaineth of this
perfon's good works fo much as equallelh the weight of
an ant, God will, of his mercy, caufe it to be doubled
unto him, that he may be admitted into paradife; but if,
on the contrary, his good works be exhaufted, and there
remain evil works only, and there be any who have
not yet received fatisfadlion from him, God will order
that an equal weight of their fins be added unto his,
that he may be punifhed for them in their ftead, and he
will be fent to hell laden with both. This will be the
method of God’s dealing with mankind. As to brutes, af
terthey (hall have likewife taken vengeance of one another,
lie will command them to be changed into duft ; wicked
men being referved to more grievous punifhment, fotbat
they ftial! cry out, on hearing this fentence paffed on the
brutes, IVould to Gq-d that we were dujl alfo. As to
the genii, many Mohammedans are of opinion, that fuch,
of them as are true believers, will undergo the fame fate
as the irrational animals, and have no other reward than
the favour of being converted into duft; and for this they
quote the authority of their prophet.
The trials “being over, and the affembly diffolved, the
Mohammedans hold, that thofe who are to be admitted
into paradife will take the right hand way, and thofe who
are deftined to hell fire will take the left; but both of
them muft firft pafs the bridge called in Arabic at Sirat,
which they fay is laid over the midft of hell, and defcribe
to be finer than a hair and fharper than the edge of a fwqrd;
fo that it feems very difficult to conceive how any one fhall
be able toftandupon it: for which reafon, moft of the fedl
of the Motazalites rejesft it as a fable ; though the ortho¬
dox think it a fufficient proof of the truth of this article,
that it was ferioufly affirmed by him who never afferted
afalfehood, meaning their prophet; "ho, to add to the
difficulty of the paffage, has likewife declared, that this
16 ) MAH
bridge is befet on each fide with briars and hooked thorns ;
which will however be no impediment to the good, for
they ffiall pifs with wonderful eafe and fwiftnefs, like
lightning, or the wind, Mohammed and his Moftems
leading the way ; whereas the wicked, what with the
flipperinefs and extreme narrownefs of the path, the in-
tangling of the thorns, and the extinclion of the light
which direded the former to paradife, will foon mifs'
their footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which
is gaping beneath them.
As to the puniffiment of the wicked, the Mohamme¬
dans are taught, that hell is divided into feven ftones or
apartments, one below another, defigned for the recep¬
tion of as manydiftind claffes erf the damned. The firft:,
which they call Jehennam, they fay, will be the recep¬
tacle of thofe who acknowledged one God, that is, the
wicked Mohammedans, who, after having there been
puniffied according to their demerits, will at length be
releafed. The fecond, named Ladha, theyaffign to the
Jews; the third, named al Hotama, to the Chriftians;
the fourth, named al Sair, to the Sabians; the fifth,
named Sakar, to the Magians ; thefixth, named al Ja-
him, to the idolaters ; and.the feventh, which is the low-
eft and worft of all, and is called al Hawyat, to the hy¬
pocrites, or thofe who outwardly profefled fome religion,
but in their hearts were of none. Over each of thefe a-
partments they believe there will be fet a guard of angels,
nineteen in number; to whom the damned will confefs
the juft judgment of God, and beg them to intercede with
him for fome alleviation of their pain, or that they may
be delivered by being annihilated.
Mohammed has, in his Koran and traditions, been
very exaft in deferibing the various torments t>f hell,
which, according to him, the wicked will fuffer both
from intenfe heat and exceffive cold. We ffiall however
enter into no detail of them here, but only obferve, that
the degrees of thefe pains will alfo vary in proportion to
the crimes of the fufferer, and the apartment he is con¬
demned to ; and that he who is puniftaed the moft lightly
of all will be ffiod with ffioes of fire, the fervor of which
will caufe his Ikull to boil like a cauldron. The condition
of thefe unhappy wretches, as the fame prophet teaches,
cannot be properly called either life or death; and
their mifery will be greatly increafed by their defpair
of being ever delivered from that place, fince, accord¬
ing to that frequent expreffion in the Koran, they muft
retftain therein for ever. It muft be remarked, however,
that the infidels alone will be liable to eternity of damna¬
tion; for the Mofle:us,;or thofe who have embraced the
true religion, and have been guilty of heinous fins,
will be delivered thence after they ffiall have expiated
their crimes by their fufferings. The time which thefe
believers ffiall be detained there, according to a tradition
handed down from their prophet^ will not be lefs than
900 years, nor more than 7000. And, as to the man¬
ner of their delivery, they fay that they ffiall be diftin-
guiffied by the marks of proftration on thofe parts of
their bodies with which they ufed to touch the ground in
prayer, and over which the fire will therefore have no
power ; and that, being known by this chara&enftic,
they will be releafed by the mercy of God, at theinrer-
ceffion
MAH ( i;
ceHion of Mohammed and the bleflVd; whereupon thofe
who {hall have been dead, will be reftored to life, as has
been find ; and thofe vhofe bodies {hall have contracted
any footinefsor filth from the flames and fmoke of hell,
will be immerfed in one of the rivers of paradife. called
K\\z river of life, which will wafli them whiter than'pearls.
The righteous, as the Mohammedans are taught to
believe, having furmounted the difficulties, and palfed
the (harp bridge above-mentioned, before they enter pa¬
radife, will be refrelhed by drinking at ihzpond ot their
prophet, who delcribes it to be an exaCt Iquare of a
month’s journey in compafs; its water, which isfupplied
by two pipes from al Cawthar, one oi ihe rivers oi para¬
dife, being whiter than milk or filver, and more odorife¬
rous than mujk, with as many cups fet around it as there
ere ftars in the firmament; of which water v hoever
drinks will third no more for ever. Tbisis thefird tafte
which the blefled will have of their future and now near
approaching felicity.
Though paradife be fo very frequently mentioned in
the Koran, yet it is adifpute among the Mohammedans
whether it be already created, or be to be created here
after ; the Motazhlites and feme other fedtaries aflerting
that there is not at preferu any fuch place in nature, and
that the paradife which the righteous will inhabit in the
next life will be different from that from which Adam
was expelled. However, the orthodox profefs the con
trary, maintaining that it was created even before the
world, and deferibe it, from their prophet’s traditions,
in the following manner.
They fay it is fituate above the feven heavens (or in
the (eventh heaven) and ne*t under the throne of God ;
and, to exprefs the amenity of the place, tell us, that the
earth of it is of the lined wheat flour, or of the pured
mufle, or, as others will have it, of faffron : that its
dones are pearls and jacinths, the walls of its buildings
enriched with gold and filver, and that the trunks of all
its treCs*are of gold ; among which the mod remarkable
is the tree called Tuba, or the tree of happinds. C on
cerning this tree, they fable, that it dands in the palace of
-Mohammed, though a branch of it will reach to the houfe
of every true believer ; that it will be laden with pome¬
granates, grapes, dates, and other fruit, of furprifing
bignefs, and of tades unknown to mortals. So that, if a
man defire to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will
immediately be prefented him; or, if he chufe flefh,
birds ready drefled will be fet before him, according to
his wifh. They add, that the boughs of this tree will
fpontaneoufly jbend down to the hand of the perfon who
would gather of its fruits, and that it will fupply the
biefled not only with food, but alfo with filken garments,
and beads to ride on ready faddled and bridled, and ad
orned with riclv trappings, which will burft forth from
its fruits ; and that this tree is lo large, that a perfon,
'mounted on the fleeted horfe, would not be able to
gallop from one end of its (hade to the other in a hundred
years
As plenty of water is one of the greated additions to
the plealantnefs of any place, the Koran often fpeaks of
the. rivers of paradife as a principal ornament thereof;
fome of thefe rivers, they fay, flow with water, feme
Vox,. III. No. 69. ’ 2
r ) M A H
with milk, feme with wire, and others with honey ; e!I
taking, their rife from the root of the tree T uba
Bui all thefe glories will be echpfed by the refplendent
and ravidling girls of paradife, called, from their large
black eyes, Uur al oyun, the enjoyment of whole com¬
pany will be a principal felicity of the fajthful. Thefe,
they fay, are created, nor of clay, as mortal women 1 re,
but of pure tnufle ; being, as their prophet often aflirms
in his Koran, free from all natural impurities, defects,
and inconveniences incident to the fex, of the drifted
modedy, and fecluded from pu.lic view in pavilion-, of
hollow pearls, fo large, that, as feme traditions have it,
one of them will be no Jefs than rour parafangs (or, as
others fay, fixty miles) long, and as rhany broad
The name which the Mohammedans ufually give to
this happy manfion, is al Jannat, or the garden, and
fometimes they call it, with an addition, Jatinal al
Fercla<ws, the garden of paradife \ Jannat Aden, the
garden of Eden, (though they generally interpret the
word Eden, not according to its acceptation in Hebrew,
but according to its meaning in their own tongue, where¬
in it fignilies a fettled ox perpetual habitation •) Jannat
alMawa, the garden of abode •, Jannat al Naim, the
garden vf pleafure ; and the like: by which feveral ap¬
pellations, feme underdand fo many different gardens, or
at lead places of different degrees of felicity, (for they
reckon no lefs than an hundred fochin all,) the very mean-
eft whereof will afford its inhabitants fo many pleafores
and delights, that one would conclude they mudevenfink
under them, had not Mohammed declared;, that, in order
to qualify the bleffed for a full enjoyment of them, God
will give to every one the abilities of an hundred men.
The fixth great point of faith, which the Mohamme¬
dans are taught by the Koran to believe, is God’s abfo-
lute decree and prededination both of good and evil.
For the orthodox dodlrine is, that whatever hath orfhall
come to pafs in this world, whether it be good, or whe¬
ther it be bad, proCeedeth entirely from the divine will,
and is irrevocably fixed and recorded fiom all eternity in
the preferved table : God having fecretly predetermined
not only, the adverfe and profperous fortune ofevery per¬
fon in this world, in themed minute particulars, but al¬
fo his faith or infidelity, his obedience or difobedience, and
coniequently his everlafling happinefs or mifery after
death ; which fate or predeflination it is not poflible, by
any torefight or wiidom. to avoid
Of this doiflrine Mohammed makes great wfe in his
Koran for the advancement of his defigns; encouraging
his followers to fight without fear, and even defperateiy,
for the propagation of their faith, by reprefenting to them
that all their caution could not avert their inevitablededi-
ny, or prolong their lives for a moment; and deterring
them from difobtying or rejedling him as an impi dor, by
fetting before them the danger they might thereby incur
of being, by the jud judgment of God, abandoned to fe-
duiflion, hardnefs of heart, and a reprobate mind, as a
punifhment for their obdinacy.
Of the four fundamental points of religious practice
required by the Koran, the fird is prayer, under which
are alfo comprehended thofe legal wafhings or purifica¬
tions which are neceffary preparations thereto.
Of
MAH ( 18
Of thefe purifications there are two degrees, one call¬
ed Ghojl, being a total immerfion or bathing of the body
in water- and the other called IVodu, (by the Perfians,
Abdefl,) which is the wafhing of their faces, hands, and
feet, after a certain manner. The firftis required in fome
extraordinary cafes only, as after having lain with a wo¬
man, or been polluted by eraiflion of feed, or by ap¬
proaching a dead body; women alfo being obliged to it
after their courfes or childbirth. The latter is the ordi¬
nary ablution in common cafes, and before prayer, and
mull neceflarily be ufed by every perfon before he can
enter upon that duty. It is performed with certain for¬
mal ceremonies, which have been defcribed by fome wri¬
ters, but much eafier apprehended by feeing them done,
than by the bed: defcription.
That his followers might be more punctual in this du¬
ty, Mohammed is faid to have declared, thatM? pr aft ice
ef religion is founded on cleanlinefs, which is the one
half of the faith, and the key of prayer, without which
it will not be heard by God. That thefe expreffions
may be the better underftood, al Ghazali reckons four
degrees of purification; of which the firlt is the cleanfing
ef the body from all pollution, filth, and excrements ;
the fecond, the cleanfing of the members of the body
from all wickednefs and unjuft actions; the third, the
cleanfing the heart from all blameable inclinations and o-
dious vices; and the fourth, the purging a man’s fecret
thoughts from all affections which may divert their attend¬
ance on God : adding, that the body is but as the out¬
ward fhell, in refpeft to the heart, which is as the kernel.
Circumcifion, though it be not fo much as once men¬
tioned in the Koran, is yet held, by the Mohammedans,
to be an ancient divine inftitution, confirmed by the reli¬
gion of iflam, and, though not fo abfolutely neceffary
but that it may be difpenftd with in fome cafes, yet high¬
ly proper and expedient. The Arabs ufed this rite for
many ages before Mohammed, having probably learned it
from Ifhmael, though not only his deicendents, but the
Hamyarites and other tribes praftifed the famp. The
Ifhmaelites, we are told, ufed to circumcife their children,
not on the eighth day, as is the cuftom of the Jews, but
when about twelve or thirteen years old, at which age
their father underwent that operation; and the Moham¬
medans imitate them fo far as not to circumcife children
before they be able at lead diftinftly to pronounce that
profeflion of their faith. There is no God but God,
Mohammed is the apofile of God ; but pitch on what
age they pleafe for the purpofe, between fix or fixteen,
or thereabouts.
Prayer was, by Mohammed, thought fo neceflary a
duty, that he ufed to call it the pillar of religion, and
the key of paradife\ and when the Thakifites, who dwelt
at Tayef, fending, in the ninth year of the Hejra, to
make their fubmiffion to that prophet, after the keeping
of their favourite idol had been denied them, begged, at
lead, that they might be difpenfed with as to their faying
of their appointed prayers, he anfwered. That there could
be no good in that religion wherein was no prayer.
That fo important a duty, therefore, might not be ne-
gledted, Mohammed obliged his followers to pray five
times every twenty-four hours, at certain dated times ;
) MAH
viz. i. In the morning, before fun-rife : 2. When noon
is pad, and the fun begins to decline from the meridian :
3. In the afternoon, before fun-fet: 4. In the evening,
after fan-fet, and before day be diut in : and, 5. After
the day is Ihutin, and before the fird watch of the night.
For this inditution he pretended to have received the di¬
vine command from the throne of God himfelf, when he
took his night-jonrney to heaven ; and the obferving of
the dated times of prayer is frequently infided on in the
Koran, though they be not particularly prefcribed there¬
in. Accordingly, at the aforefaid times, of which pu¬
blic notice is given by the Muedhdbins, or Criers, from
the deeples of their Mofques, (for they ufe no bells,) e-
very confcientious Modem prepares himfelf for prayer,
which he performs either in the Mofque or any other
place, provided it be clean, after a prefcribed form, and
with a certain number of praifes or ejaculations, (which
the more fcrupulous count by a dring of beads and ufing
certain podures of worfhip;) all which have been parti¬
cularly fet down and defcribed, though with fome few
midakes, by other writers, and ought not to be abridged,
unlefs in fome fpecial cafes, as on a journey, on prepa¬
ring for battle, tic.
For the regular performance of the duty of prayer a-
mong the Mohammedans, befides the particulars above-
mentioned, it is alfo requifite that they turn their faces,
while they pray, towards the temple of Mecca; the quar¬
ter where the fame is fituate being, for that reafon, point¬
ed out within their mofques by a nich, which they call
al Mehrab; and without, by the fituation of the doors
opening into the galleries of the deeples : there are, alfo,
tables calculated for the ready finding out their Keblah, or
part towards which they ought to pray, in places where
they have no other diredtion.
The next point of the Mohammedan religion is the
giving of alms ; which are of two forts, legal and volun¬
tary. The legal alms are of indifpenfable obligation,
being commanded by the law, which diredts and deter¬
mines both the portion which is to be given, and of what
things itought to be given ; but the voluntary alms are left
to every one’s liberty, to give moreorlefs, as he (hall fee
fit. The former kind of almsfomethinktobeproperly call¬
ed Zacat, and the latter Sadakat; though this name be alfo
frequently given to the legal alms. They are called Zacat,
either becaufe they increafe a man’s dore by drawing down
a bleffing thereon, and produce in his foul the virtue of li¬
berality; or becaufe xhtypurify the remaining part of one’s
fubdance from pollution, and the foul from the filth of a-
varice ; and Sadakat, becaufe they are a proof of a man’s
fincerity in the worlhip of God. Some writers have called
the legal alms//Me/, but improperly, fince in fome cafes
they fall (hort, and in others exceed that proportion.
The third point of religious practice is fading ; a duty
of fo great moment, that Mohammed ufed to fay it was
the gate of religion, and that the odour of the mouth of
him who fafteth is more grateful to God than that of
mujk; and al Ghazali reckons fading one fourth part of the
faith. According to the Mohammedan divines, there are
three degres of fading: 1. The redrainmg the belly and
other parts of the body from Satisfying their iuds; 2 The
redraining the ears> eyes, tongue, bands, feet, and- o-
MAH (19
ther members from fin; and, 3. The fading of the heart
from worldly cares, and redraining the thoughts from e-
very thing befides God.
The Mohammedans are obliged, by the exprefs com¬
mand of the Koran, to fad the whole month of Ramadan,
from the time the new moon fird appears, till the ap¬
pearance of the next new moon ; during which time they
mud abdain from eating, drinking, and women, from day¬
break till night or fun-fet. And this injumdion they
obferve fo llriftly, that, while they fad, they fuffer no¬
thing to enter their mouths, or other parts of their bo¬
dy, edeeming the fad broken and null, if they fmell per¬
fumes, take a clyder or inje&ion, bathe, or even pur-
pofely fwallow their fpittle : fome being fo cautious, that
they will not open their mouths to fpeak, led they Ihpuld
breathe the air too freely: the fad is alfo deemed void,
if a man kifs or touch a woman, or if he vomit defigned-
ly. But after fun-fet they are allowed to refrefh them-
felves, and to eat and drink, and enjoy the company of
their wives till day-break ; though the more rigid begin
the fad again at midnight. This fad is extremely rigo¬
rous and mortifying when the month of Ramadan happens
to fall in fummer, (for, the Arabian year being lunar,
each month runs through all the different feafons in the
courfe of thirty-three years) the length and heat of the
days making the obfervance of it much more difficult and
uneafy than in winter.
The reafon given wh/the month of Ramadan was pitch¬
ed on for this purpofe 'islothat on that month the Koran
was fent down from heaven. Some pretend that Abra-
ham,Mofes,aod Jefus, received their refpeftive revelations
iftthe fame month.
The pilgrimage to Mecca is fo neceffary a point of
pradlice, that, according to a tradition of Mohammed,
he who dies without performing it may as well die a
Jew or a Chridian ; and the fame is exprefsly command¬
ed in the Koran.
The temple of Mecca dands in the midd of the city,
and is honoured with the title ofMasjad al elharam, i,e.
the [acred or inviolable temple. What is principally re¬
verenced in this place, and gives fanAity to the whole, is
a fquare done building, called the Caaba, as fome fancy,
from its height, which-furpafles that of the other build¬
ings in Mecca; but more probably from its quadrangular
form, and Beit Allah, i. e. the oyGoD, being pe¬
culiarly hallowed and fet apart for his worffiip. The
length of this edifice, from north to fouth, is twenty.four
cubits, its breadth from ead to wed twenty-three cubits,
and its height twenty-feven cubits : the door, which is
on the ead fide, dands about four cubits from the ground ;
the floor being level with the bottom of the door. In
the corner next this door is the black [one. On the
north fide of the Caaba, within a femicircular inclofure
fifty cubits long, lies the white [one, faid'to be the fe-
pulchre of Iffimael, which receives the rain water that
falls off the Caaba by a fpout, formerly of wood, but
now of gold. The Caaba has a double roof, fupported
within by three oAangular pillars of aloes wood ; between
which, on a bar of iron, hang fome filver lamps. The
outfide is covered with rich black damalk, adorned with
an embroidered. band. of gold, which is changed every
) M A H
year, and was formerly fent by the Klialifs, afterwards
by the Soltans of Egypt, and is now provided by the
Turkifh emperors. At a fmall didance from the Caaba,
on the ead fide, is the Jlation or placeok Abraham, where
is another done much refpe&ed by the Mohammedans,
of which fomething will be faid hereafter.
The Caaba, at fome didance, is furrounded, but not
entirely, by a circular inclofure of pillars joined towards
the bottom by a low baludrade, and towards the top by
bars of filver. Jud without this inner inclofure, on the
fouth, north, and wed fides of the Caaba, are three
buildings, which are the oratories or places where three
of the orthodox fefts affemble to perform their devotions,
(the fourth fedt, viz. that of al Shafei, making ufe of
the dation of Abraham for that purpofe ;) and, towards
the fouth-ead, dands the edifice which covers the well
Zemzem, the treafury, and the cupola of al Abbas.
All thefe buildings are inclofed, at a confiderable dif-
tance, by a magnificent piazza, or fquare colonnade, like
that of the Royal Exchange in London, but much larger,
covered with fmall domes or cupolas ; from the four cor¬
ners whereof rife as many minarets or deeples, with
double galleries, and adorned with gilded fpires and cref-
cents, as are the cupolas which cover the piazza and the
other buildings. Between the pillars of both inclofures
hang a great number of lamps, which are condantly light¬
ed at night.
This is properly all that is called the temple ; but, the
whole territory of Mecca being alfo Haram or facred,
there is a third inclofure didinguifhed at certain didances
by fmall turrets, fome five, fome feven, and others teir
miles didant from the city. Within this compafs of
ground it is not lawful to attack an enemy, or even to
hunt or fowl, or cut a branch from a tree.
The temple of Mecca was a place of worffiip, and in
lingular veneration with the Arabs, from great antiquity,
and many centuries before Mohammed. Though it was
mod probably dedicated at fird to an idolatrous ufe, yet~
the Mohammedans are generally perfuaded that the Caaba
is almod coeval with the world.
After this edifice had undergone feveral reparations,
it was a few years after the birth of Mohammed rebuilt
by the Koreiffi on the old foundation, and afterwards re¬
paired by Abd’allah Ebn Zobeir, the Khalif of Mecca;
and at length again rebuilt by Yufof, furnamed al Hejaj,
in the feventy-fourth year of the Hejra, with fome alte¬
rations, in the form wherein it now remains. Some
years after, however, the Khalif Harun al Raffiid (or,
as others write, his father al Mohdi, or his grandfather
al Manfur) intended again to change what had been al¬
tered by al Hejaj, and to reduce the Caaba to the old
form in which it was left by; Abd’allah ; but was dif-
fuaded from meddling with it, left fo holy a place ffiould
become the fport of princes, and, being new-modelled af¬
ter everyone’s fancy, ffiould lofe that reverence which
was juftly paid it. But; notwithftanding the antiquity
and holinefs of this building, they have a prophecy, by
tradition from Mohammed, that in the laft times the
Ethiopians ffiall come and utterly demoliffi it;. after
which it will not be rebuilt again for ever.
Before we-leave the temple of Mecca, two or three
particulars;
MAH (2
partietilars deferve further notice. ' One is the celebrated
■black Jlone, which is fet in filver, and fixed in the fouth-
«a(t corner of the Caaba, being that which looks toward
Bafra, about two cubits and one third, or, which is the
fame thing, feven fpans from the ground. This done is
exceedingly refpe^ed by the Mohammedans, and is biffed
by the pilgrims with great devotion, being called by lome
the right hand of God on earth. They fable, that it is
one of the precious hones of paradife, and fell down to
the earth with Adam, and, being taken up again, or o-
therwife preferred at the deluge, the angel Gabriel after¬
wards brought it back to Abraham, when he was build¬
ing the Caaba. It was at firfl whiter than milk, but
grew black long fince by the touch of a menftruous woman,
«r, as others tell us, by the fins of mankind, or rather
by the touches and kilfes of fo many people ; the fu-
perficies only being black, and the inlide (till remaining
white.
To this temple every Mohammedan, who has health
And means fufficient, ought once, at lead, in his life to
go on pilgrimage ; nor are women excufed from the per¬
formance of this duty. The pilgrims meet at different
places near Mecca, according to the different parts from
whence they come, during the months of Shawal and
Dhu’lkaada ; being obliged to be there by the beginning
of Dhu’lhajja ; which month, as its name imports, is
peculiarly fet apart for the celebration of this folemnity.
At the place above-mentioned the pilgrims properly
commence fuch ; when the men put on the Ihram or fa-
cred habit, which confids only of two woollen wrappers,
one wrapped about their middle to cover their privities,
and the other thrown over their fhoulders, having their
heads bare, and a kind of flippers which covet neither the
heel nor the indep, and fo enter the facred territory in
their way to Mecca. While they have this habit on,
they mud neither hunt nor fowl, (though they are al¬
lowed to filh;) which precept is fo punftually ooferved,
that they will not kill even a loufe or a flea, if they find
them on their bodies : there are fome noxious animals,
however, which they have permiflion to kill during the
pilgrimage, as kites, lavens, fcorpions, mice, and dogs
given to bite. During the pilgrimage* it behoves a man
to have a condant guard over his words and aiflions. and
to avoid all quarrelling or 11 language and all converfe
with women and obfeene difeourfe, and to apply his
whole intention to the good work he is engaged in
The pilgrims, being arived at Mecca, immediately
vifit the temple, and then enter on the performance of
the prefenbed ceremonies which confid chiefly in going
in proceflton round the Caaba, in running between the
mounts Safa and Merwa, in making the llation on mount
Arafat, and flaying the vi&ims, and fhaving their heads
in the valley of Mma.
In compalfing the Caaba, whi h they do feven times,
beginning at the corner where the black done is fixed,
they ufe a fhort quick pace the three firfl times they go
round it, and a grave ordinary pace the four lad ; which,
it is faid, was ordered by Mohammed, that his followers
mi«ht fhew themfelves flrong and active, to cut off the
hopes of the infidels, who gave out, that the immoderate
heats of Medina had rendered them weak. But the a-
0 ) M A . I
forefaid quick pace they are not obliged to ufe every time
they perform this piece of devotion, but only at feme
particular times. So often as they pafs by the black
done, they either kifs it, or touch it with their hand,
and kifs that.
The running between Safa and Merwa is alfo perform¬
ed feven times, partly with a'flow pace, and partly run¬
ning : for they v/a!k gravely till they come to a place be¬
tween two pillars ; and there they run, and afterwards
walk again ; fometimes looking back, and fometimes
flopping, like one who has lofl fomething, to reprefent
Hagar feeking water for her foo ; for the ceremony is
faid to be as ancient as her time.
On the ninth of Dhu’lhajja, after morning prayer,
the pilgi ims le-.ve the valley of Mina, whither they come
the day before, and proceed in a tumultuous and rufhimr
manner to mount Arafat, where they day to perform
their devotions till fun-fet : then they go to Mozdalifa,
an oratory between Arafat and Mina ; and there fpend
the night in prayer, and reading the Koran. The next
morning by day-break they vifit al Mafher al haram, or
the facred monument, and, departing thence before fun-
rife, hade by Batn Mohafler to the valley of Mina,
where they throw feven dones at three marks or pillars,
in imitation of Abraham, who, meeting the devil in that
place, and being by him didurbed in his devotions, or
tempted to difebedience, when he was going to facrifice
his Ion, was commanded by God to drive him away by
throwing dones at hint ; tho^ghjothers pretend this rite
to be as old as Adam, who aifo put the devil to flight
in the fame place and by the fame means.
This .eremony being over, on the fame day, the tenth
of Dhu’lhajja, the pilgrims flay their vi&ims in the faid
valley of Mina; of which they and their friends eat part,
and the red is given to the poor. Thefe vidtims mud be
either fheep, goats, kine, or camels; males, if of either
of the two former kinds ; and females, if of either of
the latter; and of a fit age. The facrifices being over,
they fhave their heads and cut their nails, burying them
in the fame place; after which the pilgrimage is looked
on as completed ; though they again vifit the Caaba, to
take their leave of that facred building.
MAIDEN, an indrument ufed in Scotland for beheading
criminals.
This is a broad piece of iron, about a foot fquare,
very fha^ p on the lower part, and loaded above with a
very heavy weight of lead. At the time of execution
it is pulled up to the top of a narrow wooden frame,
about ten feet high, and as broad as the engine, with
mouldings on each fide for the maiden to Aide in. A
convenience is made about four feet from the ground,
for the prifoner to lay his neck ; and there is a kind of
bar fo faflened as to keep him from during. The pri¬
foner being thus fecuredl and the fign given, the maiden
is let loofe, which in a moment feparates his head from
his body.
MAIDSTONE, the county-town of Kent, fituated on
the Medway, twenty-two mdes wed of Canterbury:
E. long. 37', N. lat. 510 It fends two members
to parliament.
MAJESTY,
M A I (
MAJESTY, a title given to kings, which frequently
fervis as a term of diftinttion.
Thus the emperor is called Sacred Majefty, Imperial
Majefty, and Csfarian Majefty • the king of France is
called his Moft Chriftian Majefty, and when he treats
with the emperor, the word Sacred is added ; and the
king of Spain is termed his Molt Catholic Majefty :
with refpedl to other kings, the name of the_kingdom
is added, as his Britannic Majefty, his Polilh Majefty,
Formerly princes 'were more iparing in giving
titles, and more modeft in claiming them : before the
reign of Charles V. the kings of Spain bad only the
title of Highnefs ; and before that of Henry VIII. the
kings of England were only addrefled under the title
of G^ace and Highnefs.
MAIL, or coat of Mail, a piece of defenfive armour
for the body, made of fmall iron rings, interwoven in
the manner.of a net
A£lion of and Duties, inScots law. See Law,
Tit. xxx. 20.
MAINE, a river of Germany, which rifes on the eaft fide
of the circle of Franconia and running from eaft to
weft, difeharges itfelf into the Rhine at Mentz.
MAINPRISE, in law, is the receiving a perfon into
friendly cuftody, who might otherwife be committed
to prifon, on fecurity given that he fhall be forthco¬
ming at a certain time and place appointed.
MAJOR, in the art of war, the name of feveral officers
of very different ranl^s and fundtions ; as i. Major-
general, the next officer to the lieutenant general: his
chief bufinefs is to receive the orders from the general,
or in his abfence from ihe lieutenant general of the
day ; which he is to diftribute to the brigade-majo s,
with whom he is to regulate the guards, convoys, and
detachments. When there are two attacks at a fiege,
he commands that on the left. He ought to be well
acquainted with the ftrength of each brigade of each
regiment in particular, and to have a lift of all the
field officers. In fhort, he is in the army what a
major is in a regiment He is allowed an aid de camp,
and has a ferjeant and fifteen men for his guard. 2.
Major of a brigade, the officer who receives the orders
from the major-general, and afterwards delivers them
to the adjutants of the regiments at the head of the
brigade • where he takes and marches the detachments,
(sc to the general rendezvous. He ought to be an
expert captain, to know the ftate and condition of th&
brigade, and keep a roll of the colonels, lieutenan -colo
nels, majors, and adjutants 3. Major of a regiment, the
next officer to the lieutenant-colonel, generally pro¬
moted from the oldeft captain. He is to take care
that the'regiment be well exercifed, to fee it march in
good order, and to /ally it in cafe of its being broke.
He is the only officer among the foot that is allowed
to be on horfeback in time of aftion, that he may the
more readily execute the colonel’s orders, either in
advancing or drawing off the regiment. 4. Major of
a regiment of horfe, is the firft captain, who commands
in the abfence of the colonel. 5. Town-major, the
third officer in a garrifon, being next to the deputy-
governor. He ought to underftand fortification, and
Vol. III. N° 69. 2
21 ) M A L
hath charge of the guards, rounds, patrols, (sc. His
bufinefs is alfo to take care that the foldiers arms are
in good order ; he likewifc orders the gates to be o-
pened and fhut, and gives the governor an account of
all that pafles within the place
There are alfo aids major, drums major, (sc. fo
called from their preheminence above others of thei
fame denomination.
Major, in logic, the firft propofition of a fyllogifm. See
Logic.
MAJORANA in botany See Origanum.
MAJORCA, the capital of a Spanifh fl.md of the fame
name : E. long. 20 30', N. lat 390 30'
This tfland is in the Mediterranean fea, about fixty
miles long, and forty five broad, fituated about eighty
miles fiAith of the coaft of Catalonia, and an hundred
miles eaft of Valencia
MAIRE or freights of Le Mai re, is a pafTageto Cape
Horn, fituated between Terra del Fuego in South \-
menca, and Statten ifland ; which being difeovered by
Le Maire, obtained his name.
MAIZ See Zea
MALA, the cheek, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 160.
MALABAR, the fouth weft coaft of the peninfula of
hither India, about 400 miles long, and 100 broad,
bounded by ViLpour on the north,- by the moun¬
tains of Baligate, on the eaft ; and by the Indian oceaa
on the weft and fouth.
MALACCA, the moft foutherly part of the further1
peninfula of India, about 600 miles long, and generally
about 200 miles broad ; bounded by Siam, on the
north ; by the bay of Siam and the Indian ocean, on
the eaft; and by the (freights of Malacca, on the fouth-
weft. The capital of this country, which is alfo
commonly called Malacca, is fituated in ioo° of E.
long, and 20 3c/ N. lat.
MALACHI, or the prophecy o/’Malachi, a canonical
book of the old Teftament, and the laft of the twelve
lefler prophets; Malachi prophefied about three hun¬
dred years before Chrift, reproving the Jews for their
wickednefs after their return from Babylon, charging,
them with rebellion, facrilege, adultery, prophanenefs,
and infidelity, and condemning the pnefts for being
fcandaloufly carelefs in their miniftry: at the fame time
not forgetting to encourage the pious few, who, in
that corrupt age, maifnained their integrity., This
prophet diftindfly points at the Mefliah, who was fud-
denly to come to his temple, and to be introduced by
Elijah the prophet, that is, by John the Baptift, who
came in the fpirit and power of Elias or Elijah.
MALACIA, in medicine, is a languifhing diforder iuci-.
dent to pregnant women, in which they long fometimes
for one kind of food, and fometimes for another, and
eat it with an extraordinary greedinefs.
MALACOPTERYGIOUS, among ichthyologifts, an
appellation given to fuch fifties as have the rays of their
fins bony, but not pointed or (harp at the extremities,
like thofe of acanthopterygious fifties.
MALACOSTOMOUS fishes, thofe deftitute of teeth
in the jaws, called in Englilh leather-mouthed ; as the
tench, carp, bream, (sc.
MALAGA,
M A L (2
MALAGA, a city and port of Spain, in the province of
Granada, fitaated in the Mediterranean, fixty-fix
miles north-eaft of Gibraltar: W.long. 40 45', N. lat.
36° 4c/.
MxlLAGMA, a cataplafm. See Cataplasm.
MALAMOCCA, a fmall ifland and port-town in the
lagunes of Venice, fituated five miles fouth of that city.
MALDIVA-islands, are about a thoufand fmall iflands
in the Indian ocean, 500 miles fouth-weft of the con¬
tinent of the hither India, extending from the fecond
degree of fouth latitude, to the feventh degree of north
latitude.
MALDON, a port-town of Eflex, ten miles eaft of
Chelmsford. It fends two members to parliament.
MALE, among zoologids, that fex of animals which
has the parts of generation without the body.
MALIGNANT, among phyficians, a term applied to
difeafes of a very dangerous nature, and generally in-
fedious: fuch are the dyfentery, hofpital-fever, «Src.
in their word flages.
MALL, or Sea mall, in ornithology. See Larus,
MALLEABLE, a property of metals, whereby they are
capable of being extended under the hammer.
MALLEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 297.
MALLOW, in botany. See Malva.
MALMSBURY, a borough town of Wiltfhire, thirty
miles fouth-weft of Salilbury : it fends two members
to parliament.
MALO, or St Malo, a city and port-town of France,
in the province of Britany, fituated on a rock, in the
Englilh channel, but joined to the continent by a caufe-
way: W. long. 2°, N. lat. 48° 40'.
MALOPE, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia po-
lyandria clafs. It has a double calix, the exterior one
having three leaves; and the capfule contains but one
feed. There is only one fpecies, a native of Mauri¬
tania.
MALPIGHIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
trigynia clafs. The calix eonfifts of five leaves, and
the corolla of five roundi/h petals ; and the berry has
one cell and three feeds. There are nine fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
MALPLAQUET, a village in the Auftrian Netherlands,
in the province of Hainault, about feven miles from
Mons.
MALT. See Brewing.
MALTA, the capital of a finall ifland of the fame name
in the Mediterranean, is fituated in E. long. 150, N.
lat., 35° 15' ; confifting of three towns, feparated by
channels, which form fo many peninfulas of folidrock,
rifing a great height above the fea.
Knights Malta, otherwife called Hofpitalers of St.
John of Jerufalem, a religious military order, whofe
refidence is in the ifland of Malta. The order confifts
of three eftates, the knights, chaplains, and fervants
at arms: there are alfb priefts who officiate in the
churches; friar-levants, who affift at the offices , and
donnes, or demicrofles; but thefe are not reckoned con-
ftituent parts of the body. The government of the or¬
der is mixt, being partly monarchical, and partly ari-
ftocratical: the grand mafter is fovereign. The knights
2 ) MAN
formerly confided of eight different languages, but no'tf
only feven, the Englifh having withdrawn themfelves.
None are admitted into this order but fuch as are of
noble birth: the knights are of two forts, thofe who
have a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand
mafter, called grand croffes, and thofe who are only
knights affiftants: they never marry, yet have continued
from 1090 to the prefent time. The knights are re¬
ceived into this order, either by undergoing the trials
prefcribed by ftatutes, or by difpenfation.
MALTON, a borough of Yorklhire, fituated on the ri¬
ver Derwent, twenty miles north-eaft of York. It
fends two members to parliament.
MALVA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia polyan-
dria clafs. The calix is double, the exterior one con¬
fifting of three leaves ; and there are many capfules,
containing each one feed. There are 22 fpecies, five of
them natives of Britain, viz. the fyjyeftris, or common
mallow; the rotundifolia, or dwarf mallow ; the par-
viflora, or fmall flowered mallow; the alcea, or vervain
mallow; and the mofehata, or jagged-leaved vervain
mallow. The leaves of the mallow are emollient.
MALUS, in botany. SccPyrus.
MAMALUKES, the name of a dynafty that reigned in
Egypt.
The Mamalukes were originally Turksfli and Circaf-
fia flaves, bought of the Tartars by Melicfaleh, to the
number of a thoufand, whom he bred up to arms, and
raifed fome to the principal offices of the empire. They
killed fultan Moadam, to whom they fucceeded.
Others fay, that the mamalukes were ordinarily cho-
fen from among the Chriftian flaves, and that they were
the fame thing in a great meafure with the Janiffaries
among the Turks. Theynever married. They firft are
faid to have been brought from Circaflia, and fome have
fuppofed that they began to reign about the year 869.
MAMMAl, in anatomy. See Anatom y, p. 277.
MAMMEA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gynia elafs. The corolla confifts of four petals, and
the calix of two leaves; and the berry is large, and con¬
tains four feeds. There are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
MAN, in zoology. See Homo.
MANCHESER, a large town of Lancafliire, forty miles
fouth-eaft of Lancafter.
MANDAMUS, in law, a writ that iflues out of the court
of king’s bench, fent to a corporation, commanding them
to admit or reftore a perfon to his office.
MANDARINS, a name give to* the magiftrates and go¬
vernors of provinces in China, who are chofen out of
the moft learned men, and whofe government is always
at a great diftancefrom the place of their birth. Man¬
darin is alfo a name given by the Chinefe to the learn¬
ed language of the country; for befides the language
peculiar to every province, there is one common to all.
the learned in the empire-, which is in China what Latin
is in Europe; this is called the mandarin, tongue, or the
language of the court.
MANDATE, in law, a judicial commandment to do
fomething.. See Mandamus.
Mandate, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxii. 9.
MAN-
MAN (2
MANDEPvSCHEIT, a city of Germany* in the deflo¬
rate of Triers, and the capital of the county of Man-
derfcheit: E. long. 6° , N. lat. 50° aoA.
MANDRAGORA, in botany. SeeArRorA.
MANE, the hairhangingdownfromahorfe’s neck; which
fhould be long, thin, and fine; and if frizzled, fo much
the better.
MANEGE, or Manage, the exercife of riding the
great horfe, or the ground fet apart for that purpofe ;
which is fometimes covered, for continuing the exercife
in bad weather; and fometimes open, in order to give
more liberty and freedom both to the horfeman and
horfe. See Horsemanship.
MANES, in the pagan fyltem of theology, a generalname
for the infernal deities, or gods of hell.
The ancients comprehended under manes not only
Pluto, Proferpine, and Minos, but the fouls likevvife
of thedeceafed were taken into the number, and elteem-
ed gods of hell. It was ufual to ereft altars and offer
libations to the manes of deceafed friends and relations.
One branch of the magic art among the pagans confided
in cqnfulting the manes of the dead in matters of im¬
portance: this was called Necromancy. See Necro¬
mancy.
MANGIFERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confids of five petals;
and the drupa is fhaped like a kidney. There is but
one fpecies a native of Britain
MANHEIM, a city of Germany, in the palatinate of the
Rhine, fituated at the confluence of the Rhine and Nec-
kar: E. long. 70 20', N. lat. 49° 30'.
MANIA, in medicine. See Medicine.
MANICHEES, in church-hidory, a feftof Chridian he¬
retics in the third century, the followers of Manes,
who made his appearance in the reign of the emperor
Probus ; pretending to be the comforter whom our Sa-
vious promifed to fend into the world. He taught that
there are two principles, or gods, coeternal and inde¬
pendant on each other, the one the author of all evil,
and the-other of all good ; a doflrine which he bor¬
rowed from the Perfian magi. He held that our fouls
we made by the good principle, and our bodies by the
evil one ; and that the fouls of his followers paffed
through the elements to the moon, and from thence to
the fun; where being purified, they then went to God,
and became united with his eflence ; but as for the
fouls of other men* they either went to hell, o,r were
united to other bodies. He alledged, that Chrift had
his refidence in the fun, the Holy Ghoft in the air, wif-
dom in the moon, and the Father in the abyfs of light.
He is alfo charged with denying the refurreflion and
condemning marriage ; with teaching that Cirri it was
the ferpent that tempted Eve; with forbidding the ufe of
eggs, cheefe, milk* and wine, as proceeding from the bad
principle ; with ufing a different kind of bap til m. from
that of the church; with teaching that magiftrates were
not to be obeyed; and with condemning the molt lawful
wars.
MANICORDON, or Manichord, a mufical tnftrtr-
ment in the form of a fpiuet; the firings of which, like
thofe of the claricliord, are coViSred with little pieces
3 ) MAN
of cloth, to deaden was well as to foften their found 5
whence it is alfo called the dumb fpinet.
MANIFESTO, a public declaration made by a prince in
writing, (hewing bis intentions to begin a war, or o-
tber enterprize, with the motives that induce him fo
it, and the reafons on which he founds his rights a^d
pretenfions.
MANILLE, in commerce, a large brafs- ring in the forna
of a bracelet, either plain or engraven, flat or round.
Manilles are the principal commodities which the Eu¬
ropeans carry to the coafl of Africa, and exchange witlv
the natives for flaves. Thefe people wear them as or¬
naments on the fmall of the leg, and on the thick part
of the arm above the elbow. The great men wear ma*
nilles of gold and filver, but thefe are made in the coun¬
try by the natives themfelves.
MANIPULUS, in Roman antiquity, a body of infan¬
try, confifting of two hundred men., aad conftituting the
third part of a cohort.
MAN IS the scaly lizard, in zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds, belonging to the order of Bruta, the cha-
raflers of which are thefe: They have no fore-teeth ei¬
ther in the upper or under jaw; the tongue is long and
cylindrical: the fnout is long and narrow; and the bo¬
dy is covered with hard fcales. There are two fpecies,
viz.
I. The pentadaflyla, or fcaly lizard with five toes
on each foot. The head is fmaller than the neck ; the
eyes are very fmall; the length of the body, including
the tail, is from fix to eight feet. The whole body is
covered with hard fcales, excepting the under part of
the head and neck, the breaft, the belly, and the in¬
ternal fide of each leg. Betwixt the fcales of this ani¬
mal, there are fome hard hairs like the briftlesof a hog,
brownifh at the points. The fcales are of a reddifh co¬
lour, very hard, convex above, and concave belo w. All
the parts which want fcales are naked. The fcales are
unconnefled, and the animal can raife or lower them
at pleafure like the quills of the porcupine. When
irritated, he erefts his fcales* and rolls himfelf up like
a hedge-hog. In this fituation, neither the tiger, the
lion, nor any other animal, is able to hurt him. This
creature has nothing forbidding about him but his fi¬
gure. He is mild and inoffenfive, feeding on nothing
but worms and other iofefls. His motion is flow ; and.
he has no other method of efoaping the purfuit of man,
but by concealing himfelf in crannies of rocks, and in
holes which they dig in. the ground, where they like-
wife bring forth their young. This animal is a native
of the Eaft Indies ; and are fo few in number, that they
are feldom-tobe met with.
2. The tetradaflyla, or fcaly. lizard with four
toes on each, foot. This- fpeci.es is very fimilar to the
former; only the tail is much longer in proportion to
the body, and fuch parts as want fcales, inflead of be¬
ing naked, are covered with a fofc hair. It is likewife
found in the Eaft Indies. See Plate CIV fig. 4.
MANNA, in the materia medica, the concreted juice of
fome vegetable, naturally exfodating from it, foluble.
in water, and not inflammable.
It is a honey-like juice, brought to us from Calabria
and
M A -N (2
and Sicily, fometimes in fmall granules, or drops of an
irregular figure, roundifh, oblong, crooked, and fome-
times contorted. It Ihould be chefen whitiifi, or at
the utmoft with only a faint cart of yellow, not too
heavy, in regular dry granules, or in moderately long
ftriae or flakes, of a pleafant tafte, and diflblving whol¬
ly in the rqouth, not leaving a farinacious fubftance be¬
hind it, ^a& much of the common manna does that has
been adulterated with honey and flour.
Mannaisthemildeftandfafeflof all purges, and may
be given to children, to women vith child and to peo¬
ple bf the moft tedder conftitutions, with perfe&'fafety;
and it never fails gently to move^he bowels.
MANOR, an ancient royalty or lordfhip, formerly called
a barony, confiding ofdemefnes, fervices, and a court-
baron ; and comprehending in it mefluages, lands,
meadow, pafture, wood, rents, an advowfon, i&c. It
may contain one or more villages or hamlets, or only
a great part of a village, isc
MANS, the capital of the territory of Maine, in the
province of Orleanois in France: E. long. 5', N lat.
48° 6'
MANSFIELD, a city of Germany, the capital of a
county of the fame name, in the circle of Upper Sax-
any : E. long. 11 0 4-5'. N. lat. 510 36'.
MANSION, in law, is the chief dwelling houfe of a lord
within his fee, or the capital mefluage or manor-houfe.
MANSLAUGHTER, generally termed homicide, is
killmg a perfon without permeditased malice.
MANTELETS, in the art of war, a kind of moveable
parapets, made of planks about three inches thick, nail¬
ed one over another, to the height of almoft fix feet,
generally cafed with tin. and fet upon little wheels, fo
that in a fiege they may be driven before the pioneers,
and ferve as blinds to ftielter them from the enemy’s
fmall (hot.
MANTLE, or Mantle tree, in architeflure, the
lower part of the chimney, or that piece of timber
which is laid acrofs the jaumbs, and fuflains the com¬
partment of the chimney piece.
Mantle, or Mantling in heraldry that appearance
of folding of cloth, flourifhing, or drapery, that is in
any atchievement dra»vn about the coat of arms. It is
fuppofed origina ly to he the reprefentation of a mantle,
or military habit, worn by the ancient cavaliers over
their armour to preferve it from ruft -. or, as others
hold, a fhort covering only worn over the helmet, which
in after-times was lengthened, and made to hang from
the helmet below the whole fliield. See Plate CX.
>•
MANTUA, the capital of a duchy of the fame name in
Italy, is fituatedin the rtrddie of a lake, formed by the
river Mincio, but has a communication with the con¬
tinent by three caufeways : E. long. ii° ij', N. lat.
450 20'.
MANUMISSION, in Roman ant quity, the aft of fet¬
ing a flave at liberty; wh.ch was umally performed be¬
fore the praetor, who laid his wand called vindifta, on
the flave’s head, and declared him free
'MANUF ACTURER, one wh works up a natural pro-
<luft into an artificial commodity.
\ ) MAR
MANURE, any thing ufed for fattening and improving
land. See Agriculture, p. 47.
M ANUSCRIPT, in matters of literature, denotes a writ-.
ten book, in contradiftinftion to a printed one. See
Book.
MdP, a plain figure, reprefenting the furface-of the
earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of per-
fpeftive. See Geography.
MAPLE, in botany. See Acer.
MAPPARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the officer who
gave the fignal to the gladiators to begin fighting;
which he did by throwing an handkerchief that he had
received from the emperor or other magiftrate,
MARANTA, in botany, agenus of the monandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is ringent, and confifts of
five fegments There are two fpecies, none of them
natives ofBritain.
MARASMUS, among phyficLns, denotes an atrophy
or confumption, in its ialt and mod deplorable ftage.
MARBLE in natural hiftory, a genus of folfils ; being
bright and beautiful flones, compofed of fmall fepa-
rate concretions, moderately hard, not giving fire with
fteel, fermenting with and foluble in acid menftrua,
and calcining in a flight fire.
The colours of marbles being a very obvious and
ftriking charafter, they are arranged according to them
in the following divisions. 1 Of the white plain
marbles there are two forts ; the Parian marble of the
ancients, and ftatuary marble of the moderns, an ex¬
tremely bright and elegant marble; and the Carara
marble, a very fine marble, more compaft and clofe
than the former, but lefs bright. 2. Of the plainyel-
lowiih marbles there is only one fort which is a hard,
pale yellow, and glofly marble, found in many parts of
Italy. 3. Of the bluifh and black marbles there ate
a great many fpecies, as the Chi rn marble, bafaltes,
4. Of the plain green marbles there is only one kind, thp
Lacedemonian marble of the ancients. 5. The pale
coloured or whitifh brown, commonly called Darby-
marble. 6. The green marbles with fhells 7. The black
coralloide marble, withand without fhells. 8. Of the
white variegated marbles there are a great many fpecies,
variegated with purple, brown, red, blue, 9. Of
the brown variegated marbles there are likewife feveral
forts, fome with red veins, others with white, black, or
brown veins. 10 Of the yellow-veined and variega¬
ted marbles fome are veined ' Ph purple, and others
with blue it. Of the black variegated marbles,
fome are veined with white, and others with blue, yel¬
low, red, &c 12, The green variegated marbles are
likewife diffinguifhed by the colour of their vems.
13. The gray fpotted marbles are variegated, fome
with blick, and others with green fpots. 14. The
red variegated marble is the brocatello of the Italians,
with white and gold veins
Colouring of Marble. The colouring of marbles is a
nice art; and in order to fucceed in it, the pieces of
marble on which the experiments are tried mud be
well polifhed, and clear from the lead fpot or vein.
The harder the marble is, the better it will bear the
heat neceflary in the operation; therefore alabaffer,
MAR (25
and the common foft white marble, are very improper
to perform thefe operations upon.
Heat is always neceffary for the opening the pores
of the marble, lb as to render it fit to receive the co¬
lours : but it muft never be made red hot; for then the
texture of the marble itfelf is injured, and the colours
are burnt, and lofe their beauty. Too fmall a degree
of heat is as bad as too great; for, in this cafe tho’
the marble receive the colour, it will not be fixed in
it, nor ftrike deep enough. Some colours will llrike,
even cold ; but they are never fo well funk in as when
a juft degree of heat is ufed. The proper degree is
that which, without making the marble red, will make
the liquor boil upon its furface. The menftruums ufed
to Itrike in the colours muft be varied according to the
nature of the colour to be ufed. Alixivium made with
horfe’s or dog’s urine, with four parts quick lime, and
one parr pot alhes, is excellent for fome colours ;
common lye of wood-afhes does very well for others :
for fome, fpirit of wine is belt; and finally, for others,
oily liquors, or common white-wine
The colours w'hich have been found to fucceed bell
with the peculiar menftruums, are thefe: lione blue
' dilfolved in fix times the quantity of fpirit of wine, or
of the urinous lixivium ; and that colour- hith the
painters call ftmous, difiblved in common lye ofwood-
alhes An extraft of faffron, and that colour made
of 1 u kthorn-berries, and called by the painters fap-
green, both fucceed well diflblved in urine and quick¬
lime and tolerably well in fpirit of wine. Vermil¬
lion, and a fine powder of cochineal, fucceed alfo very
well in the fame liquors. Dragon’s blood fucceeds
very well in fpirit of wine, as does alfo a tindure of
logwood in the fame fpirit. Alkanet root gives a fine
colour, but the only menftruum to be ufed for this is
oil of turpentine ; for neither fpirit of wine, nor any
lixivium, will do with it. There is another kind of
fangms draconis, called dragon’s blood in tears, which,
mixed with urine alone, gives a very elegant colour.
Btfides thefe mixtures of colours and menftruums,
there are fome colours which are to be laid on dry and
unmixed. Thefe are dragon’s blood, of the pureft
kind, for a red ; gamboge for a yellow ; green wax
for a green; common brimftone, pitch, and turpentine,
for a brown colour. The marble, for thefe experi¬
ments, muft be made confiderably hot, and then the
colours are to be ubbed rn dry in the lump. Some of
thefe colours, when once given, temain immutable ;
others are eafily changed or deftroyed. Thus the
red colour given by dragoo’s blood, or by a decodion
of logwood, will be wholly taken away by oil of tar¬
tar. and the polifh of the marble not hurt by it.
A fine gold colour is given m the following manner:
take crude fal armoniac, vitriol, and verdegreafe, of
each equal quantities; white vitriol fucceeds belt; and
all m ft De thoroughly mixed in fine powder.
The ftaining of marble to all the degrees of red or
yellow, by lolutions of dragon’s blood or gamboge,
may be done by reducing thefe gums to powder, and
grinding them, with the fpirit of w ine, in a glafi mor¬
tar ; but for fmaller attempts, no method is lo good,
Vot.IIl. N°. 70. 2
) MAR
as the mixing a little of either of thefe powders with
fpirit of wine in a filv r fpoon, and holding it over
burning charcoal By this means a fine tmdure will
be extrafted; and with a pencil dipped in this, the
fineft traces may be made on the marble while coid,
which, on the heating it afterwards either on fand,
or in a baker’s oven, will all fink very deep, and re¬
main perfedtiy diftindt in the ftone. It is very ea y to
make the ground colour of the marble red or yellow
by this means and leave white veins in it. This is
to be done by covering the places where the whitnels
is to remain with fome white paint, or even with two
or three doubles only of paper, either of which wdl
prevent the colour from penetrating in that part. All
the degrees of red are to be given to marnle by means
of this gum alone ; a flight tindture of it, without the
afliftance of heat to the marble, gives only a pale flefk
colour, but the ftfonger undtures give it yet deeper ;
to this the affillance of heat adds vet greatly ; and fi¬
nally, the addition of a little pitch to the tindture gives
it a tendency to blacknefs, or any degree of deep red
that is defired A blue colour may be given alfo to
marble by diflblving t rnfol in a lixivium of lime and
urine, or in the volatile fpirit of urine ; but this has
always a tendency to purple, whether made by the one
or the other of thefe v ays. A better blue, and ufed
in an eafiermanner, is furnifliedby the Canary turnfol,
a fubftance well known among the dyers ; this needs
only to be diflblved in water, and drawn on the place
with a pencil: this penetrates very deep into the marble,
and the colour may be i creafed by drawing the pencil
wetted afreflt feveral times over the fame lines. This
colour is fubjedt to fpread and diffufe itfelf irregular¬
ly ; but it may be kept in regular bounds, by circum-
feribing its lines with beds of wax, or any other fuch
fubflance,
PoliJhingofMA.WL.Z's isperformed by firft rubbing them
wdl with a free ftone, or fand till the ftrokes of the
axe are worn off, then with pumice ftone, and after¬
wards with emery.
y^ratz^Z-MARBLEs, ancient marbles with a chronicle of
the city of Athens inferibed on them, many years be¬
fore our Saviour’s birth ; prefented to theuniverfity of
Oxford by Thomas earl of Arundel, whence the name.
MARBLING, in general, the painting any thing with
veins and clouds, fo as to reprefeht thofe of marble.
Marbling of books or paper is performed thus: Dif-
folve fou ounces of gum arabic into two quarts of fair
water ; then provide leveral colours mixed with water
in pots or fliells, and. with pencils peculiar to each co¬
lour, fprinkle them by way of intermixture upon the
gum-water, which muft be put into a trough or fome
broad veflel; then with a ftick curl them, or draw
them out in ftreaks, to as much variety as may be
done. Having done this, hold your book or books
dole together, and only dip the edges in, on the top
of the water and colours very lightly; which done
take them off, and the plain impreffion of the co¬
lours in mixture will be upon the leaves; doing as well
the ends as the front of the book in the like manner.
After the fame mannei you may make marbled pa-
G Per,
MAR
per, by dipping it on the flat, asalfo linnen cloth, &c.
Marbling a book on the covers is performed by form¬
ing clouds with aqua fortis, or fpirit of vitriol mixed
with ink, and afterwards glazing the covers.
MARCASITES, in natural hiftory, are defined to be
compound inflammable metallic bodies, of a hard and
folid fubftance, of an obfcurely and irregularly folia-
ceous ftrudture, of a bright glittering appearance, na¬
turally conftituting whole ftrata, though fometimes
found in detached mafles ; very freely giving fire with
fteel; not fermenting with acid menftruums ; and when
put into the fire, yielding a bluefulphureous flame, and
afterwards calcining into a purple powder. There are
only three known fpecies of this genus: i. The filver-
coloured marcafite, found in vail abundance in lead
andtinmines. 2 The gold coloured marcafite. 3. The
heavy pale-white marcafite.
Marcafites were at fit'ft fuppofed to be almofl: all
pure gold or filver, according to their colour ; but ex¬
perience has (hewn, that if they contain any metal at
all, no method has hitherto been found of working
them to advantage. In Germany, indeed, they ex-
traft fuiphur and vitriol from the filver marcafite,
which two fubftances are always contained in it ; and
befides thefe, it has ufually a quantity of arfenic. It
has been recommended as a ftyptic, after being calci¬
ned : but as the arfenic may not be all carried-off by
that operation, its ufe as a medicine feems extremely
dangerous.
MARCGRAVE, or Margrave, a degree of honour
in Germany anfwering to our marquis.
MARCGRAVIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one petal,
and the calix cpnfilts of fix imbricated leaves ; and the
berry has one cell, containing many feeds. There is
but one fpecies, a native of America.
MARCH, in chronology, the third month of the year,
confifting of thirty-one days.
MARCHANTIA, in botany, a genus of the cryptoga-
mia algae clafs. The calix of the male is peltated, and
covered below with monopetalous corollae ; the calix
of the female is feilile, bell-fhaped, and contains ma¬
ny feeds. There are eight fpecies, four of them na¬
tives of Britain, vii. the polymorphia, or common
marchantia ; the cruciata, or crofs-headed marchantia ;
the hemifphserica, or marlh marchantia; and the conica,
or wart marchantia.
MARCHE, a territory of Lyonois, in France, ha¬
ving Berry on the north, Burbonois and Auvergne on
the eaft, Limofin on the fouth, and Poi&ou on the
weft.
MARCHPURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Auftria and duchy of Stiria : W. long. 150 50', N.
lat. 47°.
MARCIONITES, Chtiftian heretics in the lid century,
thus denominated from their leader Marcion, who
maintained, that there were two principles or gods,
a good and a bad one.
MARCOSIANS, a fedt of Chriftian heretics in the lid
century, fo called from their leader Marcus, who re-
prefented the fupreme God as confifting not of a trini-
M A R
ty, but a quaternity, viz. the ineffable, filence, the
father, and truth.
MARE, the female of the horfe kind. See Equus.
MARGARETTA, one of the largeft of the Leeward-
iflands; it is about fifty miles long, and twenty-four
broad, and fituated fixty miles north of the continent
of Paria, or New Andalufia, in South America: W.
long. 64s, and N. lat. n0 30'.
MARGARITA, the Pearl, in natural hiftory. See
Pearl.
MARGATE, a port-town of Kent, in the ifle ofTha-
net, 12 miles north of Deal.
MARIGNAN, a city and port-town of Brazil, the ca¬
pital of the captainfhip of Marignan, fituated at the
mouth of the river St Mary : W. Ion. 440, and S.
lat. 20 15'.
MARINER, the fame with failor. See Sailor.
MARINO, a city of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino, the
capital of the territory of Marino, a little ftate or
commonwealth, fituated on a mountain in the middle
of the Pope’s territories : E. long. 130 30', and N.
lat. 440.
MARJORAM, in botany. See Origanum.
MARITIME, fomething related to, or bounded by the
fea: thus, a marithfte province, or country, is one
bounded by the fea; and a maritime kingdom, or ftate,
is one that makes a confiderable figure, or is very
powerful at fea. Hence, by maritime powers, among
the European ftates, are underftood Great Britain and
Holland.
S/ MARK the evangelijl's day, a feftival of the Chri¬
ftian church, obferved April 25.
St Mark’s Gofpel, a canonical book of the New Tefta-
merit, being one of the four gofpels.
St Mark wrote his gofpel at Rome, where he ac¬
companied St Peter, in the year of Chrift 44. Ter-
tuliian and others pretend that St Mark was no more
than an amanuenfis to St Peter, who dilated this
gofpel to him ; others affirm, that he wrote it after
St Peter’s death. Nor are the learned lefs divided
as to the language this gofpel was wrote in; fome
affirming it was compofed in Greek, others in Latin.
Several of the ancient heretics received only the go¬
fpel of St Mark: others among the catholics rejeifted
the twelve laft verfes of this gofpel. The gofpel of
St Mark is properly an abridgment of that of St Mat¬
thew.
Canons of St Mark, a congregation of regular canons,,
founded at Mantua, by Albert Spiaola a priert, to¬
wards the end of the Xllth century. Spinola made a
rule for them, which was approved, corrected, and
confirmed by feveral fucceeding popes. About the .
year 14JO, they were reformed, and followed only
the rule of St Auguftine. This congregation having
flouriffied for the fpace of four hundred years, decli¬
ned by little and little, and is now become extinfh
Knights <?y S'/Mark, an order of knighthood in the
republic of Venice, under the protedHon of St Mark,
the evangelift. The arms of the order are, gules, a
lion winged, or, with this device, pax tibi marc.e
Evangelista, This order- is never conferred but on
thofe
( *6 )
MAR (2
thofe who have done fignal fervice to the commonwealth.
Mark, or Marc, alfo denotes a weight ufed in feveral
ftates of Europe, and for feveral commodities, efpe-
cialiy gold and filver. In France, the mark is divided
into 8 ounces, or 64 drachms, or 192 derniers or
penny weights, or 160 efterlines, or 300 maids, or
640 felins, or 4608 grains. In Holland the mark-
weight is alfo called troy weight, and is equal to that
of France. When gold and filver are fold by the mark,
it is divided into 25 carats.
Mark is alfo ufed among us fora money of account, and
in fome other countries for a coin.
The Englilh mark is two thirds of a pound fterling,
or 13s. 4d. and the Scotch mark is of equal value in
Scotch money of account.
MARKET, a public place in a city or town, in which
live cattle, provifions, or other goods, arefet to (ale;
and alfo a privilege, either by grant or prefcription,
by which a town is enabled to keep a market.
MARLBRO, or Marlborough, a borough-town of
Wiltihire, eighteen miks north of Salifoury.
It fends two members to parliament.
Marlbro’-fort, an Englilh faflory on the weft coaft of
the illand of Sumatra, three miles eaft of Bencoolen :
E. long. ioi°, and S. lat. 40 15'.
MARLE. See Agriculture, p. 48.
MARLOW, a borough town of Buckinghamlhire, fif¬
teen miles fouth of Ailefoury, It fends two members
to parliament.
MARMALADE, a confe&ion of plumbs, apricots,
quinces, <bc. boiled with fugar to a confiftence.
MARMOR. See Marble.
MARMORA, a little illand of Turky, fituated in the
fea of Marmora, to which it gives name, lying fixty
miles fouth weft of Conftantinople.
MARMOTTE, in zoology. See Mus.
MAROSCH, orMERiSH, a great river, which, riling
in the Carpathian mountains, runs through Tranfilva-
nia and Hungary, and falls into the river Teyfe at
- Segedin.
MARPURG, a city of Germany, forty miles north of
Francfort: E. long. 8°, 4c/, and N. lat. 50° 4c/.
MARQUE, or letters of Marque, in military affairs,
are letters of reprifal, granting the fubjetfts of one
prince or ftate liberty to make reprifals on thofe of an¬
other.
Letters of marque among us, are extraordinary
commilSons granted by authority for reparation to
merchants, taken and difpoiled by ftrangers at fea;
and reprifals is only the retaking, or taking of one
tlnng for another.
MARQUETRY, or Inlaid-work, is a curious work
compofed of feveral fine hard pieces of wood, of various
colours, faftened in thin llices on a ground, and fome-
times enriched with other matters, as filver, brafs,
tortoife-lhell, and ivory: with thefe affiftances the art
is now capable of imitating any thing ; whence it is
by fome called the art of painting in wood.
MARQUIS, a title of honour, next in dignity to that
of duke, firft given to thofe who commanded the
marches, that is, the borders and frontiers of countries.
7 ) MAR
MARK, that part of Aberdeenlhire fituated between the
rivers Dee and Don.
MARRIAGE, a contrail both civil and religious, be¬
tween a man and a woman, by which they engage to
live together in mutual love and friendlhip, for the ends-
of procreation, &c. See Law, Tit. vi.
The Romans, as well as the Greeks, difallowed of
polygamy. A Roman might not marry any woman
who was not a Roman. It was thought dilhonourable
for a woman to marry twice.
We find but few laws in the books of Mofes con¬
cerning the inftitution of marriage : he reftrained the
Ifraelites from marrying within certain degrees of con-
fanguinity; but we find, that polygamy, though not
exprelly allowed, is however tacitely implied in the
laws of Mofes : there is a particular law that obliged
a man, whofe brother died without iffue, to marry his
widow, and raife up children to his brother. The
Hebrews purchafed their wives, by paying down a
competent dowry for them ; and a man was at liberty
to marry, not only in any of the twelve tribes, but e-
ven out of them, provided it was with fuch nations as
ufed circumcifion.
The ancient Chriftian church laid feveral reftraints
upon her members in relation to marriage ; fuch was
the rule forbidding Chriftians to marry with infidels and
heathens: another reftraint related to the confanguinity
and affinity prohibited in fcripture : a third was, that
children under age ffiould not marry without the con-
fent of their parents, guardians, or next relations: and.
another was, that there ffiould be fome parity of con¬
dition between the contracting parties. They not only
condemned polygamy, but even reckoned it unlawful
to marry after a divorce. The Romiffi church requires
of the clergy perpetual abftinence from marriage ; and
has advanced this inftitution to the dignity of a facra*
ment.
MARROW, in anatomy, a foft oleaginous fubftance
contained in the cavity of the hones. See Anatomy,
p. 147.
MARRUBIUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
gymnofpermia clafs. The calix is rigid, with ten
ftreaks; and the upper lip of the corolla is bifid, linear,
and erect. There are nine fpecies, only one of them,
viz. the vulgare, or white horehound, is a native of
Britain.
MARS, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 441.
Mars, among chemifts, denotes iron, as being fuppofed
to be under the influence of that planet. See Chemis¬
try, p. 82 and 133.
MARSEILLES, a city and port of Provence, fituated
on a fine bay of the Mediterranean, twenty five miles
north-weft of Toulon: E long 50 2c/, N. lat 430 15'.
MARSHAL, in its primary fignification, means an of¬
ficer who has the command or care of horfes ; but it
is now applied to officers who have very different em¬
ployments, as earl marffial, knight marflial, ornjarffiai
of the king’s houfe,
Marshal of the king's bench, an officer who has the
cuftody of the king’s -bench-prifon in Southwark.
This officer is obliged to give his attendance, and to
take
MAR (
take into his cuftody all perfons committed by that
eourt.
Marshal of the exchequer, an officer to whom that court
commits the king’s debtors.
Marshal of the king's hall, an officer who has the care
of placing the houfthold fervants and ftrangers at table,
according to their quality.
Marshal, or Mareschal, of France, an officer of
the greated dignity in the French armies. Whentwo
or more marffials are in the army, the eldeft com¬
mands.
MARSH ALLING a coat, in heraldry, is the difpofal
of feveral coats of arms belonging to diftindl families,
in one and the fame efcutcheon or ffiieid, together with
their ornaments, parts, and appurtenances.
MARSHFIELD, a market-town of Wiltffiire, thirty-
miles north-weft of Salifbury.
MARSHMALLOW, in botany. See Althea.
MARSILEA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
clafs. The anthers are four, and placed on an obtufe-
ly conic body : the fruit is of a roundifh figure, con¬
fiding of four cells, in each of which are contained fe
veral roundifh feeds. There are two fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain
St MARTHA, a city and port-town of Terra Firma,
in South America, and the capital of the province of
St Martha : W.long. 74° 30*, N. lat li°45;'.
MARTIAL LAW, is the law of war, which entirely de¬
pends on the arbitrary power of the prince, or of thofe
to whom he has delegated it. For though the king
can make no laws in time of peace without the confent
of parliament, yet in time of war he ufes an abfolute
po - er over the army
MARTIN, in zoology. See Mustela.
Cape Martin, a promontory of Valencia, in Spain, on
the Mediterranean : it is under the meridian of London:
N. lat. 38° jo'.
MARTINGALE, in the manege, a thong of leather,
faftened to one end of the girths under the belly of a
horfe, and at the other end to the rnuls roll, to keep
him from rea ing.
MARTINICO, the chiefof the French Caribbee-iflands,
fituated in 6i° of weft long, and between 140 and 5°
N lat It is fixty miles long, but is fcarce twenty
broad in any pa t
MARTLETS, in heraldry, little birds reprefented with¬
out feet, and ufed as a difference or mark of diftindtion
for younger brothers, to put them in mind that they
are to truft to the wings of virtue and merit, in order
to raife themfelves, and not their feet, they having
little land to fet their foot on See Plate CX fig. 2.
MARTYNIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
angiolpermia clafs The calix confifts of five fegments;
the corolla is ringent; and the capfule is woody, with
a hooked beak, two valves, and three cells. There
are two fpecics, both natives of America.
MARTYR, is one who lays down his life or fuffers
death for the fake of his religion.
Jd ARTYROLOGY, is a ca'alogue or lift of martyrs,
including the hiftory of their lives and fufferings for the
lake of religion.
28 ) MAS
The martyrologtes draw their materials from the
kalendars of pa ticular churches, in whLh the feveral
feftivals dedicated to them are marked ; and which
feem to be derived from the pradltce of the ancient
Romans, who mferted the names of heroes and great
men in their fafti, or public regtfters.
The martyrolctgies are very numerous, and contain
many ridiculous and even contradictory narrativ s ;
which is eafily accounted for, if we confider how many
forged and fpurious accounts pf the lives of faints and
martyrs appeared in the firft ages of the church, which
the legendary writers afterwards adopted without exa¬
mining into the truth of them. Ho + ever, lome good
critics, of late years, have gone a great way inwards
clearing the lives of the faints and martyrs from the
monftrous heap of iidhon they laboured under.
MARVEL of Peru, in botany See Mirabilis.
MARY MAGDALEN’S day, afeftival of the Romiffi
church, obferved on the twenty-fecond of July.
MARYGOLD See Caltha.
Marygold. See Chrysanthemum.
French Marygold, in botany. See Tagetes.
MARYLAND, one of the Britifh plantations in North
America, fituated between 74° and 78° W long, and
between 38° and 40° N lat.
MASCULINE, or Masculine gender, among
grammarians, that belonging to the male. See Gram-
MASHAM, a market town of Yorkffiire, fituated twenty-
four miles north weft of the city of York.
MASK See Masque.
MASON, a perfon employed, under the direction of an
archited, in raifing of a ftone-huilding
Free and accepted Masons, a very ancient fociety or
body of men, fo called, either from fome extraordinary
knowledge of mafonry or building, which they are
fuppofed to be mafters of, or becaufe the firft founders
of the fociety were perfons of that profeflion. Thefe
are now very confiderable, both for number and cha¬
racter, being found in every country in Europe, and
confifting principally of perfons of merit and confidera-
tion. As to antiquity, they lay claim to a Handing of
fome thoufand years. What the end of their inftitutioa
is, feems ftill in fome meafure a fecret; and they are
faid to be admitted into the fraternity by being put in
poffeflion of a great number of fecret;, called the ma-
fon’s word, whi h have been religioufly kept from age
to age. being never divulged.
MASONRY, in general, a branch of architecture, con-
fifting in the art of hewing or fquaring ftones, and cut¬
ting them level or perpendicular, for the ufes of build¬
ing : but, in a more limited fenfe, mafonry is the art of
affembling and joining ftones together with mortar.
See Arch itecture.
MASS, in the church of Rome, the office or prayers
uled at the celebration of the eucharift ; or, in other
words, confecrating the bread and wine into the body
and blood of Chrift, and offering them, fotranlubftan-
tiated, as an expiatory facrifice for the quick and the
dead. As the mafs is in general believed to be a re-
preientation of the paffion of our bleffed Saviour, fo
every
MAS (
every a&ion of the pried, and every particular part of
the fervice, is fuppofed to allude to the particular cir-
curadances of his paffion and death.
The general divifion of mafles confids in high and
low. The fird is that fung by the choriders. and cele¬
brated with the affidance of a deacon and fub deacon:
low mafles are thofe in which the prayers are barely
rehearfed without Tinging.
There are a great number of different or occafional
mafles in the Romirtt church, many of which have no¬
thing peculiar but the name : fuch are the mafles of
the faints ; that of St Mary of the fnow, celebrated
on the fifth of Augud ; that of St Margaret, patronefs
of lying-in women ; that of the fead of St John the
Baptid, at which are faid three mafles ; that of the
Innocents, at which the gloria in excelfis and the
hallelujah are omitted, and it being a day of mourning
the altai is of a violet colour. As to ordinary mafles,
forne are faid for the dead, and, it is fuppofed, con¬
tribute to fetch the foul out of purgatory. At thefe
mafles the altar is put in mourning, and the only de¬
corations are a crofs in the midfl of fix yellow wax-
lights ; the drefs of the celebrant and the very mafs-
book are black : many parts of the office are omitted,
and the people are difmifled without the benediction.
If the mafs be faid for a perfon didinguiffied by his
rank or virtues, it is followed with a funeral oration :
they ereCt a chapelle ardente, that is, a reprefentation
of the deceafed, with branches and tapers of yellow
wax, either in the middle of the church, or near the
deceafed’s tomb, where the pried pronounces a folemn
abfolution of the deceafed. There are likewife private
mafles, faid for dolen or drayed goods or cattle ; for
health ; for travellers, which go under the name
of votive mafles There is dill a further didinCtion of
mafles denominated from the countries in which they
were ufed; thus the Gothic mafs, or mifla mofarabum,
is that ufed among the Goths when they were maflers
of Spain, and which is dill kept up at Toledo and
Salamanca; the Ambrofian mafs is that compofed by
Sr Ambrofe. and ufed only at Milan, of which city
he "'as biffiop ; the Gallic mafs, ufed by the ancient
Gauls ; and the Roman mafs, ufed by almod all the
churches in the Romiffi communion.
MASSA, the capital of the duchy of Mafia Carara, in
Italy, fituated between the territories of Lucca and
Genoa: E. long. io° 40', N'lat 430 55'.
MASSACHUSET-colony, the principal fub-divifion
of New-England, is bounded by New Hampffiire, on
the north ; by the Atlantic ocean, on the eafl and
fouth ; and by Connecticut and New York, on the
weft. L is about 100 miles long, and 40 broad.
MaSSALIANS, a fet of enthufiafts who Iprang up a-
bout the year 361, in the reign of the emperor Con-
dantius, who maintained that men have two fouls, a
celt dial and a diabolical, and that the latter is driven
but by prayer.
MASSETER, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.221.
MASSORA, in matters of literature, a ethical work,
containing remarks on the verfes, words, letters, and
vowel-points of the Hebrew text of the bible ; a work
more laborious than ufeful.
Vol. III. No. 70. 2
29 ) MAS
MAST, in naval architecture, a large timber in a (hip,
for fudaining the yards, fails,
In large veflels there are four mads, viz the main-
mad, fore-mad, mizen-mad, andbowfprit. See Ship¬
building.
MASTER, in general, is a title of authority ; as, the
grand mader of Malta, the mader of St Lazarus, dye.
The Romans had a great many officers thus deno¬
minated ; as, the mader of the people, or dictator ; the
mader of the cavalry, foot, cenfus, dye.
Ma s t e r of arts, is the fird degree taken up in univerfities.
Masters in chancery, in ordinary, of which there are
twelve, the mader of the rolls being chief, are ufually
chofen out of the barriders of the comhion law, and
fit in chancery, or at the rolls, as affidants to the lord
chancellor and mader of the rolls.
Master of the borfe, a great officer of the crown, who
orders all matters relating to the king’s dables, races,
breed of hories ; and commands the equerries and all
the other officers and tradefmen employed in the king’s
dables His coaches, horfes, and attendants are the
king’s, and bear the king’s arms and livery.
Master of the revels, an officer who orders all things
relating to the performance of plays, mafles, balls, dye.
at court.
Master of the rolls, a patent officer for life, who has
the cuflody of the rolls of parliament and patents which
pafs the great-feal, and of the records of chancery, as
alfo commiffions, deeds, recognizances, which, being
made of rolls of parchment, gave rife to the name.
In abfence of the chancellor, he fits as judge in the
court of chancery: at other times, he hears caufes in
the rolls chapel, and makes orders ; but all hearings
before him are appealable to the chancellor.
Master of the -wardrobe, an -officer under the lord
chamberlain, who has the care of the royal robes, as
well as the wearing apparel, collar, george, and gar¬
ter, due. He has alfo the charge of all former kings
and queens robes remaining in the Tower, all hang¬
ings, bedding, dye for the king’s houfe, the charge
and delivery of velvet and fcarlet allowed for liveries.
He has under him a clerk of the robes, wardrobe-keeper,
a yeoman, dye.
Master wort, in botany. See Imperatoria.
MASTICATION, the abtion of chewing, or of agita¬
ting the folid parts of our food between the teeth, by
means of the motion of the jaws, the tongue, and the
lips, whereby it is broken into fmall pieces, impreg¬
nated with faliva, and fo fitted for deglutition and a
more eafy digeftion.
MASTICH, in the materia medica, a folid refin, of a
pale, yellow, white colour, brought to us principally
from the ifland of Chios, in drops or tears as it natu¬
rally forms itfelf in exfudating from the tree, about
the bignefs and much in the form of a pea. It is to
be chofen clear, pellucid, and of a pale yellowiffi co¬
lour, well feented, and brittle. We meet with a kind
of caement fometimes kept in the (hops under the name
ofmaftich. It is compofed of maftich, and feveral o-
ther ingredients, and is formed into cakes for ufe.
This is intended for the fervice of e lapidaries, to
fill up cracks in (tones, and for ether fuch purpofes :
H bat
MAT
but is by no means to be ufed as maftich for any of the
medicinal purpofes.
Mallich is detergent, aftringent, and ftomachic; it
is greatly recommended in inveterate coughs and a-
gaind fpitting of blood It ftrengthens the ftomach,
affifts digelhon, and flops vomiting.
MASTIGADOUR, or slabbering-bit, in the ma¬
nege, a fnaffle of iron, all fmooth. and of a piece,
guarded with patevnoflers, and compofed of three halfs
of great rings, made into demi ovals, of unequ il big-
nefs ; the lefler being inclofed within the greater,
which ought to be about half a foot high.
MASULIPATAN, a city and port town of the hither
In ia : E. long. 8i°. and N lat. i6° 18'
M.-iTAMAN, a country in the fouth-weft of Africa,
bounded by Benguelo, on the north ; by Manomotapa,
on the eafl . by CafFraria. on the fouth ; and by the
Atlantic ocean, on the weft.
MATAPAN cape, intheMorea, thefouthmoft promon¬
tory of Europe, fituated in E. long. 220, N. lat. 36°.
MATCH, a kind of rope llightly twilled, and prepa¬
red to retain fire for the ufes of artillery, mines, fire¬
works,
It is made of hempen tow, Tpun on the wheel like
cord, but very flack ; and is compofed of three twills,
which are afterwards again covered with tow, fo that
the twifts do not appear : laftly, it is boiled in the lees
of old wines. This, when once lighted at the end,
burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going
out, till the whole be confumed : the hardell and drieft
match is generally the beft.
MATCHING in the wine trade, the preparing veflels
to preferve wines and other liquors, without their
growing four or vapid. The method of doing it, is
as follows : melt brimftone in an iron ladle, and when
thoroughly melted, dip into it flips of coarfe linen-cloth;
take thefe out, and let them cool : this the wine coop¬
ers call a match; take one of thefe matches, fet one
end of it on fire, and put it into the bung-hole of a
calk ; flop it loofely and thus fuffer the match' to
burn nearly out : then drive in the bung tight, and fet
the calk alide for an hour or two, At the end of this
time examine the calk, and you will find that the ful-
phur has communicated a violent pungent and fufFoca-
ting fcent to the caflc, with a confiderable degree of
acicity, which is the gas and acid fpirit of the fulphur.
The calk may after this be filled with a fmall wine,
which has fcarce done its fermentation ; and bunging it
down tight, it will be kept good, and w ill foon clarify :
this is a common and very ufeful method; for many poor
wines could fcarce be kept potable even a tew months
without it.
Du>a MATER. See Anatomy, p. 284.
Pia Mater. See Anatomy, p 285.
MATERAN, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name,
fituated on the fouth coaft of the ill ind of Java. This
city is faid to lie in E long, no0, S. lat y° 45 .
MATERIA subtil is, denotes a fine fubnle matter,
which the Cartelians fiTppofe to p, rvade and'penetrate
freely the pores of all bodies, to fill up all their pores
fo as not to leave the leaft vacuity or intet ftice between
them : they had recourfe to this machine to. fupport
MAT
the do&rine of an abfolute plenum, and to make it
confiftent with the phaenamenon of motion, eSrc.
Materia meoica, comprehends all the fu'ftances ei¬
ther ufrd in medicine in their natural ftate, or which
afford preparations that are fo ; thefe belo ig partly to
the animal, partly to the vegetable, and partly to the
foffil kingdom.
The preparations and virtues of all which are deli¬
vered under their refpedtive articles, but in as conAfe
and fcrupulous a manner as we polfibly could ; fince
we cannot but remark, that it i! too frequent in writers
on the materia medica, to give us rathe encomiums
than impartial accounts of the fimples they treat of.
M ATHEMATICS, origin,illy fignilied any difciplineor
learning ; but, at prefent, denotes that fcience which
teaches, or contemplates, whatever is capable of being
numbered or meafured, in fo far as computable or
meafurable ; and accordingly is fubdivided into A-
rithmetic, which has numbers for its objeA, and Ge¬
ometry, which neats of magnitude. SeeAatTHME-
tick and Geometry.
Mathematics are commonly diftinguilhed into pure
and fpeculative, which conlider quantity abftradtediy ;
and mixed, which treat of magnitude as fubfiiting in
material bodies, and confequendy are interwoven every
where with phyfical confiderations.
Mixed mathematics are very comprehenfive; fince to
them may be referred Aftronomy, Optics, Geography,
Hydroftatics, Mechanics, Fortification, Navigation,
See the articles Astronomy, Optics,
Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, that
they occafion no difputes among wrangling difputants,
as in other branches ef knowledge; and the reafon is,
becaufe the definitions of the terms are premifed, and
every body that reads a propofition has the fame idea
of every part of it. Hence it is eafy to put an end to
all mathematical controverfies, by Ihewing either that
our adverfary has not lluck to his definitions, or has
not laid down true premiffes, or elfe that he has drawn
falfe conclufions from true principles; and in cafe we
are able to do neither of thefe, we muft acknowledge
the truth of what he has proved.
It is true, that in mixed mathemati :s, where we rea¬
fon mathematically upon phyfical (ubjeds, we cannot
give fuch juft dei'mitions as the geometricians : we muft
therefore reft content with defcriptions , and they will
be of the fame ufe as definitions, provided we are con¬
fiftent with ourfelves, and always mean the fame thing
by thofe terms we have once explained.
Dr. Barrow gives a moft elegant def ription of the
excellence and ufefulnefs of mathematical kno wledge, in
his inaugural oration, upon being appointed proftfTor
of mathematics at Cambridge.
The mathematics, he oblerves, effeftually exercife,
not vainly delude, nor vexatioufly torment, ftudious
minds with obfcure fubtihies ; but plainly demonftrate
every thing within their reach, draw certain conclufi¬
ons, inftrutft by profitable rules, and unfold pleafant
queftions. Thefe difciplines likewife enure and corro¬
borate the mind to a conftant diligence in ftudy; they
wholly deliver us from a credulous fimplicity. moft
ftrongly fortify us againft the vanity of fcepticilm, ef-
fettual
( 3° )
MAT ( 31
fedtually reftrain us from a rafli prefumption, moft eafily
incline us to a due alTent, perfeflly fubjefl us to the
government of right reafon. While the mind is abftrac-
ted and elevated from fenlible matter, diftirdtly views
pure forms, conceives the beauty of ideas, and invellt
gates the harmony of proportions . the manners them-
jelves areienlibiy corredted and improved, the affedtions
compoied and redttfied, the fancy calmed and lettled,
and the underltanding railed and excited to more divine
contemplations.
MA I RASS, Cucurbit, or Bolt-head, among che-
mills. See Chemistry, p. 109.
MATRICARI », in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia luperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked;
it has, no pappus ; the cahx is hemifphencal, and im¬
bricated, with (harp lolid ma gins. There are five ipe-
cies, all of them natives of Britain, viz. The partho-
nium, or feverfew, which is reckoned good in h'ylteric
cafes; the chamomilla, or corn-feverfew, the flowers
of which are Romachic; the fuaveolens, or fweet-
fpfhted feverfew ; the inodora, or field feverfew; and
the maritima, or fea feverfew.
MATRICULA, a regillerkept of the admiffion of officers
and perfons entered into any body or iociety, whereof
a lift is made.
MATRIX, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 274.
MATRONALIA, a teftival of the ancient Roman ma-
, trons, from whom it ha ! its name. It was celebrated
on the kalends of March in honour of the god Mars:
and was to the Roman ladies what the feftival of the
Saturnalia was to their hufbands ; for at this time they
ferved their women flaves at tables, and received pre
feats from their hufbands. See Saturnalia.
MA I ROSSES, are foldiers in the tram of artillery, who
are mxt to the gunners, and affift them in loading, firing,
and fpungmg the great guns. They carry firelocks,
and march along with the Rore-waggons! both as a
guard, and to give their affiRance in cafe a waggon
fhould break down.
MATT, in a fhip; rope yard, junk, &c. beat flat and
interwoven; ufed in order to preferve the yards from
galling or rubbing in hoiRing or lowering them.
MATTER, whatever is extended and capable of making
refillance : hence, becaufe all bodies, whether fohd or
fluid, are extended, and do refiR. we conclude that
they are material, or made up oPm'atter. SccMecha-
nics.
MATTHEW, or Gofpel of St. Matthew, a cano¬
nical b..ok of the New TeRament.
St. Matthew wrote his gofpel in Judea, at the reqaefi
of thole he had converted ; and it is thought he began it
in the year 41, eight years after ChnR’s refurrcdion.
It was written, according to the teRimony of ail the
ancients, in the Hebrew or Syriac language, which was
then common in Judea; but the Greek verfion of it,
which now paffes for the original, it as old as the apo-
Rolical times.
St. Matthew tie Evavgelijlf day, a feRival of the
ChriRian church, obferved on September 21.
Si. Matthew, in geography, a fmall iiland on the
) MAY
coaft of Guinea, planted by the Portuguefe, but de-
ferted: W. long. 90, S. lat. 20 30'.
St. MATTHIAS’/a feRival of the ChriRian church,
obferved on the 2'4th of February.
MATTINS, the fiiR canonical hour, or the firfl part of
the daily fervice, in the Romifh church.
MATTURANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which pro¬
mote the fuppuration of tumours.
MAUNCH, in heraldry, the figure of an ancient coat-
fleeve, borne in many gentlemens efcutcheons.
MAUNDY Thursday, is the Thurfday in Paffion-
week, which was called Maunday or Mandate- thurfday,
from the command which our Saviour gave his apoftles
to commemorate him in the Lord’s fupper, which he
this day inRituted ; or from the new commandment
which he gave them to love one another, after he had
wafhetl their feet as a token of his love to them
St. MAURA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, fituated
between the province of Epirus, and the ifland of ( epha-
lonia ; fubjedt to Venice : E.long. 210. N lat. gS^c/.-
MAURICE, or Moritius, an ifland in the Indian ocean,
fubjedt to the Dutch : E.long. 550, S. lat. 20°.
MAURIENfte, St John, the capital of the territory
of Maurienne, in Savoy : E. long. 6° 10', N lat 450
18'
MAURI TANIA, the ancient name of the coafl of Bar¬
bary, from the city of Tangier to that of Algiers : the
well part of it, in which Tangier Rands, was called
Mauritania Tingitana ; and that farther eafl, Maurita¬
nia Caefarienfis.
MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent tomb, or funeral monu¬
ment. 1 he word is derived from Maufolus, king,of
Caria, to whom Artemifi , his widow, eredfed a mofl:
Rateiy monument, efteemed one of the wonders of tha
world, and called it, from his name Maufoleum.
St. MAWES, a port and borough town of Cornwall:
fituated twenty miles north of the Lizard. It fends
tw'o members to parliament.
MAXILLA, the jaws, or thofe parts of an animal in
v'hich; ,he teeth are fet.
MAXIM, an eflablifhedpropofition or principle ; in which
fenfe it denotes much thd fame with axiom.
MAXIMUM, in mathematics denotes the greatefl quan¬
tity attainable in any given cafe.
If a quantity conceived ta be generated by motion,
increafes, or decreafes, till it arrives at a certain mag¬
nitude or pofition. and then on the contrary grows
lefler or greater, and it-be required to determine the
faid magnitude or pofition, the queRion is called a pro¬
blem de maximis et minimis.
MAY, the fifth month of the year, confifling of thirty-
one days.
May, is-alfo the name of a little ifland, in the mouth of
the frith of Forth, in Scotland.
MAYENNE, a city of France, in the province of Or-
leanois : W. long. 45', and N. lat 48° 20'.
MAYO* one of the Cape Verde iflands-: W. Jen? o?0
N. lat. .5°. 3 ’
Mayo, is alfo a county ofTreland, in the province of
Connaught, having Slego on the north, and Rofcom-
raon on the fouth.
MAY-OJL,
M E A ( 3
MAYORt the chief magiftrate of a city or town, chofen
annually out of the aldermen.
MAZ AHA, the capital of the province of the fame name
in Sicily, fituated on the fouth-vvelt coaft : E. long.
12° 30', N. lat. 370 42'.
MEAD, an agreeable liquor, made of honey and water.
There are many receipts for making mead, of which
the following is one of the bell. Take four gallons of
water, and as much honey as will make it bear an egg;
add to this, the rind of three lemons; boil it, and fcum
it well as it rifes. Then take it off the fire, and add
the three lemons cut in pieces; pour it into a clean tub
or open vefl’el, and let it work for three days: then
fcum it well, and pour off the clear part into a caik, and
let it ftand open till it ceafes to make a hilling noife;
then ftop it up clofe, and in three months time it will
be fine and fit for bottling.
If you would give it a finer flavour, take cloves, mace,
and nutmeg, of each four drams; beat them fmall, tie
the powder in a piece of cloth, and put it into the
calk.
MEADOW, in its general fignification, means pafture
or grafs-land, annually mown for hay; but it is more
particularly applied to lands that are fo low as to be
too moift for cattle to graze upon them ia winter
without fpoiling the fward.
MEAN, in general, denotes the middle between two ex¬
tremes : thus we fay, mean diftance, mean proportion,
<bc.
MEASLES, in medicine, a cutaneous difeafe, attended
with a fever, in which there is an appearance of erup¬
tions that do not tend to a fuppuration. See Medi¬
cine.
MEASURE, in geometry, denotes any quantity aflfumed
as one, or unity, to which the ratio of other homoge¬
neous or fimilar quantities is exprefled.
) M E C
Measure, in a legal and commercial fenfe, denotes a
certain quantity or proportion of anything bought, fold,
valued, or the like. Meafures are then various, ac¬
cording to the various kinds anddimenfions of the things
meafured. Hence arife lineal or longitudinal meafures,
for lines or lengths ; fquare meafures, for areas or fu-
perficies; and folid or cubic meafures, for bodies and
their capacities. All which again are very different in
different countries, and in different ages, and even many
of them for different commodities. Whence arife other
divilions of ancient and modern meafures, domefHc and
foreign ones, dry meafures, liquid meafures, eirc. For
the different kinds of meafures, fee Arithmetic,
Geometry, and the particular names of meafures,
as they occur in the alphabetical order.
Measure is alfo ufed to fignify the cadence and time
obferved in poetry, dancing, and mufic, to render them
regular and agreeable.
Measure, in mufic, the intervalor fpace of time which
the perfon who beats time takes between the riling and
falling of his hand, in order to conduit the movement
fometimes quicker and fometinies flower, according to
the mufic or fubjeitthat is to be fung or played.
MEAT. See Food, Diet, Drink, &c.
MEATH, the name of two counties in Ireland, in the
province ofLeinfter, diftinguilhed by the epithets Eaft
and Weft.
MEATUS AUDITORIUS, in anatomy. See Ana¬
tomy, p. 296.
MEAUX, a city in France, twenty-four miles north-eaft
of Paris.
MECCA, the capital of Arabia, and place of Moham¬
med’s nativity: E. long 430 30,J N. lat. 210 20.
It is a large well-built city, in the middle'of which
ftands the caaba, or temple.
MECHANICS.
THIS term, in the common acceptation, implies no
more than the nature of what is called the mecha¬
nical powers, together with the combination of thefe pow¬
ers in the conftruSion of machines. But as the general
properties of matter and central forces are neceffary in or¬
der to a thorough knowledge of mechanics, we have join¬
ed all thefe fubjedts together under the general name of
Mechanics.
^Matter, and its Properties.
By the word matter is here meant every thing that has
length, breadth, and thicknefs, and refifts the touch.
The inherent properties of matter are folidity, inadtivi-
ty, mobility, and divifibility.
The folidity of matter atifes from its having length,
breadth, thicknefs ; and hence it is that all bodies are
comprehended under fome ftiape or other, and that every
particular body hinders all others from occupying the fame
pait of fpace which it poflefieth. Thus, if a piece of
wood or metal be fqueezed ever fo hard between tw»
plates, they cannot be brought into contadl. And even
water or air has this property; for if a fmall quantity of
it be fixed between any other bodies, they cannot be brought
to touch one another.
A fecond property of matter is inactivity, or pajfive-
neft; by which it always endeavours to continue in the
ftate that it is in, whether of reft or motion. And
therefore, if one body contains twice or thrice as much
matter as another body does, it will have twice or thrice
as much inadtivity; that is, it will require twice or thrice
as much force to give it an equal degree of motion, or to
ftop it after it hath been put into fuch a motion.
That matter can never put itfelfintoa motion is allowed
by all men. For a ftone, lying on the plain furface of
the earth, never removes itfelf from that place, nor does
any one imagine it ever can. But moft people are apt to
believe, that all matter hac a propenfity to fall from a ftate
of motion into a ftate of reil; becaufe they fee, that if a
ftone
M E C H
ftoae or a cannon-ball be put into ever fo violent a motion,
it foon (tops; not confidering that this floppage is caufed,
i. By the gravity or weight of the body, which finks it to
the ground in fpite of the impulfe; and, 2. By the re*
fiftance of the air through which it moves, and by which
its velocity is retarded every moment till it falls.
A bowl moves but a fhort way upon a bowling-green;
becaufe the roughnefs and unevennefs of the grafly furface
loon creates fridion enough to (top it. But if the green
were perfedly level, and fmooth, and the bowl were per-
fedly hard, round, and fmooth, it would go a great way
further; as it would have nothing but the air to refill it:
if then the air we e taken away, the bowl would go on
without any fridion, and confequently without any di¬
minution of the velocity it had at fetting out: and there¬
fore, if the green were extended quite around the earth,
the bowl would go on round and round the earth, for e-
ver.
If the bowl were carried feveral miles above the earth,
and there projeded in a horizontal diredion, with fuch a
velocity as would make it move more than afemidiameter
of the earth, in the time it would take to fall to the earth
by gravity: in that cafe, and if there were no refilling
medium in the W'ay, the bowl would not fall to the earth
at all; but would continue to circulate round it, keeping
always in the fame trad, and returning to the fame point
from which it was projeded, with the fame velocity as at
firlt. In this manner the moon moves round the earth,
although Ihe be as unadiveand dead as any Hone upon it.
The third property of matter is mobility ; for we find
that all matter is capable of being moved, if a fufficient
degree of force be applied to overcome its inadivity or
refillance.
The fourth property of matter is divifililily, of which
there can be no end. For lince matters can never be
annihilated by cutting or breaking, we can never imagine
it to be cut into fuch fmall particles, but that if one of
them be laid on a table, the uppermoft fide of it will be
further from the table than the undermoll fide.
Plate CV. fig. 1. That matter is infinitely divifible in
a mathematical fenfe, is eafy to be demonllrated. For,
let AB be the length of a particle to be divided; and
let it be touched at oppofite ends by the parallel lines
CD and EF, which fuppofe to be infinitely extended be¬
yond D and F. Set off the equal divifions BG, GH,
HI <bc. on the line EF, towards the right hand from
B ; and take a point, as at R, any where towards the
left hand from A, in the line CD : Then, from this point
draw the right lines RG, RH RI, fyc. each of which
will cut off a part from the particle AB. But after any
finite number of fuch lines are drawn, there will (fill re¬
main a part, as AP, at the top of the particle, which
can never be cut off: becaufe the lines DR and EF being
parallel, no line can ever be drawn from the point R to
any point of the line EF that will coincide with the line
RD. Therefore the particle AB contains more than any
finite number of parts.
A fifth property of matter is attraftion, which feems
rather to be infufed than inherent. Of this there are
four kinds, viz. cohrfion, gravitation, magnetifm, and
electricity.
Vox,, IL. N° 70, I 2
A N I C S. 33
The attraction of cohefon is that by which the fmall
parts of matter are made to Hick and cohere together.
Of this we have feveral inftances, fome oi which follow.
1. If a fmall glafs tube, open at both ends, be dipt
in water, the water will rife up in the tube to a confider-
able height above its level in the bafon : which mud be
owing to the attradlion of a ring of particles of the glafs
all around in the tu’ e, immediately above thofe to which
the water at any inftant rifes. And when it has rifen fo
high, that the weight of the column balances the attrac¬
tion of the tube, it rifes no higher. This can be no
ways owing to the preffure of the air upon the water in
the bafon ; for, as the tube !S open at top, it is full of
air above the water, which will prefs as much upon the
water in the tube as the neighbouring air does upon any
column of an equal diameter in the bafon. Befides, if
the fame experiment be made in an exhauded receiver of
the air-pump, there will be found no difference.
2. Apiece of loaf-fugar will draw up a fluid, and a
fpunge will fuck in water; and on the fame principle fap
afeends in trees.
3. If two drops of quickfilver be placed near each
other, they will run together, and become one large drop.
4. If two pie es of lead be feraped clean, and prefled
together with a twift, they will attract each other fo
ftrongly, as to require a force much greater than their own
weight to feparate them. And this cannot be owing to
the preffure of the air, for the fame thing will hold in an
exhaufled receiver.
5. If two polilhed plates of marble or brafs be put to¬
gether, with a litle oil between them to fill up the pores
in their furtaces, and prevent the lodgement of any air;
they will cohere fo flrongly, even if fufpended in an ex-
haulted receiver, that the weight of the lower plate will
not be able to feparate it from the upper one. Inputting
thefe plates together, the one fhould be rubbed upon the
other, as a joiner does two pieces of wood when he glues
them.
6. If two pieces of cork, equal in weight, be put near
each othtr in a bafon of water, they will move equally
fall toward each other, with an accelerated motion, until
they meet: and then, if either of them be moved, it will
draw the other after it. If two corks of unequal weights
be placed near each other, they will approach with ac¬
celerated velocities inverfely proportionate to their weights:
that is, the lighter cork will move as much farter than
the heavier, as the heavier exceeds the lighter in weight.
This fhews that the attraction of each cork is in direCl
proportion to its weight or quantity of matter.
This kind of attraction reaches but to a very fmall di-
ftance; for, if two drops of quickfilver be rolled in duft,
they will not run together, becaufe the particles of duft
keeps them out of the fphere of each other’s attraction.
Where the fphere of attraction ends, a repaljive
force begins; thus, water repels moft bodies till they
are wet; and hence it is, that a fmall needle, if dry,
fwims upon water; and flies walk, upon it without wetting
their feet.
The repelling force of the particles of a fluid is but
fmall; and therefore, if a fluid be divided, it eafily unites
again. But if glafs, or any other hard fubftance, be
broke
34
M E
N I
broke into fmall parts, they cannot be made to ftick to- ments on pendulums ; for if they are of equal lengths,
gether again without being firft.wetted: the repulfion being whatever their weights be, they vibrate in equal times.
    - J-—•- -r Now it is plain, that if one be double or triple the weight
of another, it mull require a double or triple power of
too great to admit of a re union.
The repelling force between water and oil is fo great,
that we find it almolt impoffible to mix them fo as not gravity to mike it move with the fame celerity; juft as
to feparate again. If a ball of light wood be dipt in oil, it would require a double ortriple force to projedt abullet
and then put into water, the water will recede fo as to of twenty or thinty pound weight with the fame degree of
fwiftnefs that a bullet of ten pounds would require.
Hence, it is evident, that the power or force of gravity is
always proportional to the quantity of matter in bodies,
whatever their bulks or figures are.
Gravity alfo, like all other virtues or emanations which
form a channel of fome depth all around the ball.
The repulfive force of the particles of air is fo great,
that they can never be brought fo near together by con-
denfation as to make them ftick or cohere. Hence it is,
that when the weight of the incumbent atmofphere is,ta^
ken off from any fmall quantity of air, that quantity will proceed or iffue from a centre, decreafes as the diftance
diffufe itfelf fo as to occupy (in comparifon) an infinitely multiplied by itfelf increafes : that is, a body at twice the
greater portion of fpace than it did before.
Attrattion of gravitation is that power by which dif-
diftance of another attrafts with only a fourth part of the
force ; at thrice the diftance, with a ninth part ; at four
tant bodies tend towards one another. Of this we have times the diftance, with a lixteenth part; and foon. This
daily inftances in the falling of bodies to the earth. By
this power in the earth it is, that bodies, on whatever fide,
fall in lines perpendicular to its futface ; and confequent-
ly, on oppofite fides, they fall in oppolite diredlions ; all
towards the centre, where the force of gravity is as it
were accumulated; and by this power it is. that bodies
on the earth’s furface are kept to it on all fides, fo that
they cannot fall from it. And as it a<fts upon all bodies
in proportion to their refpeclive quantities of matter,
without any regard to their bulks or fi ures, it according¬
ly conftitutes their weight. Hence,
If two bodies which contain equal quantities of matter,
were placed at ever fo great a diftance from one another,
and then left at liberty in free fpace ; if there were no
is confirmed by comparing the diftance which the moon
falls ina minute from a right line touching her orbit, with
the diftance through which heavy bodies near the earth
fall in that time ; and alfo by comparing the forces
which retain Jupiter’s moons in their orbits, with their
refpedive diftances from Jupiter, Thefe forces will be
explained afterwards.
The velocity which bodies near the earth acquire
in defcending freely by the force of gravity, is pro¬
portional to the times of their defcent. For, as the
power of gravity does not confift in a fingle impulfe,
but is always operating in a conftant and uniform man¬
ner, it muft produce equal effe<51s in equal times; and
coafequently in a double or triple time, a double or
other bodies in the univerfe to affeft them, they would triple effeifl ; and fo, by acting uniformly on the body,
fall equally fwift towards one another by the power of muft accelerate its motion proportionably to the time of its
gravity, with velocities accelerated as they approached defcent.
each other; and would meet in a point which was half To be a little more particular on this fubjedl, let us
■way between them at firft. Or, if two bodies containing fuppofe that a body begins to move with a celerity con-
unequal quantities of matter, were placed at any diltance, ftantly and gradually increafing, in fuch a manner, as
and left in the fame manner at liberty, they would fall would carry it through a mile in a minute ; at the end of
towards one another with velocities which would be in an this fpace it will have acquired fuch a degree of celerity,
inverfe proportion to their refpe&ive quantities of mat as is iufficient to carry it two miles the next minute, tho’
r; and moving fafter and fafter in their mutual ap- it Ihould then receive no new impulfe from the caufe by
proach, would at laft meet in a point as much nearer to
the place from which the heavier body began to fall, than
to the place from which the lighter body began to fall, as
the quantity of matter in the former exceeded that in the
latter.
All bodies that we know of hare gravity or weight.
For, that there is no fuch thing as politive levity, even eight miles in two minutes, even though the accelerating
in fmoke, vapours, and fumes, is demonftrable by expe¬
riments on the air-pump: which Ihews, that although the
which its motion had been accelerated: but if the fame
accelerating caufe continues, it will carry the body a mile
farther; on which account, it will have run through four
miles at the end of two minutes; and then it will have
acquired fuch a degree of celerity, as is fufficient to car¬
ry it through a double fpace in as much more time, or
gh the accelerating
force Ihould a<ft upon it no more. But this force ftfll
continuing to operate in an uniform manner, will again.
fmoke of a candle afcends to the top of a tall receiver, when in an equal time, produce an equal effedl; and fo, by
full of air; yet upon the air’s being exhaufted out of the re- carrying it a mile further, caufe it to move through five
ceiver, the fmoke falls down to the bottom of it. So, if a miles the third minute; for, the celerity already ac-
piece of wood beimmerfed in a jar of water, the wood will quired, and the celerity ftill acquiring, will each have
life to the top of the water, becaufe it has a lefs degree its complete effeft. Hence we learn, that if the body,
light than its bulk of water has ; but if the jar be fliould move one mile the firft minute, it would move
of
emptied of water, the wood falls to the bottom.
As every particle of matter has its proper gravity, the
effeift of the whole muft be in proportion to the number of
the attra&irjg particles; that is, as the quantity of mat¬
ter in the whole body. This is dtmonftrabie by expert-
three the fecond, five the third, feven the fourth, nine
the fifth, and fo on in proportion.
And thus it appears, that the fpaces defcribed in fuc-
ceflive equal parts of time, by an uniformly accelerated
motion, are always as the odd numbers i, 3, 5, 7, 9,
(5C'
M E C H i
and conrequently, the whole fpaces areas the fquares ■
of the times, or of the lafl acquired velocities. For,
the continued addition of the odd numbers yields the
fquares of all numbers from unity upwards. Thus, r,
is the firft odd number, and the fquare of i is i ; 3 is
the fecond odd number, and this added to 1 makes 4, the
fquare of 2 ; 5 is the third odd number, T*hich added to
4 makes 9, the fquare of 3 ; and fo on for ever. Since,
therefore, the times and velocities proceed evenly and
condantly as 1, 2, 3, 4, tire, but the fpaces deferibed
in each equal time are as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. it is evident
that the fpace deferibed.
In 1 minute will be - - 1 fquare of 1
In 2 minutes - - 1+3=2 4 = fquare of 2
In 3 minutes - 1+3+5= 9 = fquare of 3
In 4 minutes 1+3+5+7=16 = fquare of 4 &c.
As heavy bodies are uniformly accelerated by the power
of gravity in their defeent, it is plain that they mull
be uniformly retarded by the fame power in their af-
cent. Therefore, the velocity which a body acquires by
falling, is fufficient to carry it up again to the fame
height from whence it fell; allowance being made for
the refinance of the air, or other medium in which the
body is moved. Tims, the body D (fig. 2.) in rolling
down the inclined plane AB, will acquire fuch a velocity
by the time it arrives at B, as will carry it up to the in¬
clined plane BC, almoft to C ; and would carry it quite
up to C, if the body and plane were perfedtly fmooth,
and the air gave no refiftance.—So, if a pendulum were put
into motion in a fpace quite void of air and all other re¬
finance, and had no fridlipn on the point of fufpenfion, it
would move for ever ; for the velocity it had acquired in
falling through the defeending part of the arc, would be
fttU fufficient to carry it equally high in theafeending part
thereof.
The centre of gravity is that point of a body in which
the whole force cf its gravity or weight is united. There¬
fore, whatever fupports that point bearsthe weight of the
whole body; and whilft it is fupported, the body cannot
fall, becaufe all its parts are in a perfect equilibrium a-
boutthat point.
An imaginary line drawn from the centre of gravity of
any body towards the centre of the earth, is called the line
of direttion. In this line all heavy bodies defeend, if not
obftrudfed.
Since the whole weight of a body is united in its centre
of gravity, as that centre afeends or defeends we mud
look upon the whole body to do fo too. But as it is
contrary to the nature of heavy bodies taafeendof their
own accord, or not to defeend when they are permitted;
we maybe fure that, unlefs the centre of gravity be fup¬
ported, the whole body will tumble or fall. Hence it is,
that bodies Hand upon their bafes when the line of direc¬
tion falls within the bafe ; for in this cafe the body can¬
not be made to fall without firft railing the centre of gra¬
vity higher than it was before. Thus, the inclining body
ABCD, (fig 3.) whofe centre of gravity is E, ftands firm¬
ly on its bale CDIK, becaufe the line of diredtion EF
falls within the bafe. But if a weight, as ABGH, be laid
upon the top of the body, the centre of gravity of the
whole body and weight together is railed up to I; and
v n i c a. 35
and then, as the line of direction ID falls without the
bafe at D* the centre of gravity I is not fupported; and
the whole body and weight tumble down together.
The broader the bafe is, and the ne .rer the line of
direction is to the middle or centre of it, the more firmly
does the body (land. On the contrary, the 'narrower the
bafe, and the nearer the line of diredtion is to the fide of
it, the more eafily may the body be overthrown : a lefs
change of poiition being fufficient to remove the line of
diredion out of the bafe in the latter cafe than in the
former. And hence it is, that a fphere is fo eafily rolled
upon a horizontal plane ; and that it is fo difficult, if not
impoffible, to make things which are fharp pointed to
Hand upright on the point.—From what hath been faid,
it plainly appears, that if the plane be inclined on which,
the heavy body is placed, the body will Aide down upon
the plane whilft the line of diredion falls within the bafe ;
but it will tumble or roll down when that line falls with¬
out the bafe. Thus, the body A (fig. 4.) will only Aide
down the inclined plane CD, whilft the body B rolls
down upon it.
When the line of diredion falls within the bafe of our
feet, we ftand ; andmoft firmly, when it is in the middle:
but when it is out of that bafe, we immediately fall.
And it is not only pleafing, but even furprifing, to re¬
fled upon the various and unthought of methods and po-
ftures which vve ufe, to retain this pofition, or to recover
it when it is loft. For this purpofe, we bend our body
forward when we rife from a chair, or when we go up
flairs ; and for this purpofe a man leans forward when he
carries a burden on his back, and backward when he car¬
ries it on his bread, and to the right or left fide as he
carries it on the oppofite fide.
The quantity of matter in all bodies is in exadr
proportion to their weights, bulk for bulk. Therefore,,
heavy bodies are as much more denfe or compad than light
bodies of the fame bulk, as they exceed them in weight.
All bodies are full of pores, or fpaces void of matter:
and in gold, which is the heavieft of all known bodies,
there is perhaps a greater quantity of fpace than of mat¬
ter. For the particles of beat and magnetifm find an e.ify
paflage through the pores of gold ; and even water itfelf
has been forced through them. Befides, if we confider
how eaffly the rays oflight pafs through fo folid a body as
glafs, in all manner of diredions, we lhall find reafon to
believe that bodies are exceedingly porous.
All bodies are fome way or other affeded by heat;
and all metallic bodies are expanded in length, breadth,
and thicknefs thereby —The proportion of the expan-
fion of feveral metals, according to the beft experiments,
is nearly thus. Iron and glafs as 3, fteel 4, copper 4 and
one eighth, brafs 5, tin 6, lead 6 and one eighth. An
iron rod 3 feet long is about one 70th part of an inch longer
in fummer than in winter.
The expanfion of metals by heat, is demonftrated by
the following machine, called a pyrometer AA (fig. 5.)
is a flat piece of mahogony, in which are fixed four brafs
fluds B,C,D,L ; and two pins, one at F. and the other
at H. On the pin F turns the crooked index El, and
upon the pin H the ftraight index GK; againft which a
piece or watch-fpring R beats gently, and fo prefles it
towards
M E C H
towards the beginning, of the fcale MN, over which the
point of that index moves. This fcaie is divided into
inches and tenth parts of an inch : the firft inch is mark¬
ed 1000, the fecond 2000, and fo on. A bar of metal
O is laid into notches in the top of the ftuds C and D ;
one end of the bar bearing again!! the. adjufting fcrew P,
and the other end again!! the crooked index El, at a
20th part of its length from its centre of motion F.—
Now it is plain, that however much the bar O lengthens,
it will move that part of the index El again!! which it
bears juf! as far : but the crooked end of the fame index,
near H, being 20 times as far from the centre of motion
F as the point is again!! which the bar bears, it will move
20 times as far as the bar lengthens. And as .this crook¬
ed end bears again!! the index GK at only a 20th part of
its whole length GS from its centre of motion H, the
point S will move through 20 times the fpace that the
point of bearing near H does. Hence, as 20 multiplied
by 20 produces 400, it is evident, that if the bar lengthens
but a 400th part of an inch, the point S will move a
whole inch on the fcale ; and as every inch is divided
into 10 equal parts, if the bar lengthens but the 10th
part of the 400th part of an inch, which is only the
4000th part of an inch, the point S will move the tenth
part of an inch, which is very perceptible.
To find how much a bar lengthens by heat, fir!! lay
rt cold into the notches of the ftuds, and turn the adju!!-
ing fcrew P until the fpring R brings the point S of the
index GK to the beginning of the divifions of the fcale at
M: then, without altering the fcrew any farther, take off
the bar, and rub it with a dry woollen cloth till it feels
warm : and then, laying it on where it was, obferve how
far it pufhes the point S upon the fcale by means of the
crooked index El; and the point S will fhew exactly
how much the bar has lengthened by the heat of rubbing.
As the bar cools, the fpring R bearing again!! the index
KG, will caufe its point S to move gradually back to¬
wards M in the fcale : and when the bar is quite cold,
the index will reft at M, where it was before the bar was
made warm by rubbing. The indexes have fmall rollers
under them at I and K ; which, by turning round on the
fmooth wood as the indexes move, make their motions
the eafier, by taking off a great part of the fridtion, which
would otherwife be on the pins F and H, and of the points
of the indexes themlelves on the wood.
Befides the univerfal properties above mentioned, there
are bodies which have properties peculiar to themfelves :
fuch as the loadftone, in which the moft remarkable are
thefe, 1. It attracts iron and fteeJ or !y. 2. It conftantly
turns one of its fides to the north and another to the fouth,
when fufpended by a thread that does not twift. 3. It
communicates all its properties to a piece of fteel when
nibbed upon it, without lofing any itfelf.
According to Dr Helftiam’s experiments, the attradh'on
of the loadftone decreafes as the fquare of the diftance
increafes. Thus, if a loadftone be fufpended at one end
of a balance, and counterpoifed by weights at the other
end, and a flat piece of iron be placed beneath it, at the
diftance of four tenths of an in.h, the ftone will immedi-
stely defcend and adhere to the iron. But if the ftone
be again removed to the fame diftance, and as many grains
A N I G S.
be pm into the fcale at the other end as will exadlly
counterbalance the attradlion, then, if the iron be brought
twice as near the ftone as before, that is, only two tenth-
parts of an inch from it, there mull be four times as
many grains put into the fcale as before, in order to be
a juft counterbalance to the attractive force, or to hinder
the ftone from defcending and adhering to the iron. So
if four grains will do in the former cafe, there mull be
fixteen in the latter. But from forne later experiments,
made with the greateft accuracy, it is found that the force
of magnetifm decreafes in a ratio between the reciprocal
of the fquare and the reciprocal of the cube of the dif- -
tance ; approaching to the one or the other, as the mag¬
nitudes of the attradling bodies are varied
Several bodies, particularly amber, glafs, jet, feafng-
wax, agate, and almoft all precious Hones, have a pecu¬
liar property of attracting and repelling light bodies when
heated by rubbing. This is called eleflrical attrattion ;
for the properties of which, fee Electricity.
Of Central Forces.
We have already n^ntioned it as a neceflary confe-
quence arifing from the deadnefs or inactivity of matter,
that all bodies endeavour to continue in the ftate they are
in, whether of reft or motion. If the body A (fig. 6.)
were placed in any part of free fpace, where nothing ei¬
ther draws or impels it any way, it would for ever remain
in that part of fpace, becaufe it could have no tendency
of itfelf to remove any way from thence. If it receives
a fingle impulfe any way, as fuppofe from A towards B,
it will go on in that direction ; for, of itfelf it could ne¬
ver Iwerve from a right line, nor ftop its courfe.—When
it has gone through the fpace AB, and met with no re-
fiftance, its velocity will be the fame at B as it was at A;
and this velocity, in as much more time, will carry it
through as much more fpace, from B to C ; and fo on
for ever. Therefore, when we fee a body in motion ;
we conclude that feme other fubftance mull have given
it that motion ; and when we fee a body fall from mo¬
tion to reft, we conclude that fome other body or caufe
ftopt it.
As all motion is naturally reflilineal, it appears, that
a bullet projected by the hand, or ftiot from a cannon,
would for ever continue to move in the fame direction it
received at firft, if no other power diverted its courfe.
Therefore, when we fee a body move in a curve of any
kind whatever, we conclude it mu!! be aCted upon by two
powers at leaft ; one putting ft in motion, and another
drawing it oflF from the rectilineal ecurfe it would other-
wife' have continued to move in : and whenever that
power, which bent the motion of the body from a ftraight
line into a curve, ceafes to adt, the body will again move
on in a ftraight line, touching that point of the curve in
which it was when the aCtion of that power ceafed. For
example, a pebble moved round in a fling ever fo long a
time, will fly off the moment it is fet at liberty by flip¬
ping one end of the fling cord ; and will go on in a iine
touching the circle it deferibed before ; which line would
actually be a ftraight one, if the earthjs attraCiion did not
affeCt the pebble, and bring it down to the ground.
This fliews, that the natural tendency of the pebble, when
p ut
M E C H
put into motion, is to continue moving in a flraight line,
although by the force that moves the iling it be made to
revolve in a circle.
The change of motion produced is in proportion to the
force impreffed : for the effe&s of natural caufes are al*
ways proportionate to the force or powef of thofe caufes.
' By thefe laws it is eafy to prove that a body will de-
fcribe the diagonal of a fquare or parallelogram, by two
forces conjoined, in the fame time that it would defcribe
either of the Tides by one force fingly. Thus, fuppofe
the body A (fig. 7.) to reprefent a (hip at fea ; and that
it is drove by the wind, in the right line AB, with fuch
a force as would carry it uniformly from A to B in a
minute : then, fuppofe a flream or current of water run¬
ning in the direction AD, with fuch a force as would
carry the (hip through an equal fpace from A to D in a
minute. By thefe two forces, afting together at right
angles to each other, the fhip will defcribe the line AEC
in a minute : which line (becaufe the forces are equal
and perpendicular to each pther,) willl be the diagonal
of an exaft fquare. To confirm this law by an expe¬
riment, let there be a wooden fquare ABCD (fig. 8.)
fo contrived, as to have the part BEFC made to draw
out or puih into the fquare at pleafure. To this part let
the pulley H be joined, fo as to turn freely on an axis,
which will be at H when the piece is pulhed in, and at/5
when it is drawn out. To this part let the ends of a
ftraight wire k be fixed, fo as to move along with it, un¬
der the pulley : and let the ball G be made to Aide eafily
on the wire. A thread m is fixed to this ball, and goes
over the pulley to I; by this thread the ball may be
drawn up op the wire, parallel to the fide AD, when the
part BEFG is pulhed as far as it will go into the fquare.
But, if this part be drawn out, it will carry the ball a-
long with it, parallel to the bottom of the fquare DC.
By this means, the ball G may either be drawn pependi-
cularly upward by pulling the thread »/, or moved hori-
fontally along by pulling out the part BEFC, in equal
times, and through equal fpaces; -each power afling
equably and leparately upon it. But if, when the ball
is at G, the upper end of the thread be tied to the pin I,
in the corner A of the fixed fquare, and the moveable
part BEFG be drawn out, the ball will then be afled upon
by both the powers together: for it will be drawn up by
the thread towards the top of the fquare, and at the fame,
time carried with its wire i towards the right hand BC,
moving all the while in the diagonal line L; and will be
found at g when the Aiding part is dfawn out as far as it
was before, whieh then will have caufed the thread to draw
up the ball to the top of the'inAde of the fquare, juft as
high as it was before, when drawn up fingly by the
th read without moving the Aiding part.
If the afting forces are equal, but at oblique angles to
each other, fo will the fides of the parallelogram be: and
the diagonal run through by the moving body will be
longer or Aiorter, according as the obliquity is greater or
fmaller. Thus, if two equal forces ad conjointly upon
Vol. III. N°. 70. 2
the body A, (fig. 9 ) one having a tendency to move it
thiough the fpace AB in the fame time that the other has
a tendency to move it through an equal fpate AD ; it will
defcribe the diagonal AGC in the fame t me that either
of the fingle forces would have caufed it to defcribe either
of the fides. If one of the forces be greater than the
other, then one fide of the parallelogram will be fo
much longer than the other. For if one force fingly
would carry the body through the fpace AE, in the fame
time that the other would have carried the fpace AD, the
joint adion of both will carry it in the fame time through
the fpace AHF, which is the diagonal of the oblique pa¬
rallelogram ADEF.
If both forces ad upon the body in fiich a manner, as
to move it uniformly, the diagonal defcribed will be a
Araight line ; but if one of the forces ads in fuch a
manner as to make the body move falter and fafter as it
goes forward, then the line defcribed will he a curve.
And this is the cafe of all bodies which are projeded in
redilineal diredions, and at the fame time aded upon by
the power of gravity, which has a conAant tendency to
accelerate their motions in the diredion wherein it ads.
Laws of the Planetary motions.
From the uniform projedile motion of bodies in Araight
lines, and the univerfal power of gravity or attradion, a-
rifes the curvilineal motion of all the heavenly bodies. If
the body A (fig. 10.) be projeded along the Araight line
AFH in open Ipace, where it meets with no refiAance,
and is not drawn afide by any power, it will go on for
ever with the fame velocity, and in the fame diredion.
But if, at the fame moment the projedile force is given it
at A, the body S begins to attrad it with a force duly
adjuAed*, and perpendicular to its motion at A, it will
then be drawn from the Araight line AFH, and forced to
revolve about S in the circle ATW; in the fame manner,
and by the fame law, that a pebble is moved round in a
Aing. And if, when the body is in any part of its orbit
(as fuppofe at K) a fmaller body as L, within the fphere
of attradion of the body K, be projeded in the right line
LM, with a force duly adjuAed, and perpendicular to the
line of attradion LK; then, the fmall body L will revolve
about the large body K in the orbit NO, and accompany
it in its whole courfe round the yet larger body S. But
then, thebody K will no longer move in the circle ATW;
for that circle will now be defcribed by the common cen¬
tre of gravity between K and L. Nay, even the great
body S will not keep in the centre; for it will be the
common centre of gravity between all the three bodies S, K,
and L, that will remain immoveable there. So, if we
fuppofe S and K conneded by a wire P that has no weight,
and K and L conneded by a wire q that has no weight,
the common centre of gravity of all thefe three bodies will
be a point in the wire P near S; which point being fupport-
ed, the bodies will be all in equilibria** they move round
it. Though indeed, Aridly fpeaking, the common cen¬
tre of gravity of all the three bodies will not be in the wire
K P
* To make the projedile force a juft balance to the gravitating power, fo as to keep the planet moving in a circle, it
muft give fuch a velocity as t he planet would acquire by gravity when it had fallen through half the femidiameter of that
■circle.
$8 M E C H A
P but when thefe bodies are all in a right line. Here, S
may reprefent the fun, K the earth, and L the moon.
In order to form an idea of t he curves defcribed by two
bodies revolving about their common centre of gravity,,
whillt they thejnfelves with a third body are in motion
round the common centre of gravity of all the three; let
us firft fuppofe E (Plate CVI. fig. i.) to be the fun, and
e the earth going round him with any moon; and their
moving forces regulated as above. In this cafe, whilft
the earth goes round the fun in the dotted circle R.TUWX,
&c. the fun will go round the circle ABD, whofe centre
C is the common centre of gravity between the fun and
and earth: the right line reprefenting the mutual at¬
traction between them,' by which they are as firmly con¬
nected as if they were fixed at the two ends of an iron bar
ftrong enough to hold them. So, when the earth is at
t, the fun Will be at E; when the earth is at T, the fun
will be at F; and when the earth is at g, the fun will be
at G, tec.
Now, let us take in the moon q (at the top of the fi¬
gure,) and fuppofe the earth to have no progrellive motion
about the fun; in which cafe, whilft the moon revolves
about the earth in her orbit the earth will re¬
volve in the circle S 13, whofe centre R is the common
centre of gravity of the earth and moon; they being con¬
nected by the mutual attraction between them in the fame
manner as the earth and fun are.
But the truth is, that whillt the moon revolves about
the earth, the earth is in motion about the fun; and now,
the moon will caufe the earth todefcribe an irregular curve,
and not a true circle, round the fun; it being the common
centre of gravity of the earth and moon that will then de-
fcribe the fame circle which the earth would have moved,
in, if it had not been attended by a moon. For, fuppo-
fing the moon to defcribe a quarter of her progrelfive or--
bit about the earth in the time that the earth moves from
e to f, it is plain that when the earth comes to fy the
moon will be found at r; in which time, their common
centre of gravity will have defcribed the dotted arc RiT,
the earth the curve Ry/", and the moon the curve qi^r.
In the time that the mcon defcribes another quarter of
her orbit, the centre of gravity of the earth and moon
will defcribe the dotted arc T 2 U, the earth the curve
f6g, and the moon the curve r 15 s, andfo on.—And
thus, whilft the moon goes once round the earth in her
progreffive orbit, their common centre of gravity defcribes
the regular portion of a circle R 1 T 2 U 3 V 4 W, the
earth the irregular curve Rj/6^7^8/, and the moon
the yet more irregular curve qiqriqsiStiju; and
then, the fame kind of tracks over again.
The centre of gravity of the earth and moon is 6000
miles from the earth’s centre towards the moon ; there¬
fore the circle 8x3 which the earth defcrrbes round that
centre of gravity (in every courfe of the moon round her
orbit) is 12000 miles in diameter. Confequently, the
earth is 12000 miles nearer the fun at the time of full
moon than at the time of new. [See the earth at / and
at*.]
To avoid confufion in fo fmall a figure, we have fup-
pofed the moon to go only twice and a half round the earth,
in the time that the earth goes once round the fun : it
N I C S.
being impoflible to take in all the revolutions which fhe
makes in a year, and to give a true figure of her path,
unlefs we fliould make the femidiameter of the earth’s or¬
bit at leaft 84 inches ; and then, the proportional femi¬
diameter of the moon’s orbit would be only a quarter of
an inch.
It the moon made any complete number of revolution^
about the earth in the time that the earth makes one re¬
volution about the fun, the paths of the fun and moon
would return into themfelves at the end of every year;
and fo be the lame over again : but they return not into
themfelves in lefs than 19 years nearly ; in which time,
the earth makes nearly 19 revolutions about the fun, and
the moon 235 about the earth.
If the planet A (Plate CV. fig. 10.) be attracted to¬
wards the fun, with fuch a force as would make it fall
from Ato.B, in the time that the projedlile impulfe would
have carried it from A to F, it Will deforibe the arc AG
by the combined a&ion of thefe forces, in the fame time
that the former would have caufed it to fall from A to B*
or the latter have carried it from A to F. But, if the
projectile force had been twice as great, that is, fuch as
would have carried the planet from AtoH, in the fame
time that now, by the fuppofitron, it carries it only from
A to F; the fun’s attraction muft then have been four
, times as ftrong as formerly,, to have kept the planet in
the circle ATW; that is, it muft have been fuch as would
have caufed the planet to fall from A to E, which is four
times the diftance of A from B, in the time that the pro¬
jectile force fingly would have carried it from A to H,
which is only twice the .diftance of A from F. Thus, a
double projectile force will balance a quadruple power of
gravity in the fame circle; as appears plain by-the figure,
and ftiall foon be confirmed by an experiment.
Plate CVI. fig. 2. The whirling-table is a machine
contrived for ftiewing experiments of this nature. A A is
a ftrong frame of wood, B a winch or handle fixedon the
axis C of the wheel D, round which is the catgut ftring
F, which alfo goes round the fmall wheels G and K,
croffing between them and the great wheel D. On the
upper end of the axis of the wheel G, above the frame,
is fixed the round board d, to which the bearer MSX
may be faftened occafionally, and removed when it is not
wanted. On the axis of the wheel FI is fixed the bearer
NTZ: and it is eafy to fee, that when the winch B is
turned, the wheels and bearers are put into a whirling mo¬
tion.
Each bearer has two wires, W,X, andY,Z, fixed and
fcrewed tight into them at the ends by nuts on the out-
fide. And when thefe nuts are unfcrewed, the wires may
be drawn out in order to change the balls U and V, which
Aide upon the wires by means of brafs loops fixed into
the balls, which keep the balls up from touching the
wood below them. A ftrong filk line goes through each
ball, and is fixed to it at any length from the centre of
the bearer to its end,.as occafion requires, by a nut-fcrew
at the top of the ball; the ftiank of the fcrew going into,
the centre of the ball and preffing the line againft the un¬
der fide of the hole that it goes through.—The line goes
from the ball, -and under a fmall pulley fixt in the middle
of the bearer; then up through a focket in the round
M E C H A
plate (fee S and T) in the middle of each bearer; then
through a flit in the middle of the fquare top (O and P)
of each tower, and, going over a fmall pulley on the top,
comes down again the fame way, and is at laft faflened to
the upper end of the focket iixt in the middle of the a-
bove-mentioned round plate. Thefe plates S and T have
each four round holes near their edges for letting them
Aide up and down upon the wires which make the corner
of each tower. The balls and plates being thus connected
each by its particular line, it is plain, that if the balls be
drawn outward, or towards the ends M and N of their
refpeftive bearers, the round plates.S and T will be drawn
up to the top of their refpedtive towers Oand P.
There are feyeral brafs weights, fome of two ounces,
fome of three, and fome of four, to be oceafionally put
•within the towers O and P, upon the round plates S and
T: each weight having a round hole in the the middle of
it, for going uponathe fockets or axes of the plates, and
is flit from the edge to the hole, for allowing it to be flipt
over the forefaid line which comes from each ball to its
refpeftive plate. f!
The experiments to be made by this machine are,
1. Take away the bearer MX, and take the ivory ball
a, to which the line or (ilk cord b is faftened at one end ;
and having made a loop on the other end of the cord,
put the loop over a pin fixt in the centre of the board d.
Then, turning the winch B to give the board a whirling
motion, you will fee that the ball does.not immediately
begin to move with the board ; but, on account of its
inactivity, it endeavours to continue in the ftate of reft
which it was in before.—Continue turning, until the
board communicates an equal degree of motion with its
own to the ball ; and then turning on, you will perceive
that the ball, will'remain .upon one part of the board,
keeping the fame velocity with it, and having no relative
motion upon it, as is the cafe with every thing that lies
loofe upon the plane furface of the earth, which having
the motion of the earth communicated to it, never en¬
deavours to remove from that place. JBin ftop. the board
fuddenly by hand, and the ball will go on, and continue
to revolve upon the board, until the friction thereof ftops
its motion : which ftiews, that mafter being once put in¬
to motion, would continue to move for ever, if it met
with no refifthnce. In like manner, if a perfon ftands
upright in a boat before it begins to move, he can ftand
Arm ; but the moment the boat fets off, he is in danger
of falling towards that place which the boat departs from :
becaufe, as matter, he has no natural propenfity to move.
But when he acquires the motion of the boat, let it be
ever fo fwift, if it be fmooth and uniform, he will (land
as upright and firm as if he was on the plain ftiore ; and
if the boat ftrike againft any obftacle, he will fall to¬
wards that obftacle ; on account of the propenfity he has,
as matter, to keep the motion which the boat has put
him into.
2. Take away this ball, and put a longer cord to it,
which may be put down through the hollow axis of the
hearer MX, and wheel G. and fix a weight to the end
of the cord below the machine ; which weight, if left at
liberty, will draw the ball from the edge of the whirling-
board. to its centre.
N I C S. 39
Draw off the ball a little from the'cerltre, and turn the
winch ; then the ball will go round and round with the
board, and will gradually fly off farther and farther from
the centre, and.rtife up the weight below the machine i
which ftiews that .all bodies revolving in circles have a
tendency to fly off from thefexircles, and muft have fome
power aCling upon them from the centre of motion, to
keep them from flying off. Stop the machine, and the
ball will continue to revolve for fome time upon the beard ;
but as the fridion gradually ftops its motion, the weight
ading upon it will bring it nearer and neater to the centrd
in every revolution, until it brings it quite thither.
This Ihews, that if the planets met with any refiftance in
going round the fun, its attradive power would bring
them nearer and nearer to it in every revolution, until
they fell into it.
3. Take hold of the cord below the machine with one
hand, and with the other throw the ball upon the round
board as it were at right angles to the cord, by which
means it will go round and round upon the board. Then,
obfervirig with what velocity it‘moves, pull the cord be¬
low the machine, which will bring the ball nearer to the
centre of the board, and you will fee that the nearer the
ball is drawn to the centre, the fafter it will revolve ;
as thofe planets which are neareft the fun revolve fafter
than thofe which are more remote ; and not only go
round fooner, becaufe they deferibe fmaller circles, but
even move fafter in every part of their refpedive circles..
Take away this ball, and apply the bearer MX, whofe
centre of motion is in its middle at tu, diredly over the
centre of the whirling-board d. Then put two balls
(V and U) of equal weights upon their bearing wires ;
and having fixed them at equal diftances from their refpec-
tive centres of motion <w and x upon their filk cords, by
the ferew nuts, put equal weights in the towers O and P.
Laftly, put the catgut ftrings E and F upon the grooves
G and H of the fmall wheels; which being of equal dia¬
meters, will give equal velocities to the bearers above,
when the winch B is turned ; and the bails U and V
will fly off towards M and N, and will raife.the weights
in the towers at the fame inftant. This Ihews, that when
bodies of equal quantities of matter revolve in equal cir¬
cles with equal veldcities, their centrifugalforces are equals
5. Take away thefe equal balls, and, inftead of them,
put a bail of fix. ounces into the bearer MX, at a fixth
part of the diftance ivz from the centre, and put a ball,
of one ounce into the oppofite bearer, at the whole di¬
ftance x/, which is equal , to wz from the centre of the
bearer ; and fix the ball at thefe diftances on their cords,
by the ferew-nuts at top; then the ball U, which is fix
times as heavy as the ball V, will he at only a fixth part
of the.diftancefromits.centre of motion ; and confequent-
ly will revolve in a circle of only a fixth part of the cir¬
cumference of the circle in which V revolves.. Now, let
any equal, weights be put into the'towers. and the machine
be turned by the winch ; which (as the catgut firing is on
equal wheels below) will caule the balls to revolve ia
equal times; but V will move fix times as faft as U, be-
caufe it revolves in a circle of fix times its radius; and
both the weights in the towers will rife at once. This
(hews, that the centrifugal forces of revolving bodies, (or
their,
40 M E C II A
their tendencies to fly off from the circles they defcribe)
are in dire<5t proportion to their quantities of matter mul¬
tiplied into their refpedtive velocities, or into their di-
flances from the centres of their refpedtive circles. For,
fuppofingU, which weighs 6ounces, to be tWo inches from
its centre of motion iv, the weight multiplied by the di-
ftance is 12 ; and fuppofing V, which weighs only one
ounce, to be 12 indies diftant from its centre of mo¬
tion x; the weight 1 ounce multiplied by the diltance t2
inches is 12. And as they revolve in equal times, their
velocities are as their diftances from the centre., namely,
as 1 to 6.
If thefe two balls be fixed at equal diftances from their
refpedlive centres of motion, they will move with equal
velocities; and if the tower O has 6 times as much weight
put into it as the tower P has, the balls will raife their
weight at the fame moment. This Ihews, that the ball
U, being fix times as heavy as the ball V, has fix times
as much centrifugal force, in defcribing an equal circle
with an equal velocity.
6. If bodies of equal weights revolve in equal circles
with unequal velocities, their centrifugal forces are as the
fquares of the velocities. To prove this law by an ex-
eriment, let two-balls U and V of equal weights be
xed on their cords at equal diftances from their refpec-
tive centres of motion to and a: : and then let the catgut
ftring E be put round the wheel K (whofe circumference
is only one half of the circumference of the wheel H or
G) and over the pnlley j to keep it tight; and let four
times as much weight be put in the tower P as in the tower
O. Then turn the winch B, and the ball V will revolve
twice as fall as the ball U in a circle of the fame diameter,
becaufe they are equidiftant from the centres of the circles
in which they revolve; and the weights in the towers
will both rife at the fame inftant; which Ihews, that a
double velocity in the fame circle will exa&ly balance a
quadruple power of attra&ion in the centre of the circle.
For the weights in the towers may be confidered as the
attra&ive forces in the centres, a&ing upon the revolving
balls; which, moving in equal circles, is the fame thing
as if they both moved in one and the fame circle.
7. If bodies of equal weights revolve in unequal circles,
in fuch a manner that the fquares of the times of their
going round are as the cubes of their diftances from the
centres of the circles they defcribe; their centrifugal
forces are inverfely as the fquares of their diftances from
thofe centres. For, the catgut ftring remaining as in the
laft experiment, let the diftance of the ba*ll V from the
centre x be made equal to two of the crofs divifions on
its bearer, and the diftance of the ball U from the cen¬
tre w be three and a fixth part; the balls themfelves
being of equal weights, and V making two revolutions
by turning the winch in the time that U makes one: fo
that if we fuppofe the ball V to revolve in one moment,
the ball U will revolve in two moments, the fquares of
Which are one and four: forthefquare of 1 is only 1, and
the fquare of 2 is 4 ; therefore the fquare of the period or
revolution of the ball V is contained 4 times in the fquare
of the ball U. But the diftance of V is 2, the cube of
which is 8; and the diftance of U is 3^, the cube of
jyftiich is 32 very nearly; in which 8 is contained four
N I C S.
times ; and therefore, the fquares of the periods of V
and U are to one another as the cubes of their diftances
from x and w, which are the centres of their refpeftive
circles. And if the weight in the tower O be four oun¬
ces, equal to the fquare of 2, the diftance of V from the
centre at ; and-the weight in the tower P be 10 ounces,
nearly equal to the fquare of 3^, the diftance of U from
w ; it will be found, upon turning the machine by the
winch, that the balls U and V will raife their refpe&ive
weights at very nearly the fame inftant of time. Which
confirms that famous propofition of Kepler, v/z. That
the fquares of the periodical times of the planets round
the fun are in proportion to the cubes of their diftances
from him ; and that the fun’s attra<5tion is inverfely as
the fquare of the diftance from its centre: that is, at
twice the diftance, his attradtion is four times lefs; and
thrice the diftance, nine times lefs ; at four times the di¬
ftance, fixteen times lefs ; and fo on, to the remoteft part
of the fyftem.
8. Take off the catgut ftring E from the great wheel
D and the fmall wheel H, and let the firing F remain
upon the wheels D and G. Take away alfo the bearer
MX from the whirling-board d, and inftead thereof
put the machine AB (fig. 4.) upon it, fixing this ma¬
chine to the centre of the board by the pins c and d,
in fuch a manner, that the end ef may rife above the
board to an angle of 30 or 40 degrees. In the upper
fide of this machine there are two glafs tubes a and
b, clofe ftopt at both ends; and each tube is about three
quarters full of water. In the tube a is a little quick-
filver, which naturally falls down to the end a in the wa¬
ter, becaufe it is heavier than its bulk of water ; and on
the tube £ is a fmall cork which floats upon the top of the
water at e, becaufe it is lighter ; and it is fmall enough
to have liberty to rife or fall in the tube. While the
board b with this machine upon it continues at reft, the
quickfilver lies at the bottom of the tube a, and the cork
floats on the water near the top of the tube b. But, up¬
on turning the winch, and putting the machine in mo¬
tion, the contents of each tube will fly off towards the
uppermoft ends (which are fartheft from the centre of
motion) the hearieft with the greateft force. Therefore,
the quickfilver in the tube* will fly off quite to the end/',
and occupy its bulk of fpace there, excluding the water
from that place, becaufe it is lighter than quickfilver ;
but the water in the tube b flying off to its higher end et
will exclude the cork from that place, and caufe the cork
to defeend towards the lowermoft end of the tube, where
it will remain upon the loweft end of the water near
5; for the heavier body having the greater centrifugal
force, will therefore poffefs the uppermoft part of the
tube; and the lighter body will keep between the heavier
and the lowermoft part.
This demonftrates the abfurdity of the Cartefian doc¬
trine of the planets moving round the fun in vortexes:
for, if the planet be more denfe or heavy than the bulk
of the vortex, it will fly off therein, farther and farther
from the fun ; if lefs denfe, it will come down to the
loweft part of the vortex, at the fun : and the whole vor¬
tex itfelf muft be furrounded with fomething like a great
wall, otherwife it would fly off, planets and all together.
M E C H
But while gravity exifls, there is no occafion for fuch
vortexes ; and when it ceafes to exift, a (lone thrown
upwards will never return to the earth again.
9. If a body be fo placed upon the whirling board of
the machine (fig. 1 ) that the centre of gravity of the
body be diredly over the centre of the board, and the
board be put into ever fo rapid a motion by the winch B,
the body will turn round with the board, but will not
remove from the middle of it 5 for, as all parts of the
l?ody are in equilibria round its centre of gravity, and
the centre of gravity is at reft in the centre of motion,
the centrifugal force of all parts of the body will be e-
qual at equal diftances from its centre of motion ; and
therefore the body will remain in its place. But if the
centre of gravity be placed ever fo little out of the centre
of motion, and the machine be turned fwiftly round, the
body will fly off towards that fide of the board on which
its centre of gravity lies. Thus, if the wire C (fig. 5.)
with its little ball B be taken away from the demi-globe
A, and the flat fide e/ of this demi-globe be laid upon the
whirling-board of the machine, fo as their centres may
coincide; if then the board be turned ever fo quick by
the winch, the demi globe will remain where it was pla¬
ced. But if the wire C be fcrewed in the demi-globe at
d, the whole becomes one body, whofe centre of gravity
is no v at or near d. Let the pin c be fixed in the centre
of the whirling-board, and the deep groove b Cut in the
flat fide of the demi-globe be put upon the pin, fo as the
pin may be in the centre of A £Seefig. 6. where this groove
is reprefented at b~\ and let the whirling board be turned
by the winch, which will carry the little ball B (fig. 5.)
with its wire C, and the demi-globe A, alLround the
centre-pin ci; and then the centrifugal force of the little
ball B, which weighs only one ounce, will be fo great,
as to draw off the demi-globe A, which weighs two
pounds, until the end of the groove at e ftrikcs againft the
pin c, and fo prevents the demi globe A from going any
farther; otherwife, the centrifugal force of B would
have been great enough to have carried A quite off the
whirling-board. Which (hews, that if the fun were
placed in the very centre of the orbits of the planets, it
could not poflibly remain there; for the centrifugal for¬
ces of the planets would carry them quite off, and the
fun with them ; efpecially when feveral of them happen¬
ed to be in any one quarter of the heavens. For the fun
and planets are as much connedted by the mutual attrac¬
tion that fubfifts between them, as the bodies A and B
are by the wire C which is fixed to them both. And
even if there were but one (ingle planet in the whole hea¬
vens to go round ever fo large a fun in the centre of its
orbit, its centrifugal force would foon carry off both it-
felf and the fun. For, the greateft body placed in any
part of free fpace could be eafily moved: becaufeif there
were no other body to attradl it, it could have no weight
or gravity of itfelf; and confequently, though it could
have no tendency of itfelf to remove from that part of
fpace, yet it might be, very eafily by any other fubftance.
And perhaps it was this cpnfideration which made the
celebrated Archimedes fay, that if he had a proper
place at fome diftance from the earth whereon to fix his
machinery, he could move the whole earth.
Vox. III. N° jo. 2
A N I C S. 41
10. As the centrifugal force of the light body B will
not allow the heavy body A to remain in the centre of
motion, even though it be 24 times as heavy as B ; let
us now take the ball A (fig 7.) which weighs 6 ounces,
and connedt it by the wire C with the ball B, which weighs
only one ounce; and let the fork E be fixed into the centre
of the whirling-board; then, hang the balls upon the fork
by the wire C in fuch a manner that they may exadtly ba¬
lance each other; which will be when the centre of gra¬
vity between them, in the wire at d, is fupported by the
fork. And this centre of gravity is as much nearer to
the centre of the ball A, than to the centre of the ball B,
as A is heavier than B, allowing for the weight of the
wire on each fide of the fork. This done,- let the ma¬
chine be put into motion by the winch ; and the balls A
and B will go round their common'centre of gravity d,
keeping their balance, becaufe either will not allow the
other to fly off with it. For, fuppofing the ball B to be
only one ounce in weight, and the ball A to be fix oun¬
ces ; then, if the wire C were equally heavy on each
fide of the fork, the centre of gra-vity ^ would be fix
times as far from the centre of the bail B as from the
centre of the ball A, and confequently B will revolve
with a velocity fix times as great as A does ; which will
give B fix times as much centrifugal force as any fingle
ounce of A has: but then, as B is only one ounce, and
A fix ounces, the whole centrifugal force of A will exadlly
balance the whole centrifugal force of B ; and therefore,
each body will detain the other fo as to make it keep in its
circle. This (hews that the fun and planets muft all move
round the common centre of gravity of the whole fyftem,
in order to preferve that juft balance which takes place
among them. For, the planets being as unadlive and
dead as the above balls, they could no more have put
themfelves into motion than thefe balls can ; nor have
kept in their orbits, without being balanced at firft with
the greateft degree of exadlnefs upon their common centre
of gravity by the Almighty Hand that made them and
put them in motion. ,
Perhaps it may be here alked, that fince the centre of
gravity between thefe balls muft be fupported by the fork E
in this experiment, what prop it is that fupports the cen¬
tre of gravity of the folar fyftem, and confequently bears
the weight of all the bodies in it ; and by what is the
prop itfelf fupported ? The anfwer is eafy and plain ; for
the centre of gravity of our balls muft be fupported, be¬
caufe they gravitate towards the earth, and would there¬
fore fall to it : but as the fun and planets gravitate only
towards one another, they have nothing elfe to fall to ;
and therefore have no occafion for any thing to fupport
their common centre of gravity: and if they did not
move round that centre, and confequently acquire a ten¬
dency to fly of from it by their motions, their mutual
attra&ions would foon bring them together ; and fo the
whole would become one mafs in the fun : which.would
alfo be the cafe if their velocities round the fun were not
quick enough to create a centrifugal force equal to the
fun’s attradlion.
But after all this nice adjuftment, it appears evident,
that the Deity cannot withdraw his regulating hand from
his works, and leave them to be folely governed by the
L laws
42 M E C H
laws which he has impreffed upon them at firft. For if he
Ihould once leave them fo, their order would in time
come to an end ; becaufe the planets mud: neceffarily dif-
turb one another’s motions by their mutual attractions,
when feveral of them are in the fame quarter of the
heavens ; as is often the cafe : and then, as they attract
the fun more towards that quarter than when they are in
a manner difperfed equably arround him, if he was not
at that time made to defcribe a portion of a larger circle
round the common centre of gravity, the balance would
then be immediately deftroyed ; and as it could never re-
ftore itfelf again, the whole fyftem would begin to fall
together, and would in time unite in a mafs at the fun.
—Of this difturbance we have a very remarkable inftance
in the comet which appeared lately ; and which, in going
laft up before from the fun, went fo near to Jupiter, and
was fo affefted by his attraction, as to have the figure of
its orbit much changed ; and not only fo, but to have its
period altered, and its courfe to be different in the heavens
from what it was laft before.
11. Take away the fork and balls from the whirling-
board, and place the trough AB (fig. 8.) thereon, fixing
its centre to the centre of the whirling-board by the pin
H. In this trough are two balls D and E, of unequal
weights, connected by a wire f; and made to Aide eafily
upon the wire C ftretched from end to end of the trough,
and made fall by nut-fcrews on the outfide of the ends.
Let thefe balls be fo placed upon the wire C, that their
common centre of gravity g may be direCtly over the
centre of the whirling board. Then, turn the machine
by the winch ever fo fwiftly, and the trough and balls
will go round their centre of gravity fo as neither of
them will fly off; becaufe, on account of the equilibri¬
um, each ball detains the other with an equal force act¬
ing againft it. But if the ball E be drawn a little more
towards the end of the trough at A, it will remove the
centre of gravity towards that end from the centre of
motion ; and then, upon turning the machine, the little
ball E will fly off, and ftrike with a confiderable force a-
gainft the end A, and draw the great ball B into the
middle of the trough. Or, if the great ball D be drawn
towards the end B of the trough, fo that the centre of
gravity may be a little towards that end from the centre
of motion, and the machine be turned by the winch, the
great ball D will fly off, and ftiike violently againft the
end B of the trough, and will bring the little bail E into
the middle of it. If the trough be not made very ftrong,
the ball D will break through it.
12. The reafon why the tides rife at the fame abfolute
time on oppofite fides of the earth, and confequently in
oppofite direClions, is made abundantly plain by a new
experiment on the whirling table. The caufe of their
rifing on the fide next the moon every one underftands
to be owing to the moon’s attraction : but why they fhould
rife on the oppofite fide at the fame time, where there is
no moon to attract them, is perhaps not fo generally un-
derftood. For it would feem that the moon fhould rather
draw the waters (as it were) clofer to.that fide, than raife
them upon it, direCtly contrary to her attractive force.
Let the circle ahed (fig. 9.) reprefent the earth, with its
fide s turned towaad the moon, which will then attrafl
A N I C S.
the waters fo as to raife them from c to g. But the
queftion is, why fhould they rife as high at that very
time on the oppofite fide, from a to e ? In order to ex¬
plain this, let there be a plate AB (fig. 10.) fixed upon
one end of the flat bar DC ; with fuch a circle drawn
upon it as abed (in fig. 9.) to reprefent the round figure
of the earth and fea ; and fuch an ellipfis as efgh to re¬
prefent the fwelling of the tide at e and g, occafioned by
the influence of the moon. Over this plate AB let the
three Ivory balls e,f,g be hung by the fiik lines
faftened to the tops of the crooked wires in fuch
a manner, that the ball at e may hang freely over the
fide of the circle <?, which is fartheft from the moon M
(at the other end of the bar;) the ball at f may han<r
freely over the centre, and the ball at £ hang over the
fide of the circle g, which is neareft the moon. The
ball f may reprefent the centre of the earth, the ball g
fome water on the fide next the moon, and the ball <?
fome water on the oppofite fide. On the back of the
moon M is fixt the fhort bar N parallel to the horizon,
and there ar'e three holes in it above the little weights
p,q,r. A filk thread 0 is tied to the line k clofe above
the ball^, and, palling by one fide of the moon M, goes
through a hole in the bar N, and has the weight /> hung
to it. Such another thread n is tied to the line i, clofe
above the ball f, and, pafling through the centre of the
moon M and middle of the bar N, has the weight q hung
to it, which is lighter than the weight/>. A third thread
m is tied to the line h, clofe above the ball e, and palling
by the other fide of the moon M, through the bar N,
has the weight r hung to it, which is lighter than the
weight q.
The ufe of thefe three unequal weights is t<y reprefeqt
the moon’s unequal attraction at different diftances from
her. With whatever force Ihe attracts the centre of the
earth, fhe attracts the fide next her with a greater degree
of force, and the fide fartheft from her with a lefs. So,
if the weights are left at liberty, they will draw all the
three balls towards the moon with different degrees of
force; and caufe them to make the appearance fliewn in
(fig. 11.) by which means they are evidently farther from
each other than they would be if they hung at liberty by
the lines b,r,k ; becaufe the lines would then hang per¬
pendicularly. This Ihews, that as the moon attracts
the fide of the earth which is neareft her with a greater
degree of force than Ihe does the centre of the earth, Ihe
will draw the water on that fide more than Ihe draws the
centre, and fo caafes it to rife on that fide: and as Ihe
draws the centre more than Ihe draws the oppofite fidej
the centre will recede farther from the furfaceof the water
on that oppofite fide, and fo leave it as high there as (he
raifed it on the fide next to her. For, as the centre will
be in the middle between the tops of the oppofite eleva¬
tions, they muft of courfe be equally high on both fides
at the fame time.
But upon this fuppofition the earth and moon would
foon come together ; and to be fure they would, if they
had not a motion round their common centre of gravity,
to create a degree of centrifugal force Efficient to ba¬
lance their mutual attraction. This motion they have ;
for as the mooa gees round her orbit every month, at
the
MEG H
the ulAance of 240000 miles from the earth’s centre, and
of 234000 miles from the centre of gravity of the earth
and moon, fo does the earth go round the fame centre of
gravity every month at the diftance of 6000 miles from
it ; that is, from it to the centre of the earth. Now as
the earth is (in round numbers) 8000 miles in diameter,
it is plain that its fide next the moon is only 2000 miles
from the common centre of gravity of the earth and
moon ; its centre 6000 miles dillant therefrom ; and its
farthefi fide from the moon 10000. Therefore the cen¬
trifugal forces of thefe parts are as 2000, 6000, and
10000 ; that is, the centrifugal force of any fide of the
earth, when it is turned from the moon, is five times as
great as when it is turned towards the moon. And as
the moon’s attracfHon (expreft by the number 6000) at
the earth’s centre keeps the earth from flying out of this
monthly circle, it mud be greater than the centrifugal
force of the waters on the fide next her ; and confequent-
3y, her greater degree of attradfion on that fide is fuflv
cient to raife them ; but as her attraction on the oppofite
fide is lefs than the centrifugal force of the water there,
the excefs of this force is fufficient to raife the water
juft as high on the oppofite fide.—To prove this ex¬
perimentally, let the bar DC (fig. 10.) with its fur¬
niture be fixed upon the whirling board of the ma¬
chine (fig. 2.) by puftiing the pin P into the centre of
the board ; which pin is in the centre of gravity of the
whole bar with its three balls e,f,g, and moon M.
Now, if the whirling-board and bar be turned flow
ly round by the winch, until the ball f hangs over
the centre of the circle, as in fig. 11. the ball g will be
kept towards the moon by the heavieft weight p, (fig. 9.)
and the ball e, on account of its greater centrifugal force,
and the lefler weight r, will fly off as far to the other fide
as in fig. 12. And fo, whilft the machine is kept turn¬
ing, the balls e and ^ will hang over the ends of the el-
lipfis l,f,k. So that the centrifugal force of the ball e will
exceed the moon’s attraffion juft: as much as her attrac¬
tion exceeds the centrifugal force of the ball g, whilft
her attraction juft balances the centrifugal force of the
ball f, and makes it keep in its circle, And hence it is
evident that the tides nauft rife to equal heights at the
fame time on oppofite fides of the earth. This experi¬
ment, to the belt of my knowledge, is entirely new.
From the principles thus eftablifhed, it is evident that
the earth moves round the fun, and not the fun round the
earth : for the centrifugal law will never allow a great
body to move round a fmall one in any orbit whatever ;
efpecially when we find, that if a fmall body.moves round
a great one, the great one muft alfo move round the com¬
mon centre of gravity between them two. And it is well
known, that the quantity of matter in-the fun is 227000
times, as great as the quantity of matter in the earth.
Now, as the fun’s diftance from the earth is at leaft
81,000,000 of miles, if we divide that diftance by
227000, we ftiall have only 357 for the number of miles
that the centre of gravity between the fun and earth is
diftant from the fun’s centre. And as the fun's femidia-
meter is ^ of a degree, which, at fo great a diftance as
that of the fun, muft be no lefs than 381500 miles, if
tliis.be divided by 357, the quotient \vi!l be io68|-,
A N I C S; 45
which (hews that the common centre of gravity is withitr
the body of the fun, and is only the io68-f part of his
femidiaraeter from his centre toward his furface.
All globular bodies, whofe parts can yield, and which
do not turn on their axes, muft be perfeCf fpheres, be-
caufe all parts of their furfaces are equally attracted to¬
ward their centres. But all fuch globes which do turn-
on their axes, will be oblate fpheroids; that is, their
furfaces will be higher, or farther from the centre, in
the equatorial than in the polar regions. For, as the e-
quatorial parts move quickeft, they muft have the great-
eft centrifugal force ; and will therefore recede fartheffc
from the axis of motion. Thus, if two circular hoops
AB and CD, (Plate CVII. fig. 1.) made thin and flex¬
ible, and crofltng one another at right angles, be turned
round their axis EF by means of the winch rn, the wheel
», and pinion 0, and the axis be loofe in the pole or in-
terfedfion e, the middle parts A,B,C,D will fwell out fo
as to ftrike againft the fides of the frame at F and G, if
the pole <?, in finking to the pin E, be not ftopt by it from
finking farther: fo that the whole will appear of an oval fi¬
gure, the equatorial diameter being confiderably longer than
the polar. That our earth is of this figure, is demon-
ftrable from affual meafurement of fome degrees on its,
furface, which are found to be longer in the frigid zones
than in the torrid : and the difference is found to ba
fuch as prove the earth’s equatorial diameter to be 3 y
miles longer than its axis.—Since then, the earth is high¬
er at the equator than at the poles, the fea, which like
all other fluids naturally runs downward (or towards the
places which are neareft the earth’s centre) would run
towards the polar regions, and leave the equatorial parts
dry, if the centrifugal force of the water, which carried
it to thofe parts, and fo raifed them, did not detain and.
keep it from running back again towards the poles of the
earth.
Of the Mechanical Powers.
If we confider bodies in motion, and compare them
together, we may do this either with refpedt to the quan¬
tities of matter they contain, or the velocities with which
they are moved. The heavier any body is, the greater
is the power required either to move it or to flop its mo¬
tion : and again, the fwifter it moves, the greater is its
force. So that the whole momentum or quantity of force
of a moving body is the refult of its quantity of matter
multiplied by the velocity with which it is moved. And
when the products arifing from the multiplication of the
particular quantities of matter in any twojbodies by their
refpeftive velocities are equal, the momenta or entire
forces are fa too. Thus, fuppofe a body, which we {hall
call A, to-weigh 40 pounds, and to move at 'the rate of
two-miles in a minute ; and another body, which we {hall
call B, to weigh only four pounds-, and to move 20 miles
in a minute ; the entire forces with which thefe two
bodies would ftrike againft any obftacle would be equal
to each other, and therefore it would require equal powers
to ftop them. For 40 multiplied by 2 gives 80, the force
of the body A ; and 20 multiplied by 4 gives 80, the-
force of the body B.
Upon this eafy principle, depends the whole of me.
chanics ;
44 M E C H A
chanics: and it holds univerfally true, that when two
bodies are fufpended by any machine, fo as to a<fl con¬
trary to each other: if the machine be put into motion,
and the perpendicular afcent of one body multiplied into
its weight, be equal to the perpendicular defcent of the
other body multiplied into its weight, thefe bodies, how
unequal foever in their.weights, will balance one another
in all fituations : for, as the whole afcent of one is per¬
formed in the fame time with the whole defcent of the
other, their refpeiftive velocities muft be dire&ly as the
fpaces they move through ; and the excefs of weight in
One body is compeftfated by the excefs of velocity in the
other.—Upon this principle it is eafy to compute the
power of any mechanical engine, whether Ample or com¬
pound ; for it is but only inquiring how much fwifter
the power moves than the weight does (». how much
farther in the fame time,) and juft fo much is the power
increafed by the help of the engine.
In the theory of this fcience, we fuppofe all planes
perfectly even, all bodies perfedHy fmooth, levers to have
no Weight, cords to be extremely pliable, machines to
have no fri<ftion; and in ihort, all imperfeiftion muft be
fet afide until the theory be eftablilhed, and then proper
allowances are to be made.
The fimple machines, ufually Called mechanical powers,
are fix in number, viz. the lever, the wheel and axle,
the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the [crew.
They are called mechanical powers, becaufe they help
,us to raife. weights, move heavy bodies, and overcome
refiftances, which we could not effect without them.
i. A lever is a bar of iron or wood, one part of which
being fupported by a prop, all the other parts turn upon
that prop as their centre of 'motion : and the velocity of e-
very part or point is direftly as itsdiftance from the prop.
Therefore, when the Weight to be raifed at one end is
to the power applied at the other to raife it, as the di-
ftanceof the power from the prop is to the diftance of the
weight from the prop, the power and weight will exactly
balance or counterpoife each other : and as a common
lever has but very little frifHon on its prop, a very little
additional power will be fufficient to raife the weight.
There are four kinds of levers. i. The common
■fort, where the prop is placed between the weight and the
power ; but much nearer to the weight than to the power.
2. When the prop is at one end of the lever, the power
at the other, and the weight between them. 3. When
the prop is at one end, the weight at the other, and the
power applied between them. 4. The bended lever,
which differs qply in form from the firft fort, but not in
property Thofe of the firft and fecond kind are often
tiled in mechanical engines ; but there are few inftances
in which the third fort is ufed.
A common balance is a lever of the firft kind; but as
both its ends are at equal diltances from its,centre ofmo-
tion, they move with equal velocities ; and therefore, as
it gives no mechanical advantage, it cannot properly be
reckoned among the mechanical powers.
A lever of the firft kind is reprefented by the bar
ABC, (Plate CVII. fig. 2.) fupported by the prop D.
Its principal ufe is to loofen large Hones in the ground,
or raife great weights to fmall heights, in order to have
N I C S.
ropes put undet them for railing them higher by dther
machines. The parts AB and BC, on different fides of
the prop D, are called the arms of the lever : theend A of
the fhorter arm AB being appplied^to the weight intend¬
ed to be raifed, or to the refifiance to be overcome ; and
the power applied to the end C of the longer arm BC.
In making experiments with this machine, the fhorter
arm AB muft be as much thicker than the longer arm
BC, as will be fufficient to balance it on the prop. This
fuppofed, let P reprefent a power whofe intenfity is e-
qual to one ounce, and W a weight whofe intenfity is
equal to 12 ounces. Then, if the power be 12 tjmes as far
from the prop as the weight is, they will exadfly counter¬
poife ; and a fmall addition to the power P will caufe it
to defcefld, and raife the weight W; and the velocity
with which the power defcends will be to" the velocity
with which the weight rifes, as 12 to 1 : that is, dire&ly
as their diftances from the prop ; and confequently, as
the fpaces through which they move. Hence it is plain,-
that a man who by his natural ftrength, without the help
of any machine, could fupoort an hundred weight, will
by the help of this lever be enabled to fupport twelve
hundred. If the weight be lefs, or the power greater,
the prop may be placed fo much the farther from the
weight; and then it can be raifed to a proportionably
greater height. For univerfally, if the intenfity of the
weight multiplied into its diftance from the prop be
equal to the.intenfity of the power multiplied into its
diftance from the prop, th^ power and weight will ex¬
actly balance each other; and a little addition to the
power will raife the weight. Thus, in the prefent in*
llance, the weight W is 12 ounces, and its diftance from
the prop is 1 inch ; and 12 multiplied by 1 is 12; the
power P is equal to 1 ounce, and its diftance from the
prop is 12 inches, which multiplied by one is 12 again:
and therefore there is an equilibrium between them. So,
if a power equal to 2 ounces be applied at the diftance
of 6 inches from the prop, it will juft balance the
weight W ; for 6 multiplied by 2 is 12, as before. And
a power equal to 3 ounces placed at 4 inches diftance
from the prop would do the fame; for 3 times 4 is 12 ;
and fo on, in proportion.
The Jlatera, or Roman Jleelyard, is a lever of this
kind, contrived for finding the weights of different bo¬
dies by one Angle weight placed at different diftances from
the prop or centre of motion D. For, if a fcale hangs
at A, the extremity of the Ihorter arm AB, and is of
fuch a weight as will exatftly counterpoife the longer arm
BC ; if this arm be divided into as many equal parts as
it will contain, each equal to AB, the fingle weight P
(which we may fuppofe to be 1 pound) will ferve for
weighing any thing as heavy as itfelf, or as many times
heavier as there are divifions in the arm BC, or any
quantity between its own weight and that quantity. As
for example, if P be 1 pound, and placed at the firft di-
vifion i in the arm BC, it will balance 1 pound in the
fcale at A : if it be removed to the fecond divifion at 2,
it will balance 2 pounds in the fcale; if to the third,
3 pounds: and fo on to the end of the arm BC. If each
of thefe integral divifions be fubdivided into as many e-
qual parts as a pound contains ounces, and the weight
M E O H A
P be placed at any of thefe fubdivifions, fo as to coun-
terpoife what is in the fcale, the pounds and odd ounces
therein are by that means afcertained.
To this kind of lever may be reduced feveral forts
of inftruments, fuch as fcifiars, pinchers, fnuffers; which
are made of two levers acting contrary to one another;
their prop or centre of motion being the pin which keeps
them together.
In common practice, the longer arm of this lever great¬
ly exceeds the weight of the fhorter ; which gains great
advantage, becaufe it adds fo much to the power.
A lever of the fecond kind has the weight between the
prop and the power. In. this, as well as the former,
the advantage gained is as the diftanceof the power from
the prop to the diflance of the weight from the prop:
for the refpedtive velocities of the power and weight are
in that proportion; and they will balance each other
when the intenfity of the power multiplied by its diftance
from the prop is equal to the intenfity of the weight mul
tiplied by its dillance from the prop. Thus, if AB
(fig. 3.) be a lever on which the weight W of bounces
hangs at the diftance of 1 inch from the prop G, and
a power P equal to the. weight of one ounce hangs at the
end B, 6 inches from the prop, by the cord CD going
over the fixed pulley E, the power will juft fupport
the weight; and a fmall addition to the power will raife
the weight 1 inch for everjr 6 inches that the power
defcends.
Thjs lever (hews the reafon why two men carrying a
burden upon a ftick between them, bear unequal (hares
of the burden in the inverfe proportion of their diftances
from it. For it is well known, that the nearer any of
them is to the burden, the greater (hare he bears of it:
and if he goes diredly under it, he bears the whole.
So, if one man be at G, and the other at P, having the
pole or ftick AB refting on their (houldets ; if the burden
or weight W be placed five times as near the man at G,
as it is to the man at P, the former will bear five times
^s much weight as the latter. This is likewife applicable
to the cafe of two horfes of unequal ftrength, to be fo
yoked, as that each horfe may draw a part proportionable
to his ftrength ; which is done by dividing the beam fo,
that the point of tradtion may be as much nearer to the
ftronger horfe than to the weaker, as the ftrength of the
former exceeds that of the latter.
To this kind of lever may be reduced oars, rudders of
Ihips, doors turning upon hinges, cutting knives which
are fixed at the point of the blade, and the like.
If in this lever we fuppofe the power and weight to
change places, fd that the power may be between the
weight and the prop, it will become a lever of the third
kind; in which, that there may be a balance between the
power .and the weight, the intenfity of the power muft
exceed the intenfity of the weight, juft as much as the
diftance of the weight from the prop exceeds the diftance
of the power from it. Thus, let E (fig. 4.) be the prop
of the lever AB, and W a weight of 1 pound, placed
3 times as far from the prop, as the power P ads at F,
by the cord C going over the fixed pulley D ; in this cafe,
the power muft be equal to three pounds, in order to fup¬
port the weight,
Vol . III. N°. 71. 2
N I C S. 45
To this fort of lever are generally referred the bones
of a man’s arm : for when we lift a weight by the hand,
the mufcle that exerts its force to raife that weight, is
fixed to the bone about one tenth part as far below the
elbow as the hand is. And the elbow being the centre
round which the lower part of the arm turns, the mufcle
muft therefore exert a force ten times as great as the weight
that is raifed.
As this kind of lever is a difadvantage to the moving
power, it is never ufed but in cafes of neceflity; fuch as
that of a ladder, which, being fixed at one end, is by the
ftrength of a man’s arms reared againft a wall; and in
clock-work, where all the wheels may be reckoned levers
of this kind, becaufe the power that moves every wheel,
except the firft, ads upon it near the centre of motion by
means of a fmall pinion, and the refiftance it has to over¬
come ads againft the teeth round its circumference.
The fourth kind of lever differs nothing from the
firft, but in being bended for the fake of convenience.
ACB (fig. 5.) is a lever of this fort, bended at C>
which is its prop, or centre of motion. P is a powet
ading upon the longer arm AC at F, by means of the
cord DE going over the pulley G; and W is a weight
or refiftance ad:ing upon the end B of the (horter arm
BC. If the power be to the weight as BC is to CF,
they are in equilibria. Thus, fuppofe W to be y pounds
ading at the diftance. of one foot from the centre of mo¬
tion C, and P to be 1 pound ading at F, five feet from
the centre C, the power and weight will juft balance
each other. A hammer drawing a nail is a lever of this
fort.
2. The fecond mechanical power is ^nuheelandaxle^
in which the power is applied to the circumference of the
wheel, and the weight is raifed by a rope which coils a-
bout the axle as the wheel is turned round. Here it is
plain, that the velocity of the power muft be to the velo¬
city of the weight, as the circumference of the wheel is
to the circumference of the axle: and confequently, the
power and weight will balance each other, when the in¬
tenfity of the power is to the intenfity of the weight as
the circumference of the axle is to the circumference of
the wheel. Let AB (fig. 6.) be a wheel, CD its axle,
and fuppofe the circumference of the wheel to be 8 times
as great as the circumference of the axle ; then a power P
equal to 1 pound hanging by the cord I, which goes round
the wheel, will balance a weight W of 8 pounds hanging
by the ropeK which goes round the axle. And as thefric-
tion on the pivots or gudgeons of the axle is but fmall, a
fmall addition to the power will caufe it to defcend, and
raife the weight: but the weight will rife w ith only an
eighth part of the velocity wherewith the power defcends,
and confequently through no more than an eighth part
of an equal fpace, in the fame time. If the wheel be
pulled round by the handles S,S, the power will be
increafed in proportion to their length. And by this
means, any weight may be raifed as high as the operator
pleafes.
To this fort of engine belong all cranes for raifing
great weights ; and in this cafe, the wheel may have cogs
all around it inftead of handles, and a fmall lantern or
trundle may be made to work in the cogs, and be turned
M by
46 M E C H i
by a winch; which will make the power of the engine to
exceed the power of the man who works it, as much as
the number of revolutions of the winch exceed thofe of
the axle D, when multiplied by the excefs of the length
of the winch above the length of the femidiameter of the
axle, added to the femidiameter or half-thicknefs of
the rope K, by which the weight is drawn up. Thus,
fuppofe the diameter of the rope and axle taken together
to be 12 inches, and confequently half their diameters
to be 6 inches ; fo that the weight W will hang at
6 inches perpendicular diftance from below the centre of
the axle. Now, let us fuppofe the wheel AB, which is
fixt on the axle, to have 8o cogs, and to be turned by
means of a winch fix inches long, fixt on the axis of a
trundle of 8 ftaves or rounds, working in the cogs of the
wheel.—Here it is plain, that the winch and trundle
would make to revolutions for one of the wheel AB, and
its axis D, on which the rope K winds in raifing the
weight W; and the winch being no longer than the fum
of the femi-diameters of the great axle and rope, the
trundle could have no more power on the wheel, than a
man could have by pulling it round by the edge, becaufe
the winch would have no greater velocity than the edge
of the wheel has, which we here fuppofe to be ten times
as great as the velocity of the rifing weight; fo that, in this
cafe, the power gained would be as ioto i. But if the
length of the winch be 12 inches, the power gained will'
be as ao to 1 : if 18 inches (which is long enough for any
man to work by) the power gained would be as 30 to 1;
that is, a man could raife 30 times as much by fuch an
engine, as he could do by, his natural ftrength without- it,
becaufe the velocity of the handle of the winch would be
go times as great as the velocity of the rifing weight; the
abfolute force of any engine being in proportion of the
velocity of the power to the ^velocity of the weight raifed
by it.—But then, juft as much power or advantage as is
gained by the engine, fo much time is loft in wotking it.
In this fort of machines it is requifite to have a ratchet-
wheel G on one end of the axle, with a catch H to fall
into its teeth ; which will at any time fupport the weight,
and keep it from defcending, if the workman fhould,
through inadvertency or carelefnefs, quit his hold whilft the
weight is raifing. And by this means, the danger is pre¬
vented which might otherwifehappen by the running down
of the weight when left at liberty.
g The third mechanical power or engine confifts ei¬
ther of one moveable pulley, ora fyjlem of pulleys ; fome
in a block or cafe which is fixed, and others in a block
which is moveable, and rifes with the weight. For tho’
a fingle pulley, that only turns on its axis, and rifes not
with the weight, may ferve to change the diredtion ofthe
power, yet it can give no mechanical advantage thereto;
but is only as the beam of a balance, whofe arm's are of
equal length and weight. Thus, if the equal weights
W and P (fig. 7.) hang by the cord BB upon the pulley
jA, whofe block b is fixed to the beam Hi, they will
counterpoife each other, juft in the fame manner as ifthe
cord were cut in the middle, and its two ends hung upon
the hooks fixt in the pulley at A and A, equally diftant
from its centre
But if a weight W hangs atthe lower end of the move-
N I C S.
able block p of the pulley D, and the cord GF goes
under the pulley, it is plaimhat the half G of the cord
bears one half of the weight W, and the half F the other ;
for they bear the whole between them. Therefore, what¬
ever holds the upper end of either rope, fuftains one half of
the weight; and if the cord at F be drawn up fo as to raife
the pulley D to C, the cord will then be extended to its
whole length, all but that part which goes under the pul¬
ley : and confequently, the power that draws the cord
will have moved twice as far as the pulley D with its
weight W rifes: on which account, a power whofe in-
tenfity is equal to one half of the weight will be able to
fupport it, becaufe if the power moves (by means of a
fmall addition)" its velocity will be double the velocity of
the weight ; as may be feen by putting the cord over the
fixt pulley C (which only changes the direction of the
power, without-giving any advantage to it) and hanging
on the weight P, which is equal only to one half of the
weight W ; in which cafe there will be an equilibrium, and
a little addition to Pwill caufe ittodefcend, and raife W
through a fpace equal to one half of that through which
P defcends.—Hence, the advantage gained will be al¬
ways equal to twice the number of pulleys in the move-
able or undermoft block. So that, when the upper or
fixt block u contains two pulleys, which only turn on
the axes, and the lower or moveable block U contains
two pulleys, which not only turn upon their axes, but
alfo rife with the block and weight; the advantage gained
by this is as 4 to the working power. Thus, if one end
of the rope KMOQJre fixed to a hook at I, and the
rope pafles over the pulleys N and R, and under the pul¬
leys L and P, and has a weight T, of one pound, hung
to its other end at T, this weight will balance and fup¬
port a weight W of four pounds hanging by a hook at
the moveable block U, allowing the faid block as a part
of the weight. And if as much more power be added aa.
is fufticiennt to overcome the friftion of the pulleys, the
power will defcend with four times as much velocity as
the weight rifes, and confequently through four times as
much fpace.
The two pulleys in the fixed block X, and the two in
the moveable block Y, are in the fame cafe with thofe laft
mentioned ; and thofe in the lower block give the fame
advantage to the power.
As a fyftem of pulleys has not great weight and lies
in a fmall compafs, it is eafily carried about: and can be
applied,, in a great many cafes, for raifing weights, where
other engines cannot. But they have a great deal of fric¬
tion, on three accounts: 1 Becaufe the diameters of their
axes bear a very confiderable proportion to their own di¬
ameters; 2 • Becaufe in working they are apt to rub againft
one another, or againft the fides of the block; 3, Be¬
caufe of the ftiffnefs of the rope that goes over and un¬
der them.
4. The fourth mechanical power is the inclined plane;
and the advantage gained by it is as great as its length,
exceeds its perpendicular height Let AB (fig. 8.) be a
plane parallel to the horizon, and CD a plane inclined to
it; and fuppofe the whole length CD to be three times,
as great as the perpendicular height G/"F: in this cafe, ,
the cylinder E will be fupported upon the plane CD, and .
Plate C’ViL
MECHANICS.
kept fr'om rolling down upon it, by a power equal to a
third part of the weight of the cylinder. Therefore, a
Weight may be rolled up this inclined plane with a third
part of the power which would be fufficient to draw it up
by the fide of an upright wall. If the plane was four
times as long as high, a fourth part of the power would
be fufficient; and fo on, in proportion. Or, if a pillar
was to be raifed from a floor to the height GF, by means
of the engine ABDC, (which would then aft as a half
wedge, where the refiltance gives way only on one fide)
the engine and pillar would be in equilibria when the
power applied at GF was to the weight of the pillar as
GF to GD; and if the power be increafed, fo as to o-
vercome the friftion of the engine againll: the floor and pil¬
lar, the engine will be driven, and the pillar raifed: and
when the engine has moved its whole length upon the floor,
the pillar will be raifed to the whole height of the engine,
from G to F.
The force wherewith a rolling body defcends upon an
inclined plane, is to the force of its abfolute gravity, by
which it would defcend perpendicularly in a free fpace,
as the height of the plane is to its length. For, fuppofe
the plane AB (fig. 9.) to be parallel to the horizon, the
cylinder C will keep at relt upon any part of the plane
where it is laid. If the plane be fo elevated, that its
perpendicular height D (fig. 10.) is equal to half its
length AB, the cylinder will roll down upon the plane
with a force equal to half its weight; for it would require
a power (afting on the direftion of AB) equal to half its
weight, to keep it from rolling. If the plane AB (fig. 11.)
be elevated, fo as to be perpendicular to the horizon, the
cylinder C will defcend with its whole force of gravity,
becaufe the plane contributes nothing to its fupport or
hindrance; and therefore, it would require a power equal
to its whole weight to keep it from delcending..
Let the cylinder C (fig. 12.) be made to turn upon
flender pivots in the frame D, in which there is a hook
e, with a line G tied to it: let this line go over the fixed
pulley H, and have its other end tied to a hook in the
weight I. If the weight of the body I, be to the weight
of the cylinder C, added to that of its frame D, as the
perpendicular height of the plane LM is to its length AB,
the weight will juft fupport the cylinder upon the plane,
and a fmall touch of a finger will either caufe it to afcend
or defcend with equal eafe: then, if a little addition be
made to the weight I, it will defcend, and draw the cy¬
linder up the plane. In the time that the cylinder moves
from A to B, it will rife through the whole height of the
plane ML; and the weight will defcend from H to K,
through a fpace equal to the whole length of the plane
AB.
If the plane be made to move upon rollers or friftion-
wheels, and the cylinder be fupported upon it; the fame
power will draw the plane under the cylinder, which be¬
fore drew the cylinder up the plane, provided the pivots
of the axes of the friftion-wheels be fmall, and the wheels
themfelves be pretty large. For, let the machine ABC
(fig. 13.) (equal in length and height to ABM, fig. 12.)
be provided with four wheels, whereof two appear at D
and E, and the third under C, whilft the fourth is hid
from fight by the horizontal board a, Let the cylinder
F be laid upon the lower end of the inclined plane CB,
and the line G be extended from the. frame of the cylin¬
der, about fix feet parallel to the plane CB; and, in that
direftion, fixed to a hook in the wall; which will fupport
the cylinder, and keep it from rolling off the plane. Let
one end of the line H be tied to a hook at C in the machine,
and the other end to a weight K, the fame as drew the
cylinder up the plane before. If this line be put over
the fixed pully I, the weight K will draw the machine a-
long the horizontal plane L, and under the cylinder F:
and when the machine has been drawn the whole length
CB, the cylinder will be raifed to d, equal to the per¬
pendicular height AB above the horizontal part at A.
To the inclined plane may be reduced all hatchets,
chifels, and other edge tools which are chamfred only on
one fide.
5. The fifth mechanical power or engine is the ‘wedge,
which may be confidered as two equally inclined planes
DEF andCEF, joined together at their bafes if EF: then
DC (Plate CVIII. fig. x.) is the whole thicknefs of the
wedge at its back ABCD, where the power is applied ;
EF is the depth or height of the wedge; DF the length
of one of its (ides, equal to CF the length of the other
fide; and OF is its lharp edge, which is entered into the
wood intended to be fplit by the force of a hammer or
mallet ftriking perpendicularly on its back. Thus, AB£
(fig. 2.) is a wedge driven into the cleft CDE of the wood
FG.
When the wood does not cleave at any difiance before
the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between the power
impelling the.wedge downward, and the refifiance of the
wood afting again!! the two fides of the wedge ; if the
power be to the refiftance, as half the thicknefs of the
wedge at its back is to the length of either of its fides;
that is, as Aa to Ab, or Ba to B£ (fig. 2.) And if the
power be increafed, fo as to overcome the friftiqn of the
wedge and the refiftance arifing from-the cohehon or (lick-
age of the wood, the wedge will be drove in, and the
wood fplit afunder,
But, when the wood cleaves at any diftance before the
wedge (as it generally does) the power impelling the
wedge will not be to the refiftance of the wood, as half
the thicknefs of the wedge is to the length of one of its
fides ; but as half its thicknefs is to the length of either
fide of the cleft, eftimated from the top or afting part of
the wedge. For, if we fuppofe the wedge to be length¬
ened down from b to the bottom of the cleft at E, the
fame proportion will hold; namely, that the power will
be to the refiftance, as half the thicknefs of the wedge is
to the length of either of its fides: or, which amounts to
the fame things as the whole thicknefs of the wedge is to
the length of both its fides.
In order to prove what is here advanced concerning the
wedge, let us fuppofe the wedge to be divided length-
wife into two equal parts: and then it will become two e-
qually inclined planes; oneof which, ztabc, (Plate CVIL
fig. 14.) may be made ufe of as a half wedge for fepa-
rating the moulding cd from the wainfcot AB. It is e-
vident, that when this half-wedge has been driven its
whole length between the wainfcot and moulding, its
fide ac will be at ed; and the moulding will be fcparaterl
19-
43 MECHANICS.
to /> from the wainfcat. Now, from what has been al- of the wedge and the refinance of the cylinders againft it,
ready proved of the inclined plane, it appears, that to have
an equilibrium between the power impelling the half wedge
and the refiftance of the moulding, the former muft be to
the latter as ab to ac; that is, as the thicknefs of the
back which receives tlje flroke is to the length of the fide
againft which the moulding ads. Therefore, fince the
power upon the half wedge is to the refiftance againft its
fide, as the half back ab is to the whole fide,at:, it is plain,
■that the power upon the whole wedge (where the whole
back is double the half back) muft be to the refiftance a-
gainft both its fides, as the thicknefs of the whole back
is to the length of both the fides, fuppofing the wedge
at the bottom of the cleft j or as the thicknefs of the whole
back to the length of both fides of the cleft, when the
wood fplits at anydiftance before the wedge. For, when
the wedge is driven quite into the wood, and the wood
fplits at ever fo fmall a diftance before its edge, the top
of the wedge then becomes the ading part, becaufe the
wood does not touch it any where elfe. And fince the bot¬
tom of the cleft muft be confidered as that part where the
whole ftickage or refiftance is accumulated, it is plain,
from the nature of the lever, that the farther the power
Ads from the refiftance, the greater is the advantage.
Some writers have advanced, that the power of the
wedge is to the refiftance to be overcome, as the thick-
refs of the back of the wedge is to the length only of one
of its fides; which feems very ftrange: for, if we fup-
qiofe AB (Plate CVIII. fig 3.) to be a ftrong inflexible
bar of wood or ironfixt into the ground at CB, and D and
E to be two blocks of marble lying on the ground on oppo-
fite fides of the bar, it is evident that the block D may be
feparated from the bar to the diftance d, equal to ab, by
driving the inclined plane or half wedge down between
them; and the block E may be feparated to an equal di¬
ftance on the other fide, in like manner, by the half wedge
cdo. But the power impelling each half wedge will be to
the refiftance of the block againft its fide, as the thicknefs
of that half wedge is to the length of its afling fide. There¬
fore the power to drive both the half wedges is to both
the refiftances, as both the half backs is to the length of
both the aAing fides, or as half the thicknefs of the whole
back is to the length of either fide. And, if the bar be
taken away, the blocks put clofe together, and the two
half wedges joined to make one; it will require as much
force to drive it down between the blocks, as is equal to
the fum of the feparate powers adting upon the half wedges
when the bar was between them.
To confirm this by an experiment, let two cylinders, as
AB (fig. 4.) and CD, be drawn towards one another by
lines running over fixed pulleys, and a weight of 40 ounces
hanging at the lines belonging to each cylinder: and let a
wedge of 40 ounces weight, having its back juft as thick
as either of its fides is long, be put between the cylinders,
which will then ad againft each fide with a refiftance equal
to 40ounoes, whilft its own weight endeavours to bring
it down and feparate them. And here, the power of the
wedge’s gravity impelling it downward, will be to the re¬
fiftance of both the cylinders againft the wedge, as the
thicknefs of the wedge is to the length of both its fides;
for there will then be an equilibrium between the weight
and it will remain at any height between them; requiring
juft as much power to pufh it upward as to pull it down¬
ward.—If another wedge of equal weight and depth with
this, and only half as thick, be put between the cylinders,
it will require twice as much weight to be hung at the ends
of the lines which draw them together, to keep the wedge
from going down between them. That is, a wedge of
40 ounces, whofe back is only equal to half the length of
one of its fides, will require 80 ounces to each cylinder,
to keep it in an equilibrium between them: and twice 80
is 160, equal to four times 40. So that the power will
be always to the refiftance, as the thicknefs of the back of
the wedge is to the length (not of its one fide, but) of both
its fides.
The beft way, though perhaps not the neateft, for ma¬
king a wedge with its appurtenances for fuch experiments,
is as follows. Let IKLM (fig. 4.) and LMNO be two
flat pieces of wood, each about fifteen inches long and
three or four in breadth, joined together by a hinge at
LM; and let P be a graduated arch of brafs, on which the
faid pieces of wood may be opened to any angle not more
than 60 degrees, and then fixt at the given angle by means
of the two fcrews a and b. Then, IKNO will reprefent
the back of the wedge, LM its (harp edge which enters
the wood, and the outfides of the pieces IKLM and
LMNO the two fides of the wedge againft which the wood
adts in cleaving. By means of the faid arch, the wedge
may be opened fo as to adjuft the thicknefs of its back
in any proportion to the length of either of its fides, but
not to exceed that length: and any weight, as />, may be
hung to the wedge upon the hook M, which weight, to¬
gether with the weight of the wedge itfelf, may be confi¬
dered as the impelling power; which is all the fame in ex¬
periment, whether it be laid upon the back of the wedge
to pulh it down, or hung to its edge to pull it down.
—Let AB and CD be two wooden cylinders, each about
two inches thick, where they touch the outfides of the
wedge ; and let their ends be made like two round flat
plates, to keep the wedge from flipping off endwife be¬
tween them. Let a fmall cord with a loop on one end
of it go over a pivot in the end of each cylinder, and the
cords S and T belonging to the cylinder AB go over the
fixt pulleys W and X, and be faftened at theirother ends
to the bar wx, on which any weight, as Z, may be hung at
pleafure. In like manner, let the cords Q_and R belong¬
ing to the cylinder BC go over the fixt pulleys U and V
to the bar uv, on which a weight Y equal to Z may be
hung. Thefe weights, by drawing the cylinders towards
one another, may be confidered as the refiftance of the
wood afting equally againft. oppofite fides of the wedge ;
the cylinders themfelves being fufpended near and pa¬
rallel to each other, by their pivots in loops on the lines
E,F,G,H; which lines may be fixed to hooks in the del¬
ing of the room. The longer thefe lines are, the better;
and they fhould never be lefs than four feet each. The
further alfo the pulleys W,V and W,X are from the cy¬
linders, the truer will the experiments be ; and they may
turn upon pins fixed into the wall.
In this machine, the weights Y and Z, and the weight
/, may be varied at plealure, fo as to be adjufted in pro¬
portion
M E C H
portion of the length of the wedge’s fide to the thicknefs
of its back; and when they are fo adjufted, the wedge
wiJi be in equilibria with the refinance of the cylinders.
The wedge is a very great mechanical power, fince not
only wood but even rocks can be fplit by it ; which would
be impoflible to efFeft by the lever, wheel and axle, or
pulley: for the force of the blow, or ftroke, (hakes the
cohering parts, and thereby makes them feparate the more
eafily.
6. The fixth and lad mechanical power is the fcrenu;
which cannot properly be called afimple machine, becaufe
it is never ufed without the application of a lever or winch
to affid in turning it: and then it becomes a compound
engine of a very great force either in preffing the parts of
bodies clofe together, or in railing great weights. It may
be conceived to be made by cutting a piece of paper ABC
(fig. 5 ) into the form of an inclined plane or halt wedge,
and then coiling ir round a cylinder AB (fig. 6.) And
here it is evident, that the winch E mud turn the cylin¬
der once round before the weight or refidance D can be
moved from one fpiral winding to another, as from d to
e: therefore, as much as the circumference of a circle
defcribed by the handle of the winch is greater than the
interval or didance between the fpirals, fo much is the
force of thefcrew. Thus, fuppofing the didance between
the fpirals to be half an inch, and the length of the winch
to be twelve inches; the circle defcribed by the handle of
the winch where the power ads will be 76 inches nearly,
or about 152 half inches, and confequently 152 times as
great as the didance between the fpirals: and therefore,
a power at the handle, whofe intenfityis equal to no more
than a fingle pound, will balance 152 pounds ading a-
gaind the fcrew; and as much additional force, as is fuf-
ficient to overcome the fridion, will raife the 152 pounds;
and the velocity of the power will be to the velocity of
the weight, as 152 to 1. Hence it appears, that the
longer the winch be made, and the nearer the fpirals are
to one another, fo much the greater is the force of the
fcrew.
A machine for (hewing the force or power of thefcrew
may be contrived in the following manner. Let the wheel
C (fig. 7.) have a fcr.ew ab on its axis, working in the
teeth of the wheel D, which fuppofe to be 48 in number.
It is plain, that for every time the wheel C and fcrew ab
are turned round by the winch A, the wheel D will be
moved one tooth bythe fcrew; and therefore, in 48 re¬
volutions of the winch, the wheel D will be turned once
round. Then, if the circumference of a circle defcribed
by the handle of the winch be equal to the circumference
of a groove e round the wheel D, the velocity of the handle
will be 48 times as great as the velocity of any given point
in the groove. Confequently; if a line G (above number
48) goes round the groove e, and has a weight of 48
pounds hung to it below the pededal EF, a power equal
to one pound at the handle will balance and fupport the
weight. To prove this by experiment, let the circum¬
ferences of the grooves of the wheels C and D be equal to
one another; and then if a weight Hof one pound be fuf-
pended by a line going round the groove of the wheel C,
k will balance a weight of 48 pounds hanging by the line
Vox. III. N° 74. ‘ 2
A N I C S. 49
G; and a fmall addition to the weight H will caufe it to
defcend, and fo raife up the other weight.
If the line G, inftead of going round the groove e of
the wheel D, goes round its axle I; the power of the ma¬
chine will be as much increafed, as the circumference of
the groove e exceeds the circumference of the axle: which,
fuppofing it to be fix times, then one pound at H will ba¬
lance 6 times 48, or 288 pounds hung to the line on the
axle : and hence the power or advantage of this machine
will be as 288 to 1. That is to fay, a man, who by his
natural ftrength could lift an hundred weight, will be able
to raife 288 hundred, or 14-A ton weight by this en¬
gine.
But the following engine is dill more powerful, on ac¬
count of its having the addition of four pulleys : and in it
we may look upon all the mechanical powers combined to¬
gether, even if we take in the balance. Fox as the axis
D (fig. 8.) of the bar AB is in its middle at C, it is
plain that if equal weights are fufpended upon any two pins
equidiftant from the axis C, they will counterpoife each
other.—It becomes a lever by hanging a fmall weight P
upon the pin «, and a weight as much heavier upon ei¬
ther of the pins b,c,d,e, or f, as is in proportion to the
pins being fo much nearer the axis. The w-heel and axle
FG is evident; fo is the fcrew E, which takes in the in¬
clined plane, and with it the half wedge. Part of a cord
goes round the axle, the reft under the lower pulleys
K,w, over the upper pulleys L,», and then it is tied to
a hook at m in the lower or moveable block, on which
hangs the weight W.
In this machine, if the wheel F has 30 teeth, it will
be turned once round in thirty revolutions of the bar AB.,
which is fixt on the axis D of the fcrew E : if the length
of the bar is equal to twice the diameter of the wheel,
the pins a and n at xie ends of the bar will move 60 times
as faft as the teeth of the wheel do : and confequently,
one ounce at P will balance 60 ounces hung upon a tooth
at q in the horizontal diameter of the wheel. Then, if
the diameter of the wheel F is xo times as great as the
diameter of the axle G, the wheel will have 10 times the
velocity of the axle ; and therefore one ounce P at the
end of the lever AC will balance 10 times 60 or 6000
ounces hung to the rope H which goes round the axle.
Laftly, if four pulleys be added, they will make the ve¬
locity of the lower block K, and weight W, four times
lefs than the velocity of the axle : and this being the laft
power in the machine, which is four times as great as
that gained by the axle, it makes the whole power of the
machine 4 times 600, or 2400. So that a man who
could lift one hundred weight in his arms, by his natural
ftrength, would be able to raife 2400'hundred weight by
this engine.—But it is here as in other mechanical
cafes ; for the time loft is always as much as the power
gained, becaufe the velocity with which the power moves
will ever exceed the velocity with which the weight rifes,
as much as the intenfity of the weight exceeds the inten-
fity of the power.
The friction of the fcrew itfeifisvery confiderable*
and there are few compound engines, but what, upon ac¬
count of the fridion of the parts againft one another,
N will
5o M E C H
will require a third part of more power to work them
when loaded, than what is fufficient to conftitute a ba¬
lance between the weight and the power.
Of Mills, Cranes, Wheel carriages, and the Engine for
driving Piles.
As thefe machines are fo univerfally ufeful, it would
be ridiculous to make any apology for defcribing them.
In a common breaft-mill, where the fall of water may
be about ten feet, AA (Plate CVIII. fig. 9.) is the great
wheel, which is generally about 17 or 18 feet in diameter,
reckoned from the outermoft edge of any float-board at a
to that of its oppofite float at b. To this wheel the water
is conveyed through a channel; and fo, falling upon the
wheel, turns it round.
On the axis BB of this wheel, and within the mill-
houfe, is a wheel D, about 8 or 9 feet diameter, having
61 cogs, which turn a trundle E containing ten upright
flaves or rounds ; and when thefe are the number of cogs
and rounds, the trundle will make revolutions for
one revolution of the wheel.
The trundle is fixt upon a llrong iron axis called the
fpindle, the lower end of which turns in a brafs foot,
fixt at F, in the horizontal beam ST called the bridge-
tree ; and the upper part of the fpindle turns in a wooden
bulh fixt into the nether millftone which lies upon beams
in the floor YY. The top part of the fpindle above the
bufh is fquare, and goes into a fquare hole in a itrong
iron crofs abed (fee fig. 3.) called the rynd ; under which,
and clofe to the bulh, is a round piece of thick leather
upon the fpindle, which it turns round at the fame time
as it does the rynd.
The rynd is let into grooves in the under furface of
the running millftone G (fig. 2.) and fo turns it round in
the fame time that the trundle E is turned round by the
cog-wheel D. This millftone has a large hole quite
through its middle, called the eye of the ftone, through
which the middle part of the rynd and upper end of the
fpindle may be feen ; whifft the four ends of the rynd lie
hid below the ftone in their grooves.
The end T of the bridgenree TS (which fupports the
upper millftone G upon the fpindle) is fixed into a hole
in the wall; and the end S is let into a beam QR called
the brayer, whofe end R remains fixt in a mortife; and
its other end QJiangs by a ftrong iron rod P which goes
through the floor YY, and has a ferew-nut on its top at
O ; by the turning of which nut, the end Qof the brayer
is railed or depreffed at pleafure, and conTeqaently the
bridge-tree TS and upper millftone. By this means, the
upper millftone may be fet as clofe to the under one, or
raifed as high from it, as the miller pleafes. The
nearer the miliftones are to one another, the finer they
grind the corn; and the more remote from one another,
the coarfer.
The upper millftone G is inclofed in a round box H,
, which does not touch it any where ; and is about an inch
diftant from its edge all around. On the top of this box
(lands a frame for holding the hopper kk, to w hich is hung
the fhoe I by two-lines faftened to the hind-part of it,
fixed upon-hooks in the hopper, and by one end of the
crook-firing K faftened to. the fore-part of it at' 7 ; the 0-
A N I C S.
ther end being twifted round the pin L. As the pin is
turned one way, the filing draws up the fhoe clofer to
the hopper, and fo leffens the aperture between them •
and as the pin is turned the other way, it lets down the
fhoe, and enlarges the aperture.
If the fhoe be drawn up quite to the hopper, no corn
can fall from the hopper into the mill ; if it be let a little
down, fome will fall: and the quantity will be more or
lefs, according as the fhoe is more or lefs let down. For
the hopper is open at bottom, and there is a hole in the
bottom of the fhoe, not diredtly under the bottom of the
hopper, but forwarder towards the end i, over the mid¬
dle of the eye of the millftone.
There is a fquare hole in the top of the fpindle, in
which, is put the feeder e (fig. 10.) This feeder (as the
fpindle turns round) jogs the fhoe three times in each re¬
volution, and fo caufes the corn to run conflantly down
from the hopper, through the fhoe, into the eye of the
millrtone, where it falls upon the top of the rynd, and is,
by the motion of the rynd and the leather under it, thrown
below the upper ftone, and ground between it and the
lower one. The violent motion of the ftone creates a
centrifugal force in the corn going round with it, by
which means it gets farther and farther from the centre,
as in a fpiral, in every revolution, until it be thrown quite
out; and, being then ground, it falls through a fpout M,
called the mill-eye, into the trough N.
When the mill is fed too fafl, the corn bears up the
ftone, and is ground too coarfe ; and befides, it clogs the
mill fo as to make it go too flow. When the mill is too
flowly fed, it goes too fafl, and the ftones by their at¬
trition are apt to ftrike fire againfl one another. Both
which inconveniencies are avoided by turning the pin
L backwards or forwards, which draws up or lets down
the fhoe ; and fo regulates the feeding a^ the miller fees
convenient.
The heavier the running millftone is, and the greater
the quantity of water that falls upon the wheel, fomuch
the fafter will the mill bear to be fed ; and confequently
fo much the more it will grind. And on the contrary,
the lighter the ftone, and the lefs the quantity of water,
fo much flower muft the feeding be. But when the ftone
is confiderably wore, and become light, the mill muft be
fed flowly at any rate ; otherwife the ftone will be too
much borne up by the corn under it, which will make the
meal coarfe.
The quantity of power required to turn a heavy mill¬
ftone is but a very little more than what is fufficient to
turn a light one : for as it is fupported upon the fpindle
by the bridge-tree ST, and the end of tire fpindle that
turns in the brafs foot therein being but fmall, the odds
arifing from the weight is but very inconliderable in its
aiflion againft the power or force of the water. And be¬
fides, a heavy ftone has the fame advantage as a heavy fly;
namely, that it regulates the motion much better than
a light one.
In order to cut and grind the corn, both the upper and
under millftones have channels or furrows cut into them,
proceeding obliquely from the centre towards the circum¬
ference. And thefe furrows are each cut perpendicularly
on one. fide and obliquely on the other into the ftone,
which
Plate -JYIl!
M E C H
which gives each furrow a {harp edge, and in the two
flones they come, as it were, againft one another like the
edges of a pair of feiflars : and fo cut the corn, to make
it grind the eafier when it falls upon the places between
the furrows. Thefe are cut the fame way in both {tones
when they lie upon their backs, which makes them run
crofs ways to each other when the upper Hone is inverted
by turning its furrowed furface towards that of the lower.
For, if the furrows of both flones lay the fame way, a
great deal of the corn would be -driven onward in the
lower furrows, and fo come out from between the {tones
without ever being cut.
When the furrows became blunt and {hallow by wear¬
ing, the running {tone mufl be taken up, and both {tones
new dreft with a chifel and hammer. And every time
the {tone is taken up, there mufl: be fome tallow put
round the fpindle upon the bufh, which will foon be melt¬
ed by the heat that the fpindle acquires from its turning
and rubbing againlt the bufh, and fo will get in betwixt
them : otherwife the built would take fire in a very little
time.
The bufh mufl embrace the fpindle quite clofe, to pre¬
vent any fhake in the motion ; which would make fome
parts of the (tones grate and fire againft each other; whilft
other parts of them would be too far afunder, and by that
means fpoil the meal in grinding.
Whenever the fpindle wears the bufli fo as to begin to
{hake in it, the (tone muft be taken up, and a chifel drove
into feveral parts of the bufh ; and when it is taken out,
wooden wedges mufl be driven into the holes ; by which
means the bu(h will be made to embrace the fpindle clofe
iall around it again. In doing this, great care muft be
taken to drive equal wedges into the bufli on oppofite fides
of the fpindle ; otherwife it will be thrown out of the per¬
pendicular, and fo hinder the upper (lone from being fet
parallel to the under one, which is abfolutely necelfary
for making good work. When any accident of this kind
happens, the perpendicular pofition of the fpindle muft be
reftored by adjufting the bridge-tree ST by proper wedges
put between it and the brayer QR.
It often happens, that the rynd is a little wrenched in
laying down the upper flone upon it; or is made to fink
a little lower upon one fide of the fpindle than on the o-
ther ; and this will caufe one edge of the upper ftone to
drag all around upon the other, whilft the oppofite
edge will not touch. But this is eafily fet to rights,
by raifing the ftone a little with a lever, and putting bits
of paper, cards, or thin chips, betwixt the rynd and, the
ftone.
The diameter of the upper ftone is generally about fix
feet, the lower (tone about an inch more : and the upper
(tone when new contains about 224- cubic feet, which
weighs fomewhat more than 1900 pounds. A ftone of
this diameter ought never to go more than 60 times ,
round in a minute ; for if it turns*fafler, it will beat the
meal.
The grinding furface of the under ftbne is a little con¬
vex from the edge to the centre, and that of the upper
ftone a little more concave : fo that they are fartheft
from one another in the middle, and come gradually
nearer tgwards the edges. By this means, the corn at
A N I C S. 51
its firft entrance between the {tones is only bruifed ; but
as it goes farther on towards the circumference or edge,,
it is cut fmaller and fmaller ; and at laft finely ground
juft before it comes out from between them.
The water-wheel muft not be too large, for if it be,
its motion will be too flow; nor too little, for then it
will want power. And for a mill to be in perfection, the
floats of the wheel ought to move with a third part of the
velocity of the water, and the ftone to turn round once in
a fecond of time.
Such a mill as this, with a fall of water about 74 feet,
will require about 32 hogfheads every minute to turn the
wheel with a third part of the velocity with which the
water falls, and to overcome the refiftance arifing from
the friction of thegeers and attrition of the Hones in grind¬
ing the corn.
The greater fall the water has, the lefs quantity of it
will ferve to turn the mill. The water is kept up in the
mill-dam, and let out by a fluice called the penftock,
when the mill is to go. When the penftock is drawn up
by means of a lever, it opens a paflage tlvough which the
water flows to the wheel; and when the mill is to be ftopt,.
the penftock is let down, which Hops the water from fall¬
ing upon the wheel.
A lefs quantity of water will turn an overfhot-mill
(where the wheel has buckets inftead of float boards)
than a bread-mill where the fall of the water feldom ex¬
ceeds half the height A5 of the wheel. So that, where
there is but a fmall quantity of water, and a fall great e-
nough for the wheel to lie under it, the bucket (or over-
ftiot) wheel is always uled. But where there is a large
body of water, with a little fall, the breaft or float-board
wheel muft take place. Where the water runs only upon
a little declivity, it can aft but {lowly upon the under
part of the wheel at b ; in which cafe the motion of the
wheel will be very flow : and therefore, the floats ought
to be very Ipng, though not high, that a large body of
water may aCt upon them ; fo that what is wanting in ve¬
locity may be made up in power ; and then the cog-wheel
may have a greater number of cogs in proportion to the
rounds in the trundle, in order to give the millftone afuf-
ficient degree of velocity.
They who have read what is laid in the firft feCtion,
concerning the acceleration of bodies falling freely by the
power of gravity aCting conftantly and uniformly upon
them, may perhaps afk, Why ftiould the motion of the
wheel be equable, and not accelerated, fince the water
aCts conftantiy and uniformly upon it ? The plain anfvver
is, That the velocity of the wheel can never be fo great
as the velocity of the water that turns it; for, if it ftiould
become fo great, the power of the water would be quite
loft-upon the wheel, and then there would be no proper
force to overcome the friction of thegeers and attrition of
the Hones. Therefore, the velocity with which the wheel ■
begins to move, will increafe no longer than till its momen¬
tum or force is balanced by the refiftance of the machine ;
and then the wheel will go on with an equable motion.
[If the cog-wheel D be made about 18 inches diameter,
with 30 cogs, the trundle as fmall in proportion with 10
Haves, andthemilftones be each about two feet in diameter,
sod the whole .work be put into a ftrong frame of wood,,
aa -
M E C H A
xs reprefented in the figure, the engine will be a hand-
mill for grinding corn or malt in private families. And
then, it may be turned by a winch, inftead of the wheel
AA; the millltone making three revolutions for every
one of the winch. If a heavy fly be put upon the axle
B, near the winch, it will help to regulate the motion.]
If the cogs of the wheel and rounds of the trundle could
be put in as exa&ly as the teeth are cut in the wheels and
pinions of a clock, then the trundle might divide the wheel
exa&ly ; that is to fay, the trundle might make a given
number of revolutions for one of the wheel, without a
fraftion. Rut as any exaft number is not neceffary in
mill-work, and the cogs and rounds cannot be fet in fo truly
as to make all the intervals between them equal ; a fkilful
mill-wright will always give the wheel what he calls a hunt¬
ing cog; that is, one more than what will anfwer to an
eXaft divifion of the wheel by the trundle. And then,
as every cog comes to the trundle, it will take the next
ftaff or round behind the one which it took in the former
revolution: and by that means, will wear all the parts of
the cogs and rounds which work upon one another equal¬
ly, and to equal diftances from one another in a little
time ; and fo make a true uniform motion throughout the
whole work.. Thus', in the above water-mill, the trundle
has 10 ftaves, and the wheel 61 cogs.
Sometimes, where there is a fufficient quantity of wa¬
ter, the cog-wheel A A (Plate CIX. fig. i.) turns a
large trundle BB, on whofe axis Cis fixed the horizontal
wheel D, with cogs all round its edge, turning two
trundles E and F at the fame time; whofe axes or fpindles
G and H turn two millftones I and K, upon the fixed
ftones L and M. And when there is not work for them
both, either may be made to lie quiet, by taking out one
of the ftaves of its trundle, and turning the vacant place
towards the cog-wheel D. And there may be a wheel
fixt on the upper end of the great upright axle C for
turning a couple of boulting-mills, and other work for
drawing up the facks, fanning and cleaning the corn,
fharpening of tools, &c.
If, inftead of the cog-wheel AA and trundle BB, ho¬
rizontal levers be fixed into the axle C, below the wheel
D ; then, horfes may be put to thefe levers for turning
the mill; which is often done where water cannot be had
For that purpofe.
The working parts of a wind-mill differ very little
from tbofe of a water mill; only the former is turned by
the aftion of the wind upon four fails, every one of which
ought (as is generally believed) to make an angle of jq-j-
degrees with a plane perpendicular to the axis on which the
arms are fixt for carrying them; it being demonftrable,
that when the fails are fet to fuch an angle, and the axis
turned end-ways toward the wind, the wind has the
greateft power upon the fails. But this angle anfwers only
to the cafe of a vane or fail juft beginning to move : for,,
when the vane has a certain degree of motion, it yields
to the wind ; and then that angle muft be increafed to
give the wind its full effefh
Again, the increafe of this angle fhould be different,
according to the different velocities from the axis to the
extremity of the vane. At the axis it fhoulJ be de¬
crees, and {hence continually increafe, giving the VW it
N I C S.
twift, and fo caufing all the ribs of the vane to lie in dif¬
ferent planes.
Laftly, thefe ribs ought to decreafe in length from the
axis to the extremity, giving the vane a curvilineal form ;
fo that no_ part of the force of any one rib be fpent upon
the reft, but all move on independent oFeach other. All
this is required to give the fails of a wind-mill their true
form : and we fee both the twift and the diminution of
the ribs exemplified in the wings of birds.
It is almoft incredible to think with what velocity the
tips of the fails move when ailed upon by a moderate gale
of wind. We have feveral times counted the number of
revolutions made by the fails in ten or fifteen minutes;
and from the length of the arms from tip to tip, have
computed, that if a hoop of that diameter was to run up¬
on the ground with the fame velocity that it would move
if put upon theTail-arms, it would go upwards of 30 miles
in an hour.
As the ends of the fails neareft the axis cannot move
with the fame velocity that the tips or fartheft ends do,
although the winds ad equally ftrong upon them ; per¬
haps a better pofition than that of ftretching them along
the arms diredly from-the centre of motion, might be to
have them fet perpendicularly acrofs the farther ends of
the arms, and there adjufted lengthwife to the proper
angle. For, in that cafe, both ends of the fails would
move with the fame velocity ; and being farther from the
centre of motion, they would have fo much the more
power: and then, there would be no occafion for having
them fo large as they are generally made, which would
. render them lighter, and confequently there would be fo
much the lefs fridion on the thick neck of the axle where
it turns in the wall.
A crane is an engine by which great weights are raifed
to certain heights, or let down to certain depths. It
confifts of wheels, axles, pulleys, ropes, and a gib or
gibbet. When the rope H (fig. 2.) is hooked to the
weight K, a man turns the winch A, on the axis where¬
of is the trundle B, which turns the wheel C, t>n whofe
axis D is *he trundle E, which turns^the wheel F with
its upright axis G, on which the great rope HH winds as
the wheel turns ; and going over a pulley I at the end of
the armcf of the gib cede, it draws up the heavy burden
K, which being raifed to a proper height, as from a {hip
to the quay, is then brought over the quay by pulling
the wheel Z round by the handles z,z, which turns the
gib by means of the half wheel h fixt on the gib-poft cc,
and the ftrong pinion a fixt on the axis of the wheel Z.
This wheel gives the man that turns it an abfolute com¬
mand over the gib, fo as to prevent it from taking any
unlucky fwing, fuch as often happens when it is only
guided by a rope tied to its arm d; and people 9re fre¬
quently hurt, fometimes killed, by fuch accidents,
The great rope goes between two upright upright
rollers ; and i, which turn upon gudgeons in the fixed
beams /and £ .• and as the gib is turned towards either
fide, the rope bends upon the roller next that fide.
Were it not for thefe rollers, the gib would be quite un¬
manageable; for the moment it were turned ever fo little
towards any fide, the weight K would begin to defeend,
becaufe the rope would be ftiortencd between the pulley
M E C H A
I and axis O'; and fo the gib would be pulled violently
to thitt fide, and either be broken to pieces, or break
every thing that came in its way. Thefe rollers mult be
placed fo, that the fides of them, round which the rope
bends, may keep the middle of the bended part dire&ly
even with the centre of the hole in which the upper gud¬
geon of the gib turns in the beam f. The truer thefe
rollers are placed, the eafier the gib is managed, and the
lefs aptro fwing either way by the force of the weight K.
A ratchet-wheel QJs fixt upon the axis D, near the
trundle E; and unto this wheel falls the catch or click
R. This hinders the machine from running back by the
weight of the burden K, if the man who raifes it ihould
happen to be carelefs, and fo leave off working at the
winch A fooner than he ought to do.
When the burden K is raifed to its proper height from
the Ihip, and brought over the quay by turning the gib
about, it is let down gently upon the quay, or into a
part ftanding thereon, in the following manner : A man
takes boi<d of the rope tt (which goes over the puljey f,
and is tied to a hook at S in the catch R) and fo difen-
gages the catch from the ratchet wheel Qj and then, the
man at the winch A turns it backward, and lets down
the weight K. But if the weight pulls too hard againft
this man, another lays hold of the handle V, and by
pulling it downward^ draws the gripe U clofe to the wheel
Y, which, by rubbing hard againfl: the gripe, hinders the
too quick defeent of the weight; and not onlyfo, but even
flops it at anytime, if required. By this means, heavy
goods may be either raifed or let down at pleafure, with¬
out any danger of hurting the men who work the engine.
When part of the goods are craned up, and the rope
is to be let down for more, the catch R is firft difenga-
ged from the ratchet-wheel by pulling the cord / ;
then the handle q is turned half round backward, which,
by the crank nn in the piece o, pulls down the frame h
between the guides m and m (in which it Aides in a
groove) and fo difengages the trundle B from the wheel
C : and then,.the heavy hook J at the end of the rope
H defeends by its^own weight, and turns back the great
wheel F with its trundle E» and the wheel C ; and this
Jaft wheel ads like a fly againft the wheel E add hook 0,
and fo hinders it from going down too quick ; whilft the
weight X keeps up the gripe U from rubbing againft the
wheel Y, by means of a cord going from the weight, over
the pulley w to the hook W in the gripe ; fo that the
gripe never touches the wheel, unlefs it be pulled down
by the handle V.
When the crane is to be fet at work again, for draw*-
ing up another burden, the handle q is turned half round
forewards: which, by the crank »», raifes up the frame
and caufes the trundle B to lay hold of the wheel C ;
and then, by turning the winch A, the burden of goods
-K is drawn upas before.
The crank «« turns pretty ftiff in the mortife near o,
and flops againft the farther end of it when it has got
juft a little beyond the perpendicular; fothat it can never
' come back of itfelf: and therefore the trundle B can never
come away from the wheel C, until the handle q be turn¬
ed half round.
The great rope rufls upon rollers in the lever LM,
Voi.. III. N0. 71. 2
n r c s. 53
which keep it from bending between the axle at G and
the pulley I. This lever turns upon the axis Nby means
of the weight O, which is juft fufEcient to keep its end
L up to the rope; fo that, as the great axle turns,-
and the rope coils round it, the lever rifes with the rope,
and prevents the coilings from going over one another,
The power of this crane may be eftimated thus : Sup-
ppfe the trundle B to have 13 ftaves or rounds, and ths
wheel C to have 78 fpur cogs ; the trundle E to have 14
ftaves, and the wheel F 56 cogs : then, by multiply¬
ing the ftaves of the trundles, 13 and 14, into one ano¬
ther, their product will be 182 ; and by multiplying ths
cogs of the wheels, 78 and 56, into one another, their
product will be 4368; and dividing 4368 by 182, the
quotient will be 24 ; which fhews that the winch A makes
24 turns for one turn of the wheel F and its axle G on
which the great rope or chain HIH winds. So that, if
the length or radius of the winch A were only equal to
half the diameter of the great axle G, added to half the
thicknefs of the rope H, the power of the crane would
be as 24 to 1: but the radius of the winch being double
the above length, it doubles the faid power, and fo makes
it as 48 to 1 : in which cafe a man may raife 48 times as
much weight by this engine as he could do by his na¬
tural ftrength without it, making proper allowance for
the fridtion of the working parts. —T wo men may work at
once, by having another winch on the oppofite end of the
axis of the trundle under B; and fo make the power ftill
double.
If this power be thought greater than what may be
generally wanted, the wheels may be made with fewer
cogs in proportion to the ftaves in the trundles : and fo
the power may be of whatever degree is judged to be re*
quifite. But if the weight be fo great as will require
yet more power to raife it (fuppofe a double quantity)
then the rope H may be put under a moveable pulley,
as and the end of it tied to a hook in the gib at « ;
which will give a double power to the machine, and fo
raife a double weight hooked to the block of the move-
able pulley.
When only fmall burdens are to be raifed, this may
be quickly done by men pufhing the axle G round by the
hand-fpokes^^j,^; having firft difengaged the trundle B
from the wheel C : and then, this wheel will only adt as
a fly upon the wheel F ; and the catch R will prevent
its running back, if the men fhould inadvertently leave
off pufhing before the burden be unhooked from fi.
Laftly, when very heavy burdens are to be raifed,
which might endanger the breaking of the cogs in the
wheel F ; their force againft thefe cogs may be much a-
bated by men pufhing round the hand-fpokes^^j, whilft
the man at A turns the winch.
We have only fhewn the working parts of this crane,
without the whole of the beams which fupport them ;
knowing that thefe are eafily fuppofed, and that if they
had been drawn, they would have hid a great deal of
the working parts from fight, and alfo confufed the figure.
Another very good crane is made in the following
manner. AA (!ig 3.) is a great wheel turned by men
walking within it at H. On the part C, of its axle BC,
the great rope D is wound as the wheel turns ; and this
O rope
54 M E C H A
rope draws up goods in the fame way as the rope HH
does in the above-mentioned crane, the gib-work here
being fuppofed to be of the fame fort. But thefe cranes
are very dangerous to the men in the wheel ; for, if any
of the men Ihould chance to fall, the burden will make
the wheel run back and throw them all about within it;
which often breaks their limbs, and fometimes kills them.
The late ingenious Mr Padmore of Briftol, whofe contri¬
vance the forementioned crane is, obferving this dangerous
conftru&ion, contrived a method for remedying it, by put¬
ting cogs all around the outfide of the wheel, and applying
a trundle E to turn it ; which increafes the power as much
as the numberof cogs in the wheel is greater than the num¬
ber of ftaves in the trundle : and by putting a ratchet-
wheel F on the axis of the trundle, (as in the above-men¬
tioned crane, with a catch to fall into it, the great wheel
is ftopt from running back by the force of the weight, e-
ven if all the men in it fhould leave off walking. And
by one man working at the winch I, or two men at the
oppofite winches when needful, the men in the wheel are
much affifted, and much greater weights are raifed, than
could be by men only within the wheel. Mr. Padmore
put alfo a gripe-wheel G upon the axis of the trundle,
which being pinched in the fame manner as defcribed in
the former crane, heavy burdens may be let down with¬
out the leaft danger. And before this contrivance, the
lowering of goods was always attended with the utmoft
danger to the men in the wheel ; as every one muft be
fenfible of, who has feen fuch engines at work.
And it is furptifing that the mailers of wharfs and
cranes fliould be fo regardlefs of the limbs, or even lives
of their workmen, that, excepting the late Sir James
CreedotGreenwich, and feme gentlemen at Briftol, there
is fcarce an inftance of any who has uled this fafe con¬
trivance.
The ftrudlnreof wheel-carriages is generally fo well
known, that it would be needlefs to defcribe them. And
therefore, we lhall only point out fome inconveniencies
' attending the common method of placing the wheels, and
loading the waggons.
In coaches, and all other four-wheeled carriages, the
fore wheels are made of a lefs fize than the hind ones,
both on account of turning Ihort, and to avoid cutting
the braces : otherwife, the carriage would go much eafier
if the fore-wheels were as high as the hind ones ; and the
higher the better, becaufe their motion would be fo much
the flower on their axles, and confequently the fridlion
proportionably taken off. But carriers and coachmen
give another reafon for making the fore-wheels much
lower than the hind-wheels ; namely, that when they
are fo, the hind-wheels help to pufh on the fore ones :
which is too unphilofophical and abfurd to deferve a re¬
futation ; and yet for their fatisfa&ion, we fliall fliew by
experiment that it has no exiflence but in their own ima¬
ginations.
It is plain, that the fmall wheels muft turn as much
oftenet round than the great ones, as their circumferen-
ces ar£ iefs. And therefore, when the carriage is load¬
ed equally heavy on both axles, the fore-axle muft en¬
dure as much more frifition,, and coafequently wear out
N I C S.
as much fooner, than the hind-axle, as the fore-wheels
are lefs than the hind ones. But the great misfortune is,
that all the carriers to a man do obftinately perfift, a-
gainft the cleared reafon and demonftration, in putting
the heavier part of the load upon the fore-axle of the
waggon ; which not only makes the fridtion greateft where
it ought to be leaft, but alfo prefleth the fore-wheels
deeper into the ground than the hind wheels, notwith-
ftanding the fore-wheels, being lefs than the hind ones,
are with fo much the greater difficulty drawn out of a
hole or over an obftacle, even fuppofmg the weights on
their axles were equal. For the difficulty, with equal
weights, will be as the depth of the hole or height of the
obftacle is to the femidiameter of the wheel. Thus, if
we fuppofe the fmall wheel D (fig 4 ) of the waggon
AB to fall into a hole of the depth EF, which is equal
to the femidiameter of the wheel, and the waggon to be
drawn horizontally along ; it is evident, that the point E
of the fmall wheel will be drawn diredtly againft the top
of the hole ; and therefore, all the power of horfes and
men will not be able to draw it out, unlefs the ground
gives way before it. Whereas, if the hind wheel C falls
into fuch a hole, it finks not near fo deep in proportion
to its femidiameter; and therefore, the point G of the
large wheel will not be drawn diredlly, but obliquely, a-
gainft the top of the hole ; and fo will be eafily got out
of it. Add to this, that finre a fmall wheel will often
fink to the bottom of a hole, in which a great wheel will
go but a very little way, the fmall wheels ought in all
reafon to be loaded with lefs weight than the great ones;
and then the heavier part of the load would be lefs jolted
upward and downward, and the horfes tired fo much the
lefs as their draught ratfed the load to lefs heights.
It is true, that when the waggon road is much up hill,
there may be danger in loading the hind part much heavier
than the fore part ; for then the weight would overhang
the hind axle, efpecially if the load be high, and endan¬
ger tilting up the fore-wheels from the ground. In this
cafe, the fafeft way would be to load it equally heavy on
both axles ; and then, as much more of the weight
would be thrown upon the hind-axle than upon the fore
one, as the ground rifes from a level below the carriage.
But as this leldom happens, and when it does, a fmall
temporary weight laid upon the pole between the horfes
would overbalance the danger ; and this weight might be
thrown into the waggon when it comes to level ground ;
it is ftrange that an advantage fo plain and fo-obvious as
would a rile from loading the hind-wheels heavieft, ffiould
not be laid hold of, by complying with this method.
To confirm thefe reafonings by experiment, let a fmall
model of a waggon be made, with its fore wheels 24 in¬
ches in diameter, and its hind-wheels 4^ ; the whole
model weighing about 20 ounces. Let this little carriage
be loaded any how with weights, and have a fmall cord
tied to each of its ends, equally high from the ground it
refts upon ; and let it be drawn along a horizontal boards
•firft by a weight in a fcale hung to the cord at the fore
art; the cord going over a pulley at the end of the
oard to facilitate the draught, and the weight juft fuf-
ficient to draw it along. Then, turn the carriage, and
hang the fcale and weight to the hind cord, and it will
be
M E C H ,
be found to mov« along with the fame velocity as at firft:
which (hews, that the power required to draw the car¬
riage is all the fame, whether the great or fmall wheels
are foremoft ; and therefore the great wheels do not help
in the leaft to pu(h on the fmall wheels in the road.
Hang the fcale to the fore cord, and place the fore¬
wheels (which are the fmall ones) in two holes, cut three
eighth-parts of an inch deep into the board ; then put a
weight of 32 ounces into the carriage, over the fore-axle,
and an equal weight over the hind one : this done, put
44 ounces into the fcale, which will be juft fufficient to
draw out the fore wheels : but if this weight be taken out
of the fcale, and one of 16 ounces put into its place, if
the hind wheels are placed in the holes, the 16 ounces
weight will draw them out; which is little more than a
third part of what was neceffary to draw out the fore-
wheels. This (hews, that the larger the wheels are, the
lefs power will draw the carriage, efpecially on rough
ground.
Put 64 ounces over the axle of the hind-wheels, and
32 over the axle of the fore ones, in the carriage ; and
place the fore wheels in the holes : then, put 38 ounces
into the fcale, which will juft draw out the fore wheels ;
and when the hind ones come to the hole, they will find
but very little refiftance, becaufe they fink but a little way
into it.
But (hift the weights in the carriage, by putting the
32 ounces upon the hind axle, and the 64 ounces upon the
fore one ; and place the fore wheels in the holes; then, if
76 ounces be put into the fcale, it will be found no more
than fufficient to draw out thefe wheels ; which is double
the power required to draw them out, when the lighter
part of the load was put upon them : which is a plain de-
monftration of the abfurdity of putting the heavieft part
of the load in the fore part of the waggon.
Every one knows what an outcry was made by the ge¬
nerality, if not, the whole body, of the carriers, againft
the broad-wheel aft ; and how hard it was to perfuade
them to comply with it, .even though the government al¬
lowed them to draw with more horfes, and carry greater
loads, than ufual. Their principal objeftion was, that
as a broad wheel muft touch the ground in a great many
more pomrs than a narrow wheel, the friftion muft of
courfe be juft fo much the greater ; and confequently,
there muft be fo many more horfes than ufual, to draw
the waggon. It is believed that the majority of people were
of the fame opinion, not confidering, that if the whole
weight of the waggon and load in it bears upon a great
many points, each fuftains a proportionably lefs degree of
weight and friftion, than when it bears only upon a few
points ; fo that what is wanting in one, is made up in the
other ; and therefore will be juft equal under equal-de¬
grees of weight, as may be ffiewn by the following plain
and eafy experiment.
Let one end of a piece of packthread be faftened to a
brick, and the other end to a common fcale for holding
weights : then, having laid the brick edgewife on a tajble,
and let the fcale hang under the edge of the table,, put as
much weight into the fcale as. will juft,draw,the brick a-
long the table. Then taking bark the brick to its for¬
mer place, lay it ftat on the table, and leave it to be aft-
l N I C S. 55
ed upon by the fame weight in the fcale as before, which
will draw it along with the fame eafe as when it Jay up¬
on its edge. In the former cafe, the brick may be con-
fidered as a narrow wheel on the ground ; and in the
latter, as a broad wheel. And fince the brick is drawn
along with equal eafe, whether its broad fide or narrow
edge touches the table, it (hews that a broad wheel might
be drawn along the ground with the fame eafe as a nar¬
row one (fuppofing them equally heavy) even though they
ffiould drag, and not roll, as they go along.
As narrow wheels are always finking into the ground,
efpecially when the heavieft part of the load lies upon
them, they muft be confidered as going conftantly up hill,
even on level ground ; and their edges muft fuftain a
great deal of friftion by rubbing againft the fides of the
ruts made by them. But both thefe inconveniencies are
avoided by broad wheels ; which, inftead of cutting and
ploughing up the roads, roll them fmooth, and harden
them ; as experience teftifies in places where they have
been ufed, efpecially either on wettiffi or fandy ground :
though after all it muft be confefled, that they will not do
in ftiff clayey crofs-roads ; becaufe they .1 ould foon ga¬
ther up as much clay as would be almoft equal to the
weight of an ordb-iry load.
If the wheels we e always to go upon fmooth and level
ground, the beft way would be to make the fpokes per¬
pendicular to the naves ; that is, to Hand at right angles
to the axles ; becaufe they would then bear the weight
of the load perpendicularly, which is the ftrongeft way
for wood. But becaufe the ground is generally uneven,
one wheel often falls into a cavity or rut when the other
does not; and then it bears much more of the weight than
the other does : in which cafe, concave or diffiing wheels
are beft ; becaufe when one falls into a rut, and the other
keeps upon high ground, the fpokes become perpendicu¬
lar in the rut, and therefore have the greateft ftrength
when the obliquity of the load throws moft of its weight
upon them; whijft thofe on the high ground have lefs
Weight to bear, and therefore need not be at their full
ftrength. So that the ufual way of making the wheels
concave is by much the beft.
The axles of the wheels ought to be perfeftly ftraight,
that the rims of the wheels may be parallel to each other;
for then they will move eafieft, becaufe they will be at
liberty to go on ftraight forewards. But in the ,ufual
way of praftice, the axles are bent downward at their
«nds; which brings the fides of the wheels next the
ground nearer to one another than their oppofite or high¬
er fides are: and this not only makes the wheels to drag
.fidewife as they go along, and gives the load a much
greater power of cruffiing them than when they are paral¬
lel to each other, but alfo endangers the overturning of
the carriage when any wheel fails into a.hole or rut; or
when the carriage goes in a road which has one fide lower
than the other, as along the fide of a hill. Thus (in
the hind view of a waggon or cart) let AE and BE (fig.
5,.) be the great wheels parallel to each other, on their
ftraight axle K, and HCI the carriage loaded with heavy
.goods from C to G. Then, as the carriage goes on in
the oblique road A^B, the centre of gravity of the whole
machine and load will be atC (feep. 35. col. 1.) and the.
line
$6 M E C H A
line of dire&ion CdD falling within the wheel BF, the car¬
riage will not overfet. But if the wheels be inclined to
each other at the ground, as AE and BF (fig. 6.) are,
and the machine be loaded as before, from C to G, the
line of direction CdD falls without the wheel BF, and
the whole machine tumbles over. When it is loaded with
heavy goods (fuch as lead or iron) which lie low, it may
travel fafely upon an oblique road fo long as the centre of
gravity is at C, and the line of direftion Cd (fig. 5.) falls
within the wheels ; but if it be loaded high with lighter
goods (fuch as woolpacks) from C to L, (fig. 7.) the
centre of gravity is raifed from C to K, which throws
the line of diredtion Kf without the loweft edge of the
wheel BF, and then the load overfets the waggon.
If there be fome advantage from fmall fore-wheels, on
MED
MECHLIN, a large well built and fortified city of Bra¬
bant, twelve miles north eafl of Bruffels.
MECHOACAN, a province of Mexico, bounded by
Panuco, on the north ; by Mexico Proper, on the
eaft ; by the Pacific ocean, on the fouth ; and by Gua¬
dalajara, or New Galicia, on the weft.
MECKLENBURG duchy, a province of Germany,
in the province of Lower Saxony, about too miles
long, and 60 broad ; bounded by the Baltic fea, on the
north ; by Pomerania, on the eaft ; by Brandenburg,
on the fouth ; and by the duchies of Holftein, Lunen¬
burg, and Lawenburg, on the weft.
MECON, a great river, which rifes in the north of
further India, and, running fouth through the king-
dows of Laos and Cambodia, falls into the Indian
ocean.
MECONIUM, in medicine, a black thick fasces gather¬
ed in the inteftines of infants, and brought with them
into the world at the time of their birth.
Meconium, in pharmacy, the extract of Englifh pop¬
pies.
Meconium has all the virtues of the foreign opium,
but in a fomewhat lower degree. See Opium.
MEDAL, a piece of metal in the form of coin, intend¬
ing to convey to pofterity the portrait of fome great
perfon, or the memory of fome illuftrious aftion.
The parts of a medal are the two fides, one of which
is called the face or head, and the other the reverfe.
On each fide is the area, or field, which makes the
middle of the medal ; the rim, or border ; and the
exergum : and one the two fides are diftinguifhed the
type or the figure reprefented, and the legend or infcrip-
tion.
As to the antiquity of medals, the Greek are certain¬
ly the moft ancient; for long before>the building of
Rome the Greeks had beautiful money in gold, filver,
and copper. This plainly appears from feveral genuine
medals of Macedon, older than Philip and Alexander;
from Greek medals with the names of feveral magi-
ftrates prior to the Macedonian empire ; to which we
may add fome Sicilian coins of ftill greater antiquity.
As the Greek, medals are the moft ancient, fo are they
N I C S.
account of the carriage turning more eafily and ftiort than
it can be made to do when they are large; there is at
leaft as great a difadvantage attending them, which is,
that as their axle is below the level of the horfes breads,
the horfes not only have the loaded carriage to draw a-
long, but alfo part of its weight to bear; which tires
them fooner, and makes them grow much ftiffer in therr
hams, than they would be if they drew on a level with
the fore axle : and for this realbn, we find coach-horfes
foon become unfit for riding. So that on all accounts it
is plain, that the fore-wheels of all carriages ought to be
fo high, as to have their axles even with the breads of
the horfes ; which would not only give the horfes a fair
draught, but likewife caufe the machine to be drawn by
a lefs degree of power.
MED
the moft beautiful; they have a defign, accuracy, force,
and delicacy, that expreffes even the mufcles and veins,
and are ftruck with fuch exquifite art, as the Romans
could never come up to. Thofe ftruck when Rome
was governed by confills, are the moft ancient among
the Romans : but the copper and filver medals do not
go beyond the 484th year of Rome, nor the gold be¬
yond the year $46. Among the imperial medals, we
diftinguifti between the upper and lower empire: the
firft commenced under Julius Csefar, and ended A. D.
about 260; the lower empire includes near 1200 years,
and ends at the taking of Conftantinople. It Is the cu-
ftom, however, to account all the imperial medals till
the time of the Paleologi, among the antique ; though
we have none of any confiderable beauty later than the
time of Heraclius, who died in 641. The Gothic me¬
dals make part of the imperial ones. Modern medals
are thofe ftruck within thefe 300 years. There are no
true Hebrew medals, except a few fhekels of copper
and filver, but none of gold; though there is mention
made of one in the king of Denmark’s cabinet.
There was formerly no difference between money
and medals. An old Roman had his purfefull of the
fame pieces that we now preferve in cabinets. As foon
as an emperor had done any thing remarkable, as gain¬
ing a vitfory, giving up a tax, or the like, it was im¬
mediately ftamped on a coin, and became current thro’
his whole dominions. This was a pretty device to
fpread abroad the virtues of an emperor, and make his
adions circulate ; and thus a frefh coin was a kind of
gazette, that publifhed the lateft news of the empire.
Several of our modern coins have the legend round
the edges : but the ancients were too wife to regifter
their exploits on fo nice a furface. As to the figures
upon medals, the Romans always appear in the proper
drefs of their country, fo that we may obferve the little
variations of the mode in the drapery of the medal :
they would have thought it ridiculous to have drawn
an emperor of Rome in a Grecian cloak or a Phyrgian
mitre. On the contrary, we often fee a king of En¬
gland or France dreffed up like a Julius Caefar, as if
they had a mind to pafs themfelves upon pofterity for
Roman
MED (5
Roman emperors. Nothing is more ufual than to fee
allufions to Roman culloms and ceremonies on the me¬
dals of our own nation; nay, they'very often carry the
figure of an heathen god. If poiterity take its notions
of us from our medals, they muft fancy that one of
our kings paid a great devotion to Minerva, another
to Apollo, lire, or, at lead, that our whole religion
was a mixture of paganifm and Chriffianity. Had the
old Romans been guilty of the fame extravagance,
there would have been fo great a confufion in their an-
. tiquities, that their coins would not have had half the
ufe we now find in them.
The ufe of medals is very confiderable : they give a
very great light into hiftory, in confirming fuch paf-
fages as are true in old authors, in reconciling fuch as
are told in different manners, and in recording futh as
have been omitted. In this cafe a cabinet of medals
is a body of hilfory. It was, indeed, the bed way in
the world to perpetuate the memory of great actions,
thus to coin out the life of an emperor, and to put e-
very exploit into the mint. It was a kind of printing
before ths art was invented ; and they have this ad¬
vantage over books, that they tell their dory quicker,
and fum up a whole volume in twenty orjhirty rever-
fes: thus Mr Vaillant, out of a fmall cpiledtion of
medals, has given us a chronicle of the kings of Sy¬
ria. They are indeed the bed epitomes in the world,
and let us fee, with one cad of the eye, the fubdance
of above an hundred pages. Another ufe of medals is,
that they not only (hew the a&ions of an emperor, but
at the fame time mark out the year in which they were
performed ; for as every exploit has its date fet to it,
a feries of an emperor’s coins is his whole life diged-
ed into annals. A medallid, upon the fird naming of
an emperor, will immediately tell his age, family, and
life. To remember where he enters in the fucceffion,
he only confiders in what part of the cabinet he lies;
and by running over in his thoughts fuch a particular
drawer, will give an account of all the remarkable parts
of his reign. Nor are medals of lefs ufe in architec¬
ture. painting, poetry, ife. A cabinet of medals is a
colleftion of pidlures in miniature, and by them the
plans of many of the mod confiderable buildings of an¬
tiquity are preferred.
ImprfJfmHs of Medals. A very eafy and elegant way
of taking the impreffions of medals and coins, not ge¬
nerally known, is thus dire&ed by Dr Shaw : Melt a
little ifinglafs-g!ue made with brandy, and pour it
thinly over the medals, fo as to cover its whole fur-
face : let it remain on for a day or two, till it is
thoroughly dry and hardened ; and then taking it off,
it will be fine, clear, and hard, as a piece of Muf-
covy glafs, and will have a very elegant impreffion of
the coin. "
Another eafy method is as follows : Take a perfetd
and (harp impreffion, in the fined black fealing-wax, of
the coin or medal you defire. Cut away the wax
round the edges of the impreffion; then with a prepa¬
ration of gum-water, of the colour you would have
the pidhire, fpread the paint upon the wax-impreffion
with a fmall hair pencil, obferving to work it into all
V01..III. N°. 71. 2
r ) MED
the finking or hollow places, thefe being the rifing pari*
of the medal ; and the colour mud be carefully taken
from the other parts with a wet finger. Then take a
piece of very thin pod-paper, a little larger than the
medal, and moiden it quite through. Place it on the
wax impreffion ; and on the back of the paper lay three
or four pieces of thick woolen cloth or flannel, of a-
bout the fame fize. The impreffion, with its cover¬
ings, (hould be placed between two fmooth iron plates,
about two inches fquare, and one tenth of an inch
thick. Thefe mud be carefully put into a fmall prefs,
made of two plates of iron, about five inches and a
half long, one inch and a half wideb and half an inch
in thicknefs, having a couple of long male-fcrews run¬
ning through them, with a turning female-fcrew on
each, to force the plates together. Thefe being
brought evenly together, by means of the ferews, will
take off a true and fair pifture of the medal; which,
if any deficiencies fhould appear, may eafily be repair¬
ed with a hair pencil, or pen, dipped in the colour
made ufe of.
If a relievo only be defired, nothing is neceffary,
but to take a piece of card, or whife pade-board,
well foaked in Water; then placing it on the wax-
mould, without any colouring, and letting it remain
in the prefs for a few minutes, a good figure will be
obtained.
This method of taking off medals, ifc. is conve¬
nient, and feems much more fo than the feveral inven¬
tions ufually pradlifed in fulphur, plader of Paris, pa¬
per, fee. wherein a mould mud be formed, either of
clay, horn, plader, or other materials, which requires
a good deal of time and trouble.
MEDALLION, orMEDALiott, a medal of an extra¬
ordinary fize, fuppofed to be anciently druck by the
emperors for their friends, and for foreign princes and
embaffadors; but that the fmallnefs of their number
might not endanger the lofs of the devices they bore,
the Romans generally took care to damp the fubjeft of
them upon their ordinary coins.
Medallions, in refpe<d of the other coins, were the
fame as modern‘medals in refpeft of modern money:
they were exempted from all commerce, and had no
other value but what was fist.upon them by the fancy
of theowner. Medallions arefofcarce that there can¬
not be any fet made of them, even though the metals
and fizes ffiould be joined promifeuoufly.
MEDELP ADI A, a fmall province of Sweden lying north¬
ward of Helfingia.
MEDEOLA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria tfigy-
nia clafs It has no calix; the corolla confids of fix
revoluted fegments; and the berry contains three feeds.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Bri-
MEDIA, in geography, the ancient name of Gilan. See
Gilan.
MEDIANA. See Anatomy, p. 241.
MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, jv
278.
MEDIATE, or In teiim e d i ate , fomething that dands
between and connects two Or more terms, confidered
P as
MED ( 53 ) MED
as extremes ; in which fenfe it is oppofed to immedi- are nine fpecies, four of them natives of Britain, viz.
ate. The faicata, or yellow medic ; the fativa, or lucern; the
MEDICAGO, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de- lupultna, or meliiot trefoil; and the arabica, or heart-
candria clafs. The pod is compreffed ; and the cari- trefoil,
na of the corolla declines from the vexillum. There
M E D I
MEDICINE is generally defined to be, The art of
preferving health when prefent, and of reftoring it
•when loft.
Men would never think of any particular regimen or
mode of living in order to preferve health, before they
felt the pains which accompany the want it. The firft
painful fenfation muft neceflarily have produced a defire
for relief. But in a period when phyficians and medi¬
cines were equally unknown, how was that relief to be
obtained ? or what fyftem of conduct would man in this
fituation naturally follow ? Whoever can anfwer thefe
queftions, will unfold the genuine principles of the medi¬
cal art, and give an infallible ftandard for judging what
progrefs has been made in the improvement of it, what
particular circumftances have contributed to obftruft or
forward the knowledge and cure of difeafes.
Medicine being thus founded on a powerful inftind in
human nature, its exiftence in fome form muft have been
coeval with the firft difeafe that appeared among mankind.
Moft arts require the experience of ages before they can
arrive at a high degree of perfection. Medicine is un-
queftionably one of the moft ancient; and confequently,
the improvement of it might be expected to bear fome
proportion to its antiquity. But, whilft philofophy, in
all its branches, has been cultivated and improved to a
great extent; medicine, notwithftanding the collateral ad¬
vantages it has of late derived from anatomy and other
fciences, ftill continues to be buried in rubbifti and obfcu-
rity.
Many caufes have contributed to retard our progrefs in
the knowledge of the caufes and cure of difeafes. In the
early ages, prefcriptions were either the refult of tradi¬
tion founded upon uncertain faCts, or mere random trials
without aBy rational view of fuCcefs : Accordingly, when
any uncommon cafe occurred, the patients were placed in
crdfs-ways, and other public places, to receive the advice
of paffengers who might chance to know the difeafe or an
efficacious remedy. In this way valuable medicines might
be accidentally difcovered. But memory, and, in remark¬
able cures, engravings on pillars or the walls of temples,
were poor inftruments for recording the fymptoms of dif¬
eafes, and the ingredients of prefcriptions. ,
After the knowledge of medicine began to be ftudied
and praiffifed as a liberal profeffibn, a jealoufy of reputa¬
tion, joined to a thirft for money and ignorance of phi-,
lofophy, laid a folid foundation for medical difputation.
One party of phyficians, known by the name of Empy-
rics, excluded all reafoning, and trufted folely to experi¬
ence. Another party, called Dogmatifts, maintained, that
ao man ought to prefcribe, without being able to give a
CINE.
theory both of the difeafeand of the nature and aflion of
the medicine. This difpute continued for ages, and, like
other difputes of a fimilar nature, remains ftill in fome
meafure undecided. The principles of both thefe parties
are unqueftionably good. But the phyfician who excludes
either of them, will make but little progrefs in the know¬
ledge of his profellion. A judicious mixture of the two
is indifpenfably neceffary. Indeed it is difficult to deter¬
mine whether too great an attachment to empyricifm or
dogmatifm has contributed moft to obftruft the improve¬
ment of phyfic.
But there is one caufe which has operated more power¬
fully in preventing the improvement of medicine than e-
ven a combination of all the other caufes. Moft branches
of philofophy are principally cultivated by people who ex-
pedt their reward in reputation, notin money. The prac¬
tice of phyfic is become as literally a trade as any branch
of bufinefs whatever. Young men are taught phyfic with
no other view than that of gaining their bread. When¬
ever a phyfician gets into extenfive practice, he may
buftle and make a noife; but, even fuppofing hjs abilities
to be great, he can never find leifure to think, or digeft
his obfervations.
Another caufe of the imperfedt ftate of medicine arifes
from the varieties in conftitutions, and the complex na¬
ture of difeafes. It is even extremely difficult, after a
difeafe has been cured, to determine with certainty, whe¬
ther the cure was performed by the operation of nature,,
or by any particular virtue in the medicine. This difficul¬
ty is greatly increafed by the variety of different medicines,
and different ingredients in the fame medicine, which.are
commonly adminiftred during the courfe of a difeafe.
Of late feveral attempts have been made to reduce me¬
dicine into the form of a regular fcienee, by diftributing
difeafes into claffes, orders, genera, and fpecies. Sau-
vage was the firft, and indeed the only-perfon who ever at¬
tempted to complete this great work. Others, as Lin-
nteus, Vogel, Dr Cullen, &c. have fince endeavoured to
improve Sauvage’s method of clafling; but they have con¬
tented themfelves with an enumeration of the chara&ers
and arrangement of the different genera, without enter¬
ing into their hiftory or cure., Sauvage enumerates 315
genera, Linnteus 325, Vogel 560, and Dr Cullen has.re¬
duced them to 132. The bare infpeftion of thefe num¬
bers ffiews, that phyficians are far from being agreed with
regard to what conftitutes the generic or fpecific charac¬
ters of a difeafe. Indeed, we may venture to affirm, that
they never will agree upon this point: The diagnoftic
fymptoms of difeafes.are notfo eafily difcovered as the.fta-
mina or petals in a flower, or the number of teeth or toes
M E D I
ih a quadruped. However, before making any obferva-
tions on the advantages or difadvantages that may proba¬
bly ref.It from the’ claffification of difeafes, we fhail lay
before our readers the laft and Ihortell: dillribution, pu-
blilhed laft year by Dr Cullen, one of the profefibrs of
medicine in the univerfity of Edinburgh, under the title
of Synojjis Nofolcgite Methodic*, or rather. Genera Mor-
borum Prxcipua.
The do&or divides difeafes into the four following claf-
fes, viz.
Class. I. Pyrexia:, or Feverilh Diforders.
II. Neuroses, or Nervous Difeafes.
III. Cachexia:; comprehending fuch difor¬
ders as proceed from a difeafed ftate of the
whole or any part of the body, without an o-
riginal fever, or any nervous complaint.
IV. Locales; comprehending difeafes which
affeft a part only, not the whole body.
The /fry? clafs (Pyrexiae) is fubdivided into five or¬
ders, viz.
Order!. Febres, or Fevers, is fubdivided into two
feclions, viz. i Intermittent; and, 2. Continued
fevers.—The firft fedlion contains three genera, viz.
1. The Tertian fever; 2. The Quartan; 3. The
Quotidian :—The fecond feftion likewife contains
thrtegenera, viz. 1. The Synocha; 2. TheTyphus
3. The Synochurs.
Order II. Phlegmasia, or fevers accompanied
with any local pain. This order contains 17 genera,
viz, 1 Phlegmone; 2. Ophthalmia-. 3. Phrenitis ;
4. Cynanche; 5 Peripneumonia; 6. Pleuritis; 7.
Carditis; 8., Peritonitis; 9. Gaftmis ; xo. Enteri¬
tis; 11 Hepatitis; 12. Splenitis; 13. Nephritis;
14. Cyftitis; 15. Hyfteritis; 16. Rheumatifmus;
17. Arthritis.
Order III Exanthemeta, or eruptive fevers;
comprehending 10 genera, viz. 1. Eryfipelas; 2.
Peftis: 3 Variola; 4. Varicella; 5. Rubeola; 6.
Miliaria; 7. Scarlatina; 8. Urticaria; 9. Pemphi¬
gus; 10. Aphtha.
Order IV. Hamorrhagia, or fevers accompa¬
nied with a flux of blood, not proceeding from any
external caufe. This order comprehends 4 genera,
viz. Epiftaxis; 2 Haemoptyfis; 3. Haemorrhois;
4. Menorrhagia.
Order V Profluvia, or fevers attended with an
increafed fecretion, not naturally of the bloody kind.
T'his order contains 2 genera, viz. 1. Catarrhus ;
2. Dyfenteria.
The fecond clafs (Neuroses) is fubdivided into four
orders, viz
Order I. Comata, or lethargic difeafes; containing
3 genera, viz. 1. Apoplexia; 2. Paralyfis; 3. Ca-
talepfis.
Order II. Adynamia, or difeafes arifing from a
ftoppage or diminution in any of the involutary mo¬
tions, whether vital or natural. This order com
tains 4 genera, viz. 1. Syncope; 2. Dyfpeplia;
3. Hyponchondriafis; 4 Chlorofis.
Order III. Spasmi, or irregular motions of the muf-
cular fibres. This order contains 13 genera, viz.
CINE. 59
I. Tetanus; 2. Convulfio; 3. Epilepfia; 4. Pal-
pitatio; 5. Afthma; 6. Pertuffis ; 7. Pyrolis; 8.
Colica; 9. Cholera; 10. Diarrhoea; 11. Diabetes;
12. Hyfteria ; 13. Hydrophobia.
Order IV. Vesania, or difeafes of the mind, with¬
out a fever or coma. This order contains 4 genera,.
viz. 1. Amentia; 2. Melancholia; 3. Mania; 4.
Somnium.
The third clafs (Cachexia, or difeafes arifing from
a depraved ftate of the whole or a great pa't of the body,
without a fever or nervous complaint,) is fubdivided into
3 orders, viz
Order I. Marcores, or difeafes attended with a
wafting of the whole body; containing 2 genera, viz,
I. Tabes; 2 Atrophia.
Order II. Intumescenti a, or difeafes accompanied
with an external fwellmg of the whole or a great
part of the body. This order contains 13 genera,
viz. 1. Polyfarcia; 2. Pneumatofis; 3. Tympani¬
tes ; 4. Phyfometra; 5. Anafarca; 6. Hydrocepha¬
lus; 7., Hydrorachitis; 8. Hydrothorax; 9. Al’ci-
tes; 10. Hy-drometra; 11. Hydrocele; 12. Phy-
fconia; 13 Rachitis.
Order III Impetigines, or difeafes attendedwth
a cachexy which deforms the Ikin and external parts
of the body. This order contains 8 genera, viz.
1. Scrophula ; 2. Syphilis; 3. Scorbutus; 4. E-
lephantiafis; 5. Lepra; 6. Frambsefia; 7 Tricho¬
ma; 8. Ifterus.
The fourth clafs (Locales, or difeafes afFe&ing on¬
ly a part of the body,] is fuhdivided into feven orders.
Order I. Dysasthesia, or difeafes arifing from?
any of the fenfes being deftroyed or impaired by a
fault in the external organs of fenfation. There are
8 genera in this order, viz. 1. Caligo ; 2. Ambly¬
opia; 3. Dyfeccea ; 4. Paracufis; 5. Anofmia; 6.
Agheuftia*; 7. Anaefthefia; 8. Anaphrodifia ■
Order II Dyscinesia, or difeafes attended with,
the deflruftion ordefedtof motion in any part through
a fault of the organs. This order contains 6 gene¬
ra, viz 1. Aphonia; 2. Mutitas; 3. Paraphoniaj.
4. Pfellifmus; y. Strabilmus; 6. Contradlura.
Order III. Apocen.oses, or difeafes attended with
an increafed flux of the blood or other humours,,
without a fever, or increafed motion of the fluids.
This order contains 5 genera, viz. 1 Profufio; 2.
Epiphora ; 3. Ptyalifmus ; 4. Enurefis; 5, Gonor¬
rhoea.
Order IV. Epischesxs, or difeafes arifing from a
fuppreffion or obftrudHon of any ufual excretions.
This order contains 3 genera, viz, 1. Obftipatio ;
2 Ifchuria; 3. Amenorrhoea.
Order V. Tumores, or difeafes attended with an
increafed fize of the part, without a phlegmon.
This order contains 14 genera, viz. 1. Aneurifma
2. Varix; 3.. Ecchymoma ; 4. Schirrus;. 5. Can¬
cer; 6. Bubo; 7. Sarcoma ; 8. Verruca; 9. Cla-
vus ; 10. Lupia; 11. Ganglion: 12. Hydatis ^
13. Hydrarthrus; 14. Exoftofis.
Order VI.. Ectopia, comprehending difeafes arL
fag
M E D I
(ihg from any part’s being removed from its proper
lituation, and cauuog a tumor. This order contains
3. genera, viz. 1. Hernia; 2. Prolapfus ; 3. Lux-
Order VII. Dialyses; comprehending ulcers, and
all kinds of wounds. This order contains 7 genera,
viz. 1. Vulnus ; 2. Ulcus ; 3. Herpes; 4. Tinea;
5. Pfora; 6. Fraftura; 7. Caries.
It is needlefs to enter into an examination of the pro¬
priety or impropriety of this or any of the other modes of
diftribution. Every one of them are defedtive in many
particulars, Sauvage, Vogel, Linnasus, Dr Cullen, have
each adopted peculiar theories of particular difeafes.
Thefe theories conftitute the balls of their different clafli-
fications. Ajperfqn, therefore, who is not previonlly ac¬
quainted with thefe theories will naturally be furprifed to
find fome difeafes arranged under certain claffes and or¬
ders. For example, who would expedt to find a diarrhoea
ranked under the clafs of Neurofes, and in the order of
Spafmi, without knowning Dr Cullen’s particular theory
concerning the caufe of that difeafe ? The generic cha-
radlers of many difeafes will likewife be totally unintelli¬
gible, to fuch a ptrfon.
However, notwithftahdihg, thefe defedts arifing from
the theoretical diilribution of difeafes, we cannot hefitate
a moment in preferring even a bad method of claffing to
none at all. Every attempt towards a juft and natural
arrangement of difeafes is laudable, and has a diredt ten¬
dency to introduce fcience into the medical art; an objedt
greatly to be wilhed for, but which ftill appears to be very
diftant There is, however, a danger attending attempts
of this kind which deferves to be pointed out. In every art
which is not founded upon known fadts and eftablilhed
principles, new projedts are eagerly grafped at; and, though
they lead to error and falfe reafoning, it is long before
the profeffors of that art can be induced to give over the
purfuit. This obfervation is peculiarly applicable to me¬
dicine. The theories of difeafes, as well as the mode of
prefcription, areas variable as the fafhions of alady’shead-
drefs. No other argument is neceffary to Ihew the crude
ftate of the art, and the boundlefs field for improvement.
Now, the great danger arifing from the claffing of dif¬
eafes is this :—It will divide phyficians, in the firft place,
into two'great parties: the one party will fpend much time
and genius in (hewing the ufeleffnefs of claffing in general,
and particularly in the prefent imperfedt ftate of the art;
the other will imitate their example in defending with e-
qual keennefs. Nay, what is ftill worfe, every profeffor
belonging to this laft party, befides fpending much time to
little purpofe in juftifying claffification in general, will
Confiime ftill more time in criticifms upon every other
mode of claffing befides the one he chufes to adopt. Now,
this buftle about claffification among the teachers of me¬
dicine. will naturally lead the minds of unexperienced
{Indents to conclude, that the whole fcience confift's in a
particular arrangement of difeafes, and that they cannot
make a more proper difplay of their medical knowledge,
than by difcovering an acquaintance with all the various
methods of claffification, and an acutenefs in criticifing all
the other methods but that particular one which he has
been taught to believe as infallible.
CINE,
Having thus given a ffiort account of the origin and
prefent ftate of phyfic, we (hall now proceed to thehiftory
and treatment of dileafes.
Of Fevers in general.
Hoffmak defines a fever to be, “ A fpafmodic affec-
“ tidn of the whole nervous and vafcular iyftem, annoy-
“ ing all the fundlions of the body, arifing from any
“ caufe which has power to irritate the nervous parts to
“ a more intenfe contradion; and when it.operates, it
“ drives the vital fluids from the outward'parts to the
“ heart and great veffels ; and afterwards, when the fy-
“ ftole of the heart and arteries are increafed, they are
“ drove back with rapidity and heat, through the con-
“ drifted veffels, to the outwasd parts again, till the
“ fpafms being relaxed, the fecretions are performed, and
“ the fever vamfhes.”
The formal or fundamental caufe of a fever confifts in
the fpafmodic affeftion of the whole nervous and fibrous
genus. This plainly appears from the ufual phasnomena
of a fever, viz a pain in the back, more particularly a-
bout the loins; a coldnefs, efpecially of the extreme parts;
a (hivering, (baking, trembling ; a livid colour of the
nails; a fubfidence of the veffels of the hands and feet; a
(hrunk, dry (kin ; a yawning ; a ftretching ; a pale, livid
countenance; a trembling and palpitating motion of the
heart; an anxiety of the prsecordia, difficult breathing,
inquietude, reftleffnefs; a fenfation of an ebullition of the
blood about the heart; a contrafted, weak, fmall pulfe ;
a naufea, and an inclination to vomit; a fuppreffion of per-
fpiration ; coftivenefs, with thin watery urine.
Hence it naturally follows, that whatever has a power
to irritate and folicit the nervous and vafcular fyftem to
fpafms, is moft likely to generate a fever. To this elafs
belong violent paffions of the mind, efpecially terror and
anger; a poifonous, fubtle, cauftiq matter, either bred
within the body, or received by infeftion ; a ftoppage of
perfpiration.; a fuppreffion of critical fweats; eruptions
driven back; an abundance of purulent ulcerous matter
adhering to various parts; aliments too acrid and ffiarp;
corrupt and bilious crudities lodged in the primse vue ;
exceffive watching ; a violent pain and tenfion of the ner¬
vous parts; inflammations, tumours, and abfceffes ; hurt¬
ing the nervous parts by lharp inftruments ; acrid and cor-
rofive drugs; cold baths, and, on the contrary, thofe
that are too hot or aftringent.
According to the different nature of thefe caufes, and
the various manner of affefting the nerves, arife fevers of
divers kinds. Some are benign, ethers malignant; fome
are intermitting, others continual; fome are (imple, o-
thers compound; others regular or anomalous ; eruptive,
fpotted, putrid, heftic, or flow. Some admit.of an eafy
cure, others a difficult; fome foon terminate, others are
protrafted a long time; and many hurry the patient fud-
denly out of the world.
Yet, every frequent fyftole of the heart and arteries
difcoverable by the pulfe ought not to be called a fevet;.
For thefe may often arife from violent bodily exercife ;
or, from a commotion in the blood caufed, by hot and
fpirituous liquors That only which arifes from internal
caufes, and is preceded by fhiycring, (baking, and cold¬
nefs
M -E D I
nefs of the extreme parts, is properly a fever : For there
is always, as it were, a double motion in a fever ; the one
from the circumference to the centre, or from the exter¬
nal parts to the internal, the heart and lungs ; the other
from the centre to the circumference. The firft motion
is attended with a fmall, contracted, weak, pulfe, with an
anxiety of the praecordia and difficulty of breathing ; the
fecond with an increafed motion of the arteries, a large
pulfe, and heat extended even to the extreme parts.
The caufe of the febrile motion is an univerfal fpafm ;
and that motion never ceafes till the fpafm is refolved.
The figns of its being refolved are, a free perfpiration,
and a breathing fweat; the pulfe, which before was hard,
impetuous, and quick, becomes foft, moderate, and flow;
the urine lets fall a fediment, and the ftrength gradually
returns. When thefe appear all together, they declare
the folution of the difeafe, and are called the crifis.
Oy~ Intermitting Fevers, ar Agues.
This fever is of the regular kind, and is attended
with the following fymptoms. At firft, the head aches,
the limbs feem weary ; there is a pain in the loins about
the firft vertebra of the back, which afcends towards the
epigaftrium, with a painful fenfe of a tenfion in the hypo¬
chondria, and coftivenefs: then comes on a coldnefs of
the external parts, efpecially of the nofe and ears; a
ftretching, yawning; a fhivering and fhaking, fometimes
even to make the bed tremble under the patient; the
pulfe is fmall, contracted, and weak: again the patient is
troubled with thirft ; then follows a naufea, with afruit-
lefs reaching to vomit; again, a pituitous, bilious, or
green matter is brought up, commonly joined with a
troublefome cough, and an expectoration of phlegm de¬
rived from the acid clammy crudities of the ftomach ; to
thefe fucceeds an anxious burning and dry heat, which
pervades the whole body. The face, which was collap-
fed and pale, the contracted, rigid fkin, and“the empty
veflels of the hands and feet, begin to rife, and grow red
and turgid ; the pulfe becomes more great, full, and quick ;
the reftleffnefs increafes, the breathing is more difficult,
and the patient, with his eyes almoft clofed, begins to
talk a little wildly.
Afterwards, the fymptoms begin to abate, the heat
becomes mild, -the fldn relaxes and grows moift; the u-
rine is of a flame colour, but without a fediment; the
pulfe is more moderate ; and then a fweat breaking out,
terminates the paroxyfm. The duration of the fit is un¬
certain ; fometimes it ends in ten or eleven hours, and
fometimes not till twenty-four. On the intercalary day,
the body is flill feeble and coldifh, with a difpofition to
Ihiver; the pulfe is flow and weak ; the urine is turbid, and
depofites a fediment, or there is a nubecula which fhews
a difpofition thereto.
In the Bastard or Spurious Tertian, the fymp¬
toms are milder, the heat is not fo burning, the vomiting
is not fo frequent, and the urine is not fo high-colour¬
ed; but then it is a morelingring complaint, and on the
well day there is a laffitude and want of appetite. This
attacks men of an inactive difpofition, and women whofe
(bodies are of a loofe texture, in the autumnal f eafon.
The fit of^the Irreg'ular. Tertian dbferyes no
Vol. HI, N° 71. 2
CINE 6t
particular time ; for it fometimes comes on in the morn¬
ing, fometimes in the afternoon, in the evening, or at
midnight. The paroxyfm is fometimes longer, fometimes
fhorter ; the urine lets fall no fediment within the time of
remilfion or intermiffion; the fweating is either too fpa-
ring or too profufe. When the fit is off, feveral unufual
fymptoms may appear ; as, a loofenefs, a bleeding at the
nofe, ficknefs at the ftomach, a violent heartburn, pains
in the belly, or the gripes. Thefe fort of agues are gene¬
rally Epidemic, and moft commonly appear inthefum-
mer and autumn.
Sometimes a tertian ague is double, which may
be diftinguiffied from a quotidian, by the time of the
fits, which is not the fame every day, but every other
day.
There is fometimes a Continual Tertian, which
begins with fhivering and ffiaking, an anxiety, vomiting,
lofs of ftrength, and then a violent heat. The fits do
not intermit, but only remit. The pulfe continues fre¬
quent with heat and debility, and all the fymptoms return
with freffi vigour every other day; but at length admit a
perfeCt infermiffion.
An Endemic Tertian is proper to certain places;
as a low fituation, and full of marffies, producing a great
number of gnats and other infects, like fome parts of
Kent, and the hundreds of Effex. In fuch places, the na¬
tives themfelves have a little of it every year ; and ftran-
gers feldom or never efcape, without a prefervative, which
is only the bark infufed in brandy, with a little fnake root,
of which two ounces night and morning are to be taken.
A QUARTAN AGUE has two fits in four days, or
two days quite free from a fit.
It begins about four or five in the afternoon, fometimes
fooner and fometimes later, with a great laffitude, ftretch¬
ing, a blunt pain in the head, back, loins and legs; the
feet and hands are cold ; the whole body is pale; the
face and nails livid, to which ffiivering and ffiaking fu-
pervene. The tongue and the lips tremble, the breathing
is difficult, with reftleffnefs and toffing; the pulfe is con¬
tracted and hard, and fometimes unequal; and there is
an anxiety about the praecordia. Thefe fymptons conti¬
nue about two or three hours. In fome the body is co-
ftive; in others there is a ftimulus to ftool, and to make
water. In fome there is a naufea or vomiting, with
ftools. Some advanced in years have their minds pretty
much difturbed; the heat comes on gradually, not burn¬
ing but dry ; the pulfe becomes equal, quick, and large;
but the dull pain in the head remains, with a vertiginous
affeClion ; the Ikin becomes only a little moift ; and in
about four or fix hours the fymptoms vaniffi, except a
dull pain in the bones, joints and feet. The urine in the
fit is fometimes thin and watery, fometimes thick and with
a fediment.
Sometimes a quartan ague is double, that is, when
the fits come on every other day at different hours ; and
it is spurious when a parbxyfm begins at any other
time of the day but that above-mentioned. It is faid to
be continual, when on the intercalary days there are
ffiiverings and pandiculations, with a greater heat than
ufual, a quicker pulfe, a want of appetite, a debility, a
drynefs of the mouth, a lightnefe of the head, a difturb-
ed
62 M E D I
ed fleep, and a reddifli urine, with a thick rofe-coloured
fediment.
A QUOTIDIAN AGUE or fever returns everyday,
and is not fo common as the tertian or quartan.
The acceffion of this fever is about four or five in the
morning, with cold and fiitvering; to which fucceeds a
cardialgic naufea, and inflation of the belly ; in fome, a
pain in the head ; in others, fainting fits; in mod, vomit¬
ing or (tools, or both. Then comes on a moderate heat,
with third, but not very intenfe. The pulfe, which was
before irregular and weak, becomes more quick, but not
very hard. The urine is not of a flame but rather of a
citron colour, and turbid. Some are exceeding fleepy.
At length a moderate deep fupervenes ; and in about ten
hours or longer, the fit goes off, leaving the body dull
and heavy.
From thefe fymptoms it appears, that the whole ner¬
vous fyflem is agitated and fuffers greatly by fpadic con-
ftriftions; which proceeding chiefly from the medulla fpi-
nalis, affeift preternaturally not only the coats of the
veflels, but all the fibres throughout the body, there¬
by greatly didurbing the motion both of the folids and
fluids.
The material caufe of this, and all other fevers, ac¬
cording to Hoffman, is a fluid of an aftive nature , en¬
dued with a caudic acrimony, which folicits the internal
and exquifitely fenfible parts to fpadic contra&ions. It
is generated chiefly in the biliary dufts and flexures of
the duodenum; where the vitiated, bilious falival and
pancreatic juices meeting with the crudities of a bad di-
gedion, ferment together, and, not being timely expelled,
become virulent. This matter pafling through the lac-
teals, into the blood, and thence into the nervous parts
of the head, medulla fpinalis, intedines, and flomach, as
alfo to the nervous coats of the excretory and fecretory
dufts, excite an univerfal fpafm, which fird forces the
blood to the interior and greater veflels; and afterwards
the fydakic motion of the heart and arteries being in-
creafed, the motion of the whole mafs of blood and hu¬
mours is accelerated, and the obdrudtions of the fmall
veffels of the nervous parts are opened; upon which the
fpafm ceafing, the excretory du<As are relaxed, the fe¬
brile matter pades off through the pores of the fkin by
perfpiration or fweat, and the fit ceafes, till by the ge¬
neration of frefh matter a new paroxyfm is brought on.
As to the cure, when a load of vitiated humours in
the domach and duodenum require depletion, which is
known from having indulged in too plentiful eating,
from an anxiety of the prsecordia, from eru&ations, and
a bitter tafle in the mouth, a vomit, after the fird fit,
in the time of intermiflion, is to be given. In tender
conditutions, to grains of ipecacuanha may be given a-
lone ; hut to the more robud, a grain or two of emetic
tartar may be added. Or if it is neceflary to purge at
the fame time,
X. Take half an ounce of Epfom fait, and two or three
grains of emetic tartar. Mix them and make them
into a powder; to be diflolved in a pound of pure
lukewarm water, and taken two hours after the fit.
The evacuation ought to be facilitated with draughts of
water-gruel made fat with frefli butter. Then take the
CINE.
following elefluary, which will cruflx the difeafe in the
bud.
2. Rob of elder, one ounce; 5 drams of Peruvian bark;
2 drams of chamomile flov/ers in powder; extract
of the lefler centaury, and powder of jelliflowers, of
each half a dram ; add as much fyrup of lemon as
will make an eleftuary. Half a dram to be taken
every two hours, after the fit has gone off.
But if any thing forbids vomiting, and yet there is
plenty of ferous crude humours which require evacu¬
ation, we mud begin the cure with deterfive and aperient
falts.
When the whole inteftinal canal has been cleanfed by
thefe falts, duely repeated at proper intervals, and the a-
gue dill continues, add an equal weight of bark thereto*
or give the eledluary above pr'efcribed.
When the patient is obnoxious to the hypochondriac
paffion, the domach inflated, and the body codive, neither
vomits nor falts mud be ventured upon, but carminative
and emollient clyders.
But it mud be remembered, that neither bleeding,
nor emetics, nor cathartics, nor the bark, nor any
drengthener nor adringent is to be adminidered or gives
in the fit, or near the time it ufually comes on.
If a tertian is autumnal, obdinate, or changes to a
quotidian, the antifebrile potion of Grollius will be proper.
3. Salt of wormwood, a dram; fpirit of fulphur, a
fcruple ; 4 ouncefs of fennel water. Mix them to¬
gether for a drink.
Let the patient take it jud as the fit comes on, and be
well covered with bed-cloaths.
Bleeding is proper only in a hot feafon, when the heat
of the patient is exceflive, attended with a delirium, and
in the prime of life, full of blood, and fubjedKto paflion.
Opiates will appeafe the fymptoms; but they didurb
the crifis, and protraft the difeafe Likewife aluminous,
chalybeate, and vitriolic remedies will dop the fits ; and if
they are given to patients of the lowed clafs, care mud
be taken that they, fweat after them, by drinking hot de-
coftions, or by exercife.
Abforbents have often a happy effeifl in thefe difeafes;
but if given in too great a quantity, they will not difiblve
in the domach. Harris advifes 2 fcruples of the Ample
powder of crabs cljws, two hours before the fit, and to
be repeated in an hour, in mint-water; no fmall beer is
to be drank for eight hours after. It may be repeated
in the fame manner againd the next time the fit is expect¬
ed ; as likewife a third time.
Langrilh aflerts, that in long continued agues or inter¬
mitting fevers, which hare baffled the bark and many o-
ther medicines, he has met with more advantage from
rhubarb and calomel exhibited in fmall dofes, than from
any thing elfe he had tried.
To prevent the return of an ague, the bark mud be
repeated every week or ten days, for three feveral times,
, with the fame intervals. Likewife bitters and chalybeates
are very ferviceable for the fame purpofe.
Of the Catarrhal Fever, or/^.Continual Quoti¬
dian of the ancients.
It generally begins in the evening, with a (hivering
and
MEDIC
and a coldnefs of the extreme parts, efpecialiy of the
feet, and foies of the feet ; a co(Hvenefs; a frequent de¬
fire of making water, but the urine is fmall in quantity;
a weaknefs of the head, an univerfal languor of the whole
body, a falfe appetite, third:, difficulty of fwallowing, a
ftimulus in the larynx ; a heat in the noftrils and fauces,
attended with fneezing; a weight in the bread: to¬
wards night, heat, and a quicker, fuller pulfe, with a
defluxion of rheum, a heat in the fauces, unquiet deep,
a fweating in the morning, a heavinefs and dulnefs of the
whole body, and a lofs of appetite.
The immediate caufe of this diforder is a ffiarp acrid
ferum orlympha, fubfifting in the glandulous tunics, and
irritating them with pain, tumour, and rednefs. This
happens in the whole region of the noftrils, palate, and
fauces; as alfo in the afpera arteria, with the bron¬
chial branches ; and farther in the oefophagus, ftomach,
and inteftines. Hence a hoarfenefs, a cough, a hawking
up of vifcid matter, a fneezing, a defluxion of the lungs :
likewife a naufea, fometimes a vomiting; a heat about
the praecordia; a griping of the guts, followed with a fa-
lutary flux.
It more frequently attacks women and children than
men, and thofe that indulge themfelves in ftrong li¬
quors. It fometimes happens from the drying up of a fcald
head and other eruptions. Sometimes it is epidemical.
This difeafe is moft frequent in the fpring and autumn,
in fudden changes of the weather from hot to cold, from
dry to naoifl, and viceverfa -; as alfo from change of air,
if of different qualities ; from being expofed to the cold
air of the night, and from throwing off winter-garments
too foon.
This difeafe is not dangerous in itfelf, if rightly ma¬
naged, and terminates in feven or fourteen days at far-
theft: for the laflitude of the body then difappears ; and
the other complaints, efpecially the head-ach and hemi-
crania are appeafed, when the catarrh appears, and there
is a plentiful difcharge from the noflrils.
It often goes off, in fome, in the beginning, with an
increafed perfpiration or by fweat; in others after a few
days, by hawking up a large quantity of vift:d matter, or
a plentiful difcharge of a mucous ferum by the nofe ; in
other's, by a loofenefs, when the urine at the fame time,
which before was thin and little, becomes copious and
heavy, with twice the quantity of fediment as in a natural
ftate.
The intentions of cure are three, i. To ffieath the
acrimony of the lympha. 2. To increafe perfpiration.
3. To promote the expectoration of the vifcid mucus.
The faline fharpnefs of the lympha may be taken off by
the abforbent and diaphoretic powders, humedting and
oleous remedies; fuch as, oil of fweet almonds, fperma
ceti, milk, cream, almond emulfions, with the addition
of white poppy feeds, barley broth, water gruel, chic¬
ken broth, whth the yolk of an egg ; as alfo liquorice-
juice, liquoriCe-tea, dried figs and raifins. If the acri¬
mony is very fubtle and corroding, gentle anodynes
fliould take place, fuch as faffron, diacodium, and.llo-
sax pills.
To promote a diapborefis,
j.. Take a fcruple of the powder of contrayerva; Vir-
I N E. 6$
ginian fnake-root and faffron, of each 5 grains.
Mix and make them into a powder. To be repeat¬
ed in 4 or 6 hours, if neceffary.
To appeafe the cough,
2. Take oil of olives, an ounce and a half; pure water,
6 ounces ; fpirit of hartfhorn, 40 drops; peCtoral
fyrup, one ounce. Mix them, and take a fpoonful
every four hours.
To promote perfpiration, order tea, with leaves of
veronica, hyffop, liquorice-root, elder flowers, wild pop¬
pies, and fennel feeds ; as alfo the more fixed diapho¬
retic powders, with antifpafmodic waters; but efpecialiy
bodily motion and exercife.
To promote the excretion of the thick, vifcid mucus,
figs and raifms are proper, with brandy burnt, and redu¬
ced almoft into a fyrup. Likewife a peftorai elixir, made
of gum ammoniac, myrrh, liquorice-root, elecampane-
root, faffron, benjamin, and oil of annifeed, whofe vir¬
tue may be heightened by the vinous fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac or tirxflure of tartar. The ftagnating mucus of the
nofe may be diffolved by often holding to the nofe the
dry volatile fal ammoniac, mixed with a few drops of ge¬
nuine oil of marjoram.
The regimen fliould be tepiperate ; and cooling things,
as well as acids, ffiould be avoided.
The alimept ffiould be fparing, the drink warm and
wholefome; the heft is a deco&ion of pearl-barley and
ffiavings of hartffiorn, as alfo water gruel.
If the body is coftive ; befides water-gruel, manna,
prunes, and raifins, nothing is better than an emollient
clyfler.
In the decline of the difeafe, when the cough is too
moift, the defluxion great and obftinate, it will be proper
to take a large dofe of manna, to two or three ounces in
fennel-water, to carry the humours downward.
When the cough is very violent, it mull be appeafed
with a mixture of oil of fweet almonds frefh drawn, and
French fyrup of capillaire.
When women labour under a fuppreffion of the men-
fes, the body mull be kept open with clyflers; bezoardic
powders mull be given, and a grain of faffron added to
each dofe, or a few grains of flowers of fulphur ; but a-
void fweet things and expeftorants.
When the fever is vanquiffied, and the lungs continue
in a lax ftate, which is known from too large a ipltting, to
the bezoardic powders muft be added a few grainV of cor¬
tex ekutherias. . ^ w.
In a violent obftinate cough, fweet pectorals, and in-
craffating remedies too plentifully given, bring on-a ca¬
chexy, or phthifis, by fpoiling the appetite, and hurting
the tone of the lengs. Hoffman.
What we commonly call Catching Cold, may be
cured by lying much in bed; by drinking plentifully of
warm lack-whey, with a few drops of fpirit of hartfliorn,
poffet-drink, water-gruel, or any other warm fmall li¬
quor ; living upon fpoon-meats, pudding, and chicken,
and drinking every thing warm : In a word, treat it at
firft as a fmall fever, with gentle diaphoretics ; and after¬
wards, if any cough or fpitting fhould remain, by foften-
ing the breaft with a little fugar-candy and oil of fweet
almonds, or -a folation of gum ammoniac in an ounce of
barkv-
64 M E D I
barley-water to make the expectoration eafy, and after¬
wards going into the air well cloathed.
Of the Semitertian Fever.
This is an epedem'rc fever, compounded of ah inter¬
mitting tertian and a continual quotidian.
It generally makes its onfet before noon, with coldnefs,
ihaking, and a contracted pulfe ; to which fucceeds a
frequent pulfe, with heat, which continues fome hours,
till a warm fweat appears, without a complete intermif-
fion. The heat, after a flight chilnefs, increafes to¬
wards night, with a quick pulle; which is more moderate
the next day, without third, till the evening, when a flight
fliivering comes one, and the fymptoms return. On the
third day, the (baking fit appears again with more intenfe
beat, and proceeds in the fame track as before ; fo that
the fever is never quite off, but has an exacerbation in
the evening : however, the lhaking fit is mod confpicuous
every third day in the morning.
Befides the foregoing fymptoms, the drength fails, the
appetite is languid, deep is wanting, the urine is thin and
crude ; but after the fit on the third day, it is thick and
coloured, and a fmall quantity of crude matter is brought
up with coughing. It is fometimes attended with a pain
in the back and the abdomen, together with a fwelling in
the latter. Some at the accefs of the fit of the tertian,
are affeCted with a naufea and cardialgia. Some vomit,
others faint, and others again are delirious.
This fever is generated by all things that render the
humours thick and impure, efpecially thofe that fill the
primae vise, and the veflels of the mefentery, with im¬
purities. Thofe are mod liable to it who live upon
fweet, acid, and fermentable aliment, that live an idle
fedentary life, that drink lefs than they ought, or love
fweet wines; as alfo thofe that give way to fadnefs and
melancholy.
It generally terminates either on the ninth or thirteenth
day, in health, or another difeafe, or death.
It is a good fign when a fweat breaks out at the decline
of the paroxyfm, and when, on the feventh day, being
critical, or, after it, the belly is didurbed, and is follow¬
ed with a flux of a bilious, pituitous, or bloody matter,
for it foretels the folution of the difeafe ; as alfo when
the pains in the belly are very (harp, and grow worfe
at certain hours, being followed with a fanious and
purulent diarrhoea, or when plenty of black blood comes
away.
ft is a bad lign, when nothing of this happens : but,
on the other hand, a heat about the prsecordia, a tendon
and pain in the whole region of the domach, a vomiting
and hiccup, inquietude, tofling and trembling of the hands,
are very ominous, and (hew that the inflammation has
reached the domach.
The cure is to be performed, I. By fpeedily difeufling
the inflammatory dafis in the coats of the intedines and
mef ntery, and preventing it from fpreading farther. 2.
By corre&ing and gently evacuating the matter of the in¬
termitting fever.
The fird end may be obtained by diaphoretic powders,
mixt with a little nitre, in frpall dofes, but taken often.
Take of fcorzonera root, 2 ounces ; (havings of
CINE.
hartfliorn, and paflular. minor, of each one ounce ;
of cichory root, half an ounce. Boil the ingredients
for half an hour in 8 pounds of water.
To cleanfe the fird paflages, and to carry off the mor¬
bid matter, ufe a folution of manna with cream of tartar,
raifins, and a little fal polychred.
Things of this kind cleanfe the intedinal canal, without
railing a commotion in the blood, without dimulating the
nervous parts, and without finking the fpirits.
Purges in the beginning are unfafe, becaufe the mor¬
bific matter is not prepared ; but if the body is codive, it
may be opened with an emollient and faponaceous clyder.
All deterfive falts are improper in this difeafe, except
dibiated nitre and fal polychred. ; for thefe have an ape¬
rient, diuretic and laxative virtue, and may be given to
1 j grains in a proper vehicle. When this fever is on the
decline, and nature feems intent in carrying off the dif¬
eafe by dool, then the above laxative will be proper.
Bleeding will be" proper in the very beginning of the
difeafe, if the patient is plethoric, the heat urgent, the
ftrength not much impaired, and when fome critical
hemorrhage is fupprefled. All heating medicines are to
be avoided, as well as fixt adringent earthy tedaceous
powders; and alfo the bark, unlefs there is a perfect in-
termiflion ; for this lad, as Baglivi obferves, has brought
on fatal inflammations, or flow hedtic fevers.
Cy//5* Nervous Fever.
In a nervous fever, the patients at fird are fubjedt to
flight tranfient chilnefles often in a day, with uncertain
fluftiings of heat; they have a liflleflhefs, laffitude, and
wearinefs ; they are apt to figh, and complain of a beavi-
nefs, dejedtion, and anxiety, with a load, pain, or gid-
dinefs of the head, with an inclination to yawn and doze;
they want appetite, and difrelidi every thing ; they have a
drynefs of the lips and tongue without any confiderable
third ; they have frequent naufea’s, with reaching to
vomit: the breathing is difficult by intervals, and efpe¬
cially towards night there is an exacerbation of the
fymptoms, with a low, quick, unequal pulfe ; the urine
is pale, and made often and fi ddenly; a torpor, or ob-
tufe pain and coldnefs often affedt the hind-part of the
head, or a heavy pain is felt along the coronary future.
Thefe commonly precede fome degree of a delirium.
The countenance is heavy, pale, and dejedted : fome¬
times they are quite wakeful ; and when they fall afleep,
they are fo infenfible of it, that they difown it.
The pulfe is very remarkable in this difeafe, and re¬
quires the mod diligent attention ; for it is generally low,
quick, and unequal: the inequality confids in this, that
a few pulfations (hall be more fwift, frequent, and large,
fometimes fluttering ; and then prefently it returns to be
low and quick.
The urine has generally no fediment; and when it has,
it is like bran ; it is fometimes of a whey-colour, or like
dead fmall-beer. The drynefs of the tongue feldom ap¬
pears at the beginning, though it is then fometimes covered
with a thin whitifti mucus ; but at the clofe of the dif¬
eafe, it often appears very dry, red, and chapped.
About the feventh or eighth day the giddinefs, pain, or
heavinefs of the head, become much greater, with a con-
ftant
M E D I
Rant noife in it, or tingling of the ears, which is fre¬
quently the forerunner of a delirium.
The load on the praecordia, the anxiety and faintnefs,
grow much more urgent; and the patient often falls into
an aftual deliquium, efpecially if he attempts to fit up.
Now, cold fweets appear fuddenly on the forehead and
back of the hands, while the cheeks and palms glow with
heat, and as fuddenly go off. If the urine grows more
pale and limpid, a delirium is certainly at hand, with
univerfal tremors and fulfultur tendinum ; the delirium
is generally little more than a confufion of thought and
adfion, a continual muttering and faultering of fpeech.
Sometimes they awake in a hurry and confufion, and
prefently recolletS themfelves, but forthwith fall into a
muttering, then doze again.
At the ftate, the tongue grows often dry, with a yel¬
low lift on each fide ; and when the patient attempts to
put it out, it trembles greatly. If at this time a copious
fpitting comes on, it is a very good fign. When there
is a difficulty of fwallowing or continual gulping, it is a
dangerous fymptom, efpecially with a hiccup.
On the ninth, tenth, or twelfth day, the patient often
falls into profufe fweats, which at the extremities are
commonly cold and clammy; and frequently there are
thin (tools, which are generally both colliquative and
very weakening. A warm moiliure on the (kin is rec¬
koned falutary; and a gentle diarrhoea often carries off
the delirium" and lleepinefs.
When the extremities grow cold, the nails livid, the
pulfe exceeding weak and quick, infomuch that it rather
trembles and flutters than beats, or creeps furprifingly
flow, with frequent intermiffions ; then nature finks apace,
and the patient becomes quite infenfible and Aupid ; the
delirium turns to a profound coma, which foon ends in
death; or the (tools, urine, and tears, runoff involuntarily,
as a prelude to a fpeedy diffolution ; or there are vaft
tremblings and twitchings of the nerves and tendons,
which terminate in a general convulfion, and this in a
ceffation of all motion. One or other of thefe ways
clofes the fcene, after the patient has languiffied fourteen,
eighteen, or twenty days, nay, fometimes much longer.
All perfons grow deaf and ftupid towards the end of
the difeafe, and if thedeafnefs endsinanimpoflhume of the
ear, or when a parotis fuppurates, or a large puftular e-
ruption breaks out about the lips and nofe, they are good
fymptoms.
The cure is to be performed with gentle medicines of
the cordial and diaphoretic kind, in order to promote per-
fpiration ; by application of blifters, and by a proper re¬
gimen and method of diet. It will bear no other evacu-
attion than moderate cordial diaphoretics, and blifters ;
unlefs a gentle emetic (hould be indicated in the beginning,
or a fmall dofe of rhubarb when it has continued long.
Bleeding is very prejudicial, and much fweatirg hurtful.
In giving diaphoretics, we fficuld always have regard to
the urine; for if that, from being pale, gradually heightens
to an amber colour, we are right in our dofe, efpecial¬
ly If. when in bed, a gentle dew or moifture. comes on
without a rtftleffhefs ; and we muft always remember, that
over-fweating will raife the fever, and endanger the patient.
Jf the patient is inclinable to deliquia or faintings on
Vol. III. N°. 71.
CINE 65
every little motion, or complains of greater laffitude or
faintnefs than ordinary, it will be neceflary that he he irt
bed and have blifters applied ; if delirious, the blifters
muft be laid on high on the nape of the neck.
If reft is wanted, give a few grains of the flares mar-
i tales; and if a loofenefs is not feared, the flares mart tales,
may be more freely given.
A vomit ruffles nature much lefs than a common purge,
and is neceflary where a naufea, load, and ficknefs of the
ftomach, are urgent. If the body is coftive, clyfters of
milk, fugar, and fait, maybe injefted with fafety and adr
vantage every fecond or third day. The temperate cor¬
dial and diaphoretic medicines are certainly moft proper
in thefe fevers ; a fupporting, well regulated, diluting
diet is neceflary, and will go a great way in the cure, e-
fpecially if aflifted by well timed blifters, and keeping the
patient quiet in body and mind. Opiates are commonly
very pernicious ; mild diaphoretics, as pulv. contrayerv
compof. with a little caftor and faffron, and fmali quan¬
tities of theriac. andram. ox elixir paregcricum, will have
much better effefls. Where the confufion or dejeAion
of fpirits are confiderable, galbanum or fylphium, with
a little camphire, (hould be added ; and blifters (hould be
forthwith applied to the neck, occiput, and behind the
ears : during all this, a free ufe of thin wine-whey. Tome
pleafant ptifan, with a little foft wine, muft be indulged.
A little chicken-broth alfo is of fervice, both as food and
phyfic, efpecially towards the decline of the diforder ;
and for the fame reafon, thin jellies of ha-rtfhorn, fago,
and panada, are ufeful, adding a little wine to them*
with juice of Seville oranges or lemons.
It was faid above, that profufe fweats (hould never be
encouraged ; yet the patient is never fo eafy as while he
is in a gentle, eafy fweet, for it foon removes the exacer¬
bation of the beat, hurry, fee. when there are irregular
partial heats, with great anxiety, reftkflnefs, delirium,
difficulty of breathing, and a vaft load and oppreflion on
the praecordia, fo as to refemble a peripneumonic cafe :
yet beware of bleeding ; for the fmall, low, quick, and
unequal pulfe utterly forbids it, as well as pale, watery,
limpid urine.
Here then the nervous cordial medicines are indicated,
and blifters to the thighs, legs, and arms.
Take of the compound powder of contrayerva, xy
grains ; of Englifh faffron, 3 grains ; a fcruple of the
cardiac confe&ion ; and a fufficient quantity of fyrup
of faffron to make a bolus.
When great tremors and fubfultus tendinuvi come on,
inftead of the pulv is contrayerva, a fcruple of mufle may
be ufed.
This bolus (hould be taken every fifth, fixth, or eighth
hour, and a temperate cordial julep may be given now
and then out of thin wine or cyder-whey, or, which in
many cafes is better, out of thin muftard-whey.
But this difficulty of breathing, anxiety, and oppref-
fion of the praecordia, often precede a miliary eruption on
thefeventh, ninth, or eleventh day, which (houldbe pro¬
moted by foft, eafy cordials, proper diluents, fometimes
with a little theriaca androm. or elixir afthma. as tend¬
ing to calm the uneafinefs, and to promote a diaphorefis..
In profufe, colliquative fweets, give a little generous
R 2 red
66 M E D I
red wine, perhaps a little diluted, which moderates the
*weat, fupports the patient, and keeps up the miliary pa¬
pillae.
Towards the decline of the fever, when the fweets are
copious and weakening, give fmall dofes of the tindture
of the bark, with faffron and fnake-root, interpofing now
and then a dofe of rhubarb, to carry off the putrid col-
luvies, which makes the intermiflions or remillions more
diftindt and manifelL
When there is an evident intermillion, give preparations
©f the bark out of draughts made with fait of wormwood
and juice oflemon. This method willlhorten thefefevers,
even with miliary eruptions.
Under any evacuations, diluting nourilhment is abfo-
lutely neceflary to keep up the fpirits and repair the lofs
of the juices, and the patient Ihould be frequently prompt¬
ed to take them. When any difcharges are very immo¬
derate, they may be prudently retrained, but not repel¬
led.
Gilchrilt affirms, that to all the warming, attenuating,
Simulating, or antifpafmodic remedies, cinnabar Ihould be
added, and that in no fmall quantity. And he highly
recommends the ufe of the bark in the decline of long
nervous fevers, or after a remillion. And when there is
eccalion for blillering, he thinks the head moll preferable
whenever it is much affedted, though he does not difap-
prove the laying blifters on the back and limbs.
When the low, deprelling, nervous fymptoms are
ftronger, the higher methods of Simulating are more ne¬
ceflary and ealily borne ; in raving, with a low, inter¬
mitting pulfe, fubfultus, fainting, and coldnefs of the
extremities, belides frequent bliftering, we muft give
camphire and caftor. The ufes of Virginian fnake-root,
valerian, afa fsetida, myrrh, and terreous abforbents, are
well enough known, and the forms in which they are
given. Refrelhing juleps Ihould not be taken by fpoon-
fuls, but by draughts. Acrid cataplafms may be laid to
the feet till they begin to ftimulate or raife a jull degree
of heat: then apply poultices of bread, milk, and vine¬
gar, efpecially during the exacerbation, to allay the heat
and ftruggle ; renewing them alternately, in orderjokeep
Up a gentle heat and ftimulus. A quick, hard, and more
contraded pulfe, with fmart heat, tofling and anxiety,
Ihew it is over-done.
d/'Epidemic, Catarrhal, Eruptive Fevers.
These fevers are continual, but not violent: they are
attended with a proflration of ftrength, watching, lofs
of appetite, and are fometimes joined with an eruption of
fpots on the flcin, arifing from the plenty and inteftine
diflblution of an excrementitious ferum, not without con¬
tagion and danger of life.
Thefe fevers were called by the ancients, continual,
quotidian, ferous fevers; and by (bme of the moderns,
snalignant catarrhal fevers, becaufe they are mild atfirft,
and attended with a running at the nofe, a catarrh, an
infafdion of the breaft, and a cough on the firft days, with
exacerbations at night.
At the beginning of this difeafe, the face of the patient
has a morbid afped, and he is out of order three or four
days before he takes to his bed. He complains of a fpon-
C I N E.
taneous wearinefs, a grievous pain of his body and joints,
as if his bones were bruifed and broken ; his ftrength is
languid, his appetite is loft, he has a flight fainting fit,
a cardialgic naufea, a pain in the head, an unquiet fleep,
with coftivenefs. In the evening there is a coldnefs and fhi-
vering followed by heat, the fymptoms increafe, and there
is a greater lofs of ftrength, infomuch that he can fcarce
ftand upright. The pain in the head grows worfe, with
a giddinefs and inquietude. Some have a violent pain in
the back, others in the fide: they have an anxiety about the
praecordia, the internal parts are hot, the fauces dry, the
pulfe contraded, quick and weak, the urine is pale with¬
out a fediment, and the breathing difficult.
On the fourth or eleventh day, fpots appear in fome,
chiefly on the hack, breaft, and arms, with or without
relief. Some have more, fome lefs, of various colours,
as purple, a browniih, livid, or a pale rofe. Thefe are
fometimes broad, fometimes fmall ; and in many like flea-
bites. Thefe different fpots ferve to diftinguifh the fever
by feveral names, fuch as miliary, pundicular, baftard
petechial, and the like.
When this difeafe is at its ftate, or vigor, all the
fymptoms are worfe ; the inquietude runs very high, as
well as the tofling of the body with unufuaJ poftures.
Themind is difturbed, the fpeech incoherent, fleep want¬
ing, the fweat is coldifh, with a more intenfe difficulty
of breathing, and a contraded, unequal, quick and fre¬
quent pulfe, as in the nervous fever.
When a fubfultus tendinum, want of thirft, rumbling
in the belly, hiccup, an inflamation of the fauces from
aphthae, convulfions, a fyncope, with coldnefs of the ex¬
tremities, and a moft plentiful fweat, fupervene to thefe
fymptoms, they are certain forerunners of death. On
the other hand, when a fweat breaks out about or on the
critical days, that is, the feventh, eleventh, or fourteenth
day, and continues feveral days, tho igh want of ftrength
remains ; or if there is a loofenefs for fome days, it is a
fign of health : and this the more certain, if the contrac¬
ted pulfe enlarges, the hard grows foft and becomes more
equal ; if the patient is more chearful, and his lying in
bed more fedate, with a hardnefs of hearing, and a turbid
urine depofiting a fediment. If this happens about the
critical days, it is a certain fign of a happy event. After
this the fleep, appetite, and ftrength, gradually return;
but this is feldom the cafe before the fourteenth day.
Patients of a ftrong conftitution, the common people,
and ruftics, with a good regimen alone, generally fucceed
better than the weak, the timorous, the fad, the thoughtful,.
the luxurious, the flothful, and the ftudious. All excre¬
tions by urine, ftool, or fweat, are bad in the beginning,,
and on other days except the critical. Thofe that die
are carried off by a phrenfy, or an inflammation of the
meninges, or of the oefopbagus and faeces from aphthae
of the ftomach itfelf. If blood is taken away in thefe dif-'
eafes, it is either of a bright red,-’Very fluid and .ferous,
or too thick and blackilh.
In the cure of this difeafe, the phyfician (hould take
care not to difturb the falutary excretions, but proceed
cautioufly, and abftain from ftrong medicines of every
kind, watching and aflifting.the motions of nature as much
aspoflible. The indications are, To reftrain and pre¬
vent
MED!
vent the' entire diffolution of the blood and humours. 2.
To temperate and dilute the falino-fulphureous acrimony
of the humours, and at the fame time to keep the fluids
fluxile. 3. To promote gently the excretions by ftool,
urine, the ficin, and fpittle. 4. To affift and rdtore the
loft ftrength.
To prevent the putrid diftblution of the humours, direift
vinegar, the juices of oranges and lemons, and fyrups of
the fame ; fpirit of vitriol, fpirit of fait, fpirit of nitre,
efpecially thofe that are dulcified.
To abate the acrimony, abforbent, teftaceous, and
bezoardic powders will be proper. To dilute at the fame
time, you may order a deco&ion of barley with fcorzo*
nera and (havings of hartfhorn ; as alfo the fyrup of o-
range juice, chicken broth, and the like.
To promote the cuticular excretions, give diaphoretic
fimple waters, alexitereal waters, with the tin&ure of va¬
lerian root, or fnake root. To aflift the excretions by
ftool, common domeftic clyfters will be ufeful ; or thofe
made of a decoftion of barley, oil of fweet almonds, ca¬
momile flowers, elder flowers, fyrup of violets, common
fait, or nitre.
Or you may order the following laxative, which muft
be given with caution.
Take 2 ounces of manna, a dram of cream of tartar,
3 ounces of fcorzonera water, half an ounce of fyrup
of violets, 3 drops of oil of juniper. Mix and make
them into a draught.
To raife the fpirits and reftore the ftrength, a little
wine will not be improper, with hartfhorn jellies, China
orange or Seville orange juice with fugar.
A congruous regimen in thefe difeafes is of very great
confequence; for if the patient is kept too hot, the dif¬
folution of the blood will be promoted, a coftivenefs will
be induced, the anxiety will be increafed, the impure fait
and acrid humours will be actuated, the ftrength will be
exhaufted, the fweating willbetoofpeedyand profufe, and
fpots will appear on the (kin. On the other hand, if cold
is incautioufly admitted, efpecially to the feet, perfpira-
tion will be checked, the eruptions and fpots will be dri¬
ven back: There will be griping pains, a loofenefs, and
the critical evacuations will be difturbed. All fudden
changes from hot to cold, or cold to hot, are equally bad.
A temperate regimen is beft. However, care (hould be
taken that the patient does not breathe his own atmo-
fphere full of morbid exhalations, fo very prejudicial to
health ; but the air (hould be drawn out of the room, and.
frelh admitted..
The perfpiration (hould conftantly be kept up, and the
linen of any kind (hould not rafhly be changed, nor (hould
the patient be removed from one bed to another. He
(hould be enjoined not to rife frequently. And if the
bed-deaths are wet and muft needs be changed, let them
be well aired, and pretty much worn.
An ereft pofture of the head and body is to be (hunned
either in or out of bed, efpecially if the ptilfe is very weak
and the ftrength little ; as alfo when the difeafe is near the
ftate
The mind (hould be kept as chearful as poffible, and
all occafions (hunned of exciting anger, fear, terror, or
pufillanimjty in the patient. His hope of recovery (hould
C I N E. 67
be kept up as much as poflible, inftead of being terrified
with the predidion of death.
It is an undoubted axiom, that all ftrong medicines are
hurtful in this difeafe; fucb as emetics, purgatives, and
diuretics; as alfo fudorifics of too fpirituous a nature:
But temperate and moderate things are very ufeful.
It muft be remembered likewife,. that thefe fevers have
certain types and periods, and exacerbations and remiffions
at certain times ; which a phyfician (hould always carefully
obferve. In the frebile heat, and when the fymtoms are
moft intenfe, humettants, diluents, and the abforbent ni¬
trous powders abovementioned will be moft proper, with
a very moderate external regimen. When the pyroxyfm
is ended, the (kin lax, more foft, and difpofed for excre¬
tions ; then analeptics, medicines th|at ftimulate; and if
there isoccafion, bezoardics, and things that promote per¬
fpiration; as aifo theinfufion of veronica, fcordium, and
liquorice, drank as tea, are likely to do the greateft fer-
vice. And becaufe a diarrhesa frequently carries off the
difeafe, it is never to be (lopt, efpecially about the criti¬
cal times, neither with aftringents, fedatives or opiates:
But if nature tends to this excretion, and is too (luggifh,
(he is to be affifted by the laxative draught above deferi--
bed, with the addition of tamarinds.
There is no evacuation fo dangerous as bleeding at the
nofe ; for then there is a congeftioh of blood in the head
from the fpafms of the lower parts, However, if the
flux of blood is moderate, and the body abounds with it,
inftead of being hurtful, it will relieve the head, though
this feldom happens. When there are a few drops only
without alleviation, they portend a delirium and an inflam¬
mation of the fauces : But when the flux is copious, the
ftrength will diminifti, and the eruptions return inwards
not without danger. Therefore, to prevent a conflux of
blood to the head, the feet muft be always kept in a
moderate heat and.moifture; mild blifters (hould be laid
to the calves of the legs, and the body (hould be opened
with clyfters or folutions of manna, Thefe will alfo be
ferviceable when the haemorrhage is too large. But when
it is too little, and the eyes look red and wild, with a
ftrong puifation of the temporal arteries, befides the for¬
mer, it will be proper to apply cupping-glaftes to the nape
of the neck, or to thruft a draw up the nofe to caufe it to
bleed, or toufe a fcarifying inftrument.
Bleeding in thefe fevers muft be ufed with great circum-
fpedlion ; for it is much more proper as a prefervative than
a cure. But when the difeafe has made its onfet with
great lofs of ftrength, complicated with catarrhal diforders,
and when putrid and malignant fevers are rife, it muft be
always omitted. If the ftomach has lately beqn furfeited
with incongruous aliment, a grain or two of tartar emetic
in a folution of manna will be neceffary. Blifters will be
of great ufe when a retroceffion of the eruptions is appre¬
hended, when the excretions are (low, and when there
is a fleepinefs and torpor; in which cafes, they may be laid
to the arms and calves of the legs;
Of the Malignant, Goal, and Spotted Fevers.
The true fpotted fevers are very malignant, contagi¬
ous, and detrimental to the head and ftrength, attended
with fpots of various colours, arifing from a corruption
63 MED!
of the vital fluids, and a putrid diffolution confequent
thereupon.
Thefe petechial fevers are defervedly called malignant,
or poifonous, as they generally proceed from a mod fub-
tile, active, virulent vapour, or miafma, which is infec¬
tious. At firft they often feem mild and gentle, and have
the appearance of catarrhal fevers; but they foon exert
their virulent effe<fh in a mofl fatal manner.
‘ At firft the patient complains of great weaknefs and lofs
of ftrength. and is apt to faint away.
The head aches, and from the very beginning is hot,
dull, attended with a dejeftion of mind. There is con-
ftant watchfulnefs; the appetite is loft ; the pulfe is lan¬
guid, fmali, and unequal ; there is an oppreffion of the
breaft, fometimes a dry cough, an undulatory and tremu¬
lous twitching of the mufcuiar and tendinous fibres, with
a fubfultus tendinum. Many neither complain of heat,
nor pain,- nor anxiety, and affert that they feel nothing
bad, but weaknefs and want of fleep. The urine is ge¬
nerally thin at firft, and like that of found people. On
the fourth, fifth, or the feventh day, the fpots appear
principally on the back and loins, of various colours, ge¬
nerally without relief; wherefore they are rather fympto-
matical than critical.
Huxham fays, thefe fevers attack with much more vio¬
lence than the flow and nervous ; the rigors, if any, are
greater, the heats {harper and more lafting, yet at firft
fudden, tranfient, and remittent; the pulfe more tenfe or
hard, but commonly quick and fmall, though fometimes
flow and feemingly regular for a time, and then fluttering
and unequal. The head-ach, giddinefs, naufea, and vo¬
miting, are much more confiderable, even from the very
beginning. Sometimes a fevere fixed pain is felt in one or
both temples, or over one or both eye-brows, frequent¬
ly in the bottom of the orbit of the eyes. The eyes al¬
ways appear very full, heavy, yellowifli, and often a lit¬
tle inflamed. The countenance feems bloated, and more
dead-coloured than ufual. Commonly the temporal arte¬
ries throb mu . h. and a tinnitus aurium is very trouble-
fome; a ftrong vibration alfo of the carotid arteries comes
on frequently in the advance of the fever, though the pulfe
at the wrift may be fmall, nay, even low; This is a cer¬
tain fign of an impending delirium.
The proftration of fpirits, weaknefs, and faintnefs, are
often furprifingly great and fudden ; fometimes, when the
pulfe feems tolerably ftrong, the refpiration is very labo¬
rious, and interrupted with a kind of fighing or fobbing,
and the breath is hot and offenfive.
There is generally a fort of lumbago, or pain in the back
and loins, a wearinefs, forenefs, and pain in the limbs.
Sometimes a great heat, load, and pain at the pit of the
ftomach, with a perpetual vomiting of porraceous or black
bile, of a naufeous fmeil, with a troublofome hiccup.
The tongue at the beginning is white, but grows daily
more dirk and dry, or of a fhioingv livid colour, with a
kind of bubble at the top; fometimes exceeding black for
many days: At the height, it is generally dry, ftiff, and
black, and the fpeech fcarcely intelligible.
The thirft, in the increafe of the fever, is commonly
very great, fometimes unquenchable; and all the drinks
Ceem bitter and maukifti} at other times there is no thirft,
C I N ’ E.
though the mouth and tongue are exceedingly foul and
dry ; this is a dangerous fymptom, and ends in a phrenzy
or coma. The lips and teeth, near the ftate, are furred
with a very black tenacious fordes.
Attheonfetof the fever, the urine is often crude, pale,
and vapid; but grows to fo high a colour as to refemble a
ftrong lixivium, or citron urine, tinged with a very fmall
quantity of blood : it has no fediment, or cloud, for many
days together; but by degrees grows darker, like dead
ftrong beer, and fmells ofFenfive.
The ftools, efpecially near the ftate, or in the decline
of the fever, are for the moft part very offenfive,- green,
livid, or black, frequently with fevere gripes or blood.
When they are more yellow or brown, the lefs is the dan¬
ger : but the danger is greateft of all when they come a-
way infenfibly. If the belly be hard, fwelled, and tenfe,
it is a very bad fymptom. A gentle diarrhoea is often
very beneficial, by which nature carries olf the morbific
matter.
The more florid the fpots are, the lefs is the danger ;
and it is a good- fign, if the black or violet become of a
brighter colour. The large, black, or livid fpots, are
almoft always attended with profufe bleedings. The fmall
dulky, brown fpots, like freckles, are almoft as bad as
the livid and black. Sometimes they are attended with
profufe, cold, clammy fweats ; at which time the fpots va-
niflr without any advantage.
The eruption of the fpots is uncertain ; fometimes they
appear on the fourth or fifth day; fometimes not till the
eleventh, or later. The vibices, or large livid or dark
greenifli marks, feldom appear till very near the fatal pe¬
riod. Sometimes about the eleventh or fourteenth day,
when the fweats are profufe, the fpots difappear, and vaft
quantities of fmall, white, miliary puftles break out. If
there is an itching, fmarting, red raflr, it commonly great¬
ly relieves the fick, as well as large, fretting, watery blad¬
ders on the back, breaft, and ftioulders. A fcabby e-
ruption about the lips and nofe is a falutary fymptom; the
more hot and angry the better. Brown dark aphthae
are more uncertain and dangerous, as well as thofe ex¬
ceeding white and thick like lard. They are followed
with difficulty of fwallowing, pain and ulceration of the
fauces and cefophagus, with inceflant hiccup; the whole
prima via are at length aflfedled, a bloody dyfentery
comes on, and a mortification of the inteftines.
Pringle obferves, that in hofpital, goal, or camp fe¬
vers, the firft complaints are gentle horrors, and little fe-
verifti heats, alternat jiy fucceeding each other, with lofs
of appetite; the diforder being greateft at night, the bo¬
dy is hot, the fleep interrupted and not refreftiing. They
have conftantly fome pain and confufionin the head, chief¬
ly about their forehead; the pulfe is at firft but little
quicker than the natural, and the drought, if any, is in-
confiderable. They are too ill to mind bufinefs, and too
well to be confined. In this ftate, a change of air, with
a vomit and fweat, will perform a cure ; yet a large
bleeding at this time will fink the pulfe, and bring on a
delirium.
WJien the fymptoms come on quick and violent, the fe¬
ver feems to be inflamatory, and can only.be diftinguiflred
by a knowledge of the circumftances ; and bleeding yields
MED!
no relief, but exafperates the complaints. The aforefaid
fymptoms are now more high, with great laffitude, nau-
fea, and pains in the back, with pain and confuGon in
the head, and great dejeftion of fpirits.
The pulfe at this time is generally c[uick and full: now
a moderate bleeding affetbs the pulfe but little; if large,
it will fink, and bring on a delirium. The worft kind of
blood is when the craflamentum is diffolved, which is a
fign of high putrefaction.
If the patients lie warm, the body is generally coftire ;
if cold, there is a diarrhoea. If they have bilious llools
when they are warm, they are critical, and not to be
checked unlefs immoderate. In the worft kind of thefe
fevers, in the laft ftage, a diarrhoea commonly carries the
patient off; but then the ftools arC involuntary, colliqua¬
tive, ichorous, or blackith, and of a cadaverous fmell,
which are the effects of a mortification in the bowels.
The heat of the body at firft is not confiderable: but
if the pulfe is felt for a while, there is an uncommon heat,
which remains upon the fingers fome minutes afterwards.
A day or two .before death, the extremities feel quite
cold, and then the pulfe is hardly to be diftingui/hed.
The flcin is generally dry and parched; yet in the be¬
ginning there are often imperfect fweats, without any re¬
lief. A continued and generous fweat is the fureft cure.
The tongue is generally dry, hard and black, with
deep chaps; but towards the 4ft it is loft and moift, and
the colour is a mixture of green and yellow. The drought
is fometimes great, at other times very little.
Some preferve their fenfes through the courfe of the
difeafe, except a confufion and ftupor; but few keep them
till death, if it prove fatal. Theyfleep feldom and feem
to be penfive and in deep thought. The face is not ghaftly
nor morbid, till towards the laft. The confufion of the
head often rifes to a delirium, efpecially at night, but
feldom changes to rage. A tremor is more common than
a fubfultus tendinum. The pulfe finks all along, the
ftupor or delirium and tremor increafe, and the. fpirits
are relieved in proportion to its rifing to the head. Fre¬
quently the patient is dull of hearing from the very begin¬
ning, and at laft grows almoft deaf.
When the delirium is at its height, the face is common
ly flufhed, and the eyes red, unlefs after large evacuations;
then it appears meagre; the eyelids in (lumbers are only
half (hut ; and the voice, which is conftantly (low and
low, finks to a degree fcarce to be heard.
When the fever is protrafted with a low pulfe, they
have a particular craving for fomething cordial; and no¬
thing is fo acceptable as wine. They long for no food;
but will talce panada, if mixed with wine.
There are fpots, but not always. In hofpitals they are
lefs ufual at the firft breaking out of the difeafe; but
when the air is more corrupted, the fpots are common.
They aje of the petechial-kind, of an obfcure red, paler
than the meafles,i not railed above the (kin, of no regular
(hape, but confluent. Thefe fpots are very irregular,
fometimes appearing on the fourth or fifth day, and at o-
thers on the fourteenth. They are neither critical nor
mortal figns, but dangerous; if purple, they are more
ominous, but not abfolutely mortal. In a few cafes there
have been purple ftreaks and blotches. Thefe fometioics,
Voau. III. N° 72. 2
CINE.
as well as the fpots-, do not appear till after death. This
fever, on account of its exacerbations at night, may be
looked upon aS the lowed degree of the remitting kind.
The duration is uncertain, and in proportion to the vi¬
rulence. Their courfe is generally from fourteen to
twenty days: fome have died or recovered after four
weeks. When the courfe is long, it commonly termi¬
nates in abfceffes of the parotid or axillary glands, fome¬
times in an hedtic: Some, after this fever is over, fall
into an irregular intermittent; many complain of a pain
in their limbs, and want of reft; and almoft all of great
weaknefs, confufion in their heads, and noife in their
ears. When the air is highly malignant, the difeafe ter¬
minates, in five or fix days, either in death or a critical
fweat.
The moft peculiar fymptoms of this difeafe, are always
a lingular attack upon the head, as a ftupor, or pain ; and
if it lingers, a (low low voice, and finking of the fpirits,
without any large evacuation ; pale urine, petechial fpots,
the bod effedts of large bleeding, or too many clyfters;
laftly, the difagreement of cooling medicines, excepting in
the beginning; and on the other hand, the agreement
with wine, volatiles, and other cordials, during the great-
eft part of the difeafe.
As to the prognoftics, the fpots are fo far from being
falutary, that the more plentiful they are the greater is
the degree of the corruption: when they are livid, lead-
coloured, and of a greenifti black, they (hew a fphacelous
corruption. Thofe who efcape are not freed by a cuta¬
neous excretion, but by large fweats, breathing a (link¬
ing acor; or by critical fluxes of the belly; which happen
by the benefit of nature, when the corruption of the fluids
is not great. Many are apt to fall into a fphacelous cor¬
ruption of the ftomach, inteftines, and other vifcera, or
into a phrenfy, or more frequently into an anginous in¬
flammation of the fauces and cefophagus, as appears from
the intolerable find! which happens after death. This
unhappy event is prefaged, if there is no third, or one
that is unquenchable; if the tongue is dry, chapt, black;
the fauces inflamed and bcfet with fordes, with difficult
fwallowing; if, after the eruption of the fpots, a difficult
breathing and ftraitnefs of the bread remains and gains
ground; or if a delirium increafes after fweating, and a
flux of the belly, the urine being at the fame time turbid,
and depofiting no fediments ; laftly, if the eyes are dim,
the patient catching at draws; if there is a fubfultus ten¬
dinum, if the excrements come away infenfibly, or if
there is a cold fweat with convulfions,
Pringle obferves, that thofe who are weakened by o-
ther diftempers, or theircures, are more fufceptible of the
goal or hofpital fevers than the fttong and vigorous ; and
that one who is recovered is more fubjeft to relapfe, than
he who is to be firft attacked.
All the_ prognoftics, fays he, taken fibgly, are uncer¬
tain. Tfie following figns are good •: to have no deli¬
rium ; to have the pulfe neither very low nor quick, or,
if funk, to have it rife by wine or cordials, wi h an a-
batement of the delirium ; and to have the tongue moift,
and of a natural colour. It feems peculiar to this fever,
that deafnefs is generally a good fign. The natural and
beft crifis is by fweat, when the pulfe rifes, andthefymp-
S toms
toms abate ; next to that is an infenlible perfpiration,
which is known by the foftnefs of the lltin, moifture of
the tongue, and a remiffion of the other fymptoms. Bi¬
lious ftools, with turbid urine, and a moift tongue, may
be confidered as figns of a favourable crifis. But the con¬
trary of all thefe are bad ; as alfo the fubfultus tendi-
num, inflamed eyes, and great anxiety. It is obferved
to be among the worlt figns, when the patient complains
of blindnefs, or when he cannot lie but on his back, and
pulls up his knees ; or if, when infenfikle, he endeavours
to uncover his bread, or makes frequent attempts to get
out of bed. If there are ichorous, cadaverous, and invo¬
luntary flools, it is a fign of certain death.
The formal ratio of thefe pernicious fevers, corififls
in-the putrid diflblution or colliquation of the blood and
vital fluids, efpecially of that highly eladic fine fluid
which is contained in the blood, and feparated in the brain
and fpinal marrow, by which it isdiflributedby the nerves
to all the body, indued with fenfe and motion, foritgreat-
]y vitiates and defiles this liquid. However, fuch is the
nature and power of that poifonous vapour, by which
found bodies are infefted, that it not only induces a pu¬
trid fermentation into the blood and other fluids, but adfs
immediately on the inward and nervous parts of the brain,
which it corrupts, and produces a languor in the vital and
animal powers, even while-the (late of the blood and hu¬
mours remain free from corruption.
This virulent vapour enters the body by the no-
ftrils, fauces, and bronchia; whence it immediately
reaches the nerves in the brain, and renders the patient
light-headed, with a dulnefs of the head, and a lofs
of ftrength, and a vertiginous aflfediou. It likewife
mixes with the faliva, defcends into the (lomach, which
is a nervous part, and there takes up its principal refi-
dence : whence the bad fymptoms generally appear firft
in the ftomach and praecordia, with a naufea and an
inclination to vomit, as alfo a diarrhoea with gripes,
or a coflivenefs, with loathing of food, anxiety of the
prsecordia, and watery eruttations from the ftomach.
Hence the reafon evidently appears, why nothing is
more proper to guard againft this difeafe than turning a-
way one's face from the patient, frequent fpitting, chew¬
ing angelica, zedoary, or pimpernel, and fmoaking tobacco:
hence likewife appears, why the force of this poifon is
exerted in the ftomach, which is befet with copious
crudities, and pituitous and falival fordes ; and likewife
why gentle emetics, joined to alexipharmics, commonly
deftroy the difeafe in the bud.
It may be induced by a bad ftate of the air : for a long
moift, rainy, cloudy, and foutherly ftate of the air, dulls
anddepreffes the motions of the folids and fluids neceflary
for life: to this may be added a long and frequent in¬
undation of water, which is apt to generate putrid difeafes;
as likewife the exhalations ariiing from putrid unburied
bodies, or from the excrements of animals, efpeeially if
confined and (hut up from the air.
In the regimen, it is neceflary, if poflible, to breathe
a ferene, temperately warm air. The room (hould not be
heated too much, it being found to be hurtful. The
patient (hould eat nothing folid in the decline of the
difeafe, nor after it. A free ufe of food, of nouriflting
CINE.
and comforting broths abounding with oleous particles
is pernicious, efpecially about the critical days, in the
ftate of the difeafe, or where there is any critical eva¬
cuation. Nothing is more hurtful than an ere&fituation.
Alexipharmics, volatile falts, hot and fpiritous bezo-
ardics, are hurtful, efpecially with a hot regimen: for they
diflblve the blood, and increafe the number of fpots ; or
caufe head-achs, inflammations, or copious fweats.
Bleeding has been good in plethoric bodies, and in
thofe who have been accuftomed to haemorrhages; on the
contrary, if the patient is low or weak, bleeding is hurt¬
ful.
Gentle vomits are ufeful by way of prevention, and in
the very beginning of the difeafe ; but in the progrefs and
ftate have had a bad effedt.
Blifters have been greatly praifed in the ftate of the
difeafe, when there has been a delirium, a fopor and
convulfions, being applied to' the neck.
We rejedt all opiates and foporiferous medicines, on
account of the pulfe and want of ftrength •, becaufe they
retard the excretions, increafethe malignity, andfohaften
death.
The medicines ufed are elder-flower water, that of
limes, elms, rofes, of the tops of fcordium, fcabious,
andcarduus enedidtus ; as alfo fynips of citrons, pomegra¬
nates, and the juice of rofes ; powders of mother of pearl,
diaphoretic antimony, crabs-eyes, amber, terra figillata,
burnt hartfhorn, pure nitre. Alexipharmics are, cam-
phire, eflence and extradl of fcordium, vincetoxicum,
the bezoardic fpirit and tindlure, the eflence or (pirif of
vitriol, and.dulcified fpirit of nitre: Moifteners, the de-
codtion of fcorzonera, (havings and jelly of hartfliorn :
Analeptics, orange-flower water, frefti oil of citrons, wit.h
fugar, confedtion of alkermes, and balfam of life: Anti-
fpafmodics, effence of caftor, cinabbar, and fuccinated
fpirit of hatfliorn.
In the beginning of the difeafe, ufe a bezoardic powder
,of nitre, and a little camphire, often repeated ; in the
progrefs and ftate of it, a mixture of temperate waters,
diaphoretics, analeptics, antifpafmodics, and cordial be¬
zoardic powders, with a little juice of citfons. In the
drink put nitre, or philofophic fpirit of vitriol, or ful-
phurated clyflus of antimony, to keep the body open.
Alfo give drink of the filtrated decodtion of hartftiorn,
and root of fcorzonera, either hot or cold. About
the critical day give gentle alexipharmics, with things
to promote fweat when nature feems to tend that way.
This is the heft and fureft method of cure. But if the
vomiting is too great, with an anxiety of the prsecordia,
and profufe diarrhoeas, accompanied with gripes, apply
outwardly Venice treacle, exprefled oil of nutmegs, cam?
phire, oil of cloves, and balfam of Peru, mixt together,
to the region of the ftomach. If a diarrhoea exhaufts
the patient too much, give a nitrous bezoardic powder,
with a little camphire, and theriaca cceleftis. If the bo¬
dy is coftive, with gripes, prefcribe lenient clyfters, or
fuch as. are made entirely of oil. To raife the ftrength,
allow fpiritous things, fuch as comfort and are aromatic j
but they muft be externally applied to the pulfes or pit
of the ftomach, or noftriis. To quench third, give an
electuary of Mufcovada fugar and dulcified fpirit of nitre.
Nature
M E D I
Nature many times ftrires in vain to difcharge the ir¬
ritating matter, by vomit, without the afliftance of art;
and therefore fomething to promote it will render it much
eafier; which may be done by an infulion or deco£tion of
ipecacuanha, or oxymel fcilliticum, with a flight infu-
fion of camomile flowers.
The primse vise ftiouldbe unloaded by very gentle me¬
thods, iuch as clyfters of milk, fugar and fait; laxatives
of manna, cream of tartar; Glauber’s purging fait, ta¬
marinds, and rhubarb.
When there are figns of redundancy of the bile, it
(hould be forthwith difcharged by vomit or ftool, as na¬
ture points out; which is often fucceeded by an amazing
change for the better, where an inexpreflible anxiety, load
on the prascordia, perpetual ficknefs, eructation, and fin-
gultus, had preceded.
Between the feventh and fourteenth day, nature endea¬
vours to relieve herfelf by vomit, or more frequently by
loofe (tools; then given a gentle laxative the eighth and
ninth day, unlefs lome eruption appear, or a kindly fweat
forbid it.
But the conftant and grand effort of nature, is to throw
off the putrid malignancy through the pores of the (kin.
If it be a breathing fweat at the (late of the difeafe, and
the pulfe grows more open, foft, and calm, a little before
and during its continuance, it is always falutary ; but if
it be profufe, cold, clammy, or partial, about the head and
bread only, the fign is not good. Profufe fweats in the
beginning are generally pernicious, efpecially if a rigor
fupervenes.
Sweats (hould never be forced by violent hot medicines,
regimen, <bc. Plentiful fubacid diluents will be fufficient,
and gentle cordial diaphoretics.
As acids and fubadringents are given to preferve the
crafis of the blood and tone of the veffels, and to prevent
the farther putrefaction of the humours, diaphoretics, e-
fpecially camphire, (hould be joined with them.
Dr Brookes ufed thefollowing prefcription of the bark
for many years with fuccefs, not only in intermittent and
flow nervous fevers, but alfo in the putrid, pedilential and
petechial, in the decline, though the remiffio^s have been
very obfcure; but if the patient is codive, or hath a
tenfe or tumid abdomen,, he premifed a dofe of rhubarb,
manna, or the like.
Take two ounces of Peruvian bark in powder, an
ounce and a half of .orange-fliin, 3 drams of Vir¬
ginian, fnakeroot, 4 fcruples of Englifh faffron, 2
fcruples of cochineal, and 20 ounces of fpirit of
wine. Mix and infufe the' ingredients in a clofe
veffel for three or four days, and then filtrate the
infufion.
Of this give from a dram to half an ounce every
fourth, fixth, or eighth hour, with ten, fifteen, or twen¬
ty drops of elixir of vitriol, out of any appropriated
draught, or diluted: wane. The above compofition tends
to (trengthen the folids, to prevent the farther diffolution
and corruption of the blood, and in the event to redore
its crafis.
Wuh this view alfo give a generous red wine, as a
mod noble, natural, fubadringent cordial, which is of
high fervice in the date, but more efpecially in the de-
C I N E. 71
cline of thefe fevers, acidulated with the juice of Seville
oranges or lemons, as alfo with cinnamon, the rind of
Seville oranges, and the like, to which a few drops of
elixir of vitriol may be added. Rhenifh and French
white wines, when diluted, are alfo a mod falutary drink,
and generous cyder is little inferior to either.
Of Pestilential Fever.
A pedilential fever is a mod acute one, arifing from a
poifonous miafma, brought from eadern countries; and
unlefs it is immediately expelled out of the body, by the
drength of the vital motions, by buboes and carbuncles,
it is fatal.
It differs from other contagious, malignant, and erup¬
tive fevers, becaufe it is the mod acute for it fometimes
kills on thefird, and fometimes on the fecond day. Be-
fides, in our climate it is not epidemic or fporadic, from
a bad way of living,, or unhealthful air; but happens'
when it is mod falutary, from contagion alone. There
is fomething very Angular in this infedious miafma ; for
though it is apt to fpread at a drange rate, yet it will a-
bate by intenfe cold, and be plainly extinguilhed: where¬
fore in a cold feafon, and very cold coun ries, it either
does not appear at all, or in a very mild degree ; where¬
as if the climate is hot, it is not only mod vehement, but
mod common.
In this, as in all other contagious difeafes, the veno¬
mous miafma is fwallowedin with the air, and infinuates;
itfelf in the falival juice, where its tragedy is fit(t adted.
Whence it affaults the head, brain, nerves, and animal
fpirits, producing a torpor in the head, a heavinefs, a
fleepinefs, a violent pain, a dupor of the fenfes, a for-
getfulnefs, inquietude, watching, and lofs of drength..
From the fauces it proceeds to the domach, creating
loathing of food, naufea, anxiety of the prascordia, a
cardialgia, attended with fainting, reaching to vomit,
and vomiting itfelf. Hence it proceeds to the membranes
of the fpinal marrow, and the coats of the arteries, pro¬
ducing horrors, a languid, fmall, contracted, quick pulfe,
and even fainting. All thefe are generally figns and'
fymptoms of the plague; which are of a more violent and'
quick operation, in proportion to the virulence of the pe¬
dilential miafma.
All plagues are not of the fame nature, but vary ac¬
cording to different conditutions and circumdances.
Thofe who have written of the plague univerfally agree,
that fpungy and porous bodies of an obefe habit, of
fanguine and phlegmatico-fanguine conditutions ; women,,
young.perfons, a^d children; perfons of atimiddifpofition,
that are poor, live hard, or are given to luxury, and fit
up late at nights; are more apt to be afflidted with this-
difeafe, than the drong and intrepid, lean, nervous; thofe
indued with large veffels; men, or old perfons obnoxious'
to the haemorrhoidal flnx, and who have iflues and o-
pen ulcers. Nothing brings on this didemper more than
fear, dread of death, and a'condernatiorr of the mind. '
Pedilential fevers are fo called, when the patient dills
into fudden weaknefs: for it is a kind of malignant fever,
attended with more grievous fymptoms ; the patients die
in a (hort time, that is, in two, three, or four days, and
fometimes (boner. If malignant fevers arife in war-time
among;
7* M E D 1
among the foldiers, they are called camp-fevers ; in Hun¬
gary, an Hungaric fever. But the plague, or peftilence,
is known when buboes and carbuncles arife in various
parts of the body. The fweating (icknefs had its rife in
England, in which the patient fell into a violent fweat,
of which many died in a day’s time.
The pedilential poifon diilurbs all the fumftions of the
body ; for unlefs it be expelled to the external parts, it
is certainly fatal. Nor is this to be done as in other fe¬
vers, by large fweats, by (tools, by a flux of urine, by cu-
ftomary evacuations of blood, or by bleeding at the nofe, ei¬
ther natural or artificial, for they rather haften deftru&ion.
Thefalutaryand critical excretion whit hperfe<Slyfolves the
peflilential difeafe, is by tumours in the furfaceof the body
not otherwife than the eryfipelas, between the third and
fourth day; and the fooner the better, for then the fymptoms
are mitigated. The peftilential tumours are of two kinds ;
the firfl arifes in glandulous places, mod: commonly in the
groin and arm-pits, fometimes ia the parotid and mammary
glands, as alfo the lower maxillary, under the chin, and
in thofe near the afpera arteria. It is a hard, painful,
tenlive fwelKng of the glands, with grear heat; and if
they are falutary, being fwoln, they grow foft, and fup-
purate. The other fort is the anthrax or carbuncle.
Celfus defcribes it in this manner. It is a fwelling on
which there are puftules, which rife but little ; they are
black, fometimes fublivid or pale. In this there feems
to be a fanies ; it is black underneath. The body itfelf
is more dry and harder than ufual. There is as it were
a cruft about it, furrounded with an inflammation ; nor
can the (kin be raifed up in the part, but is joined to the
flefli underneath. Mindererus, who was prefent at the
plague, fays, that a carbuncle is of the fize of a grain of
muftard-feed ; and about its edge, there is a circle, or
burning halo, of a large fize. The flefli which it feizes
is like an efchar or putrid fle(h, and falls off as if torn out
by a wolf. No part of the body is free from thefe car¬
buncles; but they generally lay hold of the membranes
of the mufcles, and the nervous and fibrous fubftance of
the (kin, efpecially in theback, arms, and thighs. At firft
there is an exquifite itching in the part; which when
fcratched, puftules arife; they are of a red, livid, or
whitifti purple colour, or fometimes black. When the
puftules are prefled, they feem to be full of pus ; under
which there is an afti-coloured cruft, which being taken
away, the flefh appears corrupted and fpungy, with into¬
lerable pain and burning of the circumjacent flefli, which
is followed by a mortification of the part.
When the plague is fatal, fome die of a fainting the
firft or fecond day. But in many, when the poifon is not
expelled, or, if expelled, returns back, it bdngs on a
mortification of the nervous coats of the noble parts, of
the pleura, oefophagus, ftomach and inteftines, or the
meninges of the brain; which creeps fpeedily to all the
vifeera. and the blood itfelf; whence the carcafes fwell,
and have a moft intolerable ftench. Sometimes, when
the peftilential tumours are too plentiful, they die of a
fymptomatic fever, from the inflammation, pain, and in¬
tolerable heat.
It has been before remarked, that the plague is not a
native of our country, but is brought from remote pla-
C IN E.
ces : whence the beft prefervative is to fly to a diftan*
country ; for the fame reafon, thofe princes beft confult
the welfare of their fubjefls, who in the time of the
plague endeavour to prevent the fpreading of the infec¬
tion, and, when a family is afflifted, feparate the well from
the fick, and burn all their moveables. While this dif¬
eafe reigns, all perfons (hould live temperately, avoid an
excefs in the ufe of the non naturals, and abftain parti-
cularly from violent afFedtions of the mind, and every
thing elfe that deje&s the ftrength, difturbs perfpiration,
and generates crudities in the primte vise ; the mind is
efpecially to be fu pported, and fear, dread, and pufilla-
nimity are to be banifhed ; for more die of terror than
of the plague itfelf.
As in the fmall-pox, the management confifts in clearing
the prim# via in the beginning, in regulating the fever,
and in promoting the natural difeharges ; fo in the plague,
the fame indications will take place. In the plague, in¬
deed, the fever is often much more acute ; the ftomach
and bowels are fometimes inflamed, and the eruptions re¬
quire external applications, which to the puftules of the
fmall pox are not neceflary.
When the fever is very acute, a cool regimen is necef-
fary ; but when the pulfe is languid, and the heat not
exceflive, moderate cordials muft be ufed. The moft
gentle emetics may be given ; the beft is ipecacuanha, if
the ftomach or bowels are not inflamed, for then certain
death muft be expefted.
As for the eruptions, they muft be brought to a fup-
puration as foon as poflible ; and as foon as they appear,
fix a cupping-glafs thereon, without fcarification ; and
when that is removed, apply a fuppurating cataplafm, or
plafter of warm gums.
If the tumors will not fuppurate, as the carbuncle fel-
dom or never does ; yet if a thin ichor or matter exfudes
through the pores, or if the tumours feel foft to the
touch, or, la(Hy, if it has a black cruft upon it, then it
muft be opened by incifion, either according to the length
of the tumor, or by a crucial fedtion. If there is any
part mortified, as is ufual in the carbuncle, it muft be
icarified. Then it will be neceflary to ftop the bleeding,
and dry up the moifture with an adtual cautery, drefling
the wound afterwards with doflils and pledgits, fpread
with a common digeftive.
Themext day the wound ought to be well bathed with
a fomentation of warm aromatic plants, with fpirit of
wine in it, in order, if poffible, to make it digeft, by which
the (loughs will feparate. After this, the ulcer may be
treated as one from a common abfeefs.
Bot the patient runs great hazard in this way, notwith-
ftanding the utmoft care; therefore artificial difeharges for
the corrupt humours (hould be attempted. To this pur-
pofe, large bleeding and profufe fweating are recommend¬
ed to us upon fome experience.
As for fweating, as Sydenham advifes, it muft be con¬
tinued without intermiffion.
If there is a vomiting, the patient (hould be made to
fweat with the weight of the bedcloaths alone, drawing
the (beet up to his face.
When the fweat is begun, it (hould be promoted with
fage poflet-drink, or fmall-beer, in which mace has been
boiled,
M E D I
boiled, repeating them pretty often for twenty-four hoars ;
in the mean while, the fpirits of the patient are to be
kept up with comforting broths. The by-ftanders ihould
forbear to wipe off the fweat, nor fliould the patient
change his linen all that time, which is a neceflary cau¬
tion ; if it be flopped before that time, it will be to no
manner of purpofe ; during the fweat, the diarrhoea, if
any, and the vomiting, will flop of their own accord.
Theriaca, and the like folid medicines, being offenfive to
the ftomach, are not the moft proper fudorifics. An in-
fufion of Virginia fnake-root, in boiling water, or, for
want of this, of fome other warm aromatic, with the ad¬
dition of about a fourth part of aqua theriacalis, is fafer.
Thofe who are obliged to be near the fick, mufl take
care that the miafmata do not approach their vital juices,
cor yet the falival. To this purpofe, frequent fpitting,
and wafhing the mouth with vinegar, or wine, or fnuffing
them up the nofe, are ufeful. The efficacy will be Hill
greater, if they are imbued with rue or citron rind. For
an acid is the genuine antidote of a putrid and fulphu-
reous miafma. Wherefore it is much fafer to hold acids
in the mouth, than alexipharmic roots. It will be like-
wife proper to get a few fpoonfuls of Rhenifh wine, or
bezoardic vinegar, diluted with water or wine, and fo
take them, The Turks deal much in the juice of le¬
mons.
When the plague is actually begun, and the body is
coftive, a gentle clyfler ffiould be ufed. Then a fweat
fhould be promoted (twenty-four hours at leafl,) that the
poifon may exhale and pafs through the fkin ; and epi-
thems to the heart will not be without benefit, though
they reach only to the right orifice of the flomach, and
its nervous coats ; they may be made of tkeriac. exprefs-
ed oil of nutmegs, camphire, faffron, caflor, and bal-
fam of Peru. But above all, acids are highly praifed ;
fuch as, juice of citrons, Seville oranges, lemons, vinegar,
tec. which refill poifon, putrefaction, and prevent the
diflblution of the blood.
When the ftrength of the difeafe is vanquifhed, gentle
laxatives will be proper to expel the fordes during the
courfe of this difeafe.
It is worthy obfervation, that few medicines are bed;
for which reafon people of the lower clafs generally come
off better than perfons of diflinCtion ; and there is nothing
worfe than to give alexipharmics abounding with a hot
volatile oil ; much lefs ought volatile fpirits to be given,
for they fix the poifon upon the nervous parts. Yet herbs
and roots of this kind are not altogether to be condemn?
ed, if mixed with acids and nitre. A mixture oicarduus
benediftus water, and wine vinegar, when given to four
fpoonfuls, with a dram of crabs-eyes and theriaca, and
repeated, were very ufeful in the plague at Hall in 1682.
In the plague likewife in Lombardy, 1526, many re¬
covered with the juice of goats-rue, vinegar, water of
carduus benedifius, and a little theriac. given to make
the patient fweat : and Thoner obferves, that nothing
was of any advantage in the plague except theriacal vine¬
gar given in the beginning to promote a fweat. And in
the year 1544, when a malignant fever raged among the
foldiers, a whole regiment was faved, to whom this vine¬
gar was given in due time, except a very few. And in
Vol. III. N°. 72. 2
CINE 73
the plague at Rome, vinegar with rue, pimpefnal root*
betony, garlick, and juniper-berries, with a little cam"
phire added to the infufion, caufed many to efcape*
Likewife the prefervative water of Sylvius has been great'
ly efteemed, becaufe of the -vinegar. And MindereruS
afferts, that unlefs alexiterials be given within twenty-fout
hours, all medicines are vain.
Of the Miliary Fever.
A miliary fever is not unlike a cattarrhal, and is at¬
tended with a more intenfe motion of the vafcular and
nervous fyltem, whereby a corrupt lymphatic matter of a
peculiar nature is expelled from the inward, and more
efpecially the nervous parts, to the furfaceof thelldn, in
the form of fmall, rough, miliary puflules, fometimes red,
and fometimes white.
Thefe fmall pullules are exceeding numerous, caufirtg
a corrugation, roughnefs. and drynefs of the fldn, and
have a fetid fmell peculiar to themfelves. There is no
eruption fo inconftant as this, for it will fometimes flrike
in fuddenly, and as fuddenly appear again, and is at¬
tended with an itching pricking fenfation more than any
other kind. Other eruptions are common to aU coun-
tries, and are equally vexatious to men asWell as women';
but the miliary feems familiar and endemic to fome places
only, and more frequently attacks the female fex, efpe¬
cially in child bed. It is neither epidemic nor contagi¬
ous and fe.ems rather owing to a fault in the vifeera and
fluids, than the intemperature of the air.
The miliary eruptions are either red or white, and are
both more or lefs acute, benign or malignant. The red
are lefs dangerous, are generally free from a fever, and
then are chronical, appearing at Hated feafons of the
year ; but fometimes they are accompanied with an acute
fever. The white feldom or never appear without a fe¬
ver, and therefore are more dangerous. In thefe the
lympha is affeded with a kind of acidity ; for the patient
difeharges plenty of ferum by fweat, urine, flool or fali-
vation, which are the effetfls of an acid which coagulates
the thicker part of the blood, and feparates the ferura
from it. Beiides, all kinds of acids and refrigerants, not
excepting nitre, freely taken, are mod hurtful in this dif¬
eafe. On the contrary, abforbents and anti-acids, and
things which render the blood fpiritous, are moft faluta-
ry. Women who eat much,fruit, and fuch like trafh, of
the acefcent kind, and live idle fedentary lives, are moft:
fubjefl to this difeafe.
Sometimes the miliary eruptions are idiopathic, and
fometimes fymptomatic, and fupervene to other fevers,
efpecially the continual, when on the decline. They
likewife appear very commonly with the meaftes, fmall-
pox, putrid and fpotted fevers, when drawing towards an
end ; and then they raife a new fever, whofe attack the
debilitated patient is not able to ftand.
The idiopathic begins with a flight fhivering, fucceed
ed with heat and lofs of ftrengtb, fometimes even to
fainting. There is a ftraitnefs about the bread, attended
with anxiety and deep fighs. reftlefihefs and watching.
There is a pricking kind of a heat perceived in the back,
with an alternate fucceflion of cold, fluvering, and heat
under the Ikin, but moft fenlible in the palms of the
T hands.
74 M E D I
hands. Women in child bed have the flux of the lochia
flopped, and the milk recedes from their breads. To
thefe fucceeds a roughnefs of the llcin like that of a goofe ;
and a great number of puftules appear, fometimes white
and fometimes red, or both together, of the fize of mil¬
let (or muflard) feed They firfl befet the neck, then
the bread and back, and afterwards the arms and hands.
When thefe begin to rife on the furface of the flein, the
more grievous fymptoms ceafe. The pulfe, which be¬
fore was hard, contrafted and quick, grows more foft,
free, and flow; the dejeftion of mind goes off, the 1km
becomes mold, and the belly, which was bound fo much
that the patient could not break wind, now fpontaneoufly
admits him to go to dool. Afterwards the puflules ri
pen, and are full of a dinking ichor The urine appears
more faturated, and a Angular fetid fweat, proper to this
difeafe, breaks forth ; the flux of the lochia in females
returns, and within the fpace of feven or eight days the
pudules difappear, with great itching in the extreme parts,
drying up and falling off in feales. Then the patient
recovers ftrength, and regains health.
It is hard to determine the day of the eruption of the
puftules; but it is generally the tenth or eleventh day
from the beginning, if the fever makes a regular progrefs;
fometimes on the eighteenth, and fometimes on thetwen
ty-firft, or twenty fecond day.
Bad figns are, when the miliary puftules appear and
vanifli by turns, and the fymptoms continue violent; but
it is worfe if they quite difappear: Hence an oppreflion
of the bread, with fighs, a ftraitnefs of the fauces, lofs of
ftrength, and great anxiety.
Fatal figns are, when the morbific matter not being
thrown out again, there is an inward heat and the ex¬
treme parts are affeided with cold and fhivering, and
there is a cold profufe fweat; or, on the contrary, when
the extreme parts are hot, and a notable fenfe of cold-
nefs is perceived in the abdomen, then the patient dies
in a fainting fir, arifing from a mortification of the fto-
mach, inteftines, brain, or womb.
The cure of this fever depends on the following things,
i. To corred and temperate the acrid morbific matter
which didurbs the nervous parts. 2. To relax the
fpaftic driftures of the nervous fibres proceeding from
thence. 3. To evacuate the prepared morbific matter
through the pores of the flein, and prevent its drikingin.
To dilute the (harpnefs of the humours, and to appeafe
the irritation of the nervous parts, the following decoc¬
tion may ferve for common drink.
Take ftiavings of hartlhorn, fcorzonera root, and
farfaparilla, of each two ounces ; and^boil them in 6
pounds of water.
Let the patient be always kept in an'equal moderate
beat, and abftain from ftrong alexipharmics, and things
a&ually hot, becaufe they throw him into too profufe a
fweat. But when there is an apprehenfion of the puftules
ftriking in, then the decoftion may be drank hot, with
moderate expellents, as the exigence requires. Nor
ihould the medicines be too cooling, becaufe they increafe
the anxiety and faintnefs. In the red fort, when there
is an internal heat, with third and a great pulfe, diapho-
setics with a little nitre will be proper; even though red
CINE.
and white puftules appear together. But nitre alone
(hould, be ufed with caution, efpecially when there are
figns of malignity. No malt liquor fhould be drank, but
the former decoftion.
The belly (hould be neither too much bound nor too
open ; yet even the gentle laxatives are not to be given till
the puftules begin to dry; and then there is nothing elfe
required but an emollient clyfter
Bleeding fhquld becautioufly ufed ; for when the weak-
nefs is exceflive, the fweats profufe, and the pulfe quick,
it mud be omitted. On the contrary, it is neceffary
for childbed women, when the lochia are fuppreffed, and
the fymptoms of a miliary fever begin to appear; but then
it mud be done fpeedily, and the great anxiety, fainting,
and difficulty of breathing will ceafe, and the puftules
break out.
Blifters on the back are very proper for this difeafe;
for they help to draw off the impure ferous humours,
and ftimulate the fatigued nervous fibres to a contra&ion,
fo as to expel the morbific matter.
Of the Scarlet Fever.
The fcarlet fever may happen at anyfeafon of the year,
but it appears mod commonly towards autumn. It reigns
chiefly among children. It begins with coldnefs and fhi¬
vering, as in other fevers, without any violent ficknefs;
Afterwards the flein is covered with red fpots, which are
larger, more florid, and not fo” uniform as the meafles.
The rednefs remains two or three days, and then difap-
pears; then the cuticle falls off, and Jeaves behind it a
fort of meally feales, flattered over the body, which ap¬
pear and difappear two or three times.
Let the patient abftain from flefh, all hot cordials,
and fpiritous liquors; let him not go out of doors, nor
be confined conftantly to his bed; and then medicines
will be of little ufe.
Apply a bliftering plaifterto the neck, and every night
give a paregoric of diacodium; and after the fever ceafes,
let the patient be purged with a very gentle cathartic,
agreeable to the age and conftitution.
Of the Measles.
The meafles are an eruptive catarrhal fever, generally
epidemic, which by the increafed vital motion of the
heart and arteries throws on the fkin an acrid, cauftic,
inflammatory matter, in the form of red fpots. They
begin with chilnefs and fhivering, and heat and cold fuc-
ceed by turns. The next day the fever comes on with
great ficknefs, thirft, and lofs of appetite; the tongue is
white, but not dry. There is a little cough, a heavinefs
of the head and eyes, and a continual fleepiaefs. There
is a fneezing and a fwelling of the eye-lids, a ferous hur
mour oft diftils from the nofe and eyes, which are certain
figns the eruption is at hand. In the face the fpots are
fmall; but on the breaft broad and red, not rifing above
the furface of the flein. The patient often has a loofenefs,
with greenifh ftoofs.
Thefe fymptoms continue and increafe till the fourth,
fometimes the fifth day; at which time fpots like flea-
bites appear, increafing in number and magnitude, and
in fome places run together, rendering the face varioufly
fpotte<£
M E D 1
fpotted. Thefe fpots confirt: of very fmall red pimples,
almoft contiguous, and rifing but little above the Ikin.
They may be felt by a gentle touch of the finger, but the
rifing cannot eafily be difcerned by the naked eye.
From the face the fpots gradually proceed to the bread,
belly, thighs, and legs. The fymptoms do not immedi¬
ately vanilh after theeruption, as in the fmall-pox, except
the vomiting. The cough and fever mcreafe, with dif¬
ficulty of breathing. The v-eaknefs. and a dcfluxion on
the eyes, fleepinefs, and want of appetite, dill continue.
On the fixth day, and fometimes fooner, the Ikin of
the face and forehead begins to grow rough ; and the cu¬
ticle breaking, the puflules die away; while on the red
of the body the fpots are broad and red. On the eighth
day the fpots difappear in the face, and are fcarce per¬
ceivable elfewhere. On the ninth they quite vanilh ; fine,
thin, light fcales, like flour, falling off from the Ikin at
that time.
The meafles in general are not dangerous, unlefs from
an infalubrious epidemical conditution of the year, which
fomettmes renders them malignant. This may be known
by a fuddenlofsof drength, coldnefs of the extreme parts,
great redleflhefs, vomiting, difficulty of fwallowing, and
a delirium. If petechial fpots or miliary eruptions lu-
pervene, there is great danger. A continual cough, a
loofenefs, and great inquietude, are bad. Profufe fweats
are no good fign. When the difeafe is ended, if the
cough and hoarfenefs remain, a confumption and hetffic
will follow, without fpeedy aflidance.
Thofe who die pf the meafles are generally fuffocated
on the ninth day. Some, when the difeafe is ended,
have a loofenefs, which continues feveral weeks, and
brings on a mortal tab*s : Some have a flow fever, with
an atrophy and afwelling of the abdomen, which are fa¬
tal.
If children are fufpefted to abound with crudities in
primis viis, it will be proper to evacuate with half a grain
of tartar emetic, and fyrup of fuccory with rhubarb.
When there are worms, anthelmintics fhould be given.
In adults abounding with blood, phlebotomy is neceffary
on the firff days. Medicines too hot, and cold nitrous
things, are equally hurtful. As foon as the eruption is
ended a gentle cathartic is proper.
In a cough nothing is better than oil of almonds frefli
drawn, mixt with fyrup of capiliaire; half a fpoonful of
which Ihould be given often in water-gruel.
Toabforbent and diaphoretic powders, half a grain of
faffron may be added.
When this difeafe attacks women who are fubjeA to
hypochondriac or hyfteric fpafms, or when the menftrual
flux is at hand, it is often atteneded with fainting fits,
difficulty of breathing, with cooftridtions of the throat,
and great anxiety of thepraecordia. Therefore the erup¬
tions are not to be driven out with hot remedies, but ra¬
ther with fuch things as allay fpafms, paregoric and car
minative clyfters, fometimes bleeding, as alfo a little ca-
ftor and nitre mixt with bezoardic powders. By thefe
means the fpots will appear in a fhort time.
When a diarrhoea happens, it muft be cautioufly treated,
and not haftily ftopt; becaufe it carries off a great deal
filth, and often puts an end to the difeafe.. Then it
CINE. 75
it will be heft to wafh the acrimony out of the inteftines
by demulcent clyfters. But if, when the difeafe is over,
the diarrhoea continues obftinate, it will be proper to add
a few grains of the bark of eleutheria with bezoardic
pe vders.
When there are haemorrhages, which are generally
figns of malignity, nothing muft be ufed that is diredtly
aftringent, much lefs opiates and anodynes.
If the patient falls into too profufe a fweat, fo that
the linen is quite wet, it muft be changed very cautioufly
for fuch as is well aired and warm, otherwife the fpots
will ftrike in. Many have been killed in a few hours, by
a fudden change from hot to cold.
When the fpots are gone, the patients fhould not ex-
pofe themfelves to the air ; but be careful of their diet ;
otherwife they may fall into an afthma, fuffocating catarrh,
or confumption.
Sydenham, for the cough, orders the following.
Take an ounce and an half of the pedtoral decodh'on j
fyrup of violets, and true maiden-hair, of each an
ounce and a half: make them into an apozem, and
take three or four ounces four times a-day.
Let the patient keep his bed for two days after the firit
eruption.
If, after the meafles difappear, a difficulty of breathing,
fever, and other fymptoms, fhould fupervene, refembling
an inflamation of the lungs, let blood be taken away free¬
ly from^the arm, once, twice, or three times, as occa-
fion fhall require ; leaving a due fpace between each
bleeding; and let the pectoral apozem above defcribed be
given, or oil of fweet almonds alone About twelve day»
from the invafion, let the patient be purged.
Of the Small-Pox.
The fmall-pox is commonly divided into two kinds *
the diftin<5l and confluent.
The diftinff fort begins with chilnefs and fhivering,.
intenfe heat, a violent pain of the head and back, an in¬
clination to vomit : in adults, a great propenfity to fweat j
a pain at the pit of the ftomach, if it be preffed with the
hand ; a dulnefs and rirowfinefs, and fometimes epileptic
fits, efpecially in children ; and if the breeding of teeth
is over, it is a fign the fmali-pox is at hand - for if the
fit happens over night,, the fmall pox will appear in the
morning, and are, generally fpeaking, of the favourable
fort.
On the fourth day from the beginning they break out,,
fometimes later, feldom before, at which time the fymp¬
toms either abate or vftiolly difappear.
The fpots at firft are reddifh, and fpread themfelves
over the face, neck, breaft, and the whole body. Then
there is a pain in the fauces, which increafes as the puftules
grow turgid.
On the eighth day the fpaces between the puftules, which
hitherto were white, begin to grow red and fwell, and to
be affefted with a tenfive pain. The eye lids are puffed
up., and clofe the eyes ; next to the face, the hands be¬
gin to fwell, and the fingers are diftended ; the puftules.
of the face, before fmooth and red, .begin to be rough,
(the firft fign of maturation,) and whitifh, and throw out
a yellowifb matter, in colour like a honey-comb.
The.
M E D I
The inflammation of the face and hands being now at
the height, the interftices between the puftules are of the
colour of damaflc rofes ; and the more mild the difeafe
is, the greater is the likenefs.
The puftules about the face, as they ripen, grow more
rough and yellow. But on the hands and the other parts
of the body, they grow whiter and lefs rough.
On the eleventh day the fwelling of the face and in¬
flammation difappear; and the puftules being ripe, and of
the llze of a large pea, grow dry, and fall off.
On the fourteenth or fifteenth day they vanifh en¬
tirely ; except fome obftinate puftules on the hands, which
continue a day or two longer, and then break. The reft
come off in branny fcales, and in the face leave pits be¬
hind them.
Through the whole courfe of this difeafe the patient’s
body is either wholly bound, or he goes to ftool but very
feldom. Generally thofe who die of the fmall-pox, die
on the eighth day in the dfftindt, and on’the eleventh in
the confluent fort. Then the face, which ought to be
turgid, and the interftices florid, on the contrary is flaccid
and whitifh, at the fame time that the puftules are red
and elevated, even after the death of the patient. The
fweat, which was injudicioufly promoted by cordials
and a hot regimen, fuddenly ceafes ; in the mean while
the patient is feizedwith a phrenfy, a violent anxiety, a
tofling and ficknefs ; he makes water often and little, and
a few hours clofe the tragical fcene.
In the confluent fort there are the fame fymptoms, but
much more violent. The fever, anxiety, ficknefs, vo¬
miting, &c. more cruelly torment the patient; yet he
does not fo foon fall into a fweat, as in the diftimft kind.
A loofenefs fometimes precedes the eruption, and conti¬
nues a day or two after it.
On the third day, fometimes before, feldom later, the
fpots appear; and the fooner, the more will they run to¬
gether. Sometimes the eruption is retarded till the fourth
or fifth day, by fome terrible fymptom ; fuch as, a molt
acute pain in the loins, like a fit of the gravel ; in the
fide, like a pleurify; in the joints, like the rheumatifm ;
in the ftomach, with a ficknefs and vomiting.
But the fymptoms do not remit after the eruption, as
in the diftimft fort ; but the fever and other complaints
continue to moleft the patient many days after. Some¬
times the fpots appear like an eryfipelas, fometimes like
the meafles, but are diftinguiftied from them by the time
of the eruption. As the difeafe increafes, they do not
rife to any confiderable height, being intangled with each
other in the face; but appear like a red blifter, and cover
all the countenance, which fwells fooner than in the dif-
tinft kind. Afterwards they feem not unlike a white pel¬
licle glued to the face, and are not much higher than its
furface.
The eighth day being paft, the white pellicle grows daily
more rough, and of a dulky colour. The pain of the
fkin becomes more intenfe, and at laft, in the more
cruel kind of this difeafe* they do not fall off in broad
large fcales, till after the twentieth day. But this in the
mean time is worthy of obfervation, that the more the
ripening puftules are of a brownifti c; lour, they are the
worfe^ and the longer in falling off; and the more yellow
CINE.
they are, the lefs they run together, and the fooner they
difappear.
When the pellicle falls off, there is no roughnefs on
the face, but branny fcales foon appear in its room, of a
very cOrrofive nature, which leave deep pits behind them,
and fometimes ugly fears; fometimes the ftioulders and
back are quite deprived of their cuticle.
The danger of the difeafe is to be eftimated from the
number and multitude of the puftules on the face alone.
The puftules of the hands and feet are the greateft ; and
the farther they are removed from the extremities, the
lefs they are ; in adults a falivation, and in children a
diarrhoea, is a fign, though not always, of the confluent
fort. The fpitting fometimes begins with the eruption,
fometimes two or three days after it; the matter is at
firft thin, but on the eleventh day it is vifeid, and hawked
up with difficulty ; the patient is tbirfty and hoarfe, ex¬
tremely fleepy, and his fenfes exceeding dull: he fome¬
times coughs when he is drinking, and the liquor regur¬
gitates through his noftrils : then the falivation generally
ceafes, but the fwelling of the face ought not to go down
quite till a day or two after, when the fpitting is over ;
if the hands do not begin to fwell remarkably, and con¬
tinue fo for fome time, the patient will fuddenly leave the
world.
The diarrhoea does not fo foon attack children as the
falivation does men. In both forts of this difeafe the
fever predominates from the firft onfet till the eruption ;
then it abates till the puftules are ripe, at which time it
terminates.
The day on which the patient is moft in danger, in the
leaft crude and moft common fort of the confluent, is the
eleventh from the firft attack of the difeafe ; in the more
crude, the fourteenth ; and in the moft crude, the feven-
teenth : fometimes, but very feldom, the patient does
not die till the twenty-firft. But in the fpace of time
from the eleventh to the feventeenth, as the evening
comes on, the patient is daily tormented with a fit of in¬
quietude.
In the management of the patient in the diftimft fort,
regard ffiould be had to the feafon of the year, and the
ftrength of the patient. Let this be a general rule, to
keep the patient in bed during the firft days of the dif-
temper, taking care to defend him from the inclemency
of the winter by proper means ; and to moderate the ex-
ceflive heaf in fummer by cool air. For the patient
ought not to be ftifled by heat and cloaths, nor ffiould
the eruption and perfpiratio’i be checked by cold. How¬
ever, great care ought to be taken in general to fupply
him with pure and cool air; becaufe a hot air caufes dif¬
ficulty of breathing, checks the fecretion of urine, and
increafes the number of puftules on the internal organs of
the body.
With regard to Diet, it ought to be very flender,
moiftening, and cooling-, fuchas oatmeal or barley-gruel;
and in the beginning, the beftregimenis that which keeps
the body open, and promotes urine. This end is ob¬
tained by boiling preferved fruits with their food, fuch
as figs, Damafcene plums, and tamarinds; and by giving
them fubacid liquors for drink; as fmall-beer acidulated
with orange or lemon juice; whey turned with Apples,
boiled
M E D I
boilpd in milk; emolfions made with barley-water and al¬
monds ; Mofeile, prRhenilh wine plentifully diluted with
water ; or any other things of this kind.
In the cure, Sydenham direfts bleeding on any of the
three firft days to nine or ten ounces; and then an
ounce, or an ounce and a half of emetic wine. But fome
phyficians will not allow a vomit by any means, unlefs
there is a naufea, and the head is much affctfted. Yet
Hoffman judges it to be proper on the firil day of the in-
v&fion, and prefcribes two grains of emetic tartar diffol-
ved in cinnamon water, to adults.
In youths and adults, it is often neceffary to take away
blood two or three times, only with an intermiffion of
two or three days between each time. Blood-letting is
fo far from being an obdacle to the eruption of the pu-
Itules, if the patient is not too weak, that it forwards it
confiderably.
After Bleedisg, a vomit ihould be given, if the fto-
mach abounds with phlegm or bile, or be loaded with
food unfeafonably taken. Otherwife a purge may be
prefcribed before the eruption of the purtuks : which
may be the infufion of fena with manna, or manna alone,
efpecially for children; for no difturbanceis to be raifed
in the body.
To keep the inflammation of the blood within due
bounds, and to afliit the expulfion of the morbific matter
through the fhin.
Take half an ounce of bezoar in powder, 2 drams of
purified nitre. Mix, and beat into a powder.
Half a dram of this may be taken by an adult three or
four times in a day ; diminifliing the quantity for cbil-'
dren in proportion to their age.
Sometimes equal parts of thefe ingredients may be pre¬
fcribed; and if the effervefcence of the fever runs very
high, a proper quantity of the fpirit of vitriol may be
added to the patient’s drink. But if there be any Teach¬
ings to vomit, they will be removed by draughts con-
iaining half an ounce of the juice of lemons, with one
fcruple of the fait of wormwood.
When the eruption of the puftulesis compleated, which
generally happens on the fixth day from the attack, let the
patient take an ounce of diacodium every evening till the
tenth day after the invafion. On that night, if the fmall-
pox be of the confluent kind, the dofe mud be increafed
to an ounce and a half; and an ounce in the morning ;
and fo an ounce and half every night till the patient is
recovered. ,
Whatever are the fort, and at whatever time of the
difeafe a phrenfy fhall happen, it is to be curbed by pa¬
regorics, given one after another till the end is obtained,
only waiting to fee the effeft of one dofe before another
is ordered.
In the mean time, if the patient is coftive, which
is generally the cafe, and the fever continues, the body
is to be opened with a clyifer every fecond or third day.
If the method is proper in the dilHndt fmall-pox, it will
be found more neceffary in the confluent, which is attend¬
ed with greater fear and danger.
In every fort of this difeafe, it is proper to open the
body on the decline, that is, on the ninth or tenth day
from the eruption, becaufe a putrid fever generally comes
m. n° 72, 2
CINE. 77
on about that time, while the puftules are drying, or up¬
on the fubfidence of the fwelling of the inflamed ikin,
where there is no fuppuration, which fever cannot be ta¬
ken off with equal fafely by any other means ; but gentle
cathartics alone are to be employed in this cafe, fuch as
were direffed before the eruption of the p iftules.
It will alfo be of ufe at this time to take away fome
blood, if the heat be too great, and the patient have
ftrength to bear it.
This putrid fever is by Sydenham called the fecondary
fever, which comes on with heat, inquietude, toiling,
<&c. and. unlefs prevented, takes off the patient in two or
three days. He mentions this fever as coming on the
eleventh day, or later; but this is to beunderftood from
the time of the invafion, whereas Mead reckons from the
time of the eruption. Sydenham prefcribes large bleed¬
ing, and a cathartic two days after, viz. one ounce of
lenitive ele&uary diflblved in 4 ounces of fimple alexe-
terial water, together with the free ufe of paregorics.
If the fpittle through heat is fo tough that it cannot be
hawked up, let a gargle be Frequently injeffed into the
throat with a fyringe. It maybe compounded of barley-
water and honey of rofes.
When the matter of falivation grows veryvifcid, apd
begins to clog the larynx and trachea, the beit me¬
thod is to boil marfh mallows, myrrh, and honey, in a
fufficient quantity of water and vinegar, and to tranfmit
the (team of the decoftion into the patient’s mouth, thro’
a glafs or tin tube, of fuch a fhape and length as is moft
commodious for a recumbent pofture.
From the eighth day to the end of the difeafe, gar-
lick may be applied to the foies of the feet; which muff
be renewed every day, efpecially when the brain is af-
fefted.
When the puftules are perfectly dry and withered, the
face may be rtnointed with a liniment, made of equal parts
of oil of fweet almonds and pomatum, for two days and
no longer.
Twenty one days after the invafion, let a vein be o-
pened in the arm, and the next day give a cathartic,
which may be repeated every other day three times more.
This is neceffary, becaufe no fpecies of fever requires
the body to be thoroughly cleared of the remains of the
difeafe more than this. After the cathartics, the body
is to be reftored to its former ffate by a courfe of milk,
efpecially that of affes, with fuitable food, and the air
and amufements of the'country.
As there are particular accidents in the fmall-pox which
do, not commonly occur, it will be proper to fay fome-
thing of them Sometimes the patient is feized with con-
vulfions juft before the eruption, which is rather a good
than a bad fign in children. In this cafe, blood-letting is
carefully to be avoided; but a blifter is to be applied to
the neck, and to the foies of the feet. Pfeiffers made
of equal parts of the cephalic and blillering plaifters not
forgetting to give antifpafmodic medicines inwardly.
The chief are wild Valerian root. Ruffian caftor, and the
fpirits of volatile falts chemically extratffed from animals.
In adults, the thing is otherwife ; for they, if not too
weak, may lofe a moderate quantity of blood, and then
be put into the foregoing method.
Haller
78 M E D I
Haller tells us, that camphire affifts greatly in filling
the fraall pox of the confluent kind with petechise; and
Monro, that the Peruvian-bark does the fame, that it
filled the empty veficies with matter, changed the watery
fanies into thick white pus, made the petechiae or fpots
turn gradually to a pale colour, and caufed the pox to
blacken fooner than was expedted. The dofein powder,
is from ten to twenty grains, in fome rich fyrup, with
an aromatic diflilled water, every four or five hours.
Children may take it in a clyfter, with a fmall quantity of
warm milk, after the bowels are unloaded with a prepa¬
ratory clyfter. If the clyfter was retained too ftiort a time,
lyrup of poppies was added, or diafcordium, Thefe injec¬
tions were repeated morning or evening or oftner. The
bark has had good effedts in mitigating the fecondary fever.
When the lungs are greatly fluffed, it is not to be given.
When the eruption appears without much fear or pain,
it is not without danger; for the puftules frequently do
not tend to maturity, and there is no fuppuration made.
Hence the fever increafes, with inquietude of body, anxie¬
ty of mind, difficulty of breathing, and a delirium, which
carry off the patient in a few days. In this ftate, the
fever ought rather to be raifed than checked ; and then
warm medicines are to be diredted which promote fuppu¬
ration, by increafingthe motion of the blood, and thinning
the humours, fuch as Virginia fnake-root, contrayerva-
root, faffron, afla fcetida, myrrh, and the like.
But above all, Blisters muft be laid on the limbs.
When the matter of the infedlion is over abundant, as
it happens in bad cafes, nature never fails endeavouring to
throw off the load. Thus in adults a fpitting comes on
upon the firft days of the eruption; whereas children have
a loofenefs almoft through the whole difeafe, which is
not to be inconfiderately flopped. So in adults, if the
fpitting does not go on to our wifhes, it ought to be pro¬
moted by medicines which ftimulate the glands of the
mouth, efpecially gargles made of a decodtion of muftard-
feed and pepper, with the addition of oxymel. For in
the confluent and malignant fmall-pox, if this flux does
notarife and continue to the end of the difeafe, it is a very
bad (ign.
The method of abating the rigour of this difeafe, and
preventing the great mortality with which it was often
attended, by inoculation, is now fo well known and fo
generally pradtifed, that a particular detail of it in this
place is unneceflary.
Of the Erysipelas, or St Anthony’s Fire.
An Erysipelas is an eruptive fever, from which no
part of the body is exempt; but it chiefly attacks the face.
It begins with chilnefs and {hivering, and other com¬
mon fymptoms of a fever. The part affedted fwelis a
little, with great pain, and intenfe rednefs, and is befet
with a vaft number of little puftules; which when the
inflammation isincreafed, are converted into fmall blifters.
This difeafe has great affinity with a peftilential fever;
for it begins fuddenly, with great {baking, heat, lofs of
ftrength, violent pain in the back and head; to which
may be added vomiting, and a delirium; but this is to
be underftood of the worft fort. On the third or fourth
day the malignant matter is thrown out on the furface of
CINE.
the body, and then the fymptoms a little abate. There
is often a pain, rednefs, and tumour in the inguinal glands,,
from whence matter of a hot fiery quality defcends to
the feet. If the head is attacked, the parotid glands
are afFedted ; if the breafts, the axillary. The mammary
and axillary glands are not feldom ulcerated, and affeft
the joints with a virulent corruption. And likewife, as
in the plague, there is nothing more dangerous than the
return of the expelled matter back, from the furface of
the body to the inward parts.
In fome, efpecially young perfons, the matter is not
fo virulent, nor the fever fo great; the glands remain
unaffefted, and the eruption happens on the fecond day.
This is not at all dangerous.
An eryfipelas is either true, or fimple and fpurious,
which is likewife called fcorbutic. The fimple only af-
feifts the furface of the flcin, and readily yields to proper
remedies. But the fpurious is more chronic, is harder to
cure, and often degenerates into malignant ulcers. Be-
fides, this difeafe is fometimes idiopathic, or a primary
difeafe; and fometimes fymptomatic, or a fecondary
one. For inftance, in the anafarca, the afcites, the yel¬
low and black jaundice, a fymptomatic eryfipelas fome¬
times fupervenes, and quickly kills the patient.
If it feizes the Foot, the parts contiguous will ffiine;
if it be attended with great pain, it will afcend to the legs,
and will not bear to be touched.
If it attacks the Face, it fwelis and looks red, and
there are plenty of watery veficies. The eyes are clofed
up with the fwelling ; there is a difficulty of breathing;
thefaucesand noftrils are very dry, often attended with a
numbnefs and drowfinefs: hence an inflammation of the-
brain is to be feared, or a mortal lethargy.
If it affefls the Breasts, they fwell, and grow almoft
as hard as a ftone, with exquifite pain, and they are very
apt to fuppurate. There is a moft violent pain in the
axillary glands, in which an abfcefs is often formed.
In children the umbilical region generally fuffers, with
a fatal event.
If in a day or two the tumour fubfides, the heat-and
pain ceafe, the rofy colour turns yellow, the cuticle
breaks and falls offin fcales, the danger is over. When
the eryfipelas is large, deep, and falls upon a part of ex¬
quifite fenfe, the patient is not very fafe. But if the red
colour changes into black and blue, it will end in a mor¬
tification. If the inflammation cannot be difcufled, it
will fuppurate, and bring on fiftulas and a gangrene.
When the patient is cacochymic, the leg will fometimes
fwell three times as big as the natural fize, and is cured
with great difficulty. Thofe who die of this difeafe, die
of the fever, which is generally attended with difficulty
of breathing, fometimes a delirium, fometimes with fleepi-
nefs ; and this in feven days time.
Let the patient’s diet be only water-gruel, or barley-
broth,'with roafted apples. If he drinks any beer, let it
be very fmall ; and let him keep out of bed fome hours in
a day.
Take away 9 or 10 ounces of blood, and the mext
morning let the patient take the common purging poTion.
It is a conftant rule among practitioners, in all acute
and eruptive fevers, to keep the body in a gentle diapho-
refis.
M E D I
refis. The fame method is to be obferved in this difeafe.
If the patient is plethoric, addicted to fpiritnous liquors,
and more efpecially if the difeafe attack the head, bleed¬
ing is necelfary.
It will be lafeft to avoid external applications, unlefs
a powder made of elder-flowers and liquorice fprinkled
on the part; or lime water, mixt with a fourth part of
fpirit of wine and camphire, dipping a linen cloth in it
feveral times doubled, and applying it hot to the part.
An infufion of fcordium, elder-flowers, and fennel-
feed, drank in the manner of-tea, is ufeful to expel the
morbific matter.
If the difeafe does not yield to the firft bleeding, let it
be repeated : if that will not do, let it be reiterated twice
more; one day being interpofed between.
On the days free from bleeding, prefcribe a clyfter of
milk and fyrup of violets.
Some think purges not neceflary in the beginning of
this difeafe; but in an eryfipelas of the head, when it
affe&s the brain with a coma and a delirium, either the
cafe is defperate, or cathartics will fucceed. However,
firft apply blifters to the neck.
If, after all, the tumor remains, and begins to turn livid;
if the pain lies deep, and feems to reach the periofleum,
and the part has a tendency to ulcerate ; then it will be
proper to promote a fuppuration; at the fame time en¬
deavouring to flop the progrefs of the putrefaction For
this purpofe the common plafler will be proper, with a
fufficient quantity of camphire and fafFron. When there
is matter that lies deep, the tumour is to be opened with a
lancet, and the pus is to be got out by degrees, not all
together.
When the abfcefs is in aglandulous part, and has dege¬
nerated into a fiflulous ulcer, after evacuating the matter,
a balfamic liquor is to be injefted, made of tindlure of
St. John’s wort, tindiure of balfam of peru, choice
myrrh, and a few drops of the fpirit of turpentine.
When there is a mortification coming on, give things
inwardly that refift putrefadtion, as nitre and a little cam¬
phire, [or rather the Peruvian bark.] Outwardly apply
a mixture of lime-water, camphorated fpirit of wine and
Vinegar with litharge ; as alfo tindlure of myrrh, [or of
myrrh and aloes] made pretty hot, with a linen cloth
doubled, and often repeated.
In the fcorbutic eryfipelas, which continues for fome
time, it will be proper to give gentle laxatives and purifi¬
ers of the blood, with diaphoretics. After the body has
been opened for fome days, give diuretics and diaphoretics
alternately for a confiderable time ; and for common drink,
order a temperate decodion of mucilaginous woods and
roots with bitters; particularly fuccory roots, dandelion-
roots, and raifins.
Of the Synoehus, or Continual Fever ’without
remiffion.
This fever, by fome called Synocha, by others a
Continual Fever, is an acute fanguineons fever, be-
caufe it is raifed by a congeflion of the blood, chiefly in
the nervofo-membranous parts ; which, unlefs timely dif-
cufled by the oenefit of nature and art, produces a fatal
inflammation.
CINE. 79
It begins, in fome, with a mild fenfe of cold, and is
foon attended with very grievous fymptoms, continuing
without remiffion till the critical time, with a great and
full pulfe. If the blood is forced to the head, for it al¬
ways affeds one part more than another, the face will
fwell, the eyes will be red and full of tears; there is a
pain in the head, with a pulfation of the temporal arteries,
a vertigo, a fleepinefs, torpor, or a raving. When the
blood rufties impetuoufly into the ventricles of the heart
and pulmonaty veffels, caufing a diflention therein; then
the breathing will be thick and difficult, with a ftraitnels
of the bread, as alfo an anxiety and palpitation of the
heart, attended with a lofs of llrength, and a dejedion;
of the mind. A flight inflammation of the oefophagus,
with a fpaftic flridure of the glands of the fauces, will
caufe, third, drynefs and blacknefs of the tongue. If the
inflammatory congedion happens in the domach, it will
create a naufea, a reaching to vomit, and fometimes a
hiccup. If in the intedines, there will be inflations
grievoufly exafperating the difeafe, together with a co-
divenefs, or an ejedion of fetid excrements. If in the
veflels proceeding from the mefaraic arteries and vena
portae, there will be a fixed pain at the fird vertebra of
the loins: if in the membranes of the fpinal marrow,
the patient will tumble and tofs and lie irregularly in bed,
and will have a torpor and languor of the limbs, fometimes
attended with convulfions.
But all thefe fymptoms never happen to all, nor is
their violence condantly alike. Some didinguiffi this fe¬
ver into the Ample and putrid. The fird is caufed by a
congedion of good blood in improper places. But when
it attacks perfons full of impure juices, who have been
weakened by a preceding difeafe, condant anguiffi of the
mind, exceffive coition, or inordinate living, the fymp¬
toms are much more grievous, with lofs of drength, and
the difeafe will continue till the fourteenth or the twenty-
fird day, fometimes with eruptions, dulky or black fpotv
with immediate danger.
If the caufe is not violent, this difeafe will often dis¬
appear, merely by the benefit of nature, on the fourth, fe-
venth, or eleventh days, with a large fweat or bleeding,
at the nofe, and, though very feldom, by a flux of the.
belly, unlefs it has fomethingof malignity.
When the difeafe is rightly managed in the beginning,
that is on the fird, fecond, and third day, with bleeding,
and cooling things, and gentle diaphoretics, it will end
on the fourth. But if the bleeding is omitted, oris too
little, it may continue till the fourteenth or feventeenth
day, with the more grievous fymptoms, as alfo a deli¬
rium: but it will terminate at lad byafweat orloofenefs.
When it proves fatal, the patient , generally dies of a
fphacelous inflammation of the brain,or other parts, as the
domach or intedines.
The intentions of cure are, i. To free the vital parts
from too great a congedion of blood, which will either
difperfe a flight inflamation, or prevent a great one. 2.
To appeafe the exasduation of the blood and the fpaflic
affection of the fyfiem of the naves. 3. To difcufs the
dagnating and corrupted fluids, and to reflore a free cir¬
culation of the blood, chiefly to the furface of the body.
To anfwer the fird intention, the patient mud Jofe.
blood
MEDICINE.
80
blood freely. Then the orgafm of the blood mud be ap
peafed with diluents, acids, and nitrous compofitions.
And certainly if any difeafe requires acids, and the juice
of tart fruits, it is this, fush as tamarinds, and the juices
of currants, oranges, and lemons.
Take two pounds of water; rofe-water, white fugar,
and juice of oranges, of each one ounce.
The jelly of hartfhorn made pretty thin; with the ad¬
dition of orange-juice, fugar, and rofe-water, will make a
proper demulcent and cooling drink ; or whe'y turned with
juice of lemons or oranges.
To direft the motion of the blood to the furface of the
body, gentle diaphoretics will be proper, fuch as the be-
zoardic or abforbent powders, fometimes alone, andfome-
times with citron juice. Like wife infufions of the leaves
oi veronica, fcordium, ox carduus benediftus, with fennel-
feed, drank in the manner of tea, efpecially to promote
fweating on the fourth day, when the difeafe is like to
terminate with this falutary excretion.
It will be neceffary, whether this fever be ftrnple or
putrid, to keep the body open ; for which purpofe a
clyfter made of v/hey, honey, oil of fweet almonds, with
a little nitre and fait, will be proper ; for by this means-
the ftriiflure.of the intellinal fibres will be relaxed, and
flatus’s will be difcharged, which diftend the colon. In
the decline of the difeafe, when there are apparent figns
of coftion in the urine, a laxative of manna and cream
of tartar, or cafiia and rhubarb, will be of great ufe.
Of the Bilious Fever.
The bilious is a kind of a burning fever. It begins
with intenfe heat, third, anguifli, and inquietude. There is
likewife a vomiting, or a perpetual reaching to vomit,
with frequent bilious dools, a coldnefs of the extremi¬
ties, internal heat, and cardialgic anxiety. This fever
is either acute, or very acute. In this the fymptoms are
more violent, the bilious purging upwards and down¬
wards is very plentiful, joined to a cardialgia with faint-
ing. It generally kills before the feventh day, with an
inflammation of the ftomach and duodenum ; the figns of
which are, a fixed igneous heat about the prcecordia, with
a coldnefs of the extremities, high inquietude and anxi¬
ety, a hiccup, and a plentiful eruffation of bile and falival
liquor, a jaundice-colour of the countenance, and a hippo-
cratic face.
Some are not fo acute, but run a greater length, with
mow and then a remifiion, and perhaps an intermiffion,
and have an exacerbation, with vomiting, anxiety, and
•coldnefs every other day, or every third day, and ought
to be called continual quotidians or tertians.
It is caufed by a bilious fluid fecreted plentifully in the
liver, and poured out into the ftomach and duodenum,
where by its acrimony and corrofivenefs it ftimulates the
nervous tunics, corroding and inflaming them ; whence
the fymptoms proper to this fever arife, fuch as a burn¬
ing heat, a cardialgic anxiety, a naufea, a reaching to
vomit, and a violent purging upwards and downwards.
Hoffman, in the cure of the bilious fevers mentioned
€>y him, would have the cauftic acrimony of the bilious
juices abated and fheathed by abforfent powders and nitre,
which fliould be taken in a fufficient quantity of a liquid,
and often repeated. He likewife recommends emulfions
of almonds, of the cold feeds ; elder flower water, rofe-
water, xbc. as alfo jellies of hartfhorn, milk and water,
oil of fweet almonds, fweet whey, chicken broth,
After thefe things, medicines muft be given to reftrain
the impetuous bilious excretions, and to abate the too
quick fyftaltic and penftahic motion of the biliary dudts,
and to prevent the too great excretion of the bile.
In the cure of the Bilious Fever of the camp,
Pringle, before it becomes continual, depends on the pro¬
per ufe of evacuations, the neutral falts, and the bark.
Bleeding is the firft thing to be done in every cafe, and
is to be repeated once or oftener, according to the urgen¬
cy of the diftemper. The vern?i and later autumnal re¬
mittents are accompanied with rheumatic, pleuritic pains,
and other fymptoms of high inflammation, which require
more bleedings than the intermediate feafon. To omit
this, and give the bark too foon, will bring on an inflam¬
matory fever A vein may be opened fafely either du¬
ring the remiflion, or in the height of the paroxyfm.
After bleeding, give an emetic in the remiifion or in¬
termiffion of the fever, and rather foon after a paroxyfm
than before one. But emetics do harm when the ftomach
is inflamed, ot when the difeafe has continued fome time,
and has aflumed the type of a continual fever. However,
we may fafely give one when the fever intermits, or has
confiderable remiffions. Ipecacuanha is fafeft, but antimo-
nials moft efficacious. If the remiffions are fmall, or the
fever great, or there is a tendency to vomit, the former
is beft. But when the remiffions are diftinft, or the re-
miffion perfect, the latter (hould be preferred; or it may
be joined to the former ; that is, two grains of tartar
emetic, with a fcruple of the powder of ipecacuanha.
Thofe vomits are beft which produce ftools, efpecially if
they procure a plentiful difeharge of corrupted bile up¬
wards or downwards.
If the body continues coftive, a laxative will be pro¬
per, efpecially if there is a tenefmus, or pains in the
bowels. The falinedraught, with fait of wormwood and
lemon-juice, will bring, the fever fooner to regular inter-
miffions.
Whenever the fweats are not profufe enough in propor¬
tion to the fits, the quantity of an ounce offpir. Min-
dereri may be given, divided into two or three.draughts,
before they go off. It promotes a plentiful diaphorefis,
without heating.
As the fevers are never without an inflammation in the
beginning, and then rarely have complete paroxyfms, the
bark is not to be given till the urine breaks, and there are
entire fliort intermiffions ; nor yet before bleeding, as was
obferved above; nor before the firft paffages have been
cleanfed ; otherwife the fever will return, or a tympanites
will be produced.
It is beft to give the bark in fubftance in Rhenifti wine;
or an ounce of it may be made into an eledtuary, with fy-
rup of lemons, and a dram of fal ammoniacum. If the
patient has not been purged, it will be proper to add as
much rhubarb as will keep the body open for the firft two
or three days of ufmg that medicine. It is chiefly ufeful
when the bilous humonrs abound, as they moftly do in
marftiy countries. If the paroxyfms are quotidian, and
M E D I
the interm!ITions (hort, it may be necefTary to give the
bark before the fweating is quite over.
If the difeafe has been neglefled in the firft ftages, or
if after the remiffions or intermiflions it changes to a con
tinuai fever, with a full and hard pulfe, a vein mull: be
opened. But if there is a pain in the head, or a delirium,
and the pulfe final!, it will be bed to apply leeches to the
tetnples. But whether the patient is bled or not, blitters
are the beft remedy. If the prints r/V are loaded, cly-
fters or a laxative may be proper; but neither vomits
nor purges ; nor are thofe to be repeated without cau¬
tion. To thefe remedies the faline draught may be ad-
ded.
Sweating is the proper crifis: it is never to be pro¬
moted by theriaca or volatiles ; but when the pulfe finks,
and petechije, or other fymptoms appear, it will be pro
per to ufe the warmer alexipharmics, and to treat the
difeafe like a malignant fever.
A loofenefs is the leaft favourable crifis: yet if there
are colic pains, or a tenfion of the belly, attended with
drynefs of the Jkin, it will be proper to procure ttools by
a clyfter, or a gentle laxative, fuch as the infufion of
rhubarb with manna ; which is to be repeated as the pa¬
tient can bear it.
' Of a Causus, or Burning Fever.
The principal fymptoms of a caufus are, a heat almoft
burning to the touch, moll remarkable about the vital
parts, but more moderate towards the extremities, which
are even fometimes cold: the breath is extremely hot;
there is a dryhefs of the whole Ikin, noftrils, mouth, and
tongue. The refpiration is thick, difficult, and quick ;
the tongue is dry, yellow, black, parched, and rough ;
the thirtt is unquenchable; there is loathing of food, a
naufea and vomiting; an anxiety, inquietude, and great
laffitude ; a little cough, a ffirill voice, a delirium, a
phrenfy, a continual watching or a coma, convulfions,
and on the odd days an exacerbation of the fever.
In this temperate climate thefe fort of fevers are very
rare; thofe that are more common among us are the burn¬
ing fanguineous, oi the continual bilious fevers without
remiffion.
This begins without any remarkable coldnefs or ffii-
vering, with great heat, thirft, watching, anxiety and in¬
quietude. In fanguineo-bilious conftitutions, and in bo¬
dies full of hot bilious blood, they terminate in critical
days in health or death, being firft preceded with a (ba¬
king. They terminate in a falutary manner, with a fweat
or a bleeding at the nofe.
On the third and fourth day it often proves mortal; it
feldom exceeds the feventh, if violent.
It is often terminated by an Iwemorrhage ; which if
fmall on the third and fourth day, it is a fatal fign. It is
beft if it happens on a critical day.
A folution of this fever on a critical day, may alfo be
by vomiting, ftool, fweat, urine, or fpitting thick phlegm.
If the exacerbation of this difeafe happens on the fe-
cond or fourth day, it is a bad fign ; on the fixth, not
fo bad.
The urine black, fmall in quantity, and thin, is fatal;
fo is fpitting or piffing of blood. A difficulty of fwal-
Vol. III. N<>. 72. 2
CINE. 8t
lowing is a bad fign ; but the worft of alb is coldnefs of
the extreme parts. The face red and fweaty, is bad ; a
parotis not tending to fuppuration is fatal ; the body too
loofe is fatal. A tremor turning into a delirium is mor¬
tal: it often changes imoa peripneumony with a delirium.
When this difeafe fucceeds gripings of the bowels, it is
worft of all.
A critical determination of this fever is ufually pre¬
ceded by a rigor, or (baking.
The Cure of a burning fever is moft eafily obtained
in a pure, cool air, frequently renewed : The patient
mutt not be opprefled or (lifted with bed cloaths, but
(hould fit up often. He (hould drink plentifully of foft,
fub acid, aqueous, and warm liquors. His diet (hould
be light, made of pearl barley, oatmeal, and fub-acid
fruits.
Bleeding is necefiary at the beginning/ if there is a
plethora, or figns of a particular inflammation, or the
heat is intolerable, or the rarefadion too great, or a re-
vulfion neceflary, or the fymptoms urgent, in which cir-
cumttances the diforder is hardly to be vanquiffied by any
other remedies.
Soft, diluting, laxative, antiphlogiftic cooling clyfters,
are to be repeated as oft as the hear, coftivenefs, and
revulfion require them.
The whole body is to be moiftened by receiving into
the noftrils the fteams of warm water; by wafliing the
mouth, throat, feet, and hands, with the fame; by fo¬
menting with warm fpunges the places where the veflels
are moft numerous, and moft expofed to the touch.
The medicines (hould be aqueous, foft, nitrous, grate¬
fully acid, gently laxative, not promoting fweat and urine
by their acrimony, but by their plenty ; fuch as remove
the comraftion of the fibres, refolve the thicknefs of the
humours and-dilute, and temper their acrimony.
To appeafe thirft in this difeafe, and to moiften the
tongue and parched fauces, there is nothing better than
fweet whey, in a quart of which half a dram of pure ni¬
tre has been diflblved. Small draughts of this, a little
cool, may be drank frequently, which will likewife ex-
tinguilh the pernatural heat. The mouth and throat may
alfo be waftiedwith water, mixt with fyrup of mulberries
and nitre.
Pufgatives are dangerous before the crifis, but clyfters
may be ufed, made of‘milk, honey, and a little nitre.
After the crifis, which is known by the fediment in the
urine, laxatives made with tamarinds, manna, rhubarb,
raifins, or cream of tartar, are abfolutely neceflary
Of the Burning Bilious Fever, or Yellow Fever of
the Weft Indies.
The yellow fever begins with a momentary chilnefs
and (hivering, which is foon fucceeded by a burning h eat
all over the body, but is felt more intenfely about the
praecordia. The pulfe is high, ftrong, and rapid; the
eyes are heavy; with a throbbing pain in the head, and
a violent beating of the temporal arteries, and a thick,
laborious refpiration : There is a naufeoufnefs, and
reaching to vomit; and when any thing is thrown up, it is
of the bilious kind : Befides thefe, great anxiety, pain in
the back and loins, and an uneafy laffitude in all the limbs.
X About
82 M E D I
About twelve hours after the invafion, the tongue is
dry, harih, rough, and difcoioured, with infatiable thirft;
there is a forenefs all over the body, great redleffnefs, and
a delirium.
In the laft ftage the patient labours under a great coma,
oppreffion of the praecordia, heaving of the lungs, an in¬
terrupted fefpiration, tremblings of the tendons, convul-
lions, and cold clammy fweats.
It ufually terminates in a favourable crilis, or the
death of the patient, about the fourth day after the attack.
The regular crifis generally difcovers itfelf by a fuffu-
fion of the bile all over the furface of the body about the
third day. The faffron tincture is frequently difcovered
in the eyes twelve hours after the invafion : the foonerit
appears, the more favourable is the prognoftick.
If the jaundice comes on too foon, it is bad ; if with
livid fpots, which fometimes, though rarely, appear, it is
fatal. If the fkin continues obftinately dry and rough,
the cafe is dangerous ; and the more fo, the longer it con¬
tinues ; for thefe very feldom recover, be the pulfe ever
fo good. The pulfe is not to be depended on ; for many
have a good pulfe a few hours before death. If the vo¬
mitings are inceflant, grow darker, and the hiccup comes
on, it is generally fatal. If the face is greatly flulhed,
and the veffels of the white of the eye are turgid with
blood, as in an ophthalmia attended with a phrenzy, the
patient is likely to die in a very little time, efpecially if
the Ikin is dry.
But if the head continues clear, the pulfe becomes foft,
the pains, naufea, and anguilh are relieved by bleeding ;
as alfo if the humours vomited up are carried downwards
bv laxatives; if then the inquietude ceafes, the flan grows
foft and moift, and the patient has better fpirits ; it is
probable he will recover.
Bleeding is the firft thing to be done, more or lefs,
according to the force of the difeafe and the ftrength of
the patient ■ and, if the fymptoms continue in their full
vigour, (hould be repeated once in fix or eight hours,
leflening the quantity proportionably each time.
After the firll bleeding, give a vomit of ipecacuanha,
quickened with three or four grains of emetic tartar, (or
rather two grains,) which will bring up a great quantity
of yellow, porraceous, and fometimes blackifli bile, and
carry the humours downwards.
After this the patient may drink plentifully of diluting,
refrigerating, and fubacid liquors, made with oranges,
lemons, tamarinds, fpirit of fulphur, fpirit of vitriol, and
fuch like, in barley-water, fpring water, or other thin
and cooling vehicles. He may likewife be allowed tartiflr
juicy fruits; as ananas, granadilloes, Barbadoes cherries,
and water-melons -; as alfo plantains, and bananaes, roalt-
ed for food, jelly of guavaes, be.
Cooling teftaceous powders are likewife very benefi¬
cial.
Towards the evening it will be neceflary to injeft a
clyfter, made of the common deco&ion, with half an
ounce of cream of tartar, an ounce of manna, or an ounce
of pulp of caflia added to it.
When the operation of. the clyfter is over, paregorics
will be proper, as thus:
Take 2 ounces of mint-water, one ounce of cinnamon
C I N E.
water, 25 drops of the lin&ura thebaica, and a fuf-
ficient quantity of fugar.
The room fhould be kept cool, and fprinkled with
vinegar, rofe water, and cooling herbs. Frefh air fhould
be admitted, but not to blow direftly on the patient’s body.
Blifters are alfo of great efhcacy at this jumfture ; which
if applied before it be too late, a coma, the deadly fymp-
tom of this diftemper, very rarely enfues.
The patient’s diet fhould he nothing but thin panada
and water-gruel, gratefully fweetened and acidulated.
Befides plentiful and frequent draughts of cooling li¬
quor, the patient fhould be allowed preferyed tamarinds,
llices of lemon with a little fugar ; but above all, pen¬
guins, which by their fharpnefs penetrate the thick te¬
nacious feurf, whereby the glands of the mouth will be
unloaded. Opiates muft alfo be ufed in larger dofes than
in Europe.
Cooling and lenient clyfters muft alfo be repeated every
eight hours.
When the patient begins to be comatofe, the third and
laft ftage of the difeafe is advancing; in which are, dif¬
ficulty of breathing, oppreflion of the preecordia, convul-
five twitching of the tendons, interruption of the pulfe,
and at length its total ceffation.
Jn this cafe, a compleat fet of blifters muft be immedi¬
ately applied, or the old ones renewed ; which muft be
laid to the nape of the neck, on the wrifts, thighs, and
legs, and a large one on the crown of the head. To the
foies of the feet may be laid a cataplafm of fait herrings
and muftard.
With regard to the urgent fymptoms; pains of the
head, watchfulnefs, and deliria, are to be relieved by e-
mollient and laxative clyfters, gentle purgatives, cup¬
ping with fcarification, opening the frontal vein, lotions
of the feet, and narcotics.
Blifters are alfo ufeful for the fame purpqfe.
Convulfions require much the fame treatment external¬
ly ; and internally, aurum mujivtnn, (the dofe from four
grains to a feruple.) To reftore the ftrength of the pa¬
tient, little more is required than a ffomach purge or two,
mild and agreeable bitters, and a reftorative regimen of
broths, jellies, and white meats.
If the yellow tincture remains upon the Ikin, give a
vomit of ipecac, and a purge or two with the deco&ion
of fenna, tamarinds, be. and allow the ufe of lemons, o-
ranges, and other acid fruits. If this diforder proves
obftinate, treat it as the jaundice.
Of the Senegal Fever.
The fever which chiefly prevails in this country in the
months of July, Auguft, and September, is of the worft
kind. It ufually begins with dfowftnefs, laflitude, and
great rigors, which continue frequently three or four
hours, and are fucceeded by intenfe heat and fweats.
For three or four days it remits, and both the ihiverings
and hot fits become more moderate. During this period,
the pulfe is quick and low ; but afterwards becomes full¬
er, unlefs feme evacuation intervene. At this time pro-
fufe fweats are eafily brought on; in which cafe there
are little hopes of recovery. A parched, dry flein, is as
bad a fymptom, if it continues more than a day ; for an
interrmitting
M E D I
intermitting pulfe and a delirium fucceed, and continue
for feven or eight days, the frequency of the intermilEons
increafjng every day: but if a general moderate moifture
comes one at this, or any other time of the diforder, and
continues, the patient recovers. A violent pain in the
head and back, and difficulty of breathing, are general
complaints. Sudden languors, and bilious vomitings, are
frequent through a great part of the time.
Some are taken with a great heat, and a flrong quick
pulfe, without any fhiverings or remilfions, as abovemen-
tioned. In this cafe the patient fooner dies upon the ap¬
pearance of bad fymptoms, and is longer in recovering
upon the appearance of good ones.
The lofs of eight or ten ounces of blood, in the firfl:
attack of thefe fevers, has funk the pulfe beyond a poffibi-
lity of raifing it afterwards, and that even in plethoric
habits, attended with great pains of the head. It is, in¬
deed, furprifing ho\y little thefe fevers will bear of eva¬
cuations of any kind, efpecially bleeding.
After profulefweats, the pulfe becomes extremely flow ;
and, though the fweating goes off, continues fo for two
or three days, with anxiety and reltleflhefs ; after which
the pulfe grows quick, the fkin parched and hot, and a
feries of bad fymptoms comes on.
The fick are always comatofe and ftupid; which fymp-
tom is little dangerous when attended with a warm moi¬
fture on the fkin, but othetwife it is generally fatal.
It is of great confequence to keep up the pulfe; but
here the common cordial medicines are ineffe&ual; yet
the deco&ion of the bark, with the camphorated julep,
and fpirit of vitriol, anfwers this purpofe effe&ually, fo-
as to render any other medicine unneceflary, except occa-
lionally a gentle emedc or laxative.
Of the Inflammation of the Stomach.
The inflammation of the ftomach is known by a burn¬
ing, fixed and ppngent pain in the ftomach, which is ex-
afperated at the inftant any thing is taken into it; and is
fucceeded by a moft painful vomiting apd hiccup. There
is always a violent internal heat, high anxiety, and a
grievous pain about the prsecordia, chiefly at the pit of
the ftomach, an acute, continual feyer, great thirft, dif¬
ficult breathing, inquietude, tofling of the body, cold-
nefs of the extreme parts, a hard, contratfted, quick, and
Sometimes unequal pulfe.
It maybe diftinguiftied from other diforders of the fto¬
mach ; for in the cardialgia, there is alfo a great anxiety
about the prsecordia, a preflrng acute pain reaching to the
back, a eoldnefs of the extremities, a conftaot ftimirlus
to vomiting, with inquietude : But the heat in the regi¬
on of the ftomach is not fo violent, nor is the.thirft and
drynefsof the tongue fo great, nor the pulfe fo quick and
contrafted, and the ftomach can better bear and retain
any thing taken inwardly; nay, is frequently relieved
thereby. An inflammation of the inteftines has a pain or
gripes more about the region of the navel, with frequent,
frothy, bilious ftools, or a little bloody, with a heat over
all the furface of the body, and a quick large pulfe :
Whereas in this difeafe the extremities are cold.
If it be caufed by.drinking cold liquors when the body.
CINE 8-
is hot; or from"an effufion of the bile after violent com¬
motions of the mind; the danger is not very great, as
there will be room for fuitable medicines to take effett:
But that which arifes from draftic purges, fharp emetics,
or cauftic poifons, kills quickly without fpeedy afliftance.
This difeafe likewife often proves fatal to the old, the in¬
firm, the fcorbutic, and perfons full of grief, as alfo in
the end of acute difeafes.
When there is a reftlefs tofling of the body ; when li¬
quids are immediately thrown up ; when there is a hiccup,
a fainting, an hippocratic face, an intermitting pulfe, and
convulfions, a fatal mortification will foon terminate the
patient’s life.
This difeafe, if not fuddenly cured, is generally mor¬
tal : And therefore, as foon as it is difcovered, plentiful
bleeding is neceflary, and muft be repeated as the violence
of the fymptoms increafes. Let the drink be very foftr
antiphlogiftic, and emollient; as alfo clyfters of the fame
kind.
The patient (hould totally abftain from every thing that
is acrimonious; .even the cooling, nitrous fairs, which
are beneficial in other inflammations, irritate too much.
Vomits, cordials, and fpirituous liquors, are little better
than poifon.
Aliments ftrould be given frequently, and by a fpoonful
at a time; for any diftention increafes the inflammation.
A thin gruel of barley, oatmeal, whey, with very little
fugar or honey, or chitken-broth, are proper aliments;
whey-emulfions, barley-water, emollient deco&ions, are
proper drinks.
The indications of cure are, i. To open the obftruc-
tions caufed by tenacious juices impafled into incongruous
veflels ; 2. To remove the fpaftic ftritftures which con-
trad the vefiels, and to reftore the equable and nauiral
progrefs of the blood through the fubftance of the fto¬
mach. Thefe ends are to be obtained by rf/VWw/.r, hu~
mettantf) demulcents, a n / if pafrn odics, and things that
reftrain the heat which thickens the fluids, and relax the
conflrtded fibres.
But as there are more caufes than one that produce an
inflammation, they will require different remedies to bring
about a cure.
Therefore, if it be owing to a cauftic, feptic, arfenical
poifon, or a ftrong emetic or cathartic, or to metallic me¬
dicines iil prepared, and thence the inflammation ; oily
fat things are proper, as new milk, cream, oil of fweet
almonds, or olive oil taken often and plentifully.
If from a fpafm, fucceeding a violent commotion of
the mind, then a nitrous abforbent powder will be proper,
in an traulfion of white poppy feeds. When the fpafm
is appeafed; rhubarb with raifins will be neceffary to carty
off the bilious fordes.
When an eruptive matter is repelled and caufes this dif¬
eafe, ufe emulfions of the greater cold feeds, with tem¬
perate bezoardic powder; now and then adding a little
nitre and a fmall matter of campflire.
If from a cauftic bile, as in the cholera morbus, an in¬
flammation is apprehended, earthy abforbents and harts¬
horn pbilofophically prepared fliould be given, with gela¬
tinous. decoilions of calves and neats feet, or hartfhorn-
jdliesi
84 M E D 1
jellies and water grueh Outwardly, the following lini¬
ment is ufeful in all cafes z
Take of oil of fweet almonds 2 ounces, and a dram of
camphor; mix and make them into a liniment, to
be applied warm to the ftomach.
Of the Quinsey.
A Quinsey is an inflammation of the fauces, with a
burning pain, tumor and rednefs ; a difficulty of breath¬
ing or fwallowing; and a fever, proceeding from a ftafis
of blood, or a vifcid acrid ferum in the fanguineous or
lymphatic veflels.
It begins with a fever, which is followed with a pa:n
and inflammation of the fauces, caufing the uvula, tonfils,
and larynx to fwell ; whence great difficulty of breathing
and fwallowing enfues.
This difeafe may be feated at the root of the tongue
Bear the os hyoides; the foramina of the noftrils opening
to the bone ; the beginning of the osfopbagus; the mufcles
of the pharynx ; the internal and external mufcles of the
larynx ; the greater and lefler glands; the tonfils, or the
mufcles moving the jaws.
When a quinfey aflfe&s the internal mufcles of the
larynx, and there is no outward rednefs about any part
of the neck, but a burning pain inwardly, a lofs of voice,
and great difficulty of breathing; it often kills in twenty-
four hours. This is calkd a kynanche When it is feat¬
ed in the internal mufcles of the pharynx, it is called a
fynanche ; in which there is no external tumor and red¬
nefs, but a great difficulty of fwallowing and breathing,
and whatever is drank returns through the nofe. When
there is an outward tumor and rednefs, and the external
mufcles of the pharynx are affe&ed, it is a parafynanche;
when the external mufcles of the larynx, a parakynan-
che.
A quinfey is likewife diftinguiffied into the true and
fpurious. The true arifes from the flafis of the blood;
the fpurious or baftard from a congeftion of the ferum.
The former is acute, always attended with a rigor: and a
fever. The latter has rather a lymphatic or catarrhal,
than an acute fever. The firft has not only a burning,
pricking pain in the inner parts of the fauces, but the
tongue is turgid with blood, and of a dark reddiflt
colour ; the face is likewife red ; there is a great pul-
fation of the temporal arteries^ fometimes a head-ach,
a torpor of the fenfes ; fometimes fainting.
When it is very violent , there is a difficulty of breath¬
ing, high anxiety, and coldnefs of the extremities; and
is very dangerous, requiring fpeedy help. But in the
fpurious, thofe fymptoms are either abfent, or more
mild ; nor is the danger fo great.
This difeafe may be caufed by a fuppreffion of fome
ufual fanguineous evacuation; by admitting the cold air
after a ftrong fudorific has been taken; and by lying in
rooms new plaiftered or white-waffied. Some cauftic
poifons affed the throat more than other parts. White
hellebore attacks the fauces, and brings on a ftrangulation.
The fame enfues from the folanum furiofum, and the bite
of a mad dog. The fumes of arfenical and mercurial
minerals, as aifo the vapours of mineral fpirits, will have
the fame.dfe&s.
CINE.
It fometimes comes on fpotaneoufly, and is again the
fymptomof another difeafe, as the diarrhoea and dyfentery,
efpecially if the flux ishaftily flapped. It has happened
from the flrikingin of an eryflpelas ; or fometimes from the
gout being injudicioufly treated with topicks ; as alfo fiom
the fmall-pox, or a malignant or peftilential fever. The
caufe of the fymptomatic difeafe is coftivenefs, orfuppref-
fed perfpiratjbn, or the ftriking in of eruptions. When
it is epidemic, it has fomething of malignity.
When the fwelling, pain, and rednefs, appear more*out-
wardly, and vaniffi by degrees, it is a lign of a happy fo-
lution of the difeafe. But when the external fwelling
fuddenly difappears, without a mitigation of the fymp¬
toms, it fliews the morbific matter to be tranflated elfe-
where, and will change to a phrenzy or peripneumony.
Or this difeafe may terminate in a luppuration or gangrene,
ora fchirrus. A frothing at the mouth, the tongue
vaftly fwelled, and of a purple, blackiffi colour, portend
death.
In thefe inflammations a flight diarrhoea relieves: There¬
fore aliments which promote it are ufeful, as tamarinds
irrfufed in whey ; decodtions of farinaceous vegetables
moderately acidulated, and fuch as abound with a cool¬
ing nitrous fait, are proper. Burnet is faid to be a fpe-
cific in this cafe. Mulberries are beneficial, and all a-
cids.
The mouth and throat muff be kept moift, and the
nofe clear, that the air may have clear paflage through it.
When the patient cannot fwallow, he may be nouriffied
by clyfters.
Take away blood plentifully from the arm, and af¬
terwards open a fublingual vein; but bleeding in the ju¬
gular yields the beft afliltance, and is much more fafe.
If the fymptoms continue to be very urgent, the bleeding
may be repeated in fix or eight hours time, till they be¬
gin to be more mild.
After the firft bleeding, lay a ftrong and large blifter
on the fore-part of the neck, or a piece of flannel dipt in
the volatile liniment.
Then let the parts inflamed be touched with the fol¬
lowing mixture:
1. Take a fufficient quantity of honey of roles and
fpirit of fulphur. Mix them.
Then the following gargle is to be ufed, held in the
mouth till it is hot before it be fpit out; which is to be
repeated pretty often:
2. Take a pound of barley-water, 8 ounces of honey,
and 2 drams of fpirit of fal armoniac. Mix them.
Emollient fleams, or even the fteam of hot water ta¬
ken in at the mouth, are beneficial.
If the patient is not able to fwallow any nouriffiment,
3. Take ten ounces of beaf-tea, 10 grains of nitre,
and 6 drops of fpirit of fait. Mix and make them
into a clyfter.
Let it beinjefted every eighth hour, after the belly has
been cleanfed with a purging clyfter.
If the tumour tends to a fuppuration, it is beft pro¬
moted by holding fat, dried figs in the mouth ; and when
the tonfils are full of an inflammatory ichor, honey of
rofes mixt with fpirit of vitriol, and often applied to the
part with a pencil, is excellent.
That
M E D I
That inflammatory pain which arifes from a fharp fait
fermru in the glandulous parts of the fauces, with red-
nefs, and a copious flux of faliva, but without a fever,
maybe cured with a gargle of brandy alone. An inflam¬
mation of the fauces is fometimes cured with ten drops of
camphorated fpirit of wine, in which a grain of nitre has
been diflblved, and fuffered to pafs flowly down the
throat.
The acute and inflammatory quinfey may be defined,
“ An inflammation of fome part or parts, either within or
“ contiguous to the throat, rendering deglutition painful,
“ oriimprafticable ; and, when it is of the moft dangerous
“ kind, likewife affefting. refpiration.”
When only fwallowing is impaired, the parts inflamed
may be the tonfils, the velum palati, and uvula, the muf
cles of the pharnynx, and thofe of the larynx, which
raife it or pull it down in deglutition, but whofe aftion
is not concerned in moderating the aperture of the
glottis ; while the larynx itfelf and the afpera arteria
remain free.
But when the refpiration is pinched, befides other
parts, thefe mufcles, which are employed in opening and
fltutting the glottis, muft be inflamed; and likewife,
probably the inner membrane of the larynx, and thofe
mufcles and fibres that join the rings of the afpera arteria
together: And fometimes thefe minute and remote parts
are afFefted without any rednefs or tumour, either within
the fauces, or outwardly on the throat: This kind of
quinfey is the moft dangerous and fuddenly deftrudtive
of all.
The praftitioner in every kind of quinfey ought to look
carefully into the mouth and fauceS, in order to difcern
where any rednefs and tumour is ; that by comparing the
appearance of the parts with the functions impaired, he
may be enabled to form the better judgment with refpe<ft
to the feat of the difeafe, the prognoftic, and method of
cure.
If the breathing is remarkably affefted, there is abfo-
lute neceffity of applying all the moft efficacious remedies
with the greateft brifknefs and fpeed poffible. Thefe are
plentiful and repeated bleedings, a large blifter between
the fcapulae; fomentations and cataplafms outwardly j
fteams to be received into the throat, the beft ingredient
in which is vinegar; fmart, but cooling purges; or, if
thefe cannot be got down, clyfters of the fame kind ; ba¬
thing the feet and legs in warm water, and even ferai-
cupia not made too hot, for fear of railing the pulfe too
high.
But even though the refpiration fhould not be afFefted
at firft, if the fymptoms are otherwife violent, remedies
ought to be fmartly and quickly applied to prevent fup-
puration. For when the inflamed part tends to fuppura-
tion, the tumour keeps increafing: and when the pus is
actually formed, the bulk maybe fo enlarged as to endan¬
ger fuffbcation, or the patient may be ftarved by a total
privation of fwallowing ; fo that fuppuration fhould al¬
ways be prevented, if poffible.
If in the courfe of the diftemper the patient fhould run
a rifk of being fuffocated, the operation of bronchotomy
becomes necsflary. See Surgery.
Vot. III. N° 72. 2
CINE. 9$
Of the Malignant Quinsey, or Putrid Sore Throat.
This difeafe generally comes on with fuch a giddinefs
of the head, as often precedes fainting, with a chilnefs
or fhivering like that of an ague fit, followed by great
heat; and thefe alternately fucceed each other for fome
hours, till at length the heat becomes conftant and in-
tenfe. The patient then complains of an acute pain in
the head, of heat and forenefs, rather than pain, in the
throat ; ftiffnefs of the neck; commonly great ficknefs,
vomiting or purging, or both. The face foon after looks
red and fwelled, the eyes inflamed and watery, as in the
meafles; with reftleflhefs, anxiety, and faintnefs.
It frequently feizes the patient in the fore-part of the
day ; and as night approaches the heat and reftleflnefs in-
creafe, continuing till towards morning ; when after a
fhort, difturbed {lumber, the only repofe during feveral
nights, a fweat breaks out, which mitigates the heat and
reftleflhefs, and gives the difeafe fometimes the appear¬
ance of an intermittent.
If the mouth and throat be examined foon after the
firft attack, the uvula and tonfils will appear fwelled ; and
thefe parts together with the velum pendulum palati, as
well as the cheeks on each fide, near the entrance into
the fauces, aud as much of the fauces and the pharynx
behind as can be feen, appear of a florid red colour.
This colour is commonly moft obfervable on the pofterior
edge of the palate, in the angles above the tonfils, and
upon the tonfils themfelves. Inftead of this rednefs, a
broad patch, or fpot, of an irregular figure, and of a
pale white colour, furrounded with a florid red, is fome¬
times to be feen. This whitenefs is commonly like that
of the gums after having been preffed with the finger ;
or as if a matter ready to be difcharged lay underneath.
Generally on the fecond day, the face, neck, bread,
and hands, are of a deep eryfipelatous colour, with a fen-
fible tumefaifion. The fingers are fo frequently tinged
in a remarkable manner, that it has been no hard mat¬
ter to guefs at the difeafe from a bare fight of them.
A great number of fmall pimples of a moreintenfe co¬
lour than that which furrounds them, appear on the arms
and other parts. Where the rednefs is leaft intenfe, they
are larger and more prominent, which is generally'on the
arms, bread:, and lower extremites.
As the (kin becomes red, the ficknefs commonly goes
off, and the vomiting and purging ceafe.
The appearance in the fauces continues the ffime, only
the white place becomes of a more opake white, and is
difcovered to be a flough, concealing an ulcer of the
fame dimenfions. Thefe ulcerations are generally firft dif-
cernible in the angles above the tonfils, or on the tonfils
themfelves. They are alfo often feen in the arch formed
by the uvula and one of the tonfils; on the pharynx be¬
hind, on the infide of the cheeks, the bafis of the tongue,
which they cover like a thick fur. Where the diforder
is mild, there is only a fuperficial ulcer, of an irregular
figure, in one or more of thofe parts, fcarce to be diftin-
guifhed from the found part, but by the inequality of its
furface. Likewife the rednefs and eruption do not always
appear, and in fome not till the third, fourth, or fifth
day, or later.
The
86 M E D I
The parotid glands on each fide commonly fwell, grow
hard, and are painful to the touch ; If the difeafe is vio¬
lent, the neck and throat are furrounded with a large ce-
dematous tumour, fometimes extending itfelf to the
bread, and by draitening the fauces increafe the danger.
Towards night the heat and redleflhefs increafe, and a
delirium frequently comes on. This happens to fome on
the fird night. It is very remarkable, that the patient
commonly returns a proper anfwer to any quedion, but
with unufual quicknefs ; yet when they are alone, they
generally talk to themfelves incoherently. However, at
the fird tendency to this diforder, they affedl too great a
compofure. This for the mod part happens to thofe that
deep but little; for fome are comatofe and dupid, and
take but little notice of any thing that pafles.
They continue thus for three, four, or more days, com¬
monly growing hot and redlefs towards the evening,
Thefe fymptoms and the delirium increafe as the night
comes on: a fweat, more or lefs profufe, breaks out to¬
wards morning; and from this time they are eafier during
fome hours, with a faintnefs, which is their chief com¬
plaint.
Some grow eafier from the fird day of the attack; o-
thers have fymptoms of recovery on the third, fourth, or
fifth day. Fird the rednefs of the Ikin difappears ; the
heat grows lefs ; the pulfe, hitherto very quick, becomes
flower; the external fwellings of the neck fubfide ; the
floughs in the fauces are cad off; the ulcerations fill up;
the patient fleeps without confufion, is compofed when a-
wake, and his appetite begins to return towards more folid
nourilhment.
The pulfe, during the courfe of this difeafe, is very
quick, beating frequently 120 times in a minute. In
fome it is hard and fmall, in others foft and full, but
not fo Arong and firm as in genuine inflammatory dif-
©rders.
If a vein be opened foon after the didemper comes on,
the blood generally appears of a frefti and florid red; the
crajfamentum is rather of a lax, gelatinous contexture,
then denfe or compadt ; the ferum is yellow and in a large
proportion.
The urine is at fird crude and of a pale whey colour ;
as the difeafe advances.it turns yellower, as if bile was
diluted in it; and foon after any figns of recovery appear,
it commonly grows turbid, and depofites a farinaceous fe-
diment.
They feldom have any dools if the fymptoms are fa¬
vourable, from the time the purging, which generally at¬
tends the acceffion, ceafes. This dilcharge is remarkably
bilious, yet without pain.
The third is commonly lefs than in other acute difeafes;
and the tongue generally moifl, but not furred. Some
have it covered with a thick white coat, and complain
of forenefs about the root of the tongue.
Though the uvula and tobfils are fometimes fo much
fwelled as to leave a very narrow entrance into the gullet,
and this entrance frequently furrounded with ulcers, or
floughs; yet the patient fwallows with lefs difficulty and
pain than might be expedted. Soon after they are taken
ill, they frequently complain of an offenfive putrid fmell,
whidh often occafipns ficknefs before any ulcerations ap-
C I N E.
pear. The infide of the nodrils, in thofe that have this
difeafe fevere, frequently appears, as high as can be feen,
of a deep red or almofl livid colour. After a day or two,
a thin corrofive fanies, or with it a white putrid matter,
of a thicker confidence, flows from it, fo acrid as to ex¬
coriate the part it lies upon any confiderable time. This
is mod obfervable in children, or in young and very
tender fubjedts ; whofe lips are likewife frequently of a
deep red, or almod livid colour, and covered on the in¬
fide with veficles containing a thin ichor, which excori¬
ates the angles of the mouth and cheeks where it touches
them.
This acrid matter feems to pafs with the nouriffiment
into the domach, efpecially of children ; for if they
get over the difeafe, a purging fucceeds, yet attended with
fymptoms of ulcerations in the bowels : thefe, after great
pain and mifery, at length die emaciated.
The patients fometimes bleed at the nofe towards the
beginning of the difeafe ; and the menfes often appear in
the female fex, if they are of age, foon after they are
feized, though at a didance from the time of their re¬
gular period. It brings this evacuation upon fome that
never had it before. This flux,, in full drong habits, is
feldom attended either with benefit or with manifed ill
effe&s, unlefs very copious ; yet fometimes it occafions
great faintnefs, and an increafe of the other fymptoms.
Hemorrhages of the nofe and mouth have carried the
patient off fuddenly : but this does not happen till.feveral
days after the attack; and perhaps may be owing to
the feparation of a flough from the branch of an artery.
Children and young perfons are more expofed to this
difeafe than adults ; girls more than boys; women more
than men ; and the infirm of either fex than the healthy
and vigorous. Very few grown people have it. When
it breaks out in a family, all the children are commonly
infeded with it, if the healthy are not kept apart from
the fick. And fuch adults as are frequently with them,
and receive their breath near at hand, often ungergo the
fame difeafes.
With regard to the cure, bleeding is generally prejudi¬
cial. Some admit of it at the fird attack without any
fenfible inconvenience ; but a repetition of it in the mitd-
ed cafes feldom fails to aggravate the fymptoms ; it has
fometimes produced very fatal confequences. It increafes
the heat, redleffnefs, delirium, and difficulty of breath¬
ing ; nor do the fwelling of the fauces, tonfils, isc. re¬
ceive any benefit therefrom. On the contrary, though
the fullnefs of thefe parts decreafes, yet the floughs
thicken and change to a livid black colour, the external
tumour grows large, and the fpitting commonly diminifhes.
Indeed, the heat and quicknefs of the pulfe may feem to.
abate at fird by this evacuation; but they commonly re¬
turn with greater violence, the patient is ieized with a
difficulty of breathing, falls into cold fweats, a dupor,
and dies fuddenly. >
Nor is purging more beneficial ; even gentle cathartics
have brought on very dangerous fymptoms. Upon pro-,
curing a few dools with manna, efpecially when the dif¬
eafe has continued two or three days., the rednefs of the
Ikin has difappeared, and the flux to the throat has bf.en,
furprifingly increafed, If this difeharge by xtool con¬
tinues, ,
M E D I
tinues, the fwelling of the neck commonly grows larger,
the fauces become flaccid, dry and livid ; and the patient
a few hours after this expires.
Nitrous cooling medicines frequently produce the like
eflfedts; they increafe the faintnefs which accompanies
this difeafe, and either difpofe the patient to copious fink¬
ing fweats, orilools.
Upon the whole, it appears, that all evacuations which
tend to leffen the natural ftrength of the conftitution, are
injurious ; and thofe perfons are commonly in the greateH
danger who have been previoufly indifpofed, or their
ftrength impaired by grief.
If the purging, therefore, continues long after the firft
exacerbation of the difeafe, it is a dangerous fymptom ;
for though it may fometimes be reftrained for the prefent
with opiates or aftringents, yet it commonly returns with
greater vehemence when their efficacy ceafes, and in a
fhort time exhaulls the fmall degree of ftrength remaining.
In this cafe they generally fweat very little; the fauces
appear dry, glofiy, and livid ; thp external tumour grows
large ; they void their excrements without perceiving it,
and fall into profufe fweats ; the refpiration becomes dif¬
ficult and laborious, the pulfe finks, the extreme parts
grow cold, and death, in a few hours, clofes the fcene.
The eye lofes its luftre, and becomes, opaque and dim,
fometimes feveral hours before death.
A copious flux of pituitous matter to the glands and
other parts about the fauces, have feemed fometimes to
be the caufe of fudden death.
It is neceflary that the patient ffiould be kept in bed as
much as may be, though the difeafe ffiould feem to be
flight; for a purging has come on for want of care in this
refpedt, the rednefs of the fltin difappeared, and a difor-
der which with confinement alone would probably have
gone off in twice twenty-four hours, has been rendered
tedious and difficult.
Atrthe firft, while the ficknefs and vomiting continue,
it will be heft to promote the difcharge, by giving an in-
fufion of green tea, camomile flowers, carduus, or a few
grains, of ipecacuanha.
If the fymptoms do not abate by this means, give fmall
draughts of mint-tea, with a fixth part of red por.t, fre¬
quently, together with fome warm and cordial aromatic
medicine, every four or fix hours.
The diarrhoea, as well as vomiting, generally ceafes
in lefs than twelve hours from the firft attack: If it con¬
tinues longer, it is neceflary to check it; otherwife it oc-
cafions great faintnefs, finks the ftrength, and in the end
produces dangerous confequences. The aromatic cordi¬
als commonly take off this fymptom-, if given plentifully,
and the vomiting likewife.
Patients generally complain of an exceffive faintnefs
foon after they are taken ill. The urgency of this fymptom
feems to indicate the degree of danger ; and an abate¬
ment of it is a pretty fure prefage of recovery. Aroffiatic
medicines are likewife found ufeful in removing this fymp¬
tom. Wine may be given in fmall quantities in whey,
or mint, baum, or fage-tea, barley-water, gruel, pana¬
da, fago, and the like; for it is not only an antifeptie,
but a generous cordial. When the faintnefs is exceffive,
H.may be given alone.
CINE. 87
Blifters likewife relieve faintings ; they maybe applied
with advantage to the ufual parts, and to the neck on each
fide, from below the ear almoft to the clavicle, as occafion
requires.
With regard to the ulcers, which demand our early
and conftant attention : When the difeafe is of the mild*
eft kind, only fuperficial ulceration is obfervable, which
may efcape the notice of a perfon unacquainted with it.
A-thin, pale, white flough feems to accompany the next
degree; a thick, opake, affi-coloured one is a farther ad¬
vance; and, if the parts have a livid or black afpedt, the
cafe is ftill worfe. Thefe floughs are real mortifications of
thefubftance; fince, whenever they come off, they leave an
ulcer of a greater or leffer depth, as the floughs are fu¬
perficial or penetrating,
The thin, acrid ichor, which is difcharged from under
the floughs, often proves of bad confequence, efpecially
to children. If gargles are injedted, they either prevent
them from reaching the feat of the diforder with their
tongues, or they fwallow them and the putrid taint of the
ulcers together; whence fatal purgings enfue, or fatal hae¬
morrhages "from the penetrating gangrene. Thofe that
have a plentiful difcharge from the fauces, carrying off
this ichor, are feldom attended with ficknefs, vomiting,
or exceflive faintnefs; and where there is little or no dif¬
charge, the fymptoms are commonly moft dangerous.
Hence the great advantage of gentle ftimulating aro¬
matic gargles appears; becaufe they promote the dif¬
charge of pituitous matter, and, dpubtlefs, fome part of
the corrofive fluid along with it. To which, if we add
antifeptics and detergents, to check the progrefs of the-
mortification, and to cleanfe the fordid ulcers, every in¬
dication will be anfwered.
When the difeafe is mild, the fymptoms favour¬
able,! t^e fl°ughs fuperficial, order a gargle of fage-tea,.
with a few rofe-leaves in the infufion. Three or four
fpoonfuls of vinegar may be mixed with half an ounce of
the tea, with as much honey as will make it agreeably
acid.
If the floughs are large, and are call off flowly, they
may be touched with mel segyptiacum, by means of an
armed probe.
It is not uncommon for heffic heats, night fweats, want
of appetite, and dejeffion of fpirits, to attend thofe a con-
fiderable time who have had the difeafe in a fevere man¬
ner. Affes milk commonly relieves themj together with
a decoftion of the bark and elixir vitrioli.
The caufe of this difeafe feems to be a putrid virus, or
miafma fui generis, introduced into the habit by con¬
tagion, principally by means of the breath of the fide
perfon.
The intentions of cure in this difeafe is to keep up the
vis vita-j to e/courage the cuticular difeharges; and to
conquer the Ipreading putrefa&ion. Therefore, all eva*
cuations which leflen the ftrength, particularly bleeding
and purging, and all the nitrous antiphlogiftic medicines,
are highly improper.
And fince a laxity of fibres predifpofes perfons to re-»
oeive this difeafe, it is manifeft, both with regard to the
prefervation and cure, tonic nsedicines are indicated ; and
among thofe the bark juftly claims the firft place.
88 MED
The only certain diagnoftics of this difeafe are aph¬
thous ulcers and Houghs on the tonfils and parts about
the pharynx.
Moft perfons in the beginning have a naufea and vo¬
miting, and fome a loofenefs. Thofe who are coftive,
have, upon the ufe of thegentlefteccoprotics, immediate¬
ly been feized with a diarrhoea, difficult to reftrain. All
medicines which tend to move the belly, not excepting
rhubarb, are extremely dangerous.
Thofe who have had the difeafe with moft violence,
have had the head always heavy and ftupid, and the eyes
foul and full of tears. Not a few have had the head
covered with petechiae and purple fpots.
The firft thing to be done is to order the hot fteam of
a boiling mixture, of vinegar, myrrh, arid honey, to be
received into the throat, through an inverted funnel. If
it is neceflary to make it ftill more penetrating, add fome
of the fpirit. Mindereri, This fteam can fcarce be ufed
too frequently, provided it is received with a due degree
of heat.
If the primee vine feem foul, or much loaded, it may
be neceflary to begin the cure by cleanfing the ftomach
with carduus tea, in which a little fal vitrioli is diflbl-
wed, and fome other gentle and quick emetic. No other
evacuation feems proper, and this is only to be ufed at
the very beginning of the difeafe. If the phyfician is
not called in foon enough, it will be neceflary to begin
immediately by giving the bark, joined with the fpir.
Mindereri.
The bark is moft efficacious in fubftance; but when the
ftrength of the patient is much reduced, and the digef-
tive powers weakened, which is ufual in putrid fevers,
on the very firft feizure, the decodion or extrad may be
thought preferable; bat this laft is feldom to be had genuine.
In making the decodion, it ought to be done with as
gentle a heat as poffible, and then evaporate very flowly
to procure the extrad, left it be burnt too, and that the
volatile parts may fly off as little as may be.
In the ufe of the fpiritus Mindereri, care fhould be ta¬
ken that it be exadly neutralized; or rather, as the dif¬
eafe is putrefeent, that it may incline towards the acid.
This is particularly of ufe where the heat is very great, it
being very attenuating and antifeptic.
When the putrefadion is fufficiently conquered, it will
be neceflary to cleanfe the firft paffages with a fmall dofe
of rhubarb; which is to be repeated at proper intervals,
continuing the bark, fac. on the intermediate days for a
confiderable time.
To complete the cure, the patient fltould enter into a
courfe of balfamics, chalybeate waters, with elixir vi¬
trioli, and the like, in order to ftrengthen the folids and
invigorate the blood; for this difeafe is liable to return,
cfpecially if they have afterwards a fever of the putrid
kind.
Of a Phrenz y.
A phrenz y, if a primary difeafe, is a true inflamma¬
tion of the dura and pia mater; if fymptomatical, the in¬
flammatory matter is tranflated into the meninges of the
brain from fome other part.
The primary phrenfy is prec&ded by heat and a violent
I C I N E.
inflammatory pain within the head, a rednefs of the eye?
and face, unquiet and troubled deep, a flight degree of
folly, watching, fadnefs, fiercenefs, fudden forgetlulnefs,
a gathering ofthreads from the bedcloaths.
A fymptomauc phrenfy fucceeds any acute difeafe; but
it is worft when it is preceded by an inflammation of the
pleura, lungs, or diaphragm. A black tongue, an obfti-
nate coflivenefs, fuppreffion of urine, white feces, which
is always a fatal fign, pale, difcoloured, thin urine, a wild-
nefs in the looks and addons, with a red vifage, a black
cloud in the urine, and watching, are fignsof an approach-
nig inflammation in the head.
The fymptomatic phrenfy fometimes appears in the ftate
of malignant, eruptive, and fpotted fevers, the fmall-
pox, malignant catarrhal fevers, camp-fevers, particular¬
ly the Hungaric. It generally fupervenes about the cri¬
tical days, with a rigor, trembling of joints, tenfion of
the prsecordia, and coldnefs of the external parts, with
thin urine. The patient being weakened with the prece¬
ding difeafe and long watching, which debilitates the tone
of the veffels of the membranes of the brain ; whence
the ftafes are not to be refolved, and whence the patient
is general ly“killed on the third day.
A phrenzyis to be diftinguifhed from that flight alien¬
ation of mind which happens in acute fevers before the
critical eruption. This goes off readily, nor is the urine
thin and watery, nor is it attended with a rigor and a re¬
frigeration of the external parts. It is alfo to be di*
ftinguiffied from a defipience and raving, from a great
lofs of ftrength and weaknefs of the brain after the decli¬
nation of an acute fever; for this will go as the ftrength
returns, either fpotaneoufly, or with proper remedies.
Both kinds, when prefent, have the following fymp-
toms;
A deprivation of the ideas o? fenfible things, as alfo
of the faculties of the mind and affections ; an unruly
fiercenefs and wildnefs; an unquiet and often turbulent
fleep, a refpiration flow and great, the face often exceed¬
ing red, the afpedt grim, the looks fierce, the eyes wild
and protuberant, a dropping of the nofe.
A phrenzy is generally fatal on the third, fourth, or
feventh day ; which laft it feldom exceeds.
When it does, and is violent, it often ends in madnefs ;
which increafing gradually, the patient becomes raving
mad.
The aliment ought to be {lender, of farinaceous fub-
ftauces, as water gruel acidulated; the drink, barley-wa¬
ter, fmall-beer, or the decoCfion of tamarinds.
This difeafe, of all others, requires the fpeedieft ap¬
plications. Profufe hemorrhages of the nofe often refolve
it; and copious bleeding, by opening the temporal arte¬
ries, is the moft efficacious remedy.
The cure of this difeafe requires diligent attention to
the following things t
Varices of the veins, or the bleeding piles, are benefl-
cial.
A loofenefs is likewife good,
A pain in the breaft and feet., or a violent cough fuper-
vening, often put an end to the difeafe ; as alfo an hae¬
morrhage.
Therefore plentiful bleeding is neceflary, through a
large
M E D I
large orifiee.; or open feveral veins at the fame time, viz*
the jugular, the frontal, and a vein in the foot.
Hoffman prefers the bleeding at the nofe, procured
by thrufling up a ftraw, a pen, or. a Ikewer ; or, as Prin¬
gle advifes, apply fix or feven leeches, to the temples.
The reft of the cure confifts in blifters, and things com¬
mon to other inflammatory fevers.
The cure of the fymptomatic phrenzy, if the pulfe
will bear it, is by opening a vein ; but if this cannot be
done by reafon of great lownefs, it is to be attempted by
leeches and blifters. It is ufual to begin with bliftering
the head, but in military hofpitals that is to be left to the
laft. The beft itnernal medicines are nitre and camphor.
Hoffman’s proportion is fix grains of nitre to one of
camphor; fmail dofes of which are to be often repeat¬
ed.
The patient’s drink fliould be fweet whey, or acidula¬
ted by turning the milk with citron or lemon juice, and
fweetened with fyr. e mecsnio. To every quart add a
dram of purified nitre or fal prunella. Alfo emulfions
are convenient, of the four cold feeds, with barley-water,
to every quart of which add two fcruples of nitre.
Antiphlogiftic clyfters are likewife proper : but if all
thefe means fail, recourfe muft be had to cupping in the
lower parts, to opiates, and mild blifters.
Of the Pleurisy-.
The pleurify is moft predominant between the fpring
and the fummer.
It begins with chilnefs and (hivering, which are foon
fucceeded by heat, thirft, inquietude, and the other com
mon fymptoros of a fever.
After a few hours the patient is feized with a violent
pricking pain in one of his fides, about the ribs • which
ibmetimes extends itfelf towards the flioulder-blades,
fomettmes towards the back-bone, and foraetimes towards
the fore-parts of the breaft; and this is attended with fre¬
quent coughing.
The matter which the patient fpits at firft is little and
thin, and mixed with particles of blood ; but as the dif-
gafe advances, it is more plentiful and more conco&ed,
but not without a mixture of the blood.
The fever keeps an equal pace with the cough, pain,
and fpitting of blood; and in proportion as the expecto¬
ration becomes more free, it fenfibly decreafes; fome-
times the body is eoftive, fometimcs too open.
The blood drawn from a vein, as foon as it is cold, looks
like melted fuet.
In this difeafe the pulfe is remarkably hard, and fsems
to vibrate like a tenfe ftring of a mufical inftruraent, which
is the pathognomonic fign.
Hence plurifies are diftinguifhed into the moift and the
dry. It is likewife obfervable, that the pain in the fide
is more iotenfe at the time of infpiration, but more mild
at the time of exfpiration.
There is mi fever wherein the crifes are more regular
than in the pleurify and peripneuraony : for in young per-
fons, and thofe of a full habit of body, bloody fpittle ge¬
nerally appears on the fourth day, and on the fevenththe
difeafe terminates by a profufe fweat. But in the phleg
snatic and more inaftive, as alfo thofe in whom the difeafe
Vol. Ill, N9. 7a. 2
CINE.
has taken deeper hold of the lungs, it will continue till
the eleventh or fourteenth day ; going off pardy by ex¬
pectoration, partly by fweat : then the p.dfe becomes
more foft, and the patient falls into an eafy refreftiing
fleep.
But when on critical days the crifis is imperfeA,. there
is indeed a fweat; but it neither eafes the patient, nor
terminates the difeafe. When it continues till the t venty-
firft day, there is reafon to fear a dangerous abfcefs in
the breaft. It, is therefore .a good fign when the expec¬
toration proceeds from the bottom of the lungs, bringing
up a vifcid matter on the fourth day, mixed with blood,
afterwards yellow, and fometimes purulent. The fooaer
the expeftoration happens, the greater the hopes of re¬
covery.
A loofenefs is not fafe; urine without a fediment is a
fufpedted fign ; and a profufe fweat, unlefs on critical
days, is ftill worfe. (Jn the eleventh and twelfth days a
loofenefs is not much to be feared, unlefs too great, for
it fometimes carries off purulent matter. If a bleeding
at the nofe happens about the fourth day, it is generally-
attended with a remarkable alteration of the difeafe.
Thofe who die of an inflammation of the lungs are fuffb-
cated, becaufe the matter adhering to the veficfes and
bronchial dufts cannot be coughed up.
In all inflammatory fevers, too hot a regimen is to be
fhunned, both with refpeft to the bedcloaths and the heat
of the room ; nor muft the patient be expofed to the cold
air, nor drink things adlually cold. Likewife all ftrong
fudorifics, diuretics, and cathartics, are hurtful. Nor, if
the patient has three or four ftools, rauft the courfe of
nature be flopped.
The Diet fliould be cooling, relaxing, flender, and
diluting. Moiftening things taken warm are preferable
to all others. Hence, barley oroat meal gruel, fweeten¬
ed with honey, is proper; as alfo fweet whey.
The indications of cure are, 1. To prevent the farther
ftafis and ftagnation of the blood. 2. To dilute and dlf-
folve the lentor of the blood in pleuritics. 3. To moL
lify, eafe, and relax the fpafm, pain, and copious afflux,
in order to put the impa&ed blood again into motion by
the help of the appulfe of the arterial blood, 4. To pro¬
mote the excretion of the vifcid, bloody, and vurulent
matter, adhering to the bronchia of the lungs, fo that it
may be brought up and an abfcefs prevented.
Take away ten ounces of blood on the fide of the part
affected. If the phyfician is called before the third day,
the patient lying on his back, muft lofe a large quantity
of blood from a wide orifice in a large veffel, and fetch
deep fighs, or cough, to promote its celerity ; and the
part affeded fliould be rubl-ed gently at the fame time.
The bleeding ftiould be continued till the pain remits, or
the patient is ready to faint. It fliould be repeated as often
as the fymptoms return which it was intended to reihoye.
The abfence of the white inflammatory pellicle from the fiir-
faceoftheblo' d, when cold, (hews it is time to leave it off.
This Huxham confirms by his own experience ; and adds*
that after the fourth day bleeding is not fafe. He hkel
wife recommends fomenting the part 5 which often eafes
the pain, and terminates the difeafe. But if it is obftj-
nate, he recommends flightfcarifications; then cupping;
Z and’
M E D I
and afterwards a blifler on the fame place, which has been
fuccefsful when the ufual methods failed. An emollient
cooling clyfter (hould immediately fucceed bleeding, e-
fpecially if the body is coftive; and nitrous medicines,
•with a cooling, emollient, diluting regimen, Ihould be
forthwith entered upon. Thin whey, a decodtion of
barley and red poppies, and emulfions, will ferve for
drink.
Though the fymptoms fhould vanilh on blidering, it
will be more fecure to bleed again ; unlefs aprofufe fweat
comes on with relief from pain, and makes all other re¬
medies unneceffary. But if the lungs are likewife in¬
flamed, the cure cannot be fo fpeedy; for though the
firft bleeding and a blifter Ihould give eafe, yet a repeti¬
tion will be needful. Sometimes the flitch returns and
fixes on the other fide ; but this may be treated as the
firft with the fame fuccefs.
Huxham lays a great ft refs on camphor and nitre join¬
ed with fmall dofes of the paregoric elixir; and if there
is a vehement pain, he thinks opiates may properly be
joined with them, as they have a great power of relax¬
ing the over tenfe fibres, of moderating the too rapid
courfe of the blood, and of promoting the concodtion of
the morbific matter. Hence, after the ufe of opium,
there is generally a copious fediment of the urine.
It is neceflary that the body be kept open, and the
bowels free from fpafms; to which purpofes emollient
clyfters are proper, with oil of fweet almonds.
In the firft ftage of thepleurify or peripneumony, laxa¬
tive clyfters and the cooler diaphoretics are proper; but
all cathartics and warm fudorifics do harm. The time
for attempting the diaphoretics is when the perfon finds
eafe by the blifter : But whenever the fpitting begins,
the diaphorefis muft either be omitted, or joined to ex-
pedlorants ; whereof the chief isoxymel of fquills ; or,in
great heat or drought, fome more pleafant acid. But in
lownefs, after repeated bleedings, give fait of hartfhorn
joined to fome oil: This will raife the pulfe, and promote
expedtoration when it flags.
If, notwithftanding the difcharge, the bread: continues
to labour, bleeding is ftill requifite: For the lungs are
not to be overpowered by the omiflion of bleeding ; nor
is the fuppreffion of the fpitting to be hazarded by bleed¬
ing too freely. But with regard to blifters, there need
little caution ; as they are always feafonable, to raife, re¬
lieve the breaft, and to promote expedtoration.
In the courfe of expedtoration, a vomit will fometimes
be ufeful in difcharging the load of vifcid phlegm. If
the phlegm is tough, or the patient coftive, and opiates
are given, they muft be joined with fquills.
When the pleurify ends in a fuppuration, or abfcefs,
the figns are, a flight vague fhivering, which often re¬
turns without any evident caufe ;,a remiffion of the pain,
while the difficulty of breathing remains ; a rednefs of
the cheeks and lips; thirftj afebricula, or flight fever, e-
fpecially in the evening ; a weak, foft pulfe.
When the abfcefs is adtually formed, there is an obfti-
nate dry cough, which increafes after feeding or motion;
the breathing is difficult, fmall, thick, ffiort, and wheez¬
ing, worfe after eating and motion ; the patient can on¬
ly lie on the fide affedled; a flow, periodical fever,,
CINE.
which is exafperated with flirting and eating; a decayed
appetite, great third, nodturnal fweats, palenefs, leannefs,
and exceffive weaknefs.
This either ends in a confumption; or the matter
falls into the cavity of the thorax, and fo becomes an
empyema.
Of the Bastard Pleurisy.
Hoffman fays, that the feat of every genuine pleari-
fy is in the lungs, as appears from the opening of thofe
that die of this difeafe.
Therefore, if the inflammation occupies the externa
parts only, it is a Bastard Pleurisy : if the externa
furface of the lungs, like an eryfipelas, it is a genuine
pleurify.
A Bastard Pleurisy is attended with a very
acute and pricking pain in the fide, which is exafperated
by the touch ; lying on the affeded fide is difficult;
there is a dry cough, without the ejection of purulent or
bloody matter, which, if ftrong, increafes the pain. There
is likewife a fever, with a hardifh, deprefled, and fre¬
quent pulfe.
The caufe does not feem to be in the blood, but rather
in the ftafis of an acrid ferum at the connexion of the,
ends of the fine azygous arteries and veins; as alfo of the
lymphatic veflels of the pleura, and likewife in the perio-
fteum of the ribs, where the fenfe is more acute.
Hence it is nothing elfe but a kindof rheumatifm, and
is common to thofe who are now and then troubled with
catarrhs, rheumatic and arthritic pains, or a hemicrania ;
efpecially if they come out of a hot air into a cold, or
the contrary, particularly in the evening'.
This does not require bleeding, unlefs there is a remark¬
able plethora; but a diaphorefis, and a more free perfpi-
ration. On the feventh day it generally difappears, and
is without danger.
Lancifius advifesto bleed plentifully in the arm, and. to
fcarify the part affe&ed. After this two cupping glafles
are to be applied thereto, which will cure the difeafe as
if by enchantment.
Hoffman obferves, that thofe are apt to fall into a ba-
ftard pleurify who are much expofed to a moift cold au¬
tumnal or wintery air r For there are no difeafes or in¬
flammatory fevers fo fbon generated by the intempe-
ries, inequality, and change of the air, as thofe of the
breaft. When the fummer has been hot and dry, and the
weather has fuddenly changed to cold, with a northerly
wind, not only cartarrhal defluxions have enfued, but
rheumatifms and pleurifies, with bloody fpittle and violent
pains in the fide, have been very frequent. For the air,
from continual infpiration, immediately affeds the lungs
internally, and externally the thorax and ribs, which are
befet with thin mufcles, membranous nerves and veffels;
for which reafon fpaftic crifpatures are readily induced;
and the free circulation of the humours ftopt.
The belt way is to keep the part affeded in a tempe¬
rate and equal heat, in a warm bed ; efpecially as the flcin
of every patient, as in the gout and eryfipelas, cannot
bear topics.
Of
M E D I
Of a f ERIPNEUMONY.
There are feveral kinds of this difeafe. For it may
arife from a violent inflammation of the lungs, by a very
fizy denfe blood obftru&ing very many of the pulmonic
and bronchial arteries: or from an obftruftion of the lungs
by a heavy, vifcid, pituitous matter; which is called a
fpurious or baftard peripneumony : or from a thin, acrid
defluxion on the lungs ; and then it is a catarrhal perip-
meumony.
The fymptoms common to all, are, a load at the bread,
a fhort difficult breathing, and more or lefs of a fever.
But in a true peripheumony, there is a more tenfive pain
than in the pleurify; befides, it is rattier more obtufe and
prefling than acute, and fhoots as far as the back and fca-
pulse. But the difficulty of breathing is greater, as well
as the anxiety and expeftoration, whereby a variega¬
ted fpittle is brought up, which lay as it were deep:
for in this difeafe the veflels of the lungs themfelves,
whereby the blood circulates from one Ventricle of the
heart to the other, are affefted ; being fluffed and obftrmfl-
ed with a thick blood, which is apt to grow more vifcid
andfolid. Wherefore it is the more dangerous and fatal,
efpecially if it attacks old perfons, and if bleeding is not
timely adminiffred. Boerhaave fays, the pulfe is foft.
flender, and in every fenfe unequal; and Huxham, that
if the pulfe is hardly felt before bleeding, it will after¬
wards beat very ftrongly.
In the cure, great regard muft be had to the different
ftages of this difeafe, and the different fymptoms that at¬
tend it. Bleeding is indifpenfably neceffary at the begin¬
ning of a fevere inflammation of the lungs ; but if, after
the fecond or third bleeding, the patient begins to fpit a
well conco&ed matter, freely tinged with blood, you
muff forbear to repeat it, otherwife the patient will be
weakened, and a fatal fuppreffion of the expe&oration
will enfue. But if he brings up a confiderable quantity
of florid, thin, fpumous blood, by fpitting; then bleed a-
gain, quiet the cough with diacodium, and give proper
acids pretty freely, with foft cooling incrafl'ants. If a
thin, gleety, dark-coloured matter is expeftorated, it is
generally a mark of greater malignity, and that the blood
is in a putrefying diffolving ftate, and will not bear a large
lofs of blood.
Generally the more violent the rigor or horror is at the
attack, the more violent the fucceeding fever will be,
which will in fome meafure guide us in drav/ing of blood-.
If the fymptoms are not relieved by the firrt bleeding, af¬
ter eight, ten, or ttyelve hours, let it be repeated ; or
foonef, if they become aggravated If the fever, anxiety;
oppreffion, and difficulty of breathing, increafe, bleed a-
gain, efpecially if it appears very firm- and denfe, or co¬
vered over with a thick yellowilh coat or buff. How¬
ever, it does not appear fometimes till the fecond or third
bleeding, though the fymptoms indicate a very high in¬
flammation. This often happens from the blood not fpout-
ing out in a full rtream. This appearance of the blood,
with a firm ftrong pulfe, will warrant the taking away
more, till the breathing becomes free and eafy.
If the craffamentum is of a very loofe texture, and not
covered with.3 huff coat, and the pulfe on bleeding finks,
C I N E. 91
flutters, or grows more weak and fmall, it is time to
defift. A bluiffi film on the blood, with a kind of a foft
greeniffi jelly underneath, while the cruor itfelf is livid,
loofe and foft, with a turbid, reddiffi, or green ferum,
is afign of a very lax crafis of the blood, and great acri¬
mony, which will not bear great quantities to be drawn
off. If the blood is very florid, thin and loofe, with
little or no ferum after flanding for fome time, it gene¬
rally argues a confiderable advance to a putrid and very
acrid ftate.
A ftrong, throbbing, thick pulfe, always indicates far¬
ther bleeding ; at leaft till the patient breathes more eafi-
ly, ora free expeftoration of laudable matter is obtained.
It often happens, that the pulfe at the very beginning
feems obfcure and oppreffed, irregular, fluggilh.and fome¬
times intermitting, with weaknefs and oppreffion. But
this does not arife from the defedt, but from the too
great quantity of blood; for the blood-veflels being o-
ver-loaded and diftended, cannot adf with fufficient vi¬
gour. This is fucceeded with a dreadful train of fymp¬
toms, and even death itfelf, if not prevented with fuffi¬
cient bleeding.
In fome very violent peripneumonies, an immediate
and exceflive weaknefs comes on, with an inexpreflibie
anxiety and oppreffion of the breaft ; a very fmall, weak,
trembling pulfe, coldnefs of the extremities, with clam¬
my, coldiffi, partial fweats, the eyes flaring, fixed and;
inflamed, the face bloated and almoft livid. This has
foon been followed witba ftupor, delirium, and fometimes
with a complete paraplegia.
Some kinds of peripneumonies will not bear large bleed¬
ing, efpecially the epidemic or malignant. The pulfe
and ftrength of thefe patients have funk to a furprifing^
degree; and the difeafe has turned into a fort of a nervous ,
fever, with great tremors, fubfultus tendinum, profufe
fweats, or an atrabilious diarrhoea, with a black tongue,
coma, or delirium; though at the beginning the pulfe
feemed to be full and throbbing, and the pain, cough,
andoppreflion fovery urgent, as to indicate bleeding pret¬
ty ftrongly. In thefe cafes the blood was feldom buffy
to any confiderable degree, but commonly very florid, of
a very loofe and foft confiftence, or very dark-coloured,,
and coated with a thin and bluiffi or greeniffi film, under
which was a foft greeniffi jelly, and a dark livid cruor
at the bottom. Sometimes the. coat was much thicker
and; more tough, but of a pale red colour, refembling the
cornelian ftone, orxa dilute jelly of red currants. When
the blood is thus diffoived, abftain from farther bleeding,
efpecially. if the pulfe or patient becomes more languid af¬
ter it, though the oppreffion, load, or even pain, may
feem to require it.
When the fizy coat on the blood is exceffively tough,
and extremely yellow, or of a pale red colour, it threatens
danger ; for die inflammatory lentor will fcarcely mix
with any diluents. Sometimes, after repeated bleeding,
the craffamentum has fcarce been a fixth part of the vo¬
lume of the blood, and yet as folid as a piece of flelh.
This is generally mortal.
When the peripneumonic fymptoms continue for four
or five days or more, we may juftly fear an abfcefs, or a
mortification; and little.advantage is to be expe&ed from
farther.
.'C>2 M E D I
farther bleeding. But if the £ain returns with violence
after having ceafed a confiderable time, it is a fign that
a new inflammation is forming, which indicates bleeding
as much as the primary, but not in the fame degree.
The ftrength of the patient and pulfe, the violence of
the pain and difficulty of refpiration, are, in a great mea-
fure, to determine the quantity. When the pulfe and
ftrength feem to require bleeding, cupping on the
fhoulders will relieve the bread and head. Likewife the
ufe of blifters, ifTues, fetons, are very ferviceable in in¬
flammations of the lungs.
Laying a blifter on the part affeffed is the proper cure
of a pleurify; but a peripneumony is naturally more dan¬
gerous ; and the more fo as the epifpaftic cannot operate
io diredUy on the lungs as the pleura. But even in this
cafe, blidering is mod to be relied on after bleeding.
You may fird blider the back, and afterwards one or
both fides. Epifpadics tend to relieve the bread, not
only when applied to the ched, but alfo to the extremi¬
ties ; and promote expectoration : Whereas bleeding
mud be ufed cautioufly, if at all, after the fpitting ap¬
pears.
The fever and the inflammation require a cool, diluting
■regimen, and nitrous and relaxing medicines ; together
with a moderately cool, free air, and quiet both of body
and mind. A clofe room is very incommodious ; if
it cannot be avoided, itfhouldbe prudently aired. There
is nothing more proper than thin whey, a barley ptifan
with liquorice, figs, <bc. the infufion of pedtoral herbs,
fuch as ground-ivy, maiden hair, colt’s-foot, hyflbp,
Thefe fliould be gently acidulated with juice of Seville
oranges or lemons. Honey will render them more deter¬
gent. Any or all thefe things may be drank warm by
turns in freque-.t fmall draughts, lipping them as it were
perpetually. Thefe relaxing, emollient drinks, and va¬
pours ariling from them, are in a more effential manner
neceflary, when the expectoration is very difficult and
tough. When it is fuddenly fupprefled, and the difficul¬
ty of breathing greatly augmented, an emetic of oxymel
of fquills will be proper, if the violence of the fever
is abated ; but very little ffiould be drank after it to pro¬
mote vomiting.
When much fincere, florid, or frothy blood is fpit up,
take away as much blood immediately as the patient's
ftrength will bear. If the haemoptoe continues, bleeding
in the faphoena will be found of the utmoft fervice. Then
direCl cooling emulfions, nitrous, demulcent, and mucila¬
ginous medicines; and vegetable and even mineral acids,
if the fpitting of blood is very confiderable. The drink
may be a decoCtion of red poppies, colt’s-foot, and figs,
acidulated with elixir of vitriol. The cough may be ap-
peafed with diacodium, or a foft linCtus. But ftrong a-
ftringents and large dofes of opiates are bad.
In a Catarrhal Peripneumony, the matter ex¬
pectorated is extremely thin and crude, and the defluxion
fo very acrid as to excoriate the wind pipe, caufing an
inceflant and very violent cough. Here, a great lots of
■blood is not neceffary ; but fome ffiould be drawn in the
beginning to abate the inflammatorydifpofition. Blifters
fhould be applied early, and purgatives are proper to carry
off the ferous colluvies. A demulcent, pectoral ptifan is
C I N E.
proper to temperate the acrimony of the humours. It
fhould be taken warm with mild diaphoretics, Coffee is
a ufeful drink. DireCk diacodiuht, or elixir paregorieum,
to moderate the cough, in final! dofes often repeated s
fperma ceti, olibanum, myrrh, and camphor, tend to
incrafl’ate the thin .catarrhal humour, and abate the ir¬
ritation.
In the Putrid Peripneumony the expectoration is
livid, gleety, and fanious, frequently refembling the lees
of red wine ; fometimes more black, and fometimes very
fetid. This is often the cafe of the highly fcorbutic ;
particularly failors, after a long voyage. Blood taken
from thefe, appears to be in a diftblving putrefcent ftate.
The craflamentum is loofe and tender, the ferum turbid
and reddifh ; the tongue is black ; the teeth furred with
a dark, thick fordes ; the breath offenfive ; the urine
high-coloured or blackifh. Black fpots, or a dyfentery,
frequently appear on the fifth, fixth, or feventh day. The
pulfe and ftrength fink after bleeding : fometimes a
vaft anxiety, fainting, a cold fweat, a thready intermit¬
ting pulfe foon after. This has fometimes happened in
in pleuro-peripneumonies, where the pain of the fide was
violent, the load at the breaft great, and the cough con¬
fiderable.
This will never bear a feeond bleeding to advantage •
feldom the firft, unlefs there is a confiderable degree of
firmnefs and tenfion in the pulfe. When there is reafoa
to be diffident, order fcarifications and cupping.
In this difeafe give a decodionof figs, colt’s-foot, and
red poppies, well acidulated firft with juice of Seville o-
ranges or lemons, and afterwards with gas fulpkuris j or
elixir vitriol, nitre, olibanum, myrrh, flowers of fulphur
and bole may be adminiftred, with con/erv. lujula, rob
of elder, currants, mucilage of quince-feeds, and fyrup.
de rubeo idtco : camphorated vinegar, with fyrup of elder
or rafberries, is an excellent medicine. A fpoonful or
two of thefe latter ffiould be given ever and anon. Sound
cyder, and wine and water with Seville orange or lemon
juice, drank warm, promote expectoration when deficient.
TinCture of rofes with red poppy flowers, has moderated
an inordinate defluxion of thin bloody ichor. However,
oxymel of fquills, and ftrong cinnamon-water, are fre¬
quently neceflary to pump up the ichor, when a great
rattling in the throat and difficulty of breathing indicate
a vaft quantity of it in the lungs. And yet the violence
of the cough may be often appeafed by elixir afthmaticum
or diacodium. The patient is to be fupported with fago,
panada, hartfhorn jelly, roafted apples, cream of barley,
or thick gruel, with a little wine and juice of lemons,
giving a little at a time, and often. Strawberries, raf¬
berries, currants, cherries, may fometimes be indulged.
At the clofe, the whole depends on a well-regulated
diet. A toft with diluted red port wine, mulled with
Seville orange-peel, mace, or cinnamon, and well acidu¬
lated, may be very ufeful. Blifters are feldom beneficial
in this cafe, but often mifehievous.
A very thin yellow fpitting, either fliews that nothing
but the thinneft part of the blood is ft rained through the
arteries of the lungs, or that the whole mafs of blood be¬
gins tcdtfolve; that its bilious principles are highly ex dted,
and that all tends to a general putrefaction. It is com-
M E D I
Frtonly attended with a violent cough, and expe&oration
is performed with exceeding great difficulty. Many times
it is Fucceeded by an hasmoptoe from the rupture of the
veffels; particularly when the tongue appears very red,
fmooth, dry, and ffiining, with a kind of livid bladders at
the top.
The conco&ed matter of inflammatory obftrudlions of
the lungs is partly fpit off, and partly carried off by thick
turbid urine in large quantities, depofning much reddilh
or yellow-coloured fediment ; and fometimes partly by
bilious ftools. Nothing promotes this urine, and thefe
ftools, more effedually than laxative clyfters. Sometimes
the morbid matter is critically tranflated to the legs, to
the great relief of the breaft ; and therefore, in fevere
pulmonic difordefs, a derivation of the humours to the
legs may be attempted by tepid bathing and blifters. The
difcharge from the ulcerated blifters mull not be luddenly
fuppreffed; for then the difficulty of breathing and cough
will return, or a very great purging or profufe fweats
will fucceed.
If the patient is not relieved in eight days, the inflam¬
mation will end in a fuppuration, and an abfcefs of the
lungs, and fometimes in fome other part of the body ;
the fymptoms of which are an obllinate dry cough, which
motion and taking of food will increafe. The eafiell p'o •
fture in lying will be on the affedted fide ; there will be a
flow fever, with chilnefs and ffiivering at uncertain pe¬
riods ; exacerbations after motion or a repaft ; third,
night fweats, a frothy urine, palenefs, Jeannefs, weak-
nefs. In this cafe, bleeding muft be forborne ; the diet
mull; be mild, foft, incraffating, and more plentiful. Te¬
pid vapours ffiould be t^Jcen into the lungs, of decodtions
of proper ingredients.
When by the fymptoms and time the impoflhume may
be judged to be ripe, the vapour of vinegar itfelf, and
any thing which creates a cough, as oxymel, exercife,
and concuffion, are proper. The fooner it is broke, the
lefs danger to the lungs.
In this ftate, which is not abfolutely defperate, the ali¬
ment ought to be milk, and the drink milk and barleyv
water, with gentle anodynes, that the patient may have
fome red. If the inflammation ends in a gangrene, the
cafe is defperate ; if in a fchirrus, incurable.
Of the Bastard Peripneumony.
At the beginning of the fever the patient Is hot and
cold by turns, is giddy upon the lead motion, and com¬
plains of a rending pain of the head whenever he coughs ;
he vomits up every thing that he drinks ; the urine is
turbid, and intenfely red ; the cheeks and eyes look red
and inflamed ; his breathing is thick and ffiort; the whole
thorax is full of pain, and the draitnefs of his lungs, as
often as he coughs, is perceived by the by danders :
whence the free courfe of the blood is prevented, which
creates a doppage of the circulation, and takes away all
the fymptoms of a fever, efpecially in thofe of a full ha¬
bit of body ; this may alfo happen from the blood’s being
overloaded with a great quantity of pituitous matter,
which oppreffes it fo as to prevent a febrile ebullition.
This difeafe fometimes deals upon the patient unawares,
with a flight wearinefs, a weaknefs, a general proflration
Vox. 111. N° 73. 2
CINE. 93
of the faculties of the mind, thick and fliort breathing,
beginning with an oppre.ffion of the bread. The com¬
motions it excites are fo fmall, that the heat and fever
are fcarce fufficient to make the patient fenfible of his
danger. Afterward, flight ffiiverings which come on by
fits, and the attacks of a gentle fever, appear ; whence
the difficulty of breathing and weaknefs fuddenly increa-
fing, bring on death.
When perpetual, laborious wheezing, great anxiety
and condant oppreffion on the praecordia, comatous fymp,'
toms, cold extremities, and dark bad-coloured nails-
and vifage come on, the patient is in immediate danger.
When comatous fymptoms and a very difficult breath¬
ing remain after bleeding, cup and fcarify the neck
and ffioulders. This has frequestly had a furprifing ef-
fe<5t. When the cafe is very threatening, blider the fca-
rifications.
After bleeding, let thepatient have the following clyder,
which mud be repeated daily till the lungs are relieved.
Take 3 ounces of honey, the yolk of an egg, and 8
ounces of barley-water. Make them into a clyder.
Let the patient’s diet be very flender, fuch as weak
broths, ffiarpened a little with orange or lemon juice,
and he may drink a weak mixture of honey and water •
the fleams of warm water may be taken in at the mouth!
Likewife let the legs and feet be bathed, and large
bliders applied. Sydenham advifes a repetition of the
bleeding and purging alternately, every other day, or at
greater intervals, as the drength and fymptoms require.
But he has generally found twice bleeding fufficient.
Of the Inflammation of the Liver.
When the liver is inflamed, it compreffes the domach,
diaphragm, and the neighbouring vifcera of the abdomen ;
it flops the circulation of the fluids, hinders the genera!
tion and excretion of the gall, and all digedion. It pro¬
duces a great many bad fymptoms, as the jundice, with
all the difeafes depending thereon ; for the liver receives
the refluent blood from almofl all the parts of the ab¬
domen, and is the chief indrument of almofl all the di-
geftions that are made there.
A fever, an inflammation, and pungent pain on the
region of the liver and diaphragm, a tenfion of the hy¬
pochondria, yellownefs of thelkin and eyes, and a faffron-
coloured mine, are figns of an inflammatory difpofition of
the liver.
It begins with cold and Aiivering, fometimes with vo-
mitting and a fever, watching, difficult breathing, in-
quietude* and coflivenefs. This is a kind of rheumatic
or eryfipelatous fever, proceeding from a fliarp vifcid
ferum, lancinating the nervous fibrillx. It is fometimes
accompanied with a baflard pleurify, to which it is akin.
_ It is not. very dangerous, and rarely- kills, unlefs the'
vifcera are unfound.
Narcotics and fudorifics are to be ffiunned.
This difeafe terminates as other inflammations, being
cured by refjlution, concoaion, and excretion of the mor¬
bid matter ; or elfe in an abfcefs, fchirrus, or gangrene.
During the firfl ftate, a warm regimen and faffron are
improper.
Cooling refolying liquors, taken inwardly, as whey
A a with
94 M E D I
whh forrel boiled in it. Outward fomentations, and fre¬
quent injedHons of clyfters, bathing, and fridtions, relax,
and render the matter fluid. Honey, with a little Rhenifh
wine, or vinegar; the juices and jellies of fome ripe
garden fruits; and thofe of fome ladlefcent plants, as
endive, dandelion, and lettuce, are refolvent.
Fat oily epithems, and plaifters, are to be Ihunned.
Camphor in croceated fpirit of wine is only to be ufed in
the beginning, or when the fever is moderate, and na¬
ture fluggifh. Bleeding at fird is neceflary on the affected
fide, in the hand or foot.
Violent purging hurts ; gently relaxing the belly re¬
lieves : diluents, with nitrous falts, are beneficial, or
tamarinds boiled in warm water or whey.
A clyfler purely oleous is beneficial, with a bladderrfull
of an emollient decodtion. Inwardly, diluting and refolvent
mixtures.
If it is attended with the jundice, then apply epithems
carduus benediftus, fcordium, wormwood, elder flow¬
ers, chamomile, feeds of lovage and cummin boiled in wine,
and often applied.
Pringle fays, the befl remedy, after plentiful bleeding,
is to lay a large blifter over the part affedted.
Bloody (tools, not in an extreme degree, or ftreaked
with blood, ought not to be (lopped, becaufe they help
to refolve the diltemper : bleeding at the nofe often does
the fame.
The feverifh matter is frequently carried off by urine ;
and therefore diuretics not highly (timulating are proper.
Sweating ought not to be promoted by hot cordials,
but encouraged by warm diluting liquors.
The cafe is deplorable, when the inflammation termi¬
nates in a fuppuration, unlefs the abfeefs points outward¬
ly, fo as it may be opened. For if the pus is evacuated
into the abdomen, it produces putrefadlion, or an incu¬
rable hepatic dyfentery or bloody-flux.
Of a Paraphrenitis.
This difeafe is an inflammation of the diaphragm, and
parts adjacent. A paraphrenitis is attended with a very
acute continual fever, an intolerable inflammatory pain of
the part affedled ; which is extremely augmented by in-
fpiration, coughing, fneezing, repletion of rhe (tomach,
a naufea, vomiting, compreflion of the abdomen in going
tcg/lool or making water. Hence, the breathing is thick,
fhort and fuffocating, and performed only by the motion
of the thorax. There is alfo a cohftant delirium ; a
drawing of the hypochondria inwards and upwards, an
involuntary laughter, convulfions, and madnefs.
This difeafe terminates as in a pleurify; but is attended
with more violent fymptoms, and is much more fatal. If
the part affedled fuppurates, the matter will fall into the
abdomen, and produce a purulent afciteS.
The cure mud likewife be attempted in the fame manner
as in a pleurify.
Of the Inflammation of the Intestines.
This difeafe contra&s the inteftines, and (lops up the
pafiage through them. There isa vehement, fixed, burn-
ipg pain, which is irritated by things taken inwardly.
When the inflammation is in the upper part of the inte-
C I N E.
(lines, the (lomach will be greatly diflended by wind.
When the pain is exafperated, it produces convulfions of
the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles, vomiting, painful
inflations, with rumblings, and (harp griping pains which
may bring on the iliac paflion, or twilling of the guts.
When there is a burning pain in the abdomen, with a
preternatural heat of the whole body, as alfo a quick pulfe,
lofs of (trength, anxiety, and inquietude, the feat of the
difeafe may juflly be fufpefted to be in the inteftines. If
the (harp pain is above the navel and below the ftomach,
attended with a fever, naufea, and reaching, it is a fign
that that part of the colon is aflfedted which lies beneath
the ftoniach, and is extended from the right to the left-
fide. If the pain lies in the right hypochondrium, un¬
der the fpurious ribs, it (hews that part of the colon to
be inflammed where it joins to the ilium. When the com¬
plaint is of the left fide, under the loins, where the pfoas
mufcle is placed, it is a fign the colon and that part of
the mefentery joined thereto is the feat of the dif¬
eafe, efpecially when it adheres to the peritonaeum. But
when the pain is in the middle of the abdomen about the
navel, it (hews the fmall-guts are certainly afFedted. In
all thefe cafes the pain is fuppofed to be attended with a
fever.
When there is a fever, and a burning pain in the low¬
er part of the belly, attended with a fwelling, which ends
in a copious, putrid, or purulent flux, with a great difor-
der of the bowels, it (hews the feat of the difeafe to be in
the mefentery.
This difeafe (hould carefully be diftinguiftied from a
cholic proceeding froma coldcaufe, becaufe what is good
for the latter is poifon in the former. It muft have a
fpeedy remedy, or it will foon end in the iliac paflion or
a mortification.
Befides copious bleeding, there is hardly any other
method of cure than fomenting and relaxing the bowels
with emollient liquids, taken warm both by the month
and in clyfters, and this every hour. Yet acids in very
defperate cafes have been known to give relief; fuch as
the juice of lemons taken by the mouth, and vinegar and
warm water given in clyfters. When the vomiting is ex-
ceflive and continual, opiates (hould be given to quiet the
convulfions.
Pringle affirms in this cafe, that the bed method of cure
is to lay blifters over the part affeded; and it hafe been
praftifed with fuccefs. In particular they are ufeful in
the ileus, and feem to aniwer equally well in the fixed
pains of the bowels, whether from an inflammatory or a
flatulent caufe.
Warm fomentations, or young, vigorous, and found
animals, applied to the body, are extremely beneficial.
Arbuth. The patient (hould only be nouriflied with
broths, in which gentlydetergent roots have been boiled.
Bo'erh.
It is a fatal error of fome practitioners,* when they find
the body obftinately coftive, to give one purge after ano¬
ther; which not only exafperates the difeafe, but renders
it mortal. Even the clyfters (hould not be made of very
(limulating ingredients; but of milk alone, with a little
nitre; or rain-water, with fyrup of violets; or of mar(h-
mallows, or rofes folutive.
After
M E D I
After bleeding and clyfters, if the pain ftill continue*
violent, there will be no manner of danger in giving opi¬
ates, by which means the excruciating pain will be alle¬
viated, the fpafms appeafed, and a breathing fweat will
follow. When this is done, and the fever is abated,
there will be no occafion to continue the diluting, relaxing,
and moiftening medicines, but rather the nervous and cor¬
roborating.
If the patient furvives three days, and the acutenefs of
the pain abates, with a. chilnefs or Ihivering throughout
the body, it is a fignof afuppuration : then within four¬
teen days the impoflhume will break; and if it falls into
die cavity of the abdomen, it will corrupt the whole mafs
of fluids, putrefy the vifcera, and turn to an afcites ;
Whence the patient will die of a confumption.
In this cafe, whey and chalybeate waters are likely to-
prove moll beneficial.
If the fever continues, with clammy fweats, palenefs,
an ichorous diarrhoea, fetid, black, or like the walkings
of flelh, a fmall intermitting pulfe, and at lall atotalcefla-
tion of pain ; they are figns of a gangrene and an ap¬
proaching death.
Of the Nephritis, or Inflammation of the
Kidneys.
The fymptoms of a nephritis are, a great inflamma¬
tory, pungent, burning pain, in the place where the kid¬
neys are fituated, attended with a fever; the urine is
made often, but fmall in quantity, and very red or flame-
coloured, yet, in the higheft degree of the difeafe, watry.
There is a numbnefs of the thigh, and a pain in the groin
and the tefticle, of the fame lide; a pain in the ilium,
bilious vomiting, and continual eruftations.
When the inflammation is deep, .the fever violent, the
burning pain in the loins lading, the difficulty of making
water great, the body very coftive, the anxiety and
flraitnefs of the prascordia exquifite, the urine crude and
white; likewife if the pain continues till the fourteenth
day, the kidney will fuppurate ; which is known from
the abating of the pain, and from the thick purulent fe-
diment of the urine. This will fometimes lad feveral
years, till there is nothing left of the -kidney but a bag :
It is attended with a hedtic fever, and the patient before
he dies is almod reduced to alkeleton. If the bag hap¬
pens to burd, it brings on a retention of urine, and in¬
tolerable pains, which end in death.
If it continues beyond the feventh day, an abfcefs is to
be feared, which is known to he forming by a remiffion
of the pain, fucceeded by a pulfation in the part, and
chilnefs and ffiivering often returning.
When the difeafe is favourable, it is cured by refolu-
tion, of a copious, red, and thick urine difcharged at one
time, or by a large flux of blood from the hasmorrhoidal
veins, in the beginning of the difeafe.
It is cured by plentiful bleeding, revulfionand dilution;
by foft, emollient, antiphlogidic decodlions.
When a burning and fixed pain in the Joins continues
for feme time, it is a fign that the venal veiTels are dull¬
ed and obdrufted with a thick blood, which requires
immediate bleeding in the foot ; or if there is a difpofi-
tioq to a haemorrhoidal flux, apply leeches to the, anus.
CINE. 95
Afterwards give fuch things as temperate the heat of the
blood, and promote a free circulation, with a diaphorefis.
For which purpofe, emulfions, demulcents, diluents, an-
tifpafmodics, diaphoretic powders, with cinnabar and ni¬
tre, are preferable to every thing elfe.
Emollient clyders, without any faline or purging fti-
mulus, are the principal help in this difeafe. They may
be made of milk, whey, or foft water, in which elder
and chamomile flowers have been boiled ; to which add
an ounce or two of fyrup of marlhmaliows, and a dram of
nitre.
When there are convulfions, or exceffive pain, opiates
are proper. If the vomiting, a fymptom of this difeafe,
is too frequent, warm water fweetened with hofley is.
beneficial.
The patient ffiould avoid all acrimonious aliment; he
ftiould neither lie too hot, nor on his back.
When an abfcefs is formed, the medicines mud be
powerfully maturating and emollient: When the urine.
appears purulent, they mud be diuretics of medicated wa¬
ters, whey, and the like ; together with balfaniics.
Emulfions are likewife ufeful of the four cold feeds
and fweet almonds. Some attribute a great virtue to
cherry-tree gum diffolved in whey or water, and taken
often. Alfo fyrup of marffimallows is very ufeful. Add
tothefe, the decodion of veronica, fweetened with honey,
and mixed with powder of nutmegs.
Butter-milk, not very four, has been reckoned a great
fecret in ulcers of the kidneys ; and chalybeate waters
have been beneficial to fome. Spruce-beer is a good bal-
famic in this cafe.
O/'/ta Inflammation <y" /^Bladder.
The pathognomonic fort of this difeafe are, an acute,
burning, prefling pain in the region of the pubes, attend¬
ed with a fever, a continual tenefmus or defire of going,
to dool, and a perpetual driving to make water.
Other fymptoms are, a rumbling of the bowels, grip¬
ping pains, great anxiety of the piaeco.rdia, difficult breath¬
ing, want of appetite, vomiting, coldnefs of the extreme
parts, a hard, quick, unequal, contraded pulfe, inquie¬
tude, and fometimes convulfions.
There is another kind which is more fuperficial,. and
is either rheumatic or eryfipelatous, in which the fever is
more eafily and fpeedily cured by promoting a diaphorefis :
And perfons in years, or who are affeded with the feur-
vy, gout, rheumatifm, or violent head-achs, are molt
fubjed to it; efpecially if they catch cold by being ex-
poled to the rigour of a cold north-wind.
The former arifes mod commonly from the doppage of
the menfes, bleeding piles, or other ufual fanguinary e-
vacuations; and not feldom from a violent gonorrhoea un-
Ikilfully lupprelfed by adringents, or when treated by
medicines of too fliurp and hot a nature.
This difeafe is mortal, if it, terminates in an ulcer or
mortification.
The cure mud be attempted with bleeding in the feet,
if a fuppreflion of the menfes or hjemorrhoidal flux be the
caufe.
If it proceeds from the feurvy, recourfe mud ba
had to gentle diaphoretics, diluents, and remedies which
ohtuadi
MED
obtund the acrimony of the humours, fuch as deco£Hons
of the roots of fcorzonera, china, fkirrets, and fennel;
alfoinfufions, in the manner of tea, of the tops of yarrow,
.flowers of mallows, winter-cherries, and feed of daucus,
made with milk, and fweetened with fyrhp de altLva
If the patient’s body is coflive, manna will be proper,
yj\\\\'hitrum ftibiatuin;'to which rhubarb may be joined,
as occafion requires.
Externally, antifpafmodics and gentle difcutients will
be proper : For this purpofe apply bladders filled with a
decotilion of the emollient flowers.
If the tenefmus and difficulty of urine arife from fpafms,
there is nothing better than the vapours of a deco^ion in
‘milk of the flowers of melilot, elder, chamomile and
mallows, and the tops of yarrow. This decodtion may
'be put into a clofe-ftool; and the patient fit over it.
Tulpius informs us, that a defperate ulcer of the blad¬
der was cured by the conflantufe of fpaw water.
Qf t/>e Opthavmia, or Inflammation of /^Eyes.
An inflammation of the membranes which inveft the
eye is a very comrqon difeafe, efpeciaHy of the adnata
or albuginous coat of the eye.
The eyes are very much inflamed, with great pain,
tenfion, tumour, heat, and rednefs ; and fometimes there
is fuch a ftrong lenfation^pf pricking in the eye, as if it
was caufed by a needle or' thorn. The eyes at firfl: are
full of fcalding tears ; which are followed by a pituitous
matter, which is fometimes fmall in quantity, fometimes
more plentiful: a fordes adheres to the greater angle of the
eye ; and when the difeafe is violent, the neighbouring
parts will fwell even as far as the cheeks, with a ftrong
pulfation of the adjacent arteries. The fmall blood-vef-
fels are vifible, which in health are not to be feen, and
all the white of the eye becomes red.
If, befides thefe external figns, there is an appearance
of moths, dull, flies, <bc. floating in the air, there is an
inflammation of the retina.
As in all difeafes of the eyes, fo efpecially in their in¬
flammation, the patient muft abftain from all fpirituous
liquors, the fmoak of tobacco and fternutatories; he
muft (ikewife avoid fmoaky rooms, and the vapours of
onions and garlick, as alfo all -vivid lights and glaring
colours. The drink may be water alone, or a decottion
of fennel-feeds, hartffiorn, and barley ; the aliment muft
be light of digeftion.
Intemperance of all kinds renders perfons liable to this
difeafe ; as alfo a keen north-wind, and looking earnefily
at the fire, fun, or glaring colours: likewife fmoaky
rooms, metallic vapours, coftivenefs, and unufual re¬
frigerations of the-extreme parts, efpecially in the time
of menftruation. Sometimes it is owing to other difeafes,
as the fmall-pox, meafles, feurvy, and the driving back
the gouty matter.
A flight ophthalmia is eafily cured ; a more fevere
one generally continues a month or longer, and often
leaves a fpot in the cornea, or depraves the humours of
the eye.
The flighter inflammations from duft or the fun are re¬
moved by fomenting with warm milk and water, and a-
neiming the eyes with tutty ointment at night: if the eyes
I C I N E.
are weak and but little inflamed, they may be waffied with
brandy and water.
In all cafes we are to look narrowly and often into the
inflamed eye ; fincethe inflammation may be either begun
or be kept up by moats, or by hairs of the cilia fall¬
ing in, or growing inwards, fo as to caufe conftant irri¬
tation.
Take away 10 ounces of blood, and the next morning
give the comition purging potion, which may be repeated
twice or more, with the interpofition oFtwo days between
each dofe, and at night an ounce of diacodium.
On the days in which purging is omitted, let the pa¬
tient take four ounces, three or four times in a day, of
the emulfion of the four greater cold feeds, and white
poppy feeds.
If the difeafe will not yield to repeated cathartics and
bleeding, give an ounce of diacodium every night.
The flighter cafes may be cured without bleeding; but
if any degree of a fever is joined, or the inflammation is
confiderable, this evacuation is never to be omitted. The
more violent inflam'ffiations are not to be cured without
larger bleedings, unlefs we can make a derivation from
the part affeded without draining the whole body. For
this purpofe blifters are ufefully applied behind the ears,
efpecially if they are to lie on for two or three days, and
if the fores are afterwards kept running. Two leeches
ffiould be applied to the lower'part of the.orbit, or near
the external angle of the eye, and the wounds be allowed
to ooze for fome hours after they are fallen off.
This method will likewife do in ophthalmias from ex¬
ternal injuries ; but not when they proceed from a fero-
phulous or venereal caufe. In bad cafes, after the in¬
flammation has yielded a little to evacuations, the coagu-
lum aluminofum, fpread on lint, and applied at bed-time,
is the beft external remedy.
In the mean while, blifters muft be applied to the neck,
and kept running for fome days ; and after that, fetons,
or iflues at leaft. It is hard to fay, of what vaft advan¬
tage blifters and fetons are in this difeafe.
The exprefled juice of millepedes may alfo be given
[25 are a dofej on the days purging is omitted, in four
ounces of beer, Or Rheniffi or French white-wine : let
them ftand, when mixt, all night ; and then take it
with a little fugar in the morning, after the mixture is
drained.
But according to the later experience of Dr Fordyce,
Fothergill, and others, a ftrumous opthalmia maybe cer¬
tainly and fafely cured by half a dram of the bark given
twice a-day.
The length of time in which the bark is to be taken is
uncertain, for in fome the cure is performed in lefs time
than others.
Hoffman, befides blifters, fetons, <bc. recommends cup¬
ping, with fcarification, in the nape of the neck, and be¬
hind the ears ; and in the violent fort of this difeafe,
bleeding in the jugular ; as alfo finapifms of rocket-feeds
boiled in wine, and then put into fmall bags and applied
to the nape of the neck or under the armpits. For in¬
ward ufe, he prefers to all other remedies, an infufion,
in the manner of tea, of valerian-root, liquorice, elder-
flqwers and fennel-feeds, drank plentifully; and before
the
M E D I
*512 drinking of it to receive the vapour or fteatn into the
eyes.
Of the Apoplexy.
This difeafe is a fudden abolition of all the fenfes, ex¬
ternal and internal, and off all voluntary motion, com¬
monly attended with a ftrong pulfe, laborious breathing,
a deep fleep, and fnorting.
There is no difference between a perfon afleep and in
an apoplexy, but that the one can be awaked, and the o-
ther cannot.
The caufes of this difeafe are a particular conformation
of the body, as a fhort neck, for fome have fewer verte¬
brae in their necks than others ; a grofs, plethoric, fat,
phlegmatic confutation ; polypous concretions in the ca¬
rotid and vertebral arteries, or about the heart, dr with¬
in the fkull, which are known by an unequal pulfe, a
vertigo, and fometimes a momentary lofs of fight ; an
inflammatory thicknefs of the blood, preceded by a fever
attended by the head ach, rednefs of the face and eyes,
an advanced age, attended with a glutinous, cold, catar-
rhous, leucophlegmatic conftitution.
The forerunners of an apoplexy in thefe lafl, are, dul-
nefs, inattivity, drowfinefs, fleepinefs, flownefs of fpeech
and in giving anfwers, vertigoes, tremblings, oppreflions
in fleep, night niares ; weak, watery, and turgid eyes ;
pituitous vomiting, and laborious breathing on the leaft
motion.
Other caufes may be. whatever comprefles the veffels
of the brain; as, a plethora, a cacochymy, attended with
fulnefsofthe veflels; a hotconftitution; tumors within the
fkull ; the velocity of the blood increafed towards the
head, and diminifhed downwards; comprefHon of the
veins without the fkall, which bring the blood back from
the brain ; the effufion of any fluid comprefling the dura
and pia mater externally ; the eflFufion of any fluid with¬
in the brain, which by its preflure hurts the origin of the
nerves-; this is the mofl: common caufe of apoplexies,
and proceeds from blood in the plethorical, from a {harp
ferum in the hydropical and leucophlegmatical, and from
an atrabilious acrimony in the melancholic, the fcorbutic,
and the podagric. Violent paffions of the mind, and in-
tenfe fludy, are prejudicial to thefe.
There are three degrees of an apoplexy. The firft is,
when the vital fluids are, by the force of violent diften-
tions, driven from the lower and outward parts of the
body, to the external parts of the head, and to the brain
and its meninges, by the carotid arteries ; whereby their
veflels are expanded, and the free circulation through
them impeded. While this flagnation of the blood con¬
tinues, the external arid internal fenfes are aboliftied ; and
as the stoppage goes off they are gradually reftored. Such
are the fits that hypochondriacal and hyfterical perfbns
are fubjeift to.
The fecond degree is, when the flagnation continues To
fong th it the ferum oozes through the veffels, and falls
upon the fides of the medulla oblongata or fpinalis, and
To flops the influx of the nervous fluid, and produces a
liemiplexia or a palfy.
The higheft degree is, when the fine veffels of the pia
Vol. III. N°. 73. 2
CINE. 97
mater are broke, and the extravafated blood occupies the
bafis of the brain.
The firft may be cured by timely bleeding ; the fe¬
cond, though it does not fuddenly kill, yet it generally
renders the patient infirm ever after : the third is almoit
always mortal.
The immediate forerunners of an apoplexy, a: trem¬
bling, flaggering, a giddinefs in the head, a vertigo,
dimnefs of fight, a ftupor, fleepinefs, forgetfulnefs, noife-
in the ears, more deep and laborious breathing, the night¬
mare.
A flight apoplexy goes of in a profufe, equal, rofcid,
warm fweat ; a large quantity of thick urine, by the
bleeding piles, the'flowing of the menfes, a diarrhoea,
or a fever. If it is more fevere, it ufually terminates in
a paralytic diforder; and is feldom curable, but always
leaves behind it a great defeft of memory, judgment, and
motion.
Bleed in the arm to 12 ounces, and then in the jugular
to 7 ounces; immediately after which, give an ounce and
a half, or two ounces, of emetic wine.
Apply a large ftrong blifter to the neck, hold the patient
upright in bed, and let the fpiritof &1 ammoniac, highly
reftified, be held to his nofe.
Let there be ftrong friftions of the head, feet, and
hands : and let the patient be carried upright backwards
and forewards about the room, b^two ftrong men. Strong
blifters fhould be applied to the head, neck, back, and
calves of the legs. Sharp clyfters fhould be thrown up
into the body, v/hich have a tendency to excite the pa¬
tient, and to caufe a revulfiom
Shawadvifes, during the fit, to bleed largely in the arm,
or rather in the jugular, to apply ftrong volatiles to the
nofe, to blow fneezing powders up the nofe, as alfo to rub
the temples with fpirituous cephalic mixtures.
Likewife to blow in the mouth and noftrils the fmoke
of tobacco from an inverted pipe.
Tbofe who have once had a fit of the apoplexy, are
very liable to be feized with it again ; and if they are
plethoric, the heft prefervative is bleeding once in three
months, and ufing themfelves to a fpare diet; taking
medicines which ftrengthen gently, and abflaining from
cares and all intenfe applications of the mind ; not ne¬
glecting iffues and felons, nor the drinking fuitable mine¬
ral waters.
Of the Palsy.
A Palsy is a lax immobility of any mufcle, not to be
overcome by the will of the patient. Sometimes the fen-
fation of the part is abfolutely abolifhed, and fometimes
there remains a dull fenfe of feeling, with a kind of ting¬
ling therein.
It may be caufed by all things that bring on an apo¬
plexy ; that render the nerves unfit to tranfmit the ani¬
mal fpirits ; that hinder the entrance of the arterial blood
into the mufcle. Hence the nature of a paraplegia or
hemiplegia, and the palfy of a particular part, may-be un-
derftood
Hence a palfy may proceed from an apoplexy, an epi-
lepfy, extreme and lafting pains, lupprelfions of the ufual
B b evacuations,.
98 M E D I
evacuations, tranflations of the morbific matter in acute
diftempers; whatever diftends, didorts, comprefles or
contrafts the nerves, ftrong ligatures, luxations, frac¬
tures, wounds, gangrenes, inflammatory and other tumors
of the coats of the nerves, in the ganglia, or the nerves
themfelves; extreijie heat, violent cold, mineral effluvia,
and the too frequent ufe of hot water.
Palfies of the heart, lungs, and mufcles ferving for
refpiration, are foon fatal; of the ftomach, bowels and
bladder, from internal caufes, very dangerous ; of the
face is bad, and eafily changes to an apoplexy.
If the part is cold, infenlible, and waftes away, it fel-
dom admits a cure ; if attended with a violent convulfion
and great heat of the oppofite part, it is very bad.
The regimen in this difeafe ought to be warm and atte¬
nuating, confifting of fpicy and cephalic vegetables, fuch
as create a feverifh heat, becaufe it is neceffary to difpel
thevifcofity. Soapy vegetables are bed, and fuch asconfid
of an acrid volatile fait, and oil, mudard, horfe radifli,
<bc. dimulating by vomits; fneezing ; relaxing the belly;
promoting fweat by fuch motions as can be ufed, or other
means ; by drong friftion, &c.
The cure of the palfy is to be attempted by attenuants
and difcutients; fuch as, aromatic, cephalic, nervous and
uterine vegetables; their fixed and volatile falts ; as alfo
by their oils; foaps made of their oils and falts; the drong
fcented parts of animals; the juices, fpirits, oils, and
timdures of infects; foflile falts, metallic crydals, and
medicines compounded of thefe.
Likewife by things which dimulate drongly, and which,
by exciting a tremulous and convulfive motion of the
nerves, drive out the impaired matter; to this clafs, der-
nutatories and emetics chiefly belong, efpecially if often
ufed at fird.
By purging with warm, opening, aromatic vegetables,
with acrid fofflls, with mercurial and antimonial prepara¬
tions, in a large dofe, and repeated fuccedively for fe-
veral days, by the means of which a copious and lading
diarrhoea may be excited.
By filling the veffels of the body with drinking a large
quantity of the attenuants above mentioned, and then by
exciting a greater motion and fweat by the vapours of fpi¬
rits fet on fire.
Outwardly, friftions maybe ufed, either dry and hot,
till the part is red; or with fpirits endued with a dimu¬
lating virtue; or with nervous oils, liniments, balfams,
or ointments; vapour or immerfive baths ; acrid, aroma¬
tic, and drawing plaiders; cupping, fcarifications, bliders;
whipping the part with rods; exciting a flight inflamma¬
tion with nettles, and the like.
A courfeof electrification for fome weeks has been known
to have cured fome inveterate palfies, though it hath fail¬
ed in others. See Electrigity.
Of tht Epilepsy, or Falling Sickness.
Sometimes this difeafe comes on fuddenly and una¬
wares ; but it oftner gives notice of its acceffion by fome
preceding fymptoms; the chief of which are, a laflitude
of the whole body, a heavy pain of the head with fome
didurbance of the fenfes, unquiet fleep, unufual dread,
dimnefs of fight, a noife in the ears : in fome there is a
C l N E.
violent palpitation of the heart, a puffing or inflammation
of the praecordia, a flopping of refpiration, a murmuring
noife in the belly, foetid flools, a flux of urine, a refri¬
geration of the joints: in others, there is a fenfe, as it
were, of a cold air afcending from the extreme parts to
the heart and brain.
Then they fall fuddenly on the ground, (whence the
name of the falling ficknefs;) the thumbs are (hut up clofe
in the palms of the hands, and are with difficulty taken
out; the eyes are didorted or inverted, fo as nothing but
the whites appear; all fenfation is fufpended, inforaiich
that by no fmell, no noife, nor even by pinching the
body, can they be brought to themfelves ; they froth at
the mouth with a hilling kind of a noife, the tongue is la¬
cerated by the teeth, and there is a lhaking or trembling
of the joints.
■ However, the convulfions vary, as well as the defecl
of the fenfes, both in degree and kind ; for fometimes, in¬
dead of convulfive motions, the limbs are all fliff, and
the patient is as immoveable as a datue. In infants
the penis is eredled ; in young men there is an emiffion
of femen, and the urine very often dreams out to a great
didance.
At length there is a remiffion of the fymptoms, and the
patients come to themfelves after a longer or Ihorter in¬
terval ; then they complain of a pain, torpor and heavi-
nefs of the head, and a laffitude of all their joints.
Thefe fits are more frequent or feldom, or longer or
fliOrter, according to their different caufes. Some re¬
turn on certain days or hours, or even months, according
to the quadratures of the moon, but efpecially about the
new or full moon; in women, chiefly about the time of
menflruation; and what is mod remarkable, often upon
a verj flight occafion ; for indance, any fudden perturba¬
tion of the mind, as a fright, anger, fudden joy, intenfe
application, drong liquors, exceffive heat or cold, or ve¬
nereal exercifes.
As to<the prognoffics ; in boys, this difeafe terminates
about the feventh, the fourteenth, orthe feventeenth year,
that is, about the time of puberty; in women, about the
fourteenth, r/z. the time of mendruation. Likewife it has
been found by experience, that chronical epilepfies have
fpontaneoufly ceafed by the change of place, diet, and way of
life. Sometimes a quartan ague will put an end to an epilep-
fy and convulfion-fits. It is alfo remaikable, that the itch,
or any other cutaneous didemper, fuch as the fmall pox,
meafles, miliary eruptions, &c. will either abate the vio¬
lence, or quite Aifle this difeafe.
The patient therefore need not defpair of a cure, if
the difeafe is not of long flanding, the fits fflort, the
diforder not hereditary, and the years advancing to the
time of puberty ; or if it proceeds from a fault m the
prim* vice, from worms, from a bad regimen, or from a
fubcutaneous difeafe ill cured. Nor is th^ ca!e defperate
if the-epilepfy be flight, and when the fit is forefeen by a
fenfation of cold air, arifing fiom the extreme parts to
the back, prascordia, and head, and alfo when it is ufh-
ered in by anxiety, by want of drength, and a pro-
penfity to vomit; or when the fenfes are not quite abo-
liffled in the time of the fit, or when it comes on in the
night, without the incurvation of the thumbs.
It
M E D I
It is a bad fign if theepilepfy makes its firft attack after
the twenty firtt year, but much worfe if the fits grow
more frequent; for then the animal fundtions are often de-
ftroyed, and not only the memory, wit, and judgment are
impaired, but the patient grows ftupid and foolifh. It
fometimes ends in melancholy or madnefs. When it
turns to a palfy or apoplexy, it is mortal.
The epilepfy is extremely difficult to be cured in a-
dults, but in children it is the reverfe. Bliders laid to
the back part of the head are of great ufe a little before
the paroxyfm is expedted: and the time may more cer¬
tainly be foreknown, as this difeafe is influenced by the
moon, and attends upon its phafes, efpecially the new or
full moon. The mod proper medicines to corredt the
juices feemto be native cinnabar, and wild valerian root;
a dram of which may be given morning and evening for
three or four months, and afterwards two or three days
before the new and full.
However, it mud not be forgot, that this difeafe owes
its origin to fo many different caufes, and is bred in fo
many different conditutions of the body, and the fame
remedy which fucceeds in one cafe often fails in another;
and therefore different medicines are to be tried, efpecial¬
ly on adults. And great regard mud be had to the times
in which the paroxyfms ufually return, in order to effetd
a cure.
If the veffels are full of blood, or it is carried with
too great an impetuofity towards the head, then bleeding
in the ankles will be proper, or leeches applied to the has
morrhoidal veins. This often happens to hypochondriacal
or hyderical perfons, to the melancholic, and women with
child. Sometimes it will be proper to bleed in the ju¬
gulars; or to apply cupping-glaffes with fcarifications to
the neck, and parts near the head.
It has its origin from a lharp, impure ferum in the
Jpead, or in the membranes and veffels, as in cachedtical
or fcorbutical perfons, or thofe who have been inconfi-
derately cured of cedematqus fwellings of the feet, old
ulcers, or iffues dried up; the driving in of the itch,
fcabs, or the ulcerating humour of a fcald head ; then
the cure may be attempted by cathartics, by purifiers of
the blood, by evacuating the impure humours with fetons,
iffues, cauteries, and bliders.
If it proceeds from violent p&in, as for indance, from
a done dicking in the ureter, from the tooth-ach, ear-
ach, or fpafms of the domach and bowels ; then clyders
of oil of fweet almonds, or the like, are to be admi-
nidered.
If, in children, it proceeds from gripes, or the breed¬
ing of teeth, nothing is better than to cleanfe the prim*
vi* from filth, by milk-clyders, with a little Venice-foap
diffolved in them.
If from worms, after antifeptics and foft oily things,
anthelmintics .mud be given, fuchas tanfey, gariick, cam¬
phor, afa fetida, worm-feed, mercurius dulcis, and ethiops
mineral, or powder of tin.
When the fits return at certain periods, or at the qua¬
dratures of the moon, a clyder or a vomit will be proper
fird of all, of half a dram of ipecuanha, in a decodtion
of raifins.
In the time of the fits, too free a ufe of volatiles.
CINE. 99
fpiritous liquors, anddrong fmells, are hurtful, as cau-
fing the humours to flow too much to the head : The bed
method is to place the patient in an eredlpodure, and to
rub the hands and feet pretty briikly.
The bed drink is water, which will mitigate, if not
cure the fymptoms.
When the patient is fo happy as to forefee the acceffion
of the fit, then let him have immediate recourfe to cly*~
ders and fridtions of the lower parts.
A milk-diet alone has cured an inveterate epilepfy,
Mifleto is faid to cure an epilepfy as fure as the bark an
intermitting fever. The dofe to grown perfons is half a
dram or more, in powder, every fixth hour, efiinking af¬
ter it a draught of a drong infufion of the fame plant. If
to every ounce of the powder, a dram of afa-fetida be
added, the medicine will be dill more effedlual.
Cinnabar of antimony is greatly celebrated for the cure
of this difeafe; and may be taken from four grains to %
fcruple, in conferve of rofemary flowers.
Ferreus and Jachinus affirm, they have cured many
epilepfies with a Ample decodtion of guaiacum, giving fix
or eight ounces of it twice a-day, and the Tecondary de¬
codtion of the fame for their ordinary drink. This de¬
codtion ffiould be continued 30 or 40 days, to which may
be added male 'piony root, or fomething of the fame
kind ; and every dofe may have a few drops of the fpirit
of vitriol added thereto.
. After all, there is no medicine that can be depended more
upon than Musk ; for it is an excellent remedy in all
difeafes of the nerves, particularly cramps, convulfions,
vertigoes, and epilepfies. Ten grains may be taken morn¬
ing and night, made up into a bolus; if the fame quanti¬
ty of fadtitious cinnabar be added to each dofe, it will
not be the worfe.
Of St Vitus’s Dance, and other convulfive difordersy
St Vitus’s dance is a fort of a convulfion, which boys
and girls are fometimes fubjedt to, from the age often
years, to the time of puberty. It difeovers itfelf.firft
by a kind of lamenefs, or aninftability of one of the legs,
which they draw after them in a ridiculous manner, nor
can they hold the arm of the fame fide ftill for a mo¬
ment ; for if they lay it on their breaft, or any other part
of their body, it is prefently forced away from thence by
a convulfive motion. If they are defirous of drinking,
before they can bring the cup to their mouth, they ufe a
thoufand odd gefticulations like a mountebank; for they
cannot bring their hand in a diredl: line to their mouth,
but it is forced this way and that, till at length, if they
have the good fortune to hit the mark,, they throw the li¬
quor down theirthroat as greedily as if they defigned to
raife laughter in the fpedtators.
In a convulfive paroxyfm, the limbs are ffrangely agi¬
tated with various different poftures and motions. Some¬
times the hands are put behind them as if they defigned
to fit upon them, and foon after they feem to be beating
the air ; then their legs will be drawn hither and thither
as if they were dancing fome antic dance. Sometimes
they will bend their backs like a bow, at the fame time
raifing their breaft as high as they can ; then their whole
body will grow ftiff, and as immoveable as a ftone. They
generally
ioo MED!
generally keep on their legs without falling ; yet fome
will grovel on the earth like epileptic perfons, and will
Weep, laugh, gnafh their teeth, gape with their mouths,
put out their tongues, roll their eyes, and whirl their
heads about in a flrange manner.
After the fit, fome are inexpreffibly weak ; fome faint
away, others fall into a deep deep; in others, again, the
fit is terminated with eriiftations, wind, vomiting, and
throwing out plenty of water, Very often a mucus di-
ftils from the nofe, or blood iffues from thence, or from
the uterus or hasmorrhoidal veins.
Thefe perfons have generally unquiet deep, and full of
dread and terror, an uncertain appetite, their bodies ge¬
nerally a little coftive ; they fweat with difficulty, but are
fubjeifl to great padions of the mind.- The acceffions of
the fits keep exaft pace with the phafes of the moon. In
women they precede or accompany the eruption of the
menfes. They are mod: frequent and word: after meals;
and are eafily excited by the paflions of the mind.
The fits are generally preceded with a coldnefs of the
feet and limbs, or a kind of tingling fenfation ; which
alfo affefts the os coccygis, and like cold air afcends up
the fpinal marrow; there is adiftended datulent pain in the
left hypochondrium, and fuch a co/iftipation of the body
that neither wind nor excrements can make their exit,
nor will the anus admit a,clyfter-pipe, or, if it does, the
clyfter and excrements are thrown up by vomit. The
bladder is likewife fo affedted, that no urine can be made,
or at lead but little, and thin and white. In others,
the acceflion begins with yawming, dretching, anxiety
about the heart; a hard unequal contradled pulfe, the
heart-burn, naufea, vomiting, palpitations of the heart,
■difficulty of fwallowing, pain of the head and teeth, noife
in the ears, giddinefs, tic. and then come on the con
vulfions.
Though this is a terrible difeafe, it never kills faddenly.
When it is recent, the perfon young, and otherwife of a
good conditution, there is the greated hopes of a fpeedy
cure. If ufual evacuations of blood by the uterus or hae¬
morrhoids are fuppreffed, the return will either mitigate
or cure the difeafd. On the contrary, if the humours are
thick and impure, the fuppreflion obdinate, their tempe¬
rament inclining to great fenfibility, the age advanced, or
she difeafe hereditary, or become habitual, the cure is
difficult. Sometimes, through ill management, it dege¬
nerates into an epilepfy or hypochondriac melancholy.
To cure the St, Vitus’s dance, take away about 8 ounces
of blood, more or lefs, according to the age of the patient;
the next day give half, or fomething more of the com¬
mon purging potion according to the age, and in the
evening the following draught:
Take an ounce and a half of alexeterial water; 30 drops
of compound fpirit of laVender; a fcuple of theri
aca andromachi; and 8 drop^ of the tindtura thebai-
ca. Mix and make them into a draught.
Let the cathartic potion be repeated thrice every other
day, and the fame draught in the evening After which,
bleed again, and repeat the cathartics three or four times;
and this courfe may be purfued to the third or fourth
time.
Apply to the foies of the feet emplajlrum e car anna.
CINE.
For fear of a relapfe, at the fame feafon of the next year.
Or a little fooner, in which thediflemper appeared, bleed¬
ing (hould be again repeated, and purging two or three
times.
• Allen cured two girls of this diftemper with the expref-
fion of millipedes and the Peruvian bark, after bleeding
and a gentle cathartic.
As to the cure of other convulfive diforders, if die pa¬
tient is plethoric, or the pulfe great, it muft be begun
with bleeding either in the arm of foot; and if occalion
require, it mult be repeated two or three times, but not
till the fit is over. The air ffiould be dry and ferene, with
conflant exercife ; the aliment ffiould be eafy of digedion,
and all hot fpirituous liquors ffiould be avoided. The
condant drink ffiould be the docoftion of fcorzonera roots,
with (havings of hartffiorn, or whey, or the Seder’s mine¬
ral waters. Pediluvia are likewife proper, of river-water,
wheat-bran, and chamomile-flowers. They ffiould be ufed
pretty warm and deep, at the time of going to bed, and
afterwards fweating ffiould be promoted.
The patient’s body, if codive, mud be kept open with
manna, or with oily clyders ; and if the femes of the
difeafe is judged to be in the primes w/>, it will be pro¬
per, at the changes of the moon, to give a vomit with
manna, that is, an ounce of manna with two or three
grains of tartar emetic.
If, about the time of puberty, this difeafe proceeds
from too early or exceffive coition, or violent pallxons of
the mind, all things which caufe a commotion in the fluids
mud be avoided;- fuch as, aromatics, (harp purges, eme¬
tics, fpirituous liquors, inordinate motions of the body
or mind, knd all heating things in general. On the con¬
trary, the diet ffiould be foft, emollient, and nouriffiing;
fuch as cow’s or afs’s milk, or whey; as alfo baths of
fweet water mixed with milk. Likewife jellies, and de-
codfions of fcorzonera, barley, hartffiorn, ivoryffiavings,
and viper’s fleffi, for ordinary drink, and chocolate.
If it proceeds from worms, the cure depends on their
being killed and expelled out of the body : But all an¬
thelmintics, or worm medicines, are not to be made ufe
of in this cafe; fuch as garlick, vitriol, copper, aloes,
(harp purges, and mercurials; becaufe, if they are given
inconfider.itely, they are hurtful to the nerves. It will
be better to ufe clyfters, made of milk, fweet things, and
oil; as alfo liniments of a purging quality applied to the
navel and abdomen. Inwardly may be femen fanto~
nici. If mercurius dulcis is given with a cathartic, it
will be neceflary firft of all to let the patient take a few
fpoonfuls of oil of fweet almonds.
If it is caufed by a fuppreffion of the menfes, emmen-
agogues and hot medicines are to be forborne ; but bath¬
waters and bleeding will be proper ; as alfo psdtluiva, if
made pretty warm ; hot infufions of balm flowers, and
flowers of the lime-tree, tindure of caftor, abforbent
powders, antifpafmodics, and anodynes.
If from a ftoppage of the haemorrhoidal flux, befides
bleeding and the above remedies, leeches applied to the
anus will be of very great advantage.
In the obfervations of the med cal fociety of London,
we have an account of a deplorable convulfive cafe being
cured by ele&ricity.
Of
M E D
Of the Con'VUxsjve Asthma.
An aflhma is an impeded and very laborious refpiration,
attended with unfpeakable anxiety, and a ftraitnefs abouf.
the praecordia, hindering the free circulation of the blood
through the lungs, arifing from variety of caufes, and
not without danger of fuffocation.
There are fevera! forts of afthmas. One is, difficulty
of breathing, proceeding from corpulency and a very full
habit of body ; and is mod apparent after violent motion:
but this is a flight diforder, and free from all danger.
The next is the pituitous aflhma, attended with a moift
cough, and the bringing up pituitous matter; it attacks
the patient at all hours, and in all pofmons of the body,
and is owing to a plenty of a vifcid mucus, fluffing the
veficulas of the lungs, and hindering the free ingrefs and
egrefs of the air through them. Another is owing to the
convulfive contra<5lion of the parts defigned for refpiration,
and proceeds from various caufes both within and without
the thorax ; and this is called the dry flatulent or convul
five aflhma.
There is a heaviriefs of the bread, a flo-wnefs to per¬
form cuftomary labours, difficult breathing when going
up a bill ; the patierits grow hoarfe, cough, and are
troubled witn frequent ena&ations ; they cannot fkep,
and are fcarcely warm in their beds. As the difeafe grows
tvorfe, the cheeks look red, the eyes grow prominent as
if they were firangled ; they fnore or wheeze while wa»
king, but much more when afleep ; they are fond of cold
air, they keep themfelves in an ereft pollute and feem
to fuck in the air with open mouth: they are troubled with
fweating about the neck and forehead ; then comes on a
violent cough, and the patient brings up a little cold fro
thy matter. As they draw in their breath, the neck
fwells, and the prtecordia are pulled upwards; the pulfe
is fmall and quick. If it increafes, the patient isJn dan¬
ger of fuflfocation : but if it grows better, the fits are fel-
dom, and greater plenty of matter is coughed up; the
urine is more plentiful, but without a fediment; the voice
grows clearer, the fleeps longer than are neceflary, the
prscordia are fet at liberty ; a pain fometimes paffis to
the fhoulders ; the breathing is flow and gentle, but with
a fort of a wheezing.
The longer this difeafe continues, the more fharp and
violent all the fyroptoros become. The patient’s body
grows more coflive, and the urine is thin and watry ;
moll commonly the feet fwell, then the hands, face and
back ; there is a numbnefs os the arms, the countenance
is wan and livid, or of a leaden colour. .Then comes on
g little fever, which grows worfe in the evening ; the
whole body is cache&ic, with an osdematous fwelling of
the feet; there is a dropfy of the breaft, or an afcites,
or anafarca ; at lead there is a pally on one fide, or of
the arm ; or, inflead, thereof a pally of the eyelids,
Whep the difeafe is recent, and is owing only to the
fpafmodic contraction of the prsecordia, there are hopes
of a cure ; efpecialiy if the matter of the gout, ulcers,
and exanthemata, are fent back to their proper feats.
When the menfes or htemorrhoids which were flopped
rpturn, it yields relief, and, if the difeafe was not-too far
advanced, perfect health. If ft is inveterate, or ill ma-
Vou. Ill, N° 73. 2
I C I N E. TOI
naged, it brings on a dropfy of the bread, obftnjflions of,
the lower belly, cedematous fwellings of the feet, a ca¬
chexy, and an univerfai dropfy. In general, all convu!-
five afthmas portend a fudden exit, or fuffoCation, efpe-
cially if there is a polypus of the heart: if it continues
long, then the patient will die of the dropfy ; in whi h
cafe it will be foon fatal ; when there is a flow fever, an
unequal intermitting pulfe, a palfy of the arms, a con¬
tinual palpitation of the heat, little urine, a fyncope or
fwooning, then death is at hand. Some are carried off
by an inflammation of the lungs, and the more grievous
the difeafe the more languid the pulfe. The aflhma, in
old perfons, continues till death.
In the paroxyfm, becaufe the body is generally bound,
and the wind and humours are carried upwards, the
fpeediefl affiftance is from emollient and carminative
clyfterg.
Afterwards ufe friCHons of the feet, which have an in¬
credible efficacy; alfo let them be put into warm water;
for the feet are almoft always cold. When there is a
violent fpafin about the praecordia, hot fomentations are
neceflary, or bladders filled with hot milk, and applied
to the part affeCled ; likewife nervous liniments are very
ufeful, rubbed in with a warm hand.
Internally, antifpafmodics fhould be given, with gentle
diaphoretics
And this is all that needs to be adminiftered in the fit.
Out of the fit, if it proceeds from, too great a con-
geflion of blood about the breaft, orTrofh a polypus of
the heart, bleeding in the foot will be proper, as alfo fca-
rincations ; in a fuppreflion of the hemorrhoids, leeches
fhould be applied to the anus ; alfo gentle laxatives to
cleanfe the prim* viee ; likewife bodily motion, {lender
diet, and foft drink. If there are hypochondriacal or
flatulent fymptoms, then gentle laxatives will be the rriore
neceffary, together with clyfters. When the menfes
or haemorrhoids are fuppreffed, nothing is better than
the bath-waters, both for bathing and drinking ; or the
waters of Sellers taken warm and mixed with milk.
When the afthma proceeds from the driving back fome
impure matter from the fkin, or from the drying up of
ulcers, and the humour is tranflated to the nervous parts
of the breafl, then gentle diaphoretics will be neceffary
to fend it back to the fuperficies of the body.
After which the patient may drink tea made of balm,
or elder, or lime tree-flowers, with the leaves of fcordi-
um, or veronica and fennel feeds, or any thing elfe of
the fame kind. Remedies compounded of fulphur are
likewife very efficacious in driving back the morbific mat¬
ter to the fkin, though outwardly they are hurtful in cu¬
taneous difeafes.
The returns of the fits are to be obferved and guarded
againfl, by moderate evacuations, as bleeding, gentle
vomits, laxatives, and fometimes cathartics : but every
thing that heats the blood ffiould be carefully avoided,
efpecialiy about the ufual times of the paroxyfms ; be¬
caufe there is generally then a lurking fever, which ought
not to beexafperated by heating food or medicines.
In a dry afthma proceeding from fumes of lead, an air-
replete with exhalations from quick lime, or the vapours
of pitcpal; milk, cream, oil of fweet almonds, emulfions
C c of
■e- %
I 2
102 M E D I
of fperma cetl, the fat of animals ufed internally and ex¬
ternally, anfwer every purpofe.
Country air, and following the plough, are beneficial
to reftore the debilitated tone of the lungs; and tea,
made with hyflbp, veronica, ground ivy, liquorice, and
daify flowers, cannot be enough commended. But fweet
things, in every kind of afthma, are hurtful, efpecially in
the humid or i'erous, and-the hypochondriacal.
Of a Cough.
The cough now under confideration is a primary dif-
eafe, which greatly diforders the whole body by its ve¬
hemence and obilinacy. Its caufe is, a flux of ferous
humours from the outward parts and extremities of the
body to the lungs, and is feldom without feverifh heats
and (hiverings towards the evening.
It is either moiftor dry : the former afllifts the phleg¬
matic, whofe fibres are lax and mufcles foft, and whoa-
bound with ferous and pituitous humours. Women are
more liable to it than men •, as alfo infants, boys, and old
men, more than thofe in the vigour of their age. The
dry cough principally attacks the hypochondriac, thefcor-
butic, the cacherftic, and thofe who are lean and flender,
and fubjeft to.convulfive diforders, and whofe bodies like-
wife abound with a fliarp ferum.
The moft violent of thefe kind of coughs is the taflis
tgnvulfiva, or ferina, whofe effects are fo violent as al
moft to put the patient in danger of fuffocation : In chil¬
dren, this is called the hooping cough. Sometimes this
is dry in the beginning; or the patient brings up a little
thin ferum, more or lefs fliarp. Sometimes it is moift ;
and then after a very laborious fit, the patient expeftorates a
fublivid, and commonly a moft tough mucus. The extreme
parts grow cold, the body is coftive, the urine and the
vital fluids are driven in greater plenty and force towards
the breaft and head ; fo that while the paroxyfm lafts,
the face is red and turgid with blood, the veins fwell, the
arteries beat quicker and ftronger, the eyes are ready to
ftart out of the head, the tears flow, the eyelids fwell,
and fometimes the blood, after fneezing, fpringsfrom the
nofe. Sometimes the very veffels of the lungs burft, and
a fpittingof blood enfues. Sometimes a hiccup fupervenes,
and then at the fame time the patient is affeifted with
laborious vomiting ; fome difcharge their excrements and
urine infenfibly; and the coughing of others is fo violent
as to caufe ruptures, efpecially in children.
As to the prognoftics, a dry cough often turns to a
moift, by hurting the digeftion, and rendering the pa¬
tient cacheftic. When a moift cough becomes fuddenly
dry, and the breaft remains opprefled, we may conclude
that a putrid or hedlic fever, "or an exuiceration of the
lungs, are near at hand. In the convulfive cough of chil¬
dren there is danger of a fuffocation ; which cough fome¬
times happens in difficult dentition, and in the meafles.
It fometiipes caufes gibbofiry and ruptures in boys; in
women abortion; in adults a , fpitting of blood and a
phthfis. Coughs that proceed from a fchirrus of the
lungs or other vifcera, are incurable; if from driving
in of exanthemata, or breakings out of the flcin, it grows
eafy as foon as they are thrown out again. All coughs
attended with lofs of fleep are bad; as alfo that which is
CINE.
frequent, tedious, obftinate, and proceeds from a deduc¬
tion on the lungs. On the contary, a moderate heat in
the night time, with an equal breathing fweat throughout
the whole body, a larger flux of urine, and the body o-
pen at the fame time, a more quiet fleep, and an ea-
fier expedloration, are certain figns that the diforder is
going off.
If the cough is recent, and there is no fever, nor o-
ther figns of a baftard peripneumony; or if it is not the
confequence of a pleurify or a peripneumony ill cured, by
a negleft of fufficient bleeding ; the patient need only ab-
ftain from wine and flefli for fome days, andufe the fol¬
lowing remedy.
1. Take 10 drops of balfam of fulphur, with a bit
of Candied fugar; to be ufed twice or thrice in the
day.
Recent coughs, after bleeding, are foftened by a mu¬
cilage of linfeed, or by any common fweet oil: But the
oils are made more efficacious by the addition of a volatile
alkaline fait, in this manner:
2. Take an ounce and a half of oil of olives, 6 ounces
of water, 6o drops of fpirit of hartfhorn.' an ounce
of pedtoral fyrup : Take three of four fpoonfuls e-
very fourth hour.
If the cough will not yield to thefe remedies, then it
will be to no purpofe to rely on peftorals, efpecially if
there is a fever along with it, or if it proceeds from a
pleurify or peripneumony ; for then it is to be cured
by bleeding and purging, in the fame manner as the ba¬
ftard peripneumony.
When .there is a thin, fait, fharp defluxion, jellies
are proper, and a decoftion made of barley, fhavings of
hartfhorn, viper-grafs root, and liquorice ; or the de-
coftion of turpentine with fugar; and above all things,
oil of fweet almonds frefli drawn.
.When a tuffis catarrhalis affedts the whole habit or body,
with a lofs of appetite and a tabes, the curemuft be at¬
tempted with afles milk or whey, or milk with equal parts
of Selters waters, and efpecially riding.
In a moift, lading, pituitous cough, the body muft
be kept open with manna, two ounces at lead diiTol.ved
in any convenient vehicle, to which may be added, two
drams of terra foliata tartari, and a few drops of oil of
anifeed. If theftomach will not bear laxatives, clyfters
muft be ufed. p
When the cough is outrageous, fafiron mixed with
bezoardics is very friendly to the breaft ; nor are ft wax
pills, mixed with the aromatic pills, lefs beneficial, /ou
may order about 6 grains of the ftorax pills, witbaferu-
ple of the aromatic, and give them at bed-time; in the
mean while not neglefting the expectorants, oil of fweet
almonds, and fperma ceti. Likewife the thebaic tinChtre
mixt with fpirit of hartlhorn is not unufeful for the fame
purpole.
But the bed opiate in this cafe, is the elixir paregori-
cum: the dofe for children is from j to 20 drops; for
adults, from 20 to-100 and upwards. It is peculiarly
excellent for children in the hooping-cough or chin-
cough .
The patient fhould, as much as poffible, breathe a tem¬
perate air, flmnniug all faked and fmoak-dried meats,
poignant
MED!
poignant fauces, for they render the blood and ferum (harp
and impure ; he fnculd alfo abftain from malt liquors,
but more efpecially acid wines. The drink ihould be
hydromel ; or, if the patient is fcorbutic, water alone, the
cold being firft taken off with loaded bread. The vulgar
pour hot water upon wheat bran, and drink the infuiion
cold, not without fuccefs.
As to bleeding in this difeafe, it is neceffary for thofe
who are full of blood, and whofe veins are very promi¬
nent ; or when the ufual excretions of it are fupprefied ;
it is alfo a good prefervative, though the perfon has pad
his feventieth year. Birders may likewil'e be ufed, in
obdinate cafes.
0/a Phthisis, or Conjumption 0/ Lungs.
If an ulcer of the lungs confumes themfo far that the
whole habit of body wades away, it is called a conlump-
tion of the lungs.
This ulcer may proceed from any cafe which may
detain the blood in the lungs fo as to change it into a
purulent matter.
The caufes may be referred.
I. To that temperament of the body which tends fird
to fpitting of blood, then to an ulcer of the part where
the blood has made its way through. This confids,
In a tendemefs of the arterial veffels, and in the im¬
petus of a more or lefs acrimonious blood. This is known
from a view of the tender and fine veflels, and of the {len¬
der make of the whole body, a long neck, a flat and nar¬
row thorax, deprefled fcapulte ; the blood of a bright red,
thin, fliarp, and hot; the Ikin tranf parent, very white and
fair, with a blooming red in the cheeks; the wit quick,
fubtle, and early ripe with regard to the age, and a mer¬
ry chearful difpofition.
In fuch a debility of the vifcera as difpofes their too
tenacious contents to produce obftruftions, putrefadions,
and to grow acrimonious, whereby the veffeis are corro¬
ded, fitfl cauflng {pitting of blood, and then ulcers. This
is difcovered by a flight febricula, aJittle dry cough, an
unufual heat, a rednefsof the lips and mouth, a fluflung
in the face ; which are mod apparent-when the new chyle
enters into the blood; a propenfity to'fweating when a-
fleep, a weaknefs, a fliortnefs of breath increafmg upon the
lead motion,
In that age .when the veffels have attained their full
growth, and will not admit of any further lengthening ;
when at the fame, time the blood increafes in quantity,
acrimony, and force; which happens between the hxteemh
and thirty-fixth year of the patient’s age.
In an hereditary difpofition to this difeafe.
Thefe difpofitions to a phthifis are hadened.
By a fupprefiion of accudomary evacuations, efpecially
the fanguinequs; as the haemorrhoids, menfes, lochtw,
bleeding at the nofe, ufual blood-letting, chiefly'in the
plethoric, and thofe who have lod a limb.
By any violent {hock of the lungs, by coughing, ihout-
ing, finging, running, violent efforts of the body, anger,
and wounds.
By lharp, fkline, aromatic aliment**Or drink ; by the
particular manner of living ; by another difeafe, whence
the quantity, acrimony, velocity, rarefaction aud heat of
CINE. 103
the blood are increafed. Hence it frequently happens
from acute fevers, the plague, fmall-pox, and feurvy.
II. Likewife this colle&ion of pus may proceed from
a peripneumony, which terminates in an apodem.
III. When there is an empyema formed, it may cor¬
rode, dedroy, and confume the lungs, and fo produce the-
fame difeafe as if they were waded away by an ulcer gene¬
rated in their own fubdance
The lign of an approaching phthifis is a dry cough,
which may continue for fome months; whereas a fimple
catarrh is attended with fpitting, and is but of {hort du¬
ration. Vomiting, or a difpofitionto vomit after eating,
excited by the above mentioned cough, is a mod certain
fign of a phthifis.
It invades perfons from eighteen to thirty-five years of
age; the whole body wades away. There is a he<dic fe¬
ver, which is mod apparent after meals, and is known
by the quicknefs of the pulfe, and the rednefs or flufliing
of the cheeks : The matter brought up by the cough is
bloody or purulent; if it is fpit into the fire, it yields an
offenfive fmell; if into a veffel of water, it falls to the bot¬
tom. Though it is thick, it is not glutinous or tenacious,
but fluid, and of different colours, viz. yellow, green,
but mod commonly of an afli-colour.
This difeafe begins with a flight pain, moderate heat,
and an uneafy or oppreffive draitnefs of the bread. When
blood is brought up by coughing, it is generally of a flo¬
rid, fcarlet colour, and frothy, and proceeds from the
lungs with a remarkable noife. It is mixt with fibres,.
films, and fmall portions of arterial, venal, and bronchial
veffels: The pnlfe is foft, fmall, and undulating; the
breathing is difficult; and thefe fymptoms ape preceded by
afaltiffitade in the mouth.
Blood is coughed up from the lungs fometimes without:
any pain; and if there is a veffel broken, it mod com¬
monly flows out in a great quantity at the fird eruption,,
and afterwards more fparingly. ■
Spitting of blood is cured by copious bleeding every
third day, to the fourth time, or till the inflammatory
pellicle entirely difappears. Sydenham advifes the taking
away 10 ounces of blood, to take the common purging
potion the next morning, and at night an ounce of dia-
codium. Hoffman Jtfcewife advifes gentle purging and
pediluvia, as alfo putting the hands into warm water. For
appeafing the orgafm of the bicod, he thinks nothing bet¬
ter than fpirit of vitriol, but more efpecially the tin&ure
of rofes acidulated therewith. Morton very judicioully
prefers the Peruvian bark. Refrigerating, thickening,
liyptic lenient remedies, ufed a confiderable time, are
feviceable, with which may now and then be mixed the
mod lenient bal/amics.
'Hoffman advifes the following powder, as preferable to
everything elfe, in appeafing the-fpafmcdic driidures of
the lungs.
1. Take feeds of white henbane, and crabs-eyes, of
each a dram; 12 grains of nitre; and one grain of
camphor. Make them into'a powder,
A prudent ufe of the nonnaturaSs is like wife neceffary,
that may bed oppofe the caufe of the difeafe ; and chiefly
a proper aliment, ard manner of living; a milk-diet is
preferable to any ether.
When:
io4 MED!
When the cure is performed, it will be neceffary, by
way of prevention, to bleed once in fix months, for feveral
years together.
But if, by reafon of the violence of the diforder, or the
ainfkilful ufe of ftyptics, there fhould, after the fpitting
of blood, arife a difficulty of breathing, which continually
ktcreafes, a wandering ffiivering heat and rednefs of
the cheeks, a dry huffiy cough, a flight hedh'c fever,
a preternatural third:, a weaknefs, or fenfe of weight
in the breaft, it is a fign that the wound from whence
the blood flowed has already begun to change to mat¬
ter about its lips. Then under the cruft of dried blood
fus is formed ; and this colle&ion degenerates into a la¬
tent Vomica; and that being broken, becomes an open
ulcer of the lungs.
The effedfs of an ulcer of the lungs thus formed, are
generally thefe which follow : An increafe of the acrimony
and quantity of the putrid pus, a dilatation and corro¬
ding maceration of the membrane or bag in which it is con¬
tained ; a converfion of the blood-vefleis and the bronchia
into pus; a purulent confumption of the whole lungs, or
of oneof its lobes; a continual dry cough, or fpittle ffiook
off by the conftant concuffions of the cough ; a converfion
of the blood flowing into the ulce-r into pus ; an increafe
of the vomica in the lungs; the burfting of this vomica
into the tube of the larynx ; the fometimes fuflrocating
difcharge of the pus, or the daily coughing up of matter,
which finks in water, and is thick, fweet, fat, fetid, white,
red, yellow, livid, affi-coloured, orftreaked, and which,
put into the fire, has the fmell of burnt flelh. Sometimes
the vomica breaks into the cavity of the thorax; from
whence proceeds difficulty of breathing, and the other
fymptoms of an empyema. Then the refpiration grows
exceeding bad; the chyle and the whole mafs of blood
are converted into pus ; the ufual method of nourilbrnent
is deftroyed, the foiids continually confume and wafte
away; a hedic fever appears, with a final] languid pulfe,
and the heat in the upper parts intenfe, the cheeks look
red, and the face hippocratic. Generally there is an in-
expreffible anxiety towards the evening; an unufual thirft;
profufe nodurnal fweats ; red pullules ; a fwellingof the
feet or hands on the fide affeded; exceflive weaknefs ; a
hoarfevoice, a falling off of the hair ; an itching through*
cut the body, with watery puftules ; a debilitating di¬
arrhoea, with yellow, fetid, purulent, cadaverous ftools;
ii fuppreffion of the fpittting; and then death.
Hence the following prognoftics may be formed.
An hereditary pbtbifis is the moft dangerous of all,
■and is incurable unlefs the fpitting of blood be prevented.
A phthifis from external violence, that is, proceed¬
ing from fpitting of blood cauied thereby, is the flight-
eft of all.
A phthifis in which the vomieft breaks fuddenly, and
the patient eafily brings Up a white, conceded, froooth
pus, and in quantity proportionable to the ulcer, with-
cut thirft, and with a good appetite and digeftion, due
fecretions and excretions, is curable, though with diffi-
culty.
Heavy, folid, ftinking, fweet fpittle, with nigbt-fweats,
livid cheeks, palenels of the face, the noftrils pinched up,
finking in the temples, incurvation .of the nails, falling off
C I N E.
of the hair, and a colliquative diarrhoea, are figns of ap¬
proaching death.
When a vomica is known to be formed in the lungs,
then the phyfician muft endeavour to ripen and break it;
which is to be done by milk-diet, riding on horfeback,
warm vapours and expedorants ; Which done,
1. The blood muft be guarded and defended againft
the purulent infedion, by remedies which are moderately
and agreeably acid and fakiffi, by vulnerary herbs, finooth
balfamics given in various forms, in great plenty, and
continued a long time.
2. The ulcer muft be cleared as foon as poffible from
the purulent matter,- the lips of it cleanfed and confoii-
dated, .which is to be done by liquid medicines, by things
which promote coughing, by motion, riding, country-air ;
thefe are expellents. The cleanfers are detergent balfa¬
mics, ufed inwardly and outwardly. The confolidators
are paregorics.
3. The aliment muft be fuch as requires the leaft force
to make it pafs freely through the . lungs, and be there
affimilated, and at the fame time be fit for nouriffiment
Afles milk is very fuitable to this intention, as alfo but¬
termilk.
Small repeated bleedings are not only beneficial in old
coughs, threatening confumptions, but alfo after purulent
fpitting and heftic fymptoms have appeared. The quan¬
tity of blood to be drawn is from four to feven or eight
ounces, once in eight or ten days.
Setons, or iffues made in the fide of the part that is moft:
affe&ed, are very beneficial.
We muft endeavour to diminiflt the defluxion on the
lungs, by bleeding and gentle purging, as well as pecto¬
rals, accommodated to the various ftates of the diftetn-
per, viz. by thickening medicines and attenuants, and
fuch as temperate the heCtic fever, with emulfions
and affes milk, tec. and laftly, by healing the ulcer with
balfamics, as opobalfamum ; the dofe is 20 drops upon
fugar; but this is not to be taken before due evacuations
have been firft made.
After evacuations, great care muft be taken that the
cough be appeafed, left the lungs ihould be weakened by
the continual agitation.
The moft fovereign remedy to reftorc the lungs to
their priftine vigour is to get on horfeback every day;
and he that will put himfelf upon this exercife for a
cure, need not be tied down to any Qrifl: rules of diet,
nor be debarred from any fort of meat or drink, fince the
whole ftrefs of the matter depends wholly on the ponftant
and continual exccife of riding Long fea-voyages have
of late been greatly recommended.
In the firft ftage of this difeafe, when the lungs,
trachaea, and glands, throughout the whole pulmonary
tube, are fluffed with a pituitous matter, leparated from
the mafs of blood, and the patient is affliCied with a con¬
tinual cough, efpecially in the night-time, all proper me¬
thods muft be ufedtoftop the influx of this catarrh, and
to concoCt the humours already impacted.
Firft, Blood muft be taken from the arm, from fix to
ten ounces, if the patient is plethoric, or accuftomed to
bleeding ; this is to be repeated once, twice, or thrice, at
proper intervals, efpecialiy if the flux of feruro is like a
fuffocating
M E D I
fisfFocating catarrh, together with' the copious expectora¬
tion of a crude phlegm; or where there_ is an althmatic
difficulty of breathing, a pain in the fide, orthefignsof
any chfpoiition to a rheumatifm, a pleurify, or a perip-
neumony.
After bleeding, efpecially if there is a naufea, or an
inclination to yomit, it will be necefiary to give an emetic
with oxymel of fquills - £or ipecacuanha wine,3 which
will fometimes ftop the progrels of an incipient phthilis.
The emetic, if it agrees, with the patient, and there is
occafion for it, may be repeated every third or fourth
day. The belt time is towards the evening ; and after the
Operation is ove“, an opiate will be proper.
Nor mullthofe remedies thatfoften; lubricate, thicken
and concoct the phlegm, be omitted; filch as fugar-can
dy, barley-fugar, old conferve of rofes, juice of liquorice,
the white and black troches of the London difpeofatory ;
freffi butter ia water-gruel, fweet oil or oil of fweet al¬
monds, efpecially linleed oil cold drawn, of which the
patient may take a fpoonful every hour, unlefs there is a
diarrhoea, or any other contra-indicating fymptoms. He
may alfo eat ratlins and figs.
The air ffiould be pure, far from bogs and marffiy
places, and the fmoak-of fea-coal; the aliment light of
digeltion ; the drink fmal!, for fpiritous liquors ffiould be
avoided. The patient ffiould ufe exercife, and keep his
mind as free from paffions as poffible.
The fecond ftage of this difeafe may be reckoned from
the firll formation of the tubercles, till they begin to in-
flame'and putrify, that is, while they remain in a crude
ftate. This is known from the increafe of the heftic fe¬
ver ; from the wafting and flaccid ftate of the mufculous
fleffi, from the drynefs of the cough, for the fpittingcon-
fiderably abates ; and from the great weight and oppref-
lion which is continually felt in the breaft.
In this ftage all evacuations by vomit, ftool, and
fweat, are pernicious ; for they increafe the fever, and ac¬
celerate the confumption. Nor is bleeding otherwife
proper, than as it prevents an inflammation, and then it
muft be uled with a Iparing hand, when there are pleu-
retic pains, or the patient hath catched a freffi cold.
Befides alterative medicines, taken in fmall quantities,
and at ftated times, endeavours muft be ufed to cool the
febrile heat of the blood, and decreafe the quantity of
the noxious humours. The diet muft be fuch as will
obtund the acrimony of the humours ; as pairidges,
mountain-birds, poached eggs, oifters. calves-feet and
jellies, and foups macSfe therefrom ; alio craw-fiffi and o
ther ffiell-fiffi, and broths made of their fleffi. Like-
wife fpaw-waters, pe&orals, hydromel, a milk diet, af-
fes milk, milk-water, millepedes, fnails, and the like ;
together with iflues, {having the head, and proper plai-
. fters
In the third ftage of. this difeafe little hopes remain of
8 cure, unlefs the ukers are fmall and benign.
• In this ftate of the dileafe, opiates ffiould be fparingly
ufed, even though the cough and want of reft require
them, becaufe they not feldom bring on fudden death.
Jellies and broths are likewife to be directed; for, in ffiort,
there is now more help to be expe&ed from the kitchen
than from the apothecary’s ffiop.
Vot. III. N°. 73. 2
CINE. 105
The diet ffiould be water-gruel, ptifans of fcalded ap-
. pies, poflet-drink, ftonea raffins and liquorice, table-
beer warmed with a toaft, and the like. When the fe¬
ver is on the decline, chicken broth, poached eggs, tec.
If there i? occafion, the body muft be loofened with
clyfters of fugared milk, with chamomile flowers, and
repeated as occalion requires ; then takeaway ten ounces
of blood on the fine affetfed, which ffiould be boldly re¬
peated every, or every other day, according to the ur¬
gency of the fymptoms.
In colliquative fweats, pearl juleps may be freely gi¬
ven, to which may be added chalk, corals, dragon’s
blood, or other abforbents. But the Peruvian bark for
this pupofe, is much better than any other medicine what¬
ever. The patient ffiould not b£ permitted to deep too
long, the bed-deaths ffiould be light, and he ffiould be
removed to fine fubtle air.
Of the Nervous Consumption.
A nervous atrophy or phthifis, is a wafting of the bo¬
dy, without any remarkable fever, cough, or diftkulty
of breathing ; but is attended with want of appetite and
a bad digeftion ; whence the whole body grows languid,
and is continually falling away.
At firft the body is cedematous, and as it were fluffed
with a vapid chyle; the face looks pale and bloated,
and the ftomach lothe§ every thing but liquids. The
patient is forced to keep his bed fooner than the progrefs
of the decay of his fleffi feertls to require. The colour
of the urine is uncertain, but it is generally very red and
fmall in quantity; fometimes it is pale and copious.
No confiderable fever is difcernibl 'either by the pulfe,
heat, or thirft, though the urine is ever fo red.
Thecaufes of this difeafe are generally violent paflions
of the mind, a too free ufe of fpiritous liquors, and un-
wholfome air.
Stomachic and nervous remedies are only to be
depended upon ; fuch as, chalybeates, antifcorbutics,
cephalics, and bitters. If the body be coftive, two
ounces of nndtura facra may be taken every fourth even¬
ing, and from 30 to 40 drops of elixir aloes, in a glafs
of white-wine with bitters, before dinnef. The elixir of
vitriol is excellent in this cafe, 20, 30, or 40 drops is a
dofe, in any convenient vehicle, once, twice, or thrice
a day. Alfo about half an ounce of the chalybeate wine,
infome proper liquid, in the winter; in the fummer, the
fpaw waters: the ufual drink may likewife be made bitter
with the vinum amarum; but nothing ftrengthens the
ftomach more than a decodtion of worm wood.
Sometimes the patient may take eight or nine drops of
opobalfamum, or fpirit of hartffiorn, or of fal ammoniac,
as friendly to the nerves'; nor muft he forget exercife and
chearful company, with other diverfions.
Of an Empyema.
An Empyema is a colledtion of purulent matter in the
cavity of the thorax, between the lungs and the pleura,
which always fuppofes the breaking of a vomica into the
faid cavity.
Such are the vomicae or abfeeffes of the lungs, pro¬
ceeding from inflammations, fromfpitting of blood, from
D d a
10(5 M E D I
a thick matter which cannot be expe&orated. Of the
pleura, from an inflammation, from a wound therein,
healed outwardly but open inwardly ; from a bruife, or
a concealed rupture of it, turning to pus. Of the dia¬
phragm, when, after an inflammation, it fuppurates,
and breaks on its upper part. Aifo of the medialtinum
and pericardium affeded in the like manner.
An empyema may be forefeen from an inflammation of
any of theabove mentjoned parts, which is not terminated
and refolved by concoffion, revuifion, a crifis, or medi¬
cines ; but is followed by Ihiverings, a febricula increa-
iing at night, a wandering heat, a fenfe of heavinefs in
the part that was pained, a difficulty of breathing, a
want of appetite, and an unufual thirft.
An aftual empyema is known from twenty days being
elapfed fince the inflammation began, without expectora¬
tion of the matter; from the figns of a vomica in the five
abovementioned parts difappearing; from a new pain,
cough, difficulty of breathing, and fpitting, arifing, and
afterwards going off; from a dry cough, a weight on
the diaphragm, not being able to lie but on one fide, a
noife made by the fluctuation of the pus, upon moving
the body; from a flow fever, a fluffing in the cheeks,
hollow eyes, heat in the ends of the fingers, crookednefs
of the nails, and a fwelling of the abdomen.
The confequences of this difeafe are, a continual ac¬
cumulation of pus from the ulcer not yet healed ; the
matter increafing in its acrimony, putrefaction, rank
fmell, and thinnefs, by being ffut up in a hot, moiA
place ; an impediment in raffing the diaphragm and ex¬
tending the lungs ; a ffortnefs and difficulty of brea¬
thing, and not eafily performed unlefs in an ereCt poflure,
a dread of fuffocation when laid down; an inability of
lying, but on the affeCted fide; a conftant dry cough, with
anxiety ; a maceration and corrofion of the lungs, pleura,
diaphragm, pericardium, and even of the heart ttfelf,
converting them gradually into filthy corruption; whence
a heCtic fever, quick, fmall pulfe, conftant rednefs of
the cheeks, lofs of appetite, perpefual thirft,- extreme
weaknefs, and fainting fits. Hence all the fluids become
unfit for nutrition, circulation, or any other office:
The confequence of which is, a wafting of the whole
body ; a putrefaCHon of the fluids, which may be dif-
charged through the corroded lungs, or carried down¬
wards by a fatal fanious diarrhoea; night-fweats, pu-
ftules in the face, crooked nails, a fliinin^ yellownefs of
the fkin, and a hippocratic countenance.
The cure of this difeafe is different, according to its
different caufe and ftate.
When a vomica or abfcefs is known to be formed in
any of the parts'before mentioned, all endeavours are to
be ufed, that it may be fpeedily broken and determined
to the outward parts, which muft be attempted by ac¬
tual or potential cauteries, or by incifion and proper mo¬
tion.
When the vomica is adtually broke, then it is to be
evacuated by the mouth, if nature feems to encourage it;
or by urine, if there appear any figns in it of palling tjaat
way; or by an aperture of the thorax by a proper inftru-
ment. See Surgery.
In general, all inflammatioas of the lungs or pleura are
CINE.
followed by an adhefion of thefe parts, which allow na*
ture to make a paflage externally : And it is common
in abfceffes of the pleura and intercoftal mufcles to find
them break outwardly ; nor is it uncommon even in the
lungs. Therefore, when there is an adhefion, no other
operation is neceffary than to open the tumour with a
lancet, when the pus is formed ; and if the luppuration
is fo plentiful as not to admit the healing of the out¬
ward ulcer, it may be kept open with a hollow tent.
Hoffman gives an inftance of a perfon, who, after a
peripaeumony, fell into an empyema, and was cured by
taking milk boiled with fugat of 'rofes. The quantity
was three pints a-day. As alio balfamic pills made of
flowers of fulphur, oil of fweet almonds, fperma ceti,
Venice turpentine, fiffron, and oil of amleed. Likewife
a powder made of crabs eyes,, fperma ceti, fugar, myrrh,
liquorice powder, and bole armoniac.
Of the Scurvy.
This diftemper chitfly affeifls the inhabitants of cold
northern countries, and efpecially thofe who live in m.ir-
ffiy, low, fat and moil! foils, near ftagnating water, whe¬
ther freffi or fait. r] hofe who live idle fedentary lives
are moft fubjeift, chiefly in the winter, to the attacks of
this difeafe; as alfo thole who feed upon failed and frnoak-
dried fleth or fiffi, fea bifcuit, (linking water, unfer¬
mented farinaceous vegetables, peafe, beans, ffiarp fait
old cheefe ; likewife thofe who are fubjed to melancholic,
maniacal, hyftenc, or hypochondriacal diforders.
It is known by fpontaneous vvearinefs, heavinefs of the
body, difficulty of breathing, efpecially after bodily mo¬
tion ; rottennefs of the gums, a ftinking breath, frequent
bleeding of the nofe, difficulty of walking ; fometimes a
fwelling, fometimes a falling-away of tiie legs, in which
there are always livid, .plumbeous, yellow, or violet-
coloured fpots; the colour of the face is generally of a
pale tawney.
The firft ftate of this difeafe begins with unufual kzi-
nefs, fpontaneous wearinefs ; the patient loves to be in a
fitting or lying pofture ; there is a pain in all the mufcles,
as if he was over tired, efpeciaily of the legs and loins ;
when he wakes in the morning, all his joints and mufcks
feem tobe tired and bruifed.
In the fecond ftate, the gums fwell, grow painful, hot
and itching, and bleed upon the leaftprdlure ; the roots
of the teeth become bare and loofe ; he feels pains in all
the external and internal parts of the body, imitating
diftempers proper to the various parts.
In the third ftate, the gums at length grow putrid,
with a cadaverous fmell ; when they are inflamed, blood
diftils from them, and a gangrene enfues ; the loofe teeth
by degrees grow yellow, black, and rotten; the fublingual
veins become varicofis, and like rings ; there are often
fatal haemorrhages, which break out from the external
fkin, without any appearance, of a wound from the lips,
gums, mouth, hofe, lungs, ftomach, liver, fpleen, pan¬
creas, inteftines, womb, kidneys, &c- Obftinate ulcers
arife, of the very worft kind, which no applications will
cure, and which are apt to turn to a gangrene ; they break
out in all parts, but efpecially the legs, and are attended
with a flench. There is a kind of an itch and dry fcabs,
with
M E D I
vhh a dry and mild leprofy. The blood drawn from a
vein is black, j>rumous, thick, and yet wants its due
confidence in the fibrous part; the ferum is fait, fharp,
and abounding with a yellowilh green mucus on its fur-
face. There are.gnawing, rending pains, quickly Ihift-
ing from place to place, which grow more violent in the
night, affedting all the joints, bones, and vifcera-
In the fourth date, there are fevers of various kinds,
which bring on an atrophy; fometimes diarrhoeas, dy-
fenteries, or violent ftranguries ; as alfofaintings and mor-
t d anxieties, a dropfy, com'umption, convulfions, trem¬
bling, a pally, contrafHons, black fpdts, voiding of blood
upwards and downwards, a putrefa&ion and confumption
of the liver, fpleen, pancreas, mefentery. Now the con¬
tagion fpreads very quick.
The fir ft fign of the approach of this difeafe is com¬
monly a change, of colour in the face, which becomes pale
or yellowilli, and bloated, with a liftleffnefs, and an a-
verfion to exencife. The caruncles of the eyes appear of
a greenifh caft, and yet in other refpedts the patient feems
in perfedl health. However, the change of colour in the
face does not always precede the other fymptoms, though
it conftantly attends them. Then an univerfal lalfitude fu-
pervenes, and a .ftiffnefs and feeblenefs of the knees, with
a difEculty of breathing on the lealbmotion. Soon after
this there is an itching of the gums, which fwell, and are
apt to bleed on the lead fniftion. Then they become li¬
vid, foft and fpongy, and afterwards extremely putrid
and fungous. This rottennefs of the gums is an infepa-
rable fign of this difeafe. Thefe are not only fubjeft to
bleed, but there are haemorrhages from different parts of
the body.
The Ikin is dry throughout the whole courfe of this
difeafe, .except towards the laft, and in many it is rough.
In fome it appears like the fkin of a goofe ; but it is moft
frequently linoqth and Ihining. It is ftained with blue,
purple, livid, or black fpots; fome of which are fmall,
and others of a hand’s breadth, when the difeafe is ad¬
vanced. They are chiefly on the legs and thighs, but
fometimes on the arms and trunk of the body ' Some
have a fwelling cf-the ankles in the evening, which difap-
pears in the morning. In a.little time it advances gra¬
dually up the leg, and the whole member becomes oede-
matous. Hurts, bruifes, wounds healed up, and frac¬
tured parts, always become fcorbutic firft. Old ulcers
will emit a thin fetid fanres, mixed with blood, and at
length coagulated gore will lie on the furface of the fore'
like a cake. As the difeafe increafes, they fiioot out a
foft, bloody fungus refembling bullock's liver, which
fometimes will rife to a monftrous fize in a night’s time.
The flighteft bruifes and wounds of fcorbutic petfons de¬
generate into fuch ulcers, and are eafily diftinguiflied from
all others, by being putrid, bloody, and-fungous.
To prevent the feurvy at land, it will be proper to
chiife a warm,, dry, pure air, with a die* of eafy di-
geftion, confifting chiefly of a due mixture of animal and
vegetable fubftances : for thofe are moft liable to it who
live in marfliy; wet foils, and in places fubjetft to great
rains and fogs ; or in damp, low apartments, ualefs they
keep conftant fires, and their chief food be flefh broths,
with plenty of frdh greens or vegetables, and well-baked
CINE. 107
bread made of wheat-flour ; as alfo a chearful glafs of
fome good wholefome fermented liquor. Cleanlinefs, en¬
tertaining amufements, and moderate exercife, will alfo
be good prefervatives in thefe cafes. In garrifons, the
foldiers fliould be kept as dry, clean, and warm as pof-
fible, and their provilions fliould be as wholefome as can
be procured, with plenty of good vegetables, particular¬
ly fallads of garden-crelfes.
The beft method of preventing the feurvy at fea will
appear from the effedls which Dr Lind has obferved fe-
veral medicines have had, efpecially thsfe which have
been greatly recommended as prefervatives. On the
20th of May 1747, being on board the Salilbury at fea,
he took twelve fcorbutic patients under his care. They
had putrid gums, fpots, and laflitude, with weaknefs of
their knees. They had a proper apartment in the fore¬
hold: their diet was water-gruel Iweetened, in a morning;
fometimes mutton broth for dinner, fometimes light pud¬
dings, boiled bifeuit with fugar, &c. and for fupper,
barley and raifins, rice and currants, fago and wine, and
the like. Two of thefe were ordered each a quart of
cyder in a day ; two others twenty-five drops of elixir of
vitriol, three times a-day, upon an empty ftomach, ufing
a gargle acidulated with the fame. Two others took two
Ipoonfuls of vinegar three times a-day ; having their
gruels, other food, and gargles, well acidulated with it.
Two of the worft patien.ts, with the tendons of the ham
rigid, were put under a courfe of fea-water, and drank
about a pint every day, more or lefs, according to its o-
peration, which was intended to be as gentle phyfic.
Two others had each two oranges and one lemon given
them every day, which they-eat with greedinefs upon an
empty ftomach, at different times. This courfe was con¬
tinued but fix days, becaufe no more fruit could be al¬
lowed. The two remaining patients took the bignefs of
a nutmeg, three times a day, of an eleftuary made of
garlic, muftard feed, balfam of Peru, and gum myrrh ;
ufing for common drink barley-water well acidulated
with tamarinds ; by a decodtion of which, and cream,
they were gently purged three or four times during the
courfe.
The oranges and lemons had the beft effedt; for one
of thofe who had taken them, was at the end of fix days
fit for duty ; and he took nothing more but a gargle of
the elixir of vitriol for his gums*- which were not quite
found, and fo recovered his health entirely. The other
being more recovered this* any of the other patients, was
appointed to look after them. Next to the oranges the
cyder had the beft effedts, though it was not very good,
being prick’d; for thpfe who drank it were in a fairer
way of recovery at the end of the fortnight, the time
allowed for making the experiments, than any of the reft.
Elixir of vitriol did no good unlefs as a gargle, nor yet
any of the reft of the medicines. Oranges are.preferable
to lemons; for by thefe the Jord Anfon’s people were fo
fpeedily and furprifingly recovered at the ifland of Tinian.
Befides, Mr Murray affirms, from experience, that 0-
ranges and lemons, when properly and fufficiently ufed,
are an infallible cure in every ftage and fpecies of this dif¬
eafe, if there is any degree of natural itrength left, and-'
where a diarrhoea, lientery, ordyfentety, are not joined to
the
108 M E D I
the other fymptoms. He obferves farther, that at the
ifland of St Thomas, fifty men belonging to the Canter¬
bury, and feven to the Norwich, who were in all the dif¬
ferent ftages of this diftemper, were cured in little more
than twelve days. .
But as oranges and lemons are apt to fpoil, let the juice
of thefe fruits be well cleared from the pulp, and depu¬
rated by (landing fome time ; after which it may be
poured off from the grofs fediment. Let it then be pour¬
ed into any cLan open veffel of china or flone ware,
which (hould be wider at the top than at the bottom, that
it may evaporate more readily. But a china bafon or
punch-bowl is mod proper, on account of the form. Put
this into a pan of water over a clear fire ; let the water
come almoft to boil, and continue nearly in that date,
with the bowl full of juice in the middle of it, till the
juice is found of the confidence of a thick fyrup when
cold. The flower the evaporation of the juice is, the bet¬
ter; that is, it ought to continue twelve or fourteen hours
over the fire : When it is cold, it is to be corked up in a
bottle for ufe. Two dozen of good oranges weighing
five pounds four ounces, will yield one pound,nine ounces
and a half of depurated juice; and when evaporated, there
will remain five ounces of extradl, which in bulk will be
equal to lefs than three ounces of water. So that twelve
dozen of oranges may be put in a quart bottle, and pre-
ferved feveral years. The fame may be faid of lemons.
When this is mixed with water and made into punch,
few are able to didinguifli it from the frefti juice mixed
up in the fame manner. However, when the frelh fruit
can be had, the fragrancy of the peel may contribute
fomewhat to the cure of the fcurvy ; and when thefe are
wanting, the fame thing may be obtained from a few
■drops of their effence, or the aromatic oil contained in
their rinds ; and if a fmall quantity of this be added to
the extrad, it will give it the fmeil and fragrancy of the
frefti fruit in great perfeflion. Or rather add a little of
the outer peel to the extrafl a little before it is taken off
the fire, and then the niceft tafte will not be able to dif-
tinguifti the difference between the frefti fruit and this.
The virtues of this extraift, thus made, lie in fo fmall a
compafs, that a bottle will ferve one man at fea feveral
years ; for in the making of it there is little or nothing
flies off befides the water.
It will likewife be of great ufe to feamen to have goofe-
berries, and the- like, preferved in bottles in the fame
manner as the paftry-cooks ; as alfo fmall onions pick-
led in vinegar, cabbage, french beans, tec. may be pre¬
ferved, by putting them in clean dry (tone-jars, .awith a
layer of fait at the bottom, then a thin layer of the ve-
-getable covered with (alt, and fo alternately till the jar
is full. Then the whole mult be preffed down with a
weight, and its mouth quite (topped that no air or moi-
flure may enter. Thus the vegetable may be kept frefti
and green for a whole year. At the time of ufing, the
fait is to be wnfhed off with warm water. This-is the
manner by which they prelerve that never-failing remedy,
■Greenland fcurvy-grafs. Every common failor ought to
lay in a (took of onions, for they are a great prefervative
at fea. The Dutch failors are preferved from the fcurvy
by pickled cabbage. Portable foup may be carried to all
C I N E.
places. When the fcurvy begins to make its appearance,
failors (hould be abridged in.the fame degree of their al¬
lowance of beef and pork, and eat them with muftard and
vinegar ; but the peafe ought always to be ferved out in
full allowance. It mufl: be obferved likewife, that a foup
of boiled cabbage and onions will cure an adventitious
feurvyin its firft-ftage, either at land or fea, in any part
of the world.
Beiides frefti and preferved fruits and vegetables, fer¬
mented liquors of all forts are good, but more particu¬
larly cyder. Among thefe are included many wines of
every kind ; or the juices of fruits may be fermented with
ale. Poor people that winter in Greenland under vaft
di fad vantages in point of air and diet, preferve themfelves
from the fcurvy by fpruce-beer, which is their common
drink. Likewife the fimple decodtion of'fir-tops has done
wonders. The ftirub black fpruce of America makes this
mod wholefome dxink juft mentioned, and affords a bal-
fam fuperior to moll turpentines. It is of the fir kind.
A fimple decodlion of the tops, cones, leaves, or even
of the green bark or wood of thefe, is an excellent an-
tifeorbutic; but perhaps it is much more fo when fer¬
mented, as in making fpruce-beer. This is done by mo-
lofies, which by its diaphoretic quality makes it a more
fuitable medicine. By carrying a few bags of fpruce to
fea, this wholefome drink may be made at any time. But
when fpruce cannot be had, the common fir-tops ufed for
fuel in the (hip (hould be firft boiled in water, and then
the decodtion (hould be fermented with moloffes; to which
may be added a fmall quantity of wormwood and root of
horfe-radifti. The freftierit is drank, the better. When
other things are wanting, tar-.water may be fermented in
the fame manner.
Thofe who have been weakened by long fits of illnels
(hould have the fcurvy prevented by panada of bread newly
baked, with a few drops of the extradt of lemons, and a
fpoonful of wine ; as alfo oatmeal and rice, gruels, flum¬
mery, dewed barley, with ra.ifins or currants, fago, and
wine, tec. But more particularly pickled cabbage, and
fmall onions boiled with the portable foup made weak.
Moft of their food ought to be acidulated with orange or
lemon juice; and then as their ftrength increafes, they
(hould be indulged with more folid food. But before
this, they (hould have a fmall quantity at a time and of¬
ten, and they (hould be brought back to their labour by
little and little. Exercife on a deal-board, with the ends
laid on two cherts, will be very proper; becaufe it pro¬
motes the circulation, and (Lengthens the fibres, without
any lofs of fpirits.
Bad air of any kind has a bad effeft upon a (hip’s crew;
to remedy which, a red-hot loggerhead ihould be put :n-
to a bucket of tar, and moved about, fo that pH th (hip
once or twice a-day ftiould be filled with this wholefome
antifeptic vapour. In a moift air, whatever promotes
perfpiration is proper; fuch as dry linen, cleanhnefs,
ufing the fliefti-brufh, garlic or raw onions before going
into the rain, and keeping the bedding dry. Plenty of
muftard and onions fhould be ufed with their viftuais.
The sure of this difeafe has been in a great meafure
anticipated by the means of prevention, mlomuch that
little remains to be laid about it. The diet (hould be
light
M E D I
light and eafy of digeftion, fuch as broths or foups made
ot fredi meat, with plenty of vegetables, fuch as cabbage,
coleworts, leeks, onions, &c. The bread ihould be frelh
and well baked; and fallads of all kinds are beneficial,
but more particularly dandelion, forrel, endive, lettuce,
fumitory, and purflane; to which may be added, fcurvy-
grafs, creffes, or the like, to corredt the cooling qualities
of the former. Summer fruits are all good, as oranges,
lemons, citrons, apples, The drink may be good
found beer, cyder, or Rhenilh wine. Phyfic is never ne-
celfary if the frelh broths and greens keep the belly o-
pen, and pafs freely by urine, fweat, and perfpiration. If
btherwife, the patient may take a decodtron of tamarinds
and prunes with a diuretic fait; and on intermediate days
hemay befweated with camphorate bolufes of theriac. and
warm draughts of a decodtion of the wo.ods, of twelve
or fifteen grains of the fquill pills of the Edinburgh dif-
penfatory.
Milk of all forts, if it agrees with, the conftitution,
will be very beneficial, as well as whey, which is prefe¬
rable. Sal polychreft is ufe as a mild purgative and ex¬
cellent diuretic. The fcorbutic juices, qualified with the
juice of Seville oranges, are proper, efpecially mixed
with the clarified whey, with fweating twice or thrice a-
week with the faid juice mixed with fack-whey ; for this
is an evacuation which fcorbutic perfons bear the bed.
When there is no danger of an haemorrhage, warm baths,
with rofemary, marjoram, thyme, 6^. may be good. In
the winter-time, genuine fpruce-beer, with lemons and
orange juice, is proper ; or antifcorbutic ale, made of an
infufion of wormwood, horfe-radifh, muftard-feed, and
the like ; and it may be made laxative with the addition
of fenna. It mud be drank while pretty frefh or new.
Van Swieten fays, he has often feen whole families cured
of the -fcurvy, in Holland, by the ufe of a calk of ale, in
which were put heads of a red cabbage cut fmall, twelve
handfuls of crelfes or fcurvy-grafs, and a pound of frelh
horfe-radifh previoudy infufed.
When the gums begin to itch and are fpungy, ufe a
gargle of the bark infufed in brandy. When the putre-
fa&ion increafes, ufe barley-wrater and honey of rofes, a-
cidulated with a mineral acid. The fungus mud be kept
down and, when rrecelfary, cut away. The ulcers of the
gums mud be checked with a touch of fpirit of fait, of
oil of vitriol diluted. When the legs are fwelled, or
cedematous, gentle fridtipns are to be ufed at fird with
warm flannel, or with woollen cloths charged with the
fumes of benjamin and amber, provided the fwell.ing be
fmall, foft, and not very painful, roiling them up after¬
wards with an eafy bandage from below upwards : But if
they are much fwelled, diflf, and painful,- they mud be
fomented with a difcutient fomention, or rather the deam
of the fomentation Ihould be received through a blanket
rolled round the limb. This operation, repeated night
and morning, will render the contracted joints fupple.
After this has been continued for half an hour, the parts
are to be anointed with palm oil. If a vegetable diet does
not reduce the limb, fweat it with burning fpirits, or bags
of warm fait.
Ulcers of the legs mud be treated with very gentle
compredion, to keep the fungus under j and the fame ap-
Voi. III. N° 73. 2
CINE. 109
plications mud be ufed as to the rotten gums. Mr. Mur¬
ray has found a drong tin&ure of the bark of great fer-
vice in fcorbutic ulcers. In dangerous hemorrhages the
mineral acids mud be given hy a little at a time and of?,
ten; fuch as the fpirit or elixir of vitriol, together with
fmall dofes of the Peruvian bark.
A fcorbutic diarrhoea fhould not be fuddenly dopt at
fea, but the peccant humour mud be gently evacuated
with fmall dofes of rhubarb, and the perfpiration kept up
with a little theriac or diafcordium, with other warm dia*-
phoretic anddrengthening medicines. In extreme cafes;
opium may be given more freely. The diet mud be gluti¬
nous and fubadringent, with drong rough red wine dilu¬
ted. Sometimes five grains of alum may be given with the
diafcordium, efpecially when blood is evacuated, in great
quantities. The mod effectual remedy in fcorbutic dy-
lenteries is an infufion of ipecacuanha in brandy, given in
fmall dofes, and often repeated.
Phyficians refer the different fymptoms of this difeafe
to different falts; but their different and far-fetched cor¬
rections of thefe falts are plainly ridiculous. Water is the
known folvent of all falts, and this intention will be bed
anfwered by pure and light fimple water. The univerfal
remedy for a fcurvy confids in mineral waters.
After mineral waters, nothing is more effectual in cor¬
recting a fcorbutic acrimony than a milk diet, or whey a-
lone, or impregnated with the juices of antifcorbutic herbs,
fuch as fcurvy-grafs and water crefles.
As to evacuations, bleeding fhould be ufed with the
greated caution ; and none but the gentled purges fhould
be given, fuch as fenna, rhubarb, or manna. The diu¬
retics fhould not be dronger than the decodtion of the
roots of parfley, celery, fennel, and afparagus. The fafed
diaphoretics are, dulcified fpirit of nitre, flowers of ful-
phur, ethiops mineral; infufions, m the manner of tea, of
Paul’s betony, carduus benediCtus, fcordium, and elder-
flowers.
In the hot or alkaline fcurvy, fcurvy-grafs is too warm
to be adminidred alone, and fhould be corrected with
acids, fuch as wood-forrel, the juices of citrons, oranges,
barberries and pomegranates. Or mix the conferve of
fcurvy grafs with an equal quantity of the conferve of
wood-forrel, and give it twice or thrice a-day, with fome
antifcorbutic water. This fhould be accompanied with
milk-meats, almond-emulfions, barley-broths, water-
gruel, chicken-broths, with endive, lettuce, forrel, and
crefles, interpofing, at proper intervals, gentle laxatives
and diuretics.
When the fcurvy proceeds from muriatic falts, which
happens to thofe who live on fmoaked or high-faked fifh
or flefh, and have corroding ulcers, a dinking breath,
putrid gums, a thick and faltifli urine, as is generally ob-
ferved in old failors ; then whey, long.and copioufly drank,
produces happy effeCis ; as alfo citrons, China oranges,
and ripe fruits ; whereas fpirituous and volatile antiscor¬
butics are generally detrimental. Hoff.
But if crudy black ulcers require external remedies,
we fhould only ufe preparations of the yolk of an egg,
myrrh, olibanum, faffron, oil of rofes, and Peruvian
balfam. When there is an exceflive impurity of the
humours tending to putrefadion, fcarifications will induce
E e a
no M E D I
a gangrene, which may be prevented by lime water,
exalted with camphorated fpirit of wine and fal am
moniac.
But fomentations and cataplafms of the common hem¬
lock, frequently repeated and duly continued, are found
more effeflual than all other remedies.
Of the Dropsy.
Dropsies are of various kinds; but thofe ufually
treated of by authors are the anafarca, afcites, and tym¬
panites.
When the lymph flagnates throughout the whole habit
of the fubcutaneous fat, or is fhed therein, it produces
an anafarca, which extends itfelf alfo to the abdomen and
fcrotum.
When the water is colle&ed in the duplicature of the
peritonasum, in the cavity of the abdomen, between the
peritonaeum and the vifcera of the abdomen, or in the
dilated cavities of the glands and veffels contained in the
abdomen, it is called an afcites. If the dropfy is owing
to the rarefaftion of fome fleam or vapour, arifing from
water, pus, ichor, or air, pent up and heated till they
putrefy, then it is a tympany.
The caufe of thefe difeafes may be, a family difpofition
thereto ; a hafty drinking too great a quantity of cold
water, and its not being evacuated upwards or downwards,
or by fweat, or urine excited by heat or motion ; acute
difeafes, efpecially the mod ardent, attended with un¬
quenchable third, or otherwife ; a lienterious dyfentety
of a long continuance-, all obdinate obdrqdtions of the
vtfcera; and a fchirrus of the liver, fpleen, pancreas, me
fentery, kidneys, womb, or intedines ; the jaundice ; a
violent quartan ague of long duration; a lientery ; a
' diarrhoea ; a long dyfentery; the cceliac pallion, an em¬
pyema ; a confumption; the gout ;- too great evacuations,
chiefly the blood ; the drinking of fharp, fermented, and
fpirituous liquors ; the feeding on tenacious and hard
aliment; very large and numerous hydatides hanging in
the cavity of the abdomen; melancholy; the fcurvy, and
the like.
The fird fign of the approach of this difeafe is the fwelling
of the feet and ancles, which in the evening will pit, if
preffed with the fingers ; which fwelling difappears in the
morning, efpecially if there begins to be a difficulty of
breathing. And yet it mud be remembered, that preg
nant women, or whofe menfes are dopped, as alfo when
fuddenly freed from an inveterate aflhma, are afFe&ed
with the like fwelling. When the feet and-legs are dif-
tended to the utmod, the waters rufh into the abdomen,
and caufe it to fwell by little and little, till at length the
more noble'vifcera are afFe&ed therewith, and the patient
is foon overwhelmed with the deluge. In proportion as
the difeafed parts increaft in bulk, the red fall away: at
the fame time the difficulty of breathing, paucity of urine,
and intenfe third, the three principal fymptoms, grow
more intolerable.
When the abdomen is fwelled, it will found, when
druck, if the difeafe is a tympany. In the afcites there
is a noife of the fludfuating water upon bodily motion,
Unlefs the waters are inclofed in a cydis or bag.
Befides the ^bov.e-iuentioned fymptoms, there is a
CINE.
heavinefs, a torpor, a codive body, and at length a flow
fever ; the patient never fweats. In procefs of time, the
dagnating waters, being pent up in a hot place, become
acrimonious ; hence ulcers, gangrenes, bleeding at the
nofe, a protuberance of the navel, a mortification of the
vifcera, and death.
The curative indications in an anafarca, as well as in
an afcites, are to redore the humours to their natural
fluidity ; to invigorate the languid circulation ; to brace
up and drengthen the relaxed folids ; to promote the
fecretions ; and to carry off the redundant dagnating
juices.
Strong dradic purges, deel medicines, abforbents, de¬
tergents and domachics, are bed fuited to anfwer thefe in¬
dentions.
The fird thing to be done is to evacuate the ferous
humours by cathartics.
There are two things of uncommon efficacy in the
dropfy ; thefe are, elaterium and antimonial wine,
efpecially for thofe which are not eafily purged ; two
grains of the former is a proper dole for mod condi-
tutions.
As for the antimpnial wine, an ounce and a half, or
two ounces, as the patient’s drength will admit, given in
the morning, will in due time free the abdomen from the
load of water. If it does not purge downwards as well
as upwards, mix it with fyrup of buckthorn after the third
or fifturtb dofe.
Some greatly recommend Bontius’s pills for the drop¬
fy, the dofe of which is from half a fcruple to a fcru-
ple ; but Heider prefcribes them from half a dram to a
dram.
Mayrne affirms, that mercurius dulcis, without dping
any mifchief to the body, adts diredtly upon the morbific
caufe, and if poflible dedroys it. If a falivation follows,
it v not dangerous, but may be prevented if the mercur
rial be joined to an adfive cathartic.
Many praife the juice of the root of iris paludris lutea;
and we have an indance of its efficacy in a mod deplo¬
rable dropfy, in the Med. ejfays; eighty drops of which
were given every hour in a little fyrup of buckthorn,
which brought away many quarts of water by dool the
fird night; the quantity was daily increafed till it came
to two drams, and at lad was mixt with a fourth part of
the fyrup, and given by fpoonfuls.
Sometimes purgatives are to be entirely omitted, when
the patient is of a weak conditution, or women fubjedt
to vapours ; and then diuretics only fhould be made ufe
of; among which, thofe are mod powerful which confid
of lixivial falts.
Boerhaave likewife propofes to attenuate the humours
by fmall dofes of mercurial preparations, to be taken e-
very other morning, in a little pulp of a roaded apple ;
as half a grain of turbith mineral, with ten grains of white
ginger ; or one grain of red precipitate, with fix grains of
nutmeg; or feven grains of calomel, with eight of winter’s
bark.
Some have been cured by a pertinacious abdinence from
all liquids, living upon fea bifcuit with a little fait, and
a very little rich wine. Externally, fridtions of the parts,
have been found beneficial,.
■Of
M E D I
0///^ Hydrocele, cr Dropsy Scrotum.
The hydrocele, called the dropfy of the fcrotum,
hernia aquofa, and the dropfy of the tefticle, is an ac-
queous tumour of the fcrotum. Though authors men¬
tion feveral kinds, there are but two. The firftis, when
the water is contained in the tunica vaginalis, the fe-
cond, when it is contained in the cellula membrane of
the fcrotum. This laft is almolt always complicated with
an anafarca, a kind of dropfy which confifts in the extra-
vafation of the water which lodges in the cells of the
membranaadipofa The hydrocele in this cafe is known
without any difficulty; for ffie Ikin is ffiining and foft,
yielding eafily to a flight impreflion, which will remain
pitted for fome time; the penis is alfo fometimes prodi-
gioufly fwelled by the liquor which infinuates into the cel¬
lular membrane. There are none of thefe fymptoms in
the dropfy of the tunica vaginalis.
In the dropfy of the cellular membrane of the fcrotum,
fome recommend the ptmdlure witha trochart; others, to
make ftnall apertures here and there with the point of a
lancet; others, to put a fmall flcane of filk through the flcin
with a needle, and to let it remain as a feton, till all the
water is drained off. Bir the two firfl: methods yield very
little relief, and the laft may be more likely to induce a
gangrene. Nor is there occafion for any operation at all,
because the cellular membrane of the fcrotum is nothing
but a continuation of the membrana adipofa; and therefore
fcariiications made in the Ikin of the fmall of the legs
will effectually empty the fcrotum.
Yet fometimes there falls fo great a quantity of water
into the fcrotum that the diflenfion is very painful,
threatening a mortification. Likewife the prepuce very
often is fo exceffively dilated and twifted, that it hinders
the patient from making water.
In thefe cafes there fhould be an incifion made on each
fide the fcrotum, three inches in length, quite through
the Ikin, into the cells which contain the water ; and like¬
wife two or th. ee, half an inch long, in any part of the
penis, with a lancet or knife.
Thedropfyof the tunica vaginalis is caufed by an ex.-
ceffive accumulation of a ferofity, which is naturally fepa-
rated in the internal furface of that tunic in a fmall quan¬
tity, to moiften and lubricate the tefticle. Authors have
hitherto diltinguifhed them into two forts the one on
the infide of the tunica vaginalis : and the other on the
outfide, between that and the fcrotum, which they fup-
pofe to proceed from water in the dropfy afcites. But
anatomy (hews the abfurdity of this opinion . for befides
that perfons afflicted with this kind of hydrocele have fel-
dom any other dropfy, and thofe who have the afeitesare
free from this hydrocele,” the tunica vaginalis is like a
purfe quite ffiut up on the outfide of the abdomen, fo that
the water cannot inlinuate into it from any part
As to the notion thatjthe water falls from the abdomen in¬
to the interllice between the tunica vaginalis and the fcro
turn, it is equally impoffible. For though in the inteflinal
rupture the gut falls into this place,- yet it brings the perito
nseum along with it, and that will prevent theegrefs of the
water. This is acircumftance the ancients were unacquaint¬
ed with, and the moderns have notfufficiemly attended to.
CINE. nr
Thisdiforderis feldom attended with pain in the begin¬
ning, contrary to what happens in the hernia of the epi¬
ploon, nnd of the inteftine ; nor is it often the effeCf of
any accident. It never diminiffies when once begun, but
generally continues to increafe , but in fome perfons not
fo quick as in others. In one perfon it will grow to a
very painful diftenflon in a few months ; in another it {hall
not be troublefome in many years; nay, it fflall ceafe to
fwell at a certain period, and afterwards continue in
that ftate without any notable difadvantage. But this
is rare.
In proportion as it enlarges, it becomes more tenfe,
and then is faid to be tranfparent: but this is not al¬
ways the cafe; for fometimes the fcrotum is very much
thickened, and the water itfelf opake ; fo that to judge
pofitively if there be a fluid, we mufl be guided by feel¬
ing a fluctuation ; and though fometimes it is not very e-
vident, yet we may be fure there is a fluid of fome kind,
if we are certain that the diftenfion of the tunica vagina¬
lis makes the tumour.
When a gut, or the omentum, form the fweHing, it
is foft and pliable, unlefs inflamed, and uneven in the
furface, and reaches from the fcrotum into the very ab¬
domen ; whereas the hydrocele is tpnfe and fmooth, and*
ceafes before, or when it arrives at the rings of the abdo.-
minal mufcles.
When the tefticle is increafed in fize, the tumour is
rounder, and, if not attended with an enlargement of the
fpermatic veflels, the cord may be eafily diftinguiihed be^
tween the tumour and the abdomen ; but without this the
pain or the very great hardnefs will difcover it to be a dif-
eafe of the'tefticle.
As to the cure, little is to be expeCled either from in¬
ward medicines or outward applications. Therefore it
will be moft advifeable to wait, till the tumour becomes;
troublefome, and then to tap it with a lancet.
Of the Jaundice.
The jaundice is a difeaie which is principally difca-
vered by the yellow tinChire of the {kin, but moft diflinCl-
ly in the coats of the eyes, where it gives the firft notice
of its invafion.
The fymptoms are, heavinefs, inactivity, laflirude of
the whole body, anxiety, uneafinefs about the hypochon¬
dria, ficknefs at the iiomach, oppreffion in the bread,
difficult refpiration, a dry and harfti flcin, coflivenefs,,
hard white excrements, yellow high-coloured urine,
which will tinCture linnen or paper with a faffron hue ;
there is a bitter tafte in the mouth ; and all objects feem to-
be difcoloured.
The immediate caufe of a jaundice is an obftruCted ex¬
cretion of the bile from the vefica felis and liver into the
duodenum; which being forced back upon the liver, mixes
with the blood, by which it is carried into the whole bo¬
dy, whence the flcin and urine will be tinCtured with the
colour of the bile.
This obftruCtion may be occafioned by any thing in
the duCt, which plugs up the paffage, or by external
preflu re cl ofes its mouth, or by a fpafm contracting the
fibres thereof. Hence we may conceive why the jaun¬
dice lucceeda the flatulent colic, why pregnant womea
are-
I
N E.
112 M E D I
re fubjeft to this difeafe, and why fpafms of hypochon¬
driacal and hyfterical perfons produce the fame efFedt.
Sudden frights, the generation of too great plenty of
bjle, fchirrhous tumours or ulcers of the liver, obdruc-
lions of the menfes, obftinate intermitting fevers, and
the bites of venomous animals, will alfo produce this
difeafe.
The prognoftics of this difeafe differ with regard to
the patient’s age, habit, llrength, and conftitution, as
well as with refpedt to the virulence or mildnefs of the
caufes, and its duration. When the patient is young,
and the difeafe not complicated with any other, fuch as a
quartan ague, the affedtio hypochondriaca, or an obftruc-
tionor fcirrhus of the liver, and has not continued long,
it is eafily cured. But if after the cure it frequently
returns, with a yellow greenilh colour, and an induration
cf the liver, it generally terminates in a hedtic or an
haemorrhage. A jaundice arifing from violent tranfports
of anger, or the fpafmodic ftridture of the intedines or
biliary dudts, caufedby adradic purge or emetic, is eafily
cured if taken in time ; but if encouraged by grief, or the
body is weakened by a previous diforder, the cure is more
difficult.
Emetics are highly proper in the cure of the jaundice,
and yield fpeedy relief, if the difeafe does not proceed
from violent anger, fpafms of the domach, a cardialgia,
a fpafmodic ctilic, or a done lodged in the cydic dudt,
exciting a violent uneafinefs about the prsecordia. But
when a bilious fordes, lodged in the duodenum, and clo
ling up theorificeof the duftus choledochus, intercepts the
paflage of the bile ; or when a tenacious, moveable, and
not highly concreted bilious matter, plugs up the hepatic
duds, emetics are of Angular efficacy in evacuating it.
A fcruple of ipecacuanha, with a grain of tartar emetic,
will be a proper dofe ; or two grains of tartar emetic, in
a draught of generous wine, or in an infufion of manna,
drinking water-gruel after it.
Likewife in this cafe, after emetics, cathartics will be
proper, compounded of aloetics and mercurials : Then
faponaceous attenuants, preparations of tartar, and vo¬
latiles.
And here we mud recommend the terra foliata tartari,
other wife called tartarum regeneratum, [and by the col¬
lege, Sal diureticus, J as the greated diffolvent, and the
mod powerful remedy in this difeafe. It dilfolves the
mod tenacious fubdances, and opens all obdrudions of
the vifcera ; and yet has no acrimony, and may be fafe-
ly given in the pleurify and dropfy. Its dofe is from
five grains to a fcruple and upwards.
When a jaundice is attended with an haemorrhage, it
is always dangerous, becaufe it denotes a mod acrimo¬
nious and dilfolved date of the blood ; in which cafe,
attenuants, aloetics, volatiles, and chalybeates, are little
better than poifon; whereas acids, diluents, demulcents,
and mineral waters, are very beneficial. Hemp-feed,
boiled in milk till it breaks, is often advantageous, [the
dofe is 5 ounces twice a-day/J or an emulfion of white
poppy feeds and fweet almonds, after moderate bleeding,
(if the patent is feverilh, and the pulfe will allow it) and
gentle purging.
c
Of the Bilious Colic.
A Bilious colic is attended with the following fymp-
toms; a hoarfe voice, a cardialgia, a continual loathing
of victuals, a vomiting of bilious poraceous matter, hic¬
cup, a feverilh heat, inquietude, intenfe third, a bitter
tade in the mouth, and the urine little and high-coloured.
Hoff. Add to thefe, a burning, acute, continual pain
about the region of the navel, which either feems to bind
the belly as it yere with a girdle, or is contrafted into a
point as if the patient war bored through, which fom^-
times remits, and then grows more violent. In the be¬
ginning it is not fo much determined to one point, nor
is the vomiting fo frequent, nor does the body fo obdi-
nately withdand the force of cathartics. But as the pain
increafes, the more it is fixed to a point, the vomiting is
more frequent, the body more codive, till at length it
terminates in the iliac paffion. At this time the pain is
fo intenfe as to occafion a fingultus, a delirium, coldnefs
in the extremities, and chilling, clammy fweats, which
are always a dangerous omen in this difeafe.
It isdidinguiffiedfrom a fit of the gravel, as the pain in
this lies in the kidney, and is extended from thence by
the ureter to the tedicle; after eating, the colic pain in¬
creafes, the nephritic abates; evacuations upward or
downwards relieve the colic more than a fit of the gravel.
The urine in the latter is more clear and thin at fird, af¬
terwards there is afediment, and at length gravel or fmall
dopes; whereas in the colic the urine is more thick in the
beginning.
Bleed freely in the arm; and after three or four hours
exhibit an anodyne, and the next day a gentle cathar¬
tic, which may be repeated every other day, to the third
time.
Sydenham recommends riding, efpecially when the cure
is only palliated with opiates.
If the difeafe is caufed by a plentiful eating of fummer-
fruits, the patient fhould drink poffet-drink plentifully,
then take an anodyne, and bleed the next day.
Ruffel obferyes, that when the c«lic proceeds front
codivenefs without a fever, then a pint of fea-water, ■
drank every morning, will cure it. But if the fird onfet
of the difeafe is negleCled, and it proceeds to an inflam¬
mation, with a fever, vomiting, and retention of the ex¬
crement, and there is reafon to be apprehenfive of the
iliac paffion ; when black vomiting fupervenes, and the
fasces are thrown up by the mouth ; as alfo when there
is a quick weak pulfe, and cold fweatsrfupervene; then the
patient will be carried off by a mortification. Sometimes
after the rigors, pus will Ihow itfelf in fome place or o-
ther, which prevents immediate death ; while a purulent
tenefmus affliffs the unhappy patient.
Of the Hysteric Colic.
This is a common fymptom of the hyderic paffion,
and is attended with a mod violent pain about the pit of
the domach, as alfo with a vomiting of a greeniffi humour,
and a great finking of the fpirits : After a day or two the
pain goea off, but upon the flighted motion or perturba¬
tion of the mind it foon returns again.
Neither
M E D I
Ntidier bleeding nor cathartics have any place in the
cure, for they exafperate the diftemper ; nay, the moft
gentle dyfters are prejudicial : For this difeai'e leems ra¬
ther to proceed from a diforder of the fpirits, than from
a fault of the humours. It will be proper fird t:o advife
the patient to'drink. upwards of a gallon of polfet drink,
to clear the ftomach of its impurities, by throwing it up
again, that the effe<3s of the paregoric may not be hin¬
dered. Afterwards give 25 drops of the thebaic tinfiure,
in an ounce of cinoamon-wat^. This lad is to be re¬
peated at due intervals, till the fymptoms difappear ; that
is, the effefl of one dofe mud be known, before another
is given. Yet fometimes, in plethorio bodies, if the
ftrength will permit, it is better to prepare the way, by
bleeding and purging, or both, for an anodyne.
Of the Flatulent or Wind Colic.
If there is a fixed and tenfive pain in the right or left
hypochondrium, or beneath the domach, it is a certain
hgn that there is wind or excrements pent up in the flex¬
ures of the colon. If the pain is in the fmail guts, the
abdomen will be wonderfully fwelled and puffed up; and
the force of the wind is often fo great, and it didends the
ikin to fuch a degree, that the pain is exafperated merely
by touching it; nor do there want inllartces of a navel-
rupture arifing therefrom. The pains are very acute,
the body extremely codive, there is a fenfe of a very
great ftraightnds or contradtion ; and if the domach is
indated, the breathing becomes very difficult, and the
erudta'tions are attended with fome fmail relief. Af¬
terwards there are cardialgic paffions, and an ineffedlual
reaching to vomit.
If the dfforder lies in the flexures of the colon, emol¬
lient and difcutient clyders will be proper, as alfo car¬
minative and emollient liniments applied to the pained
part.
When the body is opened, it will be beneficial to give
fome lenient purge, as manna, cream of tartar, terra
foliata tartari, with a fpoonful or two of oil of fweet al¬
monds.
While the pain is violent, the infufion of chamomile
flowers and yarrow, in the manner of tea, frequently drank,
is a very powerful remedy.
It will be alfo beneficial to apply hot bricks or tiles to
the part affefted ; alfo bags with parched oats and car¬
minative ingredients, as carraway feed, juniper and bay
berries, with decrepitated fait. A clyder of the fmoak
of tobacco, blown through a pipe into the anus, is reckon¬
ed an excellent thing.
When indurated feces plug up the intedinum re<$um,
fo that the wind an'd fcybais can make no exit, then the
anus is to be fomented with emollient decoftions ; and
faline fuppofitories, with fat. are to he.ufed ; alfo fome
ounces of linfeed oil, with an emollient deco&ion in
which Venice foap has been diffolved, are to be injedled
as a clyder.
Of the Co l 1 c from Fumes of Lead.
This is a difeafe to which all workers in lead are fub-
jeft; and is attended with art intolerable pain in the in-
tedines, and a mod codive body : the navel is drawn in-
Vol. III. N°. 73. 2
CINE. 113
ward, there is the higheff inqmetude and a eontraflion
of the joints, attended with a naufea, and a condant
reaching to vomit. It is apt to terminate in a kind of
palfy, or a fpafmcdic allhma, and affli&s the patient a
long time. It is fometimes owing to the ralhnefs of me-
dicaders, in giving preparations of lead in the gonorrhoea
&nd other diilempers.
There is no better prefervative againd this difoafe, than
by taking fat broth in a morning ; the cure is to be at¬
tempted with oleous clyders, and a plentiful ufe of oil of
fweet almonds taken by the mouth, with or without a fo-
lution of manna, by which the defired end will generally
be obtained. For the cure for the parefis, baths of fweet
water are neceffary ; after which the fpine of the back
mud be anointed with a liniment made of the fot of a hog,
expreffed oil of nutmegs, faffron, and oil of rofetnary,
which is a fpeedy and a certain remedy.
This difeafe is called mill reek by the miners at lead-
hills in Scotland, which all the inhabitants there are fub-
je<3 to ; but melters of lead have it with the greateft vi^-
olence.
In the {lighter dage of it, there is an uneafinefo and
weight about the domach, particularly near the cartilago
enliformis, and fometimes it is like a colic in the inttdines.
The fpittle of the patient is fweet, and inclining to a bluilh
colour, refembling that of a perfon who chews lead.
The pulfe is lowilh, and the {kin is all over cold, with
frequent clammy fweats. The legs become feeble, with
a pricking numbnefs ; and the whole body is lazy and
feeble. Sometimes a fpontaneous diarrhoea carries off
th - difeafe ; but if it continues long, it is very prejudicial.
During this dage the patient is able to work.
When thefe fyraptoms continue long, and fpirituous
liquors are drunk on an empty domach, or after the
wot king of lead, the fecond dage comes one ; and then
there is a fixed pain in the domach and guts, efpecially
in the lower part of the belly, extending from one hip¬
bone to the other, with cbdivenefs and a gnawing pain.
The pulfe then becomes weak, and the fltin hot. There
is likewife a giddinefs and a violent pain in the head,
which is fucceeded by an infenfibility and a delirium of
the word kind ; for they bite their hands and tear their
own flefh. Then their extremities tremble with convul-
fions; and at length they fink with an intermitting pulfe,
and die of a coma or ap >plexy.
If proper medicines are given in the fird dage of the
difeafe, the patient generally recovers. If it proceeds
till the giddinefs comes on, the fuccefs is doubtful; but
after that it almod always proves mortal.
Workers in lead fliould never go to their bufinefs fad¬
ing, and their food ought to be oily or fat. A glafs of
falad oil. with a little brandy, rum, or other fpirit, is a
good morning’s draught; but fpirits alone fliculd never be
taken while at work, nor immediately after it. Phyfick.
ffiould be taken fpring and fall, and no man Ihould go in¬
to the cold air while hot with labour, and they diould
change their woiking-cloaths for others as foon as poflible.
Liquid aliment is bed, fuck as fat broth with good meat;
for low living is bad. They diould now and then go a
little way out of the tainted air.
If the patient is plethoric, the cure is to be begun with
F f bleeding,
U4 M E D I
bleeding, and then the prim a vine mu ft be cleanfed with
a double dofe of emetic wine, or emetic tartar, other-
wife it will have no effedit. They will even bear half a
dram of glafs of antimony in fine powder, with plenty of
warm, water during the operation. If the vomit works
well upwards and downwards, the'patiept is in a fair way
of recovery. Then a milder dofe of ipecacuanha muft be
given with tartar emetic. If the dofe does not work ei¬
ther way, he is generally the worfe for it, and a ftronger
dofe Ihould be given foon after. If it vomits, but does
not purge, an antimonial cathartic, or. jalap and mercury
fhould be exhibited in a larger quantity than ordinary,
and then the patient fhould drink plentifully of warm
broth. The vomits and purges fhould be repeated at
proper intervals till the difeafe difappears. If they work
too much, an opiate may be given at night, but with
caution, for fear of rendering the patient coftive, which
is the worft thing that can befal him. When purga¬
tives do not operate fufficiently, emollient, laxative, and
anodyne clyfters muft be injefted frequently to empty the
guts.
Of the Iliac Passion.
The iliac paflion is a pain in the fmall inteftines, apt
to turn to an inflammation, in which their periftaltic
motion is inverted, and their contents, and even the
exeicments themfelves, are voided by the mouth in vo¬
miting. Nothing will pafs downward, not fo much as a
flatus.
It is preceded with coftivenefs, which is foon followed
with moft fharp and violent pains, with an inflammation,
diftenfiqn, and a tumour of the umbilical region, which
feels hard to the touch ; the body is fo bound, that nei¬
ther wind nor excrements can pafs downward : Soon after,
the wind firft makes its way upward, tl)en comes on a nau-
fea and a frequent vomiting of a bilious and pituitous mat¬
ter: The breathing grows difficult, and whatever is eat or
drank is foon thrown up again; reddilh feces, with a ftink-
Ing fmell, are afterwards forced up by vomiting : This is
fucceeded by lofs of ftrength, a preternatural heat, a hard,
and contra&ed pulfe, with great thirft the urine is red,
and voided with difficulty. When the cafe becomes de-
fperate, a hiccup and delirium appear; the nerves are dif
tended, the body is all in a cold fweat, and violent con-
vulfions and fainting fits put an end to the tragedy.
In fotne who have been difledted, the gut feemed to be
twifted ; but moft commonly one part of the gut enters in¬
to the other. This difeafe may alfo proceed from a rup¬
ture either of the fcrotum or the groin ; from poifons ;
from any thing that ftops up the paflage through the fmall
guts, fuch as hafd dry food, quinces, pears, unripe a-
cerb fruit, when eaten iiv large quantities; to which
drinking little, a fedentary life, and a melancholy difpo-
fition of mind, will greatly contribute. Thefe all tend to
harden the feces. The grofs inteftines naay alfo be plug¬
ged up with fcybals; efpecially if a perfon, either through
fhame, or >for want of conveniency, does not liften to the
calls of nature.
As to the prognoftics; there is hope of recovery while
there is no inflammation, and while clyfters are admitted
CINE.
into the body, and rendered back the fame way; as alfo
while the pain fhifts from one place to another, and the
pain and vomiting are not continual ; likewife when the
difeafe proceeds from feces obftru&ing the inteftines.
The hope is ftill greater, if laxative medicines begin to
make their way downward. But if there is an inflam¬
mation, which is known from a fever, the vehemence of
the pain, a fuppreflion of urine, a hard and quick pulfe,
an unquenchable thirft, a tofling of the body, and ex¬
treme debility, with coldnefs of the extreme parts, the
cafe is defperate. A fudden ceflation of pain, and abfo-
lute want of ftrength, with a weak pulfe, fainting fits,
and a ftinking breath, (hew the inteftines are mortified.
As to the cure; firft of all it is neceflary to bleed in
the arm, and afterwards, in an hour or two, exhibit a
a powerful clyfter. The fmoke of tobacco blown into the
bowels, through an inverted pipe, is very efficacious:
This may be repeated after fonve time, unlefs the efFedi
of the firft renders it unneceflary. If the difeafe will not
yield to this, a pretty ftrong cathartic is advifeable.
If the patient cannot retain the cathartic, let him take
25 drops of the thebaic tin<fture in half an ounce of fpi-
ritous cinnamon water ; and when the vomiting and pain
remit, let the cathartic be repeated ; if the pain returns,
give the anodyne again, and repeat it every fourth or
fixth hour till the inceftines ate eafy,. and the cathartic
begins to pafs downwards.
After the pain has been mitigated with anodynes, a
cataplafm fhould be applied to the hypogaftric region to
ftop the vomiting and hiccup ; which may be compofed
of equal parts of old Venice treacle and exprefled oil of
nutmegs, with the addition of oil of mint and camphor.
This done, a gentle laxative of manna, cream of tartar,
and oil of fweet almonds, may be given.
When there is an inflammation, nothing is better than
fix or eight grains of purified nitre, and half a grain of
camphor mixed with fome antifpafmodic powder, and
taken in a convenient vehicle. Outwardly apply a lini¬
ment of an ounce of axungia humana, [any other pene¬
trating fat will do as well] and a dram of camphor.
But when other things fail in the cure of the iliac paf-
fion, recourfe muft be had to quickfilver, which fome-
times has furprifing effects ; half a pound, or a pound at
moft, is fufficient, with fat broth or oil ; and the patient
fhould lie on his right fide, or walk gently about the room,
that its defcent may be eafier. But if there is an adtual
inflammation, the ufe of quickfilver fhould be forborne j
if the patient dies, from what caufe foever, the byftanders
will probably affirm the quickfilver killed him.
There is no manner of danger in the ufe of opiates, to
mitigate the pain, provided they are exhibited in the bo-
ginning, after bleeding, or before there are any fignj of a
mortification.
Clyfters are generally very advantageous ; for they re¬
lax the fpafms of the grofs inteftines : and for this pur-
pole warm water with fyrup pf marfhmallows will be fuf¬
ficient.; and if the ftrength will permit, they fhould be
injedfed every two hours, from the firft day of the attack.
They likewife reftrain the inverfion of the periftaltic' mo¬
tion, and foften the feces..
Of
M E D I
OJ" Vomiting.
Vomiting is a fpafmodic, retrograde motion of the muf-
cular fibres of the oefophagus, iiomach and inteftines,
together withftrong convulfions of the abdominal mufcles
and diaphragm. Thofe that are flight, create naufeas;
thofe that are ftrong, vomiting.
Vomiting generally begins with a naufea, a tenfion and
weight in the epigaflric region, a bitternefs in the mouth,
anxieties of the pratcordia, plenty of thin faliva in the
mouth, a trembling of the neither lip ; to thefe may be
added, a dizzinefs of tfye head, a fudden dimnefs of fight,
rednefs of the face, a fruitlefs eruflation •, and then the
contents of the flomach are difcharged upwards.
Vomiting is caufed by excefles in eating and drink-
ing ; by the acrimony of the aliments ; by the tranflation
of the morbific matter of ulcers, the gout, eryfipelas, and
other difeafes,. to the ftomach ; from a loofenefs or bloo¬
dy flux too fuddenly flopped ; from a congeftion of blood
in the ftomach, which happens to women in the firft: months
of pregnancy, or when there is a fuppreflion of the men-
fes, or bleeding piles ; from fympathy, by tickling or irri¬
tating the throat or cefophagus with the finger or a fea¬
ther; from the colic, iliac paflion, a rupture, fit. of the
gravel, worms; from poifons ; from hurts of the brain,
fuch as contufions, compreflions, wounds or inflammations
of the diaphragm, ftomach, inteftines, fpleen* liver, kid¬
neys, pancreas or mefentery; from an unufual motion of
the fpirits in a cart, coach, or fhip; from the idea of fome
naufeous thing, or which has formerly occafioned fick-
nefs or vomiting; from a regurgitation of bile into the
ftomach.
As to the prognoftics ; a critical vomiting is falutary;
a fymptomatic bad; and that which proceeds from a lub-
til cauftic acrimony, which vellicates the nerves, worfl:
of all. All violent exceflive vomiting is bad, as it may
Occafion abortions, ruptures, <bc. Bilious vomiting, e-
fpecially the green, porraceous, and sernginous, confifhng
of a corroding acid, portends danger of an inflammation;
vomiting from worms which gnaw the ftomach, is gene¬
rally pernicious ; vomiting of dead worms, if at the lame
time the convulfions of the limbs and other grievous
fymptoms fuddenly ceafe, (hews a mortification. All fe¬
tid vomiting is a fign of internal corruption, and therefore
bad.
When vomiting proceeds from crapuia, late fuppers,
difturbed digeftion by riding, and the like, it may be pre¬
vented by deep infpirations often repeated, by which the
diaphragm is made to prefs on the ftomach, and accele¬
rate the difcharge of it contents; but if an inclination to
vomit, from the fame caufes, comes on unawares, a pret
ty ftrong and often repeated friflion of the hypograftric
region with the hand, will prevent it.
Pituitous vomiting, from crudities of the primte vfe, is
heft cured by a vomit, and efpecially if there is a trouble-'
fome reaching to vomit; attended with a naufea and a
cardialgia ; then having firft preferibed neutraf fairs, or
fquiUs. to incite the phlegm, give warm water mixed
with unfalted butter, very plentifully, or powder of ipe¬
cacuanha.
Bilious vomiting, which proceeds from a depraved di
geftion, and has its feat in the duodenum, is cured by
C I N E. 115
abforbents and gentle laxatives of manna and rhubarb.
When it proceeds from too great a laxity of the biliary
du<5b, then cortex Peruvianus, cortex eleutherfe, and bit¬
ter tinilures and chalybeates, will be moft efficacrous ; if
from a coagulutti or ftone in the gall bladder, mineral
waters are more likely to fucceed.
When vomiting is caufed by a fharp matter vellicating
the nerves-of the ftomach, proceeding from the gout, or
an eryfipelas, befides giving quieting medicines, it ought
to be drove back by diaphoretic powders, with a fmall
addition of camphor. Alfo externally, fri&ions, pedi-
luvia, and clyfters, are ufeful.
When it, proceeds from poifons, nothing is better at the
beginning than drinking large quantities of milk, and fat
oily things, to fheath their acrimony, and bring them up
by vomiting.
Vomiting from a fuppreflion of the menfes, or from
the ftoppage of the bleeding piles, is cured by abfor¬
bents, by gentle laxatives, by clyfters and ftrengtheners;
and more efpecially by bleeding or caufing the flux to
return. Emetics, in this cafe, are as bad as poifon and
either caufe a vomiting of blood, or a fatal inflammation
of the ftomach.
Morning teachings, q^ufed by hard drinking, are cured?
by abforbents and anti-acids, and by ftrengthening the
digeftive faculty, by bitters, candied orange-peel,'eirc.
The immoderate and frequent vomiting of pregnant
women requires bleeding in the foot, and reft both o£
mind and body.
Of /^fVoMITING ef B L o o u.
Vomiting of blood is generally preceded with a ten*
five pricking pain in the left hypochondrium; and the
eruption itfelf is almoft always attended with anxiety of
the praecordia, and a comprefling pain, as alfo a kind of
girding on the fame fide. It is frequently attended with
fainting fits, efpecially if the blood has an ill fmell, or is
corrupted.
The feat of this difeafe is in the ftomach, though the
fpken fometimes has a (hare in its production.
Perfons more fubjeCt to it are the lean and flender •
women irregular in their menfes, and who have been
haftily cured of intermitting fevers, which has brought
on a fupprefiion of the menfes, and then have taken hot
forcing emmenagogues ; as alfo women about the time
their menfes leave them ; likewife p!ethori<?women in the
time of pregnancy, and hard labour; and men of a weak
conftitution, fubjeCt to the bleeding piles, which either
ceafe to flow, or flow in too fmall a quantity.
The danger which attends this difeafe, is not the fame
in all, though no haemorrhage is more dangerous than
this. If there is no fever, and if it proceeds from fup-
preiTed evacuations, caufed by a plethoia, the cafe is not
fo defperate. On the contrary, if there is a fever; if
the blood is corrupted, ftinking, and black ; if it pro¬
ceeds from a large, difeafed fpleen, or an indurated liver,
attended with fwooning; there is no hope of recovery
left. It is ftill worfe, when the ftools are black ; then
the feat of the difeafe is in the ilium, from a rupture of
the mefaraic veflels.
In the paroxyfm, if the patient is plethoric, bleed ac¬
cording to his age and ftrength.
When
TiS MED!
When there h an orgafm In the bbod, and the palfe
•Is impetuous and ftrong.
Take a pound of water, a dram of nitre, and half an
ounce of fyrup of wild poppies.
This, taken fucceffively and temperately, will be very
efficacious in perfe&ing a cure.
When the region of the pnscordia, especially on the
left fide, is afflitfed with pricking and vellicating pains,
and fpafmodic ftriflures, together with heat and third,
emulfions will be proper. Thefe muft be made with the
four cold feeds, and white poppy feed; to which mud
-be added a little nitre, and a proper quantity of dia-
codium.
Likewife, in order to relax the fpafmodic ‘ ftri&ures
of the inteftines, and to divert the flux of the humours
from the part afFe&ed, emollient clyffers, frequently in¬
jected, will be proper, with a gentle ftimulus, and the
addition of nitre.
Outwardly, to relax thefpafms and flrengthen the fto-
tnach, nothing is better than the oil of camphor ; which
is made by diflblving a dram of camphor in an ounce of
oil of fweet almonds, and then by adding twenty di,ops
of oil of rhodium. Let the region of the prascordia and
the left hypochondrium be anointed with this oil; and af¬
terwards lay a bag on the part affeCted, filled with ca¬
momile and elder-flowers, with mint and wormwood,
boiled in vinegar of rofes or red wine pretty hot.
If blood is thrown up in great quantity, with lofs of
ftrength, ligatures made upon the joints may be fer-
viceable, as alfo putting the legs and arms in cold water.
When the paroxyfm is off, half a dram of rhubarb
will be highly beneficial, either with or without teftaceous
powders; or twelve grains of compound powder of am¬
ber, with half a grain of camphor taken twice a-week, at
night going to bed, in a draught of fpring water Rhu¬
barb is a kind of a fpecific in opening obftruftions. The
patient, inftead of tea, may drink a decoCtion of yarrow,
liquorice, and fennel feeds. The common drink maybe
fpring water, in which iron has been quenched, or aci-
adulated whey.
If this difeafe proceeds from a fuppreffion of the men-
fes ; bleed in the foot, and give clyflers prepared of mug-
Wort, pennyroyal, wall-flowers, bay and juniper-berries,
pretty frequently.
If it is CAifedby ffiarp acid liquors corroding the
reffels of the ftomach, then teftaceous alkaline pow¬
ders are proper; and ftarch boiled in milk will heal
the veffels.
Opiates muft be ffiunned in thefe cafes, becaufe they
bring on great weaknefs and lofs of ftrength, to the great
detriment of the patient. Likewife all ftyptics, aftrin-
gents, and vitriolic medicines, muft be ftudioufly avoided :
thefe indeed, will ftop the eruption of blood ; but then it
will ftagnate-and putrify in the veffels, with danger of anin-
flamm ition and mortification ; or at leaft, if the patient is
cache&ic, it will haften a dropfy,
Of a Diarrhoea, cr,Looseness.
A Diarrhoea is a frequent and copious evacua-
C I N E. •
non of liquid excrements by dool- and may proceed
from aliments, or humours of various kinds, derived
from different parts into the inteftines.
Thecaufis is a ftimuius which irritates the vifeera, oc-
cafioning the expulfion of their fluids ; and may therefore
proceed from the vefl’els of the liver, pancreas, mefentery,
and inteftmes ; when at the fame time the mouths of the
mefenteric veins and the ladleals are obftrufted. Or
there may be an extraoidinary laxity of the inteftinal
fibres; or, laftly it may arife from a ftoppage of other
excretions. It is frequently attended with gripings.
The patient is weak, makes but little urine, has a de-
preffed pulfe, a depraved appetite, and is fometimes fe-
verifh.
Iha diarrhoea arifing from fharp fermenting juices in
the prima; via, which accelerate the penftaltic motion of
the inteftines, the firft indication is to difeharge the fti-
mulatitig matter; which may be effe&ed by a dole or two
of rhubarb.
At night the patient may take fifteen drops of the
thebaic tindure, in two or three fpoonfuls of fimple
cinnamon water. The rhubarb is to be repeated till the
loofenefs abates, which is generally after the fecond dofe.
If there is a faburra of ill-conceded matter in the fto¬
mach, a vomit will be neceffary of ipecacuanha, [[or an
ounce of its wine j
If the diarrhoea continues to be violent, it will be pro¬
per to mix aftringents with the rhubarb.
If the diarrhoea proceeds from fuppreffed perfpiration ;
and if the ftools are thin, and the patient feverilh ; firft
bleed, then give an emetic, afterwards a purge of rhu¬
barb, and laft of all aftringents.
But the beft and fafeft aftringent of all is logwood,
given in decodion.
A bilious diarrhoea ought not to be too fuddenly flop¬
ped, but the humours are to be correded gradually ; for
which purpofe, a fcruple of rhubarb flightly toafted, with
a few grains of nitre, is very ufeful. Likewife half a
dram of the expreffed oil of nutmegs, either alone or
mixed with a grain of opium, and given in broth, is very
efficacious. The. humours are like wife correded with
thin emulfions of almonds and white poppy-feeds, with
the addition of diacodium.
When a diarrhoea is very obftinate, after toafted rhu¬
barb has been given for fome days, preferibe a fweat with
a dram of new Venice treacle, and twelve grains of burnt
hartlhorn, calx antimon. and purified nitre.
An habitual diarrhoea is greately relieved by wearing
a flannel ffiirt, and keeping the body warm.
In Vol. I. of the London Medical Obfervations and
Inquiries, Dr Pye proves, by a long enumeration of in-
ftances, that in all loofeneffes where emetics are advii'eable
in every age and fex, though the patient be in the weakeft
circumftances, ipecacuanha, from half a grain, to four
or fix grains, may be given with the utmoft iafety, and
will leldom fail of anfwering the intention of the pre-
feriber; and adds, that for many years he had experienced
the great efficacy of it, in curing or • ffifting in the cure
of diarrhoeas in children, when adminiftefed in clyfters.
M E D
Of the. Cholera Morbus, or Vomiting and
Looseness.
A Cholera, or vomiting and loofenefs, is a fud-
den violent purging upwards and downwards, proceed¬
ing from a convulfive contra&iori of the ftorrtach and in
teftines, caufed by fharp cauihc matter of various kinds.
It generally begins in Auguft, and feldom reaches the
fi-rft weeks of September, unlefs it be a fpurious kind
which arifes from excefs.
It difcovers itfelf by enormous vomiting, and a voiding
of vitiated humours by (tool. There is a violent pain,
inflation and diflention of the belly and inteflines, as aifo
a cardialgia and thirft ; the pulfe is quick and frequent,
fmall and unequal ; there are heat and anxiety, a moil
troublefome naufea, fweating, a contraftion of the legs
and arms, fainting, coldnefs of the extreme parts, and
the like, which kill the patient in twenty-four hours.
Though this difeafe is generally preceded with acid,
n-idorous belchings, pungent and eardialgic pains in the
flomach and intelHnes; yet foon after, all of a fudden,
and at the fame in/lant, the vomiting .and loofenefs
make their attack. The remains of the laft meal are
voided firft ; aftewards bilious humours, mixed more or
lefs with mucus ; then thofe that are yellow, then erugi-
nous, then black, often exceeding acid, and almoft cor-
rofive, together with frequent eructations and wind, and
fometimes blood itfelf. The returns of the evacuations
are very frequent. Befides. there are mod: acute, wring-
ing, griping, gnawing, bitipg pains, with inflation and
rumbling of the inteftines, chiefly above the navel, and
mod racking cardialgias. As the difeafe increafes, the
third becomes great, the extreme parts grow cold: there
is a palpitation of the heart, and then hiccups; the urine
flops, and the body is covered with a cold fweat. It is
common for the patient to fwoon away, and to fall into
terrible convulfnms.
There is no difeafe, except the plague and peflilential
fevers, that kills fooner than this, efpecially if it attacks
old perfons, or children, or fuch as are weakened with
difeafes. The more cauftic the matter is which is voided,
the more intenfe are the thirft and heat, and the more
certain the danger. If it be black bile, and mixed with
black blood, death is inevitable. The cafe is as bad
when there are faintings, hiccups, convulfion's, coldnefs of
the extreme parts, and cold fweats. Nor is any thing
better to be expeAed from a ftoppageof the evacuations,
while the reft of the fymptoms continue. But if the
vomiting ceafes, and the patient fleeps foon after, or the
difeafe is protradted beyond the feventh day, he may re¬
cover; if he begins to break wind downward, it is a good
fign.
This difeafe requires the moft fpeedy afliftance, and
therefore the phyfician cannot be called too foon. The
indications of cure are, i. To correft and Iheatk the
morbific matter, and to fit it for evacuation. 2. To ap-
peafe the irregular fpafmodic motions. 3. To ftrengthen
the nervous parts which the difeafe has weakened
Boil a large chicken in three gallons of water, that fo
there may be fcarce any tafte of the flefh and give the
patient a large quantity of it to drink ; or, for want of it,
Vol. III. N° 74, 2
I C I N E. 117
warm poflet-drink ; and alfo repeated clyfters of the fame
liquor ; now and then an ounce of fyrup of violets may¬
be added to the draught or clyfter. Thefe operations
may be compleated in three or four hours, and then a
paregoric will crown the whole.
But if the phyfician -is not called in time, and the pa¬
tient has been exhaufted with vomiting and purging for
many hours, and the extreme parts begin to grow cold,
then immediate recourfe muft be had to liquid laudanum
in a large dofe. And when the fymptoms ceafe, it is
to be repeated morning and evening, till the patient’s
flrength returns.
Neither cathartics nor emetics, properly fpeaking, are
of ufe in this difeafe; but the vomiting may be promoted
by drinking a large quantity of warm water mixed with
frefli butter or oil; and the purging by oily and emol¬
lient clyfters. Or the patient may'drink fmall chicken-
broth. Whey is of great ufe to quench the thirft; to
which may be added, the abforbent and teftaceous pow¬
ders.
If the patient is not too much exhaufted, make him
drink plentifully of warm water three or four times, to
dilute and-blunt the acrimony of the humours, and to
bring them up by vomit: Then he muft take as freely
of a decoftion of oat bread, baked without leaven or
yeaft, carefully toafted’, without burning, as brown as
coffee; which decofHon ought to be of the colour of
weak coffee. This is grateful to the ftomach, and is 'fel¬
dom brought up again.
When the patient is much exhaufted with evacuations
upwards and downwards, give him a large draught of the
decodtion ; and, when the naufea is pretty well fettled,
two thirds of a grain of opium, more or lefs, according to
the ftrength and age of the patient.
But if the patient is convulfed, the extreme parts cold,
and the pulfe weak and intermitting, twenty-five drops
of liquid laudanum, in an ounce of ftrong cinnamon wa¬
ter, is more proper ; and afterwards a draught of any
wine in an equal quantity of the decodtion. After this,
he may take the decodtion to quench his thirft, and a
little wine now and then as a cordial.
To prevent a relapfe, repeat the opiate in a moderate
quantity for feme days, morning and evening; and care
muft be taken not to overload the ftomach, or to eat any
thing but what is of good nouriftiment, eafy to digeft,
and grateful to the ftomach.
Of the Dysentery, cr Bloody-Fluk.
A Dysentery begins with (hivering and (baking,
fucceeded by heat of the whole body; which are followed
by griping of the guts, and foon after by frequent void¬
ing of (limy ftools, attended-with violent pain, and a moft
troublefome prefling down or feeming defeent of all the
bowels, and this every time the patient has a ftooi. In
procefs of time the ftools are mixt with blood, and af¬
terwards pure blood is only evacuated, and the inteftines
are affefted with an incurable gangrene. Yet fometimes
there has been no blood through the whole progrefs of
the difeafe.
If the patient is in the flower of his age, or has been
heated with cordials, he is very fieverHh, his tongue is
G g whitiflj,
118 M E D I
whitifh, and befet with a thick mucus; fo'metiaies it is
black and dry ; he becomes excefliveiy weak, and is quite
deftitute of fpirits ; aphthte or a thruih appear in his
piouth and throat, efpecially if the evacuation of the mor¬
bific matter has been prepofteroufly prevented by altrin-
gents, and the fomes of the difeafe has not been expel-
led'by cathartics. Sometimes, when a fever is abfent,
the gripes lead the van, and the reft of the fymptoms
follow.
Thofe,,whofe ftomachs are loaded with much indigeft-
ed matter, are troubled with a naufea, Teachings and vo¬
miting ; many have an intolerable heartburn and anxiety
of the prtecordia. All areaiHi&ed with a perpetual delire
of going to ftool, and fuch a violent tenefmus as is not
feldom attended with a procidentia ani.
In foi^e, the extreme parts are cold, while the in¬
ward feem to burn, and a perpetual fenfe of heat and a
pulfation torture the inteftines. To thefe lltcceed hic¬
cups, cold fweats, a pale countenance, walling of the
body, inflammations, and aphthae of the fauces. At laft,
all pain ceafes at once, the thirft vanilhes, the ftools
come away infenfibly with a cadaverous llench, the pu.fe
becomes flender, and death is at hand. This difeafe is
often contagious.
Prognoftics. Dyfenteries are dangerous to pregnant
women, to old men, and to boys. There is commonly little
hope when it attacks the fcorbutic, the confumptive, and
the cacheftic; thofe that are weak and afflidled in mind,
or troubled with worms. When it begins with vomiting,
fucceeded withhiccups, there is danger of an inflammation
of the ftomach. Nor is the cafe better when the ftools
are green, black, ipl^ed with caruncles, and of anoifome
ftench. Jt is H fatal*bnien when ciyfters are immediate¬
ly returned, or the anus fo obftinately clofed that nothing
can be injected; fofit i§ a fign of a palfy pf the reiftum.
When the pulfe is weak, the extreme parts cold, and
the inward burn^or are without fenfe, nothing good can
be expefted. When fwallowing is attended with a mur¬
muring noife, it Ihews the approach of a delirium, an
inflammation of the fauces, aphthae, or a palfy of the
whole cefophagus. It is neceffary to know, that this
difeafe fometimes quickly terminates, efpecially if there
be a malignant fever, and then it kills in feven, nine, or
fourteen days ; fometimes it does not ceafe till the for¬
tieth or upwards ; when it continues a long while, it ei¬
ther kills the patient, or brings on a dropfy, a lientery,
the cceliac palfion, a tabes or hedtic, which are incurable.
The common method of curing a dyfentery, is firft to
bleed* then to vomit with ipecacuanha, afterwards to
purge with rhubarb, and laft of all to give aftringents.
Hoffman diredts a fcrupleor half a dram of the ipecacuanha,
with a teftaceous powder, drinking a large quantity of
warm water after it. This vomit is fometimes to be re¬
peated. It is the modern pradlice, after the firft vomit,
to give two or three grains of ipecacuanha every eight or
ten hours, in a bolus, with diafcordium, or the like, with
fome proper julep. Hoffman would have the rhubarb
given in fubftance, that is, half a dram in powder; Dener
gives it twelve hours after the vomit, repeating it in fmall
dofes.
Mr Ray fays, that the fungous fubftaace between the
CINE.
lobes of a walnut, dried and powdered, and given in a
moderate quantity in wine, cured the Engliih army of a
terrible dyfentery in Ireland, when all other remedies
failed.
Jufficu fays, a thick yellow bark, called fimaruba, has
been found fuccefsful in the cure of a dyfentery. The
dole is a third part of a quart of a decoftion made with
two drams of the bark. And Cramer affures us, we may
depend upon the fame effect from the deco&ion of com¬
mon millet-feed, called St Ambrofe’s fyrup, which Lu¬
ther looked upon as a cure for the colic. Count Ar-
genton took it firft by his advice, merely to quench
his thirft, in the manner of tea, by which means he
got rid of his thirft and dyfentery in twelve hours time.
Another fpecific is the vitrium antimonii ceratum, which
has been in ufe for fome time, but was kept a fecret till
it was communicated by Dr Young of Edinburgh to the
public.
Ths manner cf preparing it it as felloius :
Take of glafs of antimony in powder, one ounce ;~bees-
wax, one dram: melt the wax in an iron ladle, then
add the powder: fet them on a flow fire without
flame, for the fpace of half an hour, continually
ftirring them with a fpatula; then take it from the
fire; pour it upon a piece of clean white paper, pow¬
der it, and keep it for ufe.
The ordinary dofe for an adult is ten or twelve grains;
but for greater fafety begin with fix.
Never give opiates in the beginning, efpecially where
there is great ficknefs ; becaufe, though opiates give, re¬
lief to fome, yet at other times both the ficknefs and pur¬
ging increafe the following day.
Bontius, in his account of the difeafes of the Eaft-In-
dies, affirms, that extratft of faffron is a fpecific in the
dyfentery of thofe parts, even though it fhould proceed
from poifon. 7 ■
Of the Head-x^ch.
The head-ach is a moft troublefome fenfation in
the nervous membranes of the head, produced by va¬
rious caufes, and attended with different fymptoms, ac-'
cording to its different degrees, and the place where it
is feated.
The moft common feat of this difeafe is the pericra¬
nium ; a membrane which invefts the Ikull, coheres with
the mufcles next the fltuli, and is joined to the dura
mater by fome fibres which pafs through the futures. It is
a thin nervous membrane of exquifite fenfe. It may
likewife be in the Ikin that covers the Ikull, and in the
dura matter. This laft but feldom happens ; but when it
does, it is very dangerous. There may likewife be a very
acute pain in the thin membrane which covers the finusof
the os frontis.
If the head-ach be flight, and affefts a particular part
of the head, it is called cephalalgia ; if the whole, cc-
phalsea ; if one fide only, hemierania; if there is a fixed
pain on the forehead, which may be covered with the end
of the thumb, it is called clavus hyftericus.
The general caufe of the head-ach is a hindrance of
the free circulation of the blood through the veffels of the
head.
When
M E D I
When the blood rufhes with impetuofity, and in too
great plenty into the membranes, which may happen to
the plethoric, to thofe vvhofe ufual bleeding at the nofe
is fuppreffed, and to young perfons, there is a pain in the
whole head, which becomes hot, fweils, aches, and looks
red ; the veflels fwell, and there is a itrong pulfation in
thofe of the neck and temples. The nollrils are dry and
parched, there is a burning heat; and drought in the
fauces.
When the velfels of the head are {luffed with a mucous
ferum from a lloppage of the running of the nofe, . then
there is a heavy, obtufe, preffing pain, chiefly in the fore¬
part of the head, in which there feems to be fuch a
•weight, that the patient can fcarce hold it up. Sometimes
the flcin is fo fwetied, that it will pit.
Sometimes it happens from the ferous, fliarp, cauftic
matter of the French difeafe, which infedts the pericrani¬
um, and often caufes a caries in the fkull.
Sometimes it may proceed from matter of a faline cau¬
ftic nature, driven back from the external parts ; as, in
the gout, itch, eryfipelas of the head, gutta rofacea ; in
the fmall-pox and mealies, before the morbid matter is
expelled to the outward fltin, or, which is worfe, when
it is driven back. In theft cafes, when a fmall quantity
of cauftic matter caufes the pain, it rather proceeds fton
a violent ftridture of the membranes than from their dif-
tenfion.
There is likewife a moft violent, fixed, conftant, and
alraoft intolerable head-ach, which brings on a debility
both of body and .mind, hinders deep, dilturbs digeftion,
deftroys the appetite, caufes a vertigo, dimnefs of light,
blindnefs, a noife in the ears, convulfions, and the epilep-
fy ; and, by confent of the other nervous parts of the
body, produces vomiting, coftiyenefs, coldnefs of the
extreme parts, and the countenance of a dying perfon.
Sometimes the head-ach is fymptomatic, and attends
upon continual and intermitting fevers, and efpeciaily
the quartan, irregul ir flowing of the menfes, the hypo¬
chondriac palfion, and the like. A hemicrania generally
proceeds from a fault in the ftomach, from crudities or
indigeftion, and commonly appears when digeftion is per¬
formed.
The head-ach is not always without danger : If the
caufe of the pain is within the Ikull, and ,is violent and
conftant, attended with a fever and want of Ileep, it
portends a pbrenfy. If it fuddenly attacks the hypochon¬
driac; or thofe that are prone to melancholy, efpeciaily
if preceded by a violent paflion of the mind, and deprives
the patient of fleep and appetite, and is joined to difficul¬
ty of hearing, and an internal pulfation of the veflels,
and all thefe without a fever, it prefages madnefs. Bu*
when the pain in the head is fudden and very acute, with
a noife in the ears, difficult walking, a weaknefs of the
knees, an impediment and flownefs in fpeech, it is the
forerunner of ah apoplexy or a palfy ; in which laft the
pain is greater on the well fide than the difeafed, becaufe
the latter has loft all fenfation.
The curative indications are, i. To divert the impetus
of the blood and humours from the head, and to dtfcufs
them by fuitable remedies. 2. To relax the fpaftic
ftridures of the membranes of the head, the caufe of
CINE. 119
which is a ffiarp cauftic matter, that the fluids may have
a freer circulation. 3. To corredt the peccant matter,
and evacuate it gently through the moft convenient
emun&ories. 4. To prevent a return by ftrengthening
the whole nervous fyftem by proper remedies, and efpe¬
ciaily by an accurate diet and a fuitable regimen.
When the blood ruflies to the head in too great quan¬
tity, bleeding is neceflary, more particularly under the
tongue, in the forehead, in the jugulars, or by leeches,
behind the ears. It the body abounds with too much
blood, it will be bed to bleed in the ancle firft, and the
next day, or the day after, in a vein about the head.
But firft of all cleanfe the body by any emollient clyfter,
or by giving an infufion of rhubarb and manna, with cream
of tartar.
To reftrain the orgafm of the blood, it will be proper
to give a diaphoretic and abforbent mixture, with diapho¬
retic antimony, purified nitre, burnt hartffiorn, and dia-
codium, diluted with a fufficient quantity of fuitable
limple diftilled waters.
When there is an intenfe pain remaining fixed in one
place, lying pretty deep in the membranes, the herb
ranunculus, ufed as a veficatory, has a wonderful efficacy.
It is the upright meadow-crawfoot, with leaves like the
anemone, and, if rafted, is extremely biting to the tongue.
The leaves muft be bruifed in a marble mortar, and the
part, if hairy, lhaved ; then a flicking plaifter is to be
laid on it, with a hole about the bignefs of a filver penny,
and the leaves over that ; juft in the fame manner as a
cauftic. This is an experiment of Chefnau’s : and like fuccefs
may be had by mixing equal parts pf volatile fal ammoniac
and powder of muftard-feed, laying^it^n Aq^art-in the
lame manner.
When it is caufed by a fuppreffion of {j cpryza or run*
ning of the nofe, a fmelling-bottle of volatileTahs ffiould
be held frequently thereto. Or the patient may take
herb-fnuff, with the addition made of floitvers of benjamta
and powder of cloves.
When the head-ach arifes from a corrupted mafs of
blood and an impure ferum, as in the'fcurvy and lues
venerea ; a decotftion of the woods with crude antimony
may be ferviceable, after evacuations, falling a day now
and then, with labour and exercife, will iikewife be
ufeful ; as alfo a fudorific.
A hemicrania, efpeciaily a periodical one, is generally-
owing to a foulnefs in the ftomach and prima via; for
which gentle emetics will be beneficial, as alfo purgatives
to derive the humours from the head ; afterwards fto-
machics. If it proceeds from profufe evacuations of the
menfes or haemorrhoids, thofe fluxes muft be reduced
within bounds.
If the head-ach is fo intolerable as to endanger the
patient’s life, or is attended with continual watching,
fainting-fits, a fever, an inflammation, or a delirium,
recourfe muft be immediately had to opiates with native
cinnabar, after a clyfter has been firft given.
When there is an intolerable pain in the finufes of the
nofe, or the bony finufes of the head, produced by an
extravafation of feme fluid, the only cure is fcarificatioa
of the noftrils, or caufing the nofe to bleed with a ftraw
fuddenly thrult. therein,
If
12 0 ' M E D I
If there is an extravasation under the pericranium, and
the humour is fo fharp as to begin to render the bone
carious, then recourfe muft be had to an incifion, as in a
whitloe.'
In fome kinds of head-acb, it will be proper to open
the frontal vein.
When the patient’s ftrength will not bear the lofs of
blood, temperate pediluvia will be beneficial, and ftrong
frictions of the feet with a coarfe cloath ; as alfo cata-
piafms of horfe-radifn and fait laid theieto.
Of the Heart-Burn.
The heart-burn is a pain more or lefs violent about the
pit of the ftomach, with anxiety, a naufea, and often a
reaching, or actual vomiting.
The caufes are, vitiated humours in the ftomach, velli-
cating and gnawing the (tomach itfelf, or its left orifice,
which the ancients call cardia. The ftomach thus irrita¬
ted, a painful fenfation is excited, and fpafmodic conftric-
tions, which occafion a naufea and vomiting. But com¬
mon heart-burns are generally without vomiting. The
heart-burn may alfo proceed from wind and indigeftion,
and now and then from worms ; but more frequently
from congeftions of blood about the ftomach, which may
happen to thofe who are full of blood, but more efpeci-
-ally to the hypochondriac and hyfteric, when vomiting of
blood not feldom enfues.
The cure of a common heart-burn from indigeftion and
■the acrimony of the contents of the ftomach, which chiefly
happens in a morning with wind, may be performed only
by drinking tea or-coffee, 'or a decodtion of camomile
flowers ; as alfo by taking bitters, or a dram of powder
of orange peel, or camomile flowers, in a fmall glafs of
wine made pretty hot, and fweetened with fugar. The
teftaceous and abforbent powders are excellent in this
cafe ; Inch as the tabellae cardialgiae, or lozenges for
the heart-burn, which may be carried in the pocket
and taken at pleafure ; about a dram is fufficient for a
dofe. .
When it arifes from a crapula, gentle emetics will be
ufeful. If the patient begins to vomit without them,
large draughts of warm water will aflift to cleanfe the
-ftomach ; or carduus benedidlus tea taken freely.
If the cardialgia proceeds from a congeftion of blood,
and the painful fpafms then arifing, bleeding will be con¬
venient, and emetics hurtful. If the menfes are flopped,
bleed in the foot.
Nor muft anodyne and emollient clyfters .be omitted.
It will Kkewife be proper to apply a bladder filled with a
<kco£lion of chamomile, pretty hot, to the ftomach. Af¬
ter recovery, riding will be convenient to regain the loft
ftrength.
If worms are the caufe of the heart burn, no acrid
anthelmintics muft be given, but warm milk mixed with
oil of fvveet almonds, which, if drank in fufficient quan¬
tity, may caufe them to be thrown up.
Of the Tooth-Ach.
The tooth-ach is caufed by impure ferum, which cor-
trodes -and rends the ligaments and nerveo-glandulous
CINE.
coats, by which the roots of the teeth are kept firm in
their fockets, and wherewith they are inverted.
It is a kind of rheumatic diforder ; for we have often
obfervedthat pains of the joints and (boulders have ihifted
to the fide of the head, and have invaded the teeth and
gums with violent pain. On the contrary, pains of the
head and teeth have fallen into the arms and fhoulders.
The feat of the tooth-ach may alfo be in the cavity or
internal parts of the teeth themfelves, that is, in the little
veficular cord compOfed of the nervous membrane, an
artery, a vein, and a lymphatic veffel, which may either
be diftended by ftagnating ferum, or be affeifted with a
fpaftic conftridtion, efpecially if the tooth is carious, and
the caries reaches the faid cord.
As in the gout there is a pain, rednefs, a tumour, and
a little fever, fo they fometimes appear with the tooth-
ach. There is alfo frequently a copious difeharge of
faliva, which proceeds from a painful fpafm, which con-
ftringes the lymphatic and venous veffels. -
As the rheumatifm appears in temperate, and a fudden
change of weather; fo it is with the tooth-ach, efpeciaily
when the weather is hot and cold by fits.
The whole intention of cure confifts ip deriving and
diverting the impure fcorbutic ferum from the head, and
then carrying it off through proper emuntftories ; and af-
wards in (lengthening the parts.
This is to be done by faline. emollient, purgative
clyfters; by warm pediluvia of rain-water and wheat
bran, with Venice foap, and ufed juft before bed-time;
by laxatives of manna and caflia diffolved in whey or
affes-milk or mineral waters. If the patient is plethoric
or full of blood, bleeding in the foot will derive the
humours from the head;
Sudorific remedies are alfo proper, but more efpecially
an qleduary made of rob of elder-berries, burnt hart’s-
horn, diaphoretic antinomy, and a few grains of nitre,
which cannot be too highly praifed* Or an ounce of the
rob may be taken in broth to promote a diaphorefis;
and it may be ufed externally, diffolved in beer, in the
manner of a gargle, which will yield immediate relief to
the patient.
Outwardly may be applied bags, filled with paregoric
and emollient fpecies, fuch as elder, melilot, and camo¬
mile flowers, bay and juniper-berries, carraway and millet
feeds, and decrepitated fait. They muft be laid on warm,
and are very fafe.
A drop or two of -oil of cloves, or box, applied to a
carious tooth with cotton, are medicines not to be defpifed.
Camphorated fpirit of wine mixed with faffron, caftor,
and opium made into a liniment, and laid to the gums
and hollow teeth, often gives the patient eafe.
When the tooth-ach proceeds from a rotten, hollow
tooth, it will be beft to burn the little nervous cord, which
is the feat of the pain, with an actual cautery; and then
the cavity may be filled up with a mixture of wax and
maftich.
If this cannot, or is not permitted to be done, the only
reme'y left is to have the tooth drawn. But if the
patient is plethoric, it will be fafeft to bleed firft, for fear
of a fatal haemorrhage.
■ A
M E D I
A fmaU pill, made of equal quantities of camphor and
op’urn, and put into a hollow tooth, is often beneficial.
Some greatly recommend a fmall plafler of tacamahac
laid on the fide.of the face, upon the articulation of the
jaw bone, or upon the temples.
But above all, the root of iris lutsea, or the yellow water
ikwer-de luce, rubbed upon the tooth that is painful, or
the root itfelf chewed in the mouth, in an inllant, as if
by a charm, drives away the pains of the teeth, arifing
from what caufe foever.
It is now become a practice, efpecially in France, upon
drawing a found tooth, to replace it in its locket; where,
with proper precautions, it will fallen again. Mufgrave
is the lirlt who recommends this practice. After the
extraflion of the tooth, he advifes a gargle of honey,
mixed with the juice of the herb mercury, common fait,
and fpring-water, and then to put it in, its former place ;
and adds, it will become more ufeful than before.
The French operators have improved ;his hint; and
when the tooth is rotten, or otherwdfe unfit to be replaced,
they put another found human tooth in the room of it,
when it can be had ; otherwife one of any other animal
that is of a fize fuitable for the purpofe.
De la Motte, in the tooth ach, advifes to make a fmall
round flicking plaifier, about the bignefs of a filver groat,
and to put a flat bit of opium in the middle of it, of a fize
not to prevent the adhefion of the other. This is to be
laid on the artery near the cavity of the ear, where the
pulfation is molt fenfible. He affirms, there are few
cafes that this will not relieve.
Of the Ear-Ach.
Tite ear-ach is a grievous pain in the meatus auditorius,
or cavity of the ears, proceeding from afliarp extravafated
ferum afFe&ing the nervous membrane which lines the
meatus auditorius.
This diforder frequently attacks thofe who are fubjeft
to rheumatic and ferous defluxions; or it may arife from
a fudden fuppreflion of fweat, or from the head being
exp.ofed to cold winds when it is moil! with fweating.
The caufe is often an inflammation or ulcer of the ear,
attended with a remarkable heat, and tenfive beating pain,
a rednefs, a fever, and ‘even fometimes a delirium.
Sometimes it is excited by worms; ^nd then there is a
wandering, cutting, gnawing pain.
The ear-ach is fometimes fo violent as to caufe a deli¬
rium, with the highell inquietude and anxiety, infomuch
that the patients often fall into an epilepfy through the
violence of the pain.
The ear-ach is fometimes a fymptom of acute fevers,
when die morbific matter is tranflated to the ear, as in
the Hungaric difeafe, when deafnefs or difficulty of hear¬
ing arifes. When it happens in the declenfion of a fever,
it is a certain fign of recovery; but then the diforder is
in the internal part of, the ear, and the auditory nerve.
When the matter is tranflated to the external part, then
the ear-ach arifes; which, unlefs fpeedily appeafed, may
deprive the patient of life. Thofe who have the ear-ach
from a fall, and a fanious matter runs out of the ear, are
all carried off.
The principal fcope is to eafe the pain, which may be
Vol. III. Numb. 74.
CINE. 121
done with nitrous and cinnabarine powders, and with
emulfions of the greater; cold feeds; but if thefe are
ineffeAual, we mult have recourfe to opiates, fuch as the
ftorax pills, or the thebaic tindure.
Outwardly, lay a plafler to the temple of the affeded
fide, compofed of maffieh, galbanum, iaffron, exprefled
od of nutmegs, and opium. Afterwards let the ear be
held over the vapour of milk, with the fragrant and
emollient fpices. Alfo, fill a hog’s bladder with the
decodion of milk of flowers of mallows, mullein, elder,
mellilot, camomile, linfeed, and a little faffron, -and apply
it to the part affeded. Likewife the fmoke:of tobacco
blown into the ear, and an infufibn of millepedes in falad
oil, are thought be of great efficacy when the inflammation
is caufed by a ffiarp ferum.
Camphorated fpint of wine, efpecially with faffron,
made pretty hot, and a few drops of it put into the ear
with cotton-wool, is a great refolvent; it ffiould alfo be
rubbed into the parts behind the ear. Or oil of almonds
with camphor may be ufed in the fame manner; laying
over either of them a hot bag filled with refolvent herbs,
as fage, penny-royal, wild thyme, wild marjoram, camo¬
mile flowers,.Florentine orris, fennel and caraway feeds,
with camphor. When the patient is plethoric, bleeding is
convenient.
The moft violent ear-ach, from taking cold; may be
infallibly cured, in a very ffiort time, by applying the ear
dofe to the mouth of a bellied jug, filled with a hot ftrong
decodion of camomile-flowers.
When the inflammation will not refolve, a poultice of
white bread and miik, or onions roafted under the cinders
or the like, may be often laid hot to the part affeded
till it breaks, or the abfeefs is evident to the eye.
If the ear-ach is caufed by any thing got into the ear
it will be beft to relax the membrances by oil of almonds
and then caufe the patient to fneeze, which forces it out
When there is a copious flux from the ear after an
abfeefs, the humours muft be diverted by gentle laxatives
blifters, cupping, and pediluvia, if the patient is an adult.
It ftiould not be fuddenly flopped by externals.
Of the Stone in the Gall-Bladder.
The figns of it are a fixed pain in the right hypochon-
drium in the region of the liver, which is conftant, prefling,
heavy, and fometimes acute; often attended with an ill
colour in the face. The pain fometimes reaches to the
epigaflric region and the pit of the flomacb. And the
exacerbation is fo great, at certain intervals, that the gripes
and torture affed the whole cavity of the abdomen ; joined
with inappetence, a naufea, reaching to vomit, anxiety
of the prmcordia, cardialgic anguiffi, coftivenefs. At
length, if the difeafe is obftinate, and will not yield to
the beft remedies, the jaundice fupervenes. Some of thefe
patients are continually afflifted with gripes, and live in
this condition for many years, and generally die of the
dropfy. Some feel a heavy, obtufe, deep, obftinate pain,
with a tenfe weight, when the gall-bladder is greatly
diftended with fmall foft (tones.
If the pain continues very intenfe and ffiarp, it draws
the whole fyftem of the nervous parts into confent, caufing
fpaftic ftri&ures, not only of the adjacent parts, but alfo
H h 2 of
! 2 2 M E D I
of the remote ; diftentions of the arms and joints, epilep¬
tic convulfions, and likewife a fever with a hard quick
pulfe, which ihews a large rough (lone is firmly fixed in
the biliary dufts, that will foon hurry the patient out of
the world.
But nothing is a more certain fign that thefe terrible dif-
orders proceed from gall-ftones, than when they are voided
with the excrements; and then all the fymptoras ceafe at
once, except the jaundice, which difappears by little and
little, or is eafily cured.
If the (tones are foft, and of a light colour; or topha¬
ceous and like mortar of plafter, they molt probably proceed
from the hepatic dutfs : If they are rough, hard, angular,
and of a deep colour, they proceed from the gall-bladder,
efpecially if attended with mod cruel fymptoms in their
paflage through that (lender canal. However, (tones have
been found in the gall bladder after death, which have
produced no extraordinary fymptoms.
There are two times of the difeafe, which require two
different methods of treatment; in the fit, and out of the
fit.
In the fit, the fpafms are to be appealed with anodynes
and demulcents, fuch as oil of fweet almonds, and fre(h
fperma ceti, internally ; externally, the fat of a wild cat,
or a beaver, &c.
Demulcents are, milk, fweet whey, emulfions of the cold
feeds, infufibns or decodlions of marlhifcallow roots, with
wild poppies, elder, fyrup of marlhmallows.
Powders may be made with crabs eyes, cinnabar, and
nitre, with a little faffron, powder of earth-worms, elks-
hoofs, &c.
Externally, emollient epithems, and facculi, filled with
carminative ingredients. As alfo lenient clyfters and
laxatives of manna, rhubarb, cream of tartar, and the
like.
Out of the fits, opening infufions and deco&ions ; which
refolve, difcufs, and promote excretions ; fuch as tindhire
of rhubarb, dog-grafs, afparagus, parfley, pimpinel, af¬
terwards adding rhubarb, terra foliata, tartar, or fal.
polychrefi. and fyrup of marlhmallows, which muft be
ufed a long while.
Some praife the roots of dog-grafs, and the juice of
dog-grafs, as a fpecific.
Some ufe the powder of millepedes with neutral Salts.
Epithems made of camomile flowers, leaves of fcor-
dium, wormwood, and carduus benediftus, elder-flowers,
water and red wine, ufed often in a day, are beneficial.
But if thefe fail, after long ufe, the only refuge is in
mineral waters, among which the Pyrmont is not the lead
ineffedlual.
Thefe are alfo properly ufed byway of prevention, with
exercife, and deco&ions of the aperient roots.
Of the Gravel and Stone.
A nephritic paroxyfm is attended with a fixed pain
in the region of the loins, bloody urine, voiding of gravel
or fmall (tones, a numbnefs of the thigh on the fide of the
part affedted, a drawing up of the teflicle on the fame
fide, a naufea and vomiting. After the (tone is fallen into
the bladder, the urine prefently becomes very thick, tur¬
bid, blackifli, and in great quantity.
CINE.
When the (tone or gravel begins to move and make its
way into the ureters, then the pain begins, which is more,
or lefs (harp according to the fize and figure of the (tone.
It is fometimes fo violent, that, befides a coldnefs of the
extreme parts, there is a naufea, vomiting, and a fpaflic
conftriftion of the precordia, a difficulty of making water,
a conftipation of the belly, a (traitnefs of breath, a (lupor
of the thigh, a retradtion of the tefticle to the os pubis,
inquietude, lofe of (Irength, a fyncope:, convulfion-fits, or
a fatal (loppage of urine.
When the violent pain has continued for feveral days
and nights without intermiflion, and has brought the
patient exceeding low, attended with an entire fuppref- '
fion of urine, with a coldnefs of the extreme parts and
convulfions of the tendons, it is a fign that death is at hand.
Nor is it a good fign when the (lone has continued a
a long while in the ureter; (or then the appetite decays,
and a naufea and reaching to vomit fupervene, till the
patient is confumed with a hedlic heat, and the approach
of death is haftened. Sometimes the pain is attended
with an inflammation of the (lomach or intellines. Some,
from a floppage of urine, fall into a dropfy of the bread,
a lethargy, or convulfiong.
The whole intention of cure confids in the eafy exclu-
fion of the done, and the preventing the breeding of others.
Hoffman.
If the patient is of a fanguineous temperament, take
away ten ounces of blood on the affedled fide; and then
let him drink, as foon as poflible, a gallon of podet-dfink,
in which two ounces of marflimallow roots have been
boiled. Then gave an emollient clyder.
When the poflet-drink has been vomited up, and the
clyder returned back, give a pretty large dofe of an opiate;
that is about 25 drops of the thebaic tindlure, or 15 grains
of the pil. faponaceae.
Alfo let a bath or femicupium be prepared, of a de-
codtion of althea roots, linfeed, fenugreek feeds, and
chamomile flowers ; to thefe may be added, a few white
poppy heads.
In the nephritic diforder, the grand point is the eva¬
cuation of the fabulary matter lodged in the pelvis of the
kidneys, or in the ureters. Bleeding ferves to remove
thetenfion and inflammation ; and emollient clyffers are of
a double fervice, becaufe, by fomenting the (lender tubes,
they relax the contradlion, and, by unloading the lower
bowels, they remove the preffure againff the ureters. The
worm bath opens the paflage yet more, greatly relaxing
the abdominal mufcles, peritonaeum, and inteftimes; the
bladder is alfo relaxed by it, and confequently the ob¬
lique infibuation of the ureters through its feveral mem-
brances is lefs liable to obdruft the evacuation, of this
fandy matter into its cavity.
By moderate diuretics, and emollient medicines, this
difcharge is aflifted; while anodynes fufpend the pain,
and procure a paralytic refolutiom or a fpafmodic con¬
traction of the ureters, and thereby contribute not a little
to open the paflage.
Thefe appear to be the mod confiderable methods for
' the relief of this diforder, which is but imperfectly mana¬
ged without the united affiflance of all, and which, ufed to¬
gether, feem the utmoft that art can furnifh.
A
M E D I *
A turpentineclyfler is generally accounted very fervice-
able in a fit of the gravel.
Heifter recommends the folution per deliquium of the
fal diureticus, or the terra foliata tartati, mixed with a
fifth part of the thebaic tindlure, of which 50 or 60 drops
may be given now and then, which will eafe the pain,
and gently expel the done or gravel.
When the (lone is too big to pafs, the diet ought to
be cool and diluent, to hinder the growth as far as pollible.
The diuretics that gently refolve, are parfley, fennel,
fcorzonera, mallows, and tea ; dandelion, fuccory, oats,
barley, honeys honey and vinegar ; nitrous falts, as dul¬
cified fpirit of nitre: The mod foft cooling diluter is
whey ; the bed emollients are a decoftion of mardimal-
lows and linfeed tea.
When a fmall done pades through the ureters into
the bladder, it is generally expelled; but if it happens to
day in the bladder, it increafes by the appofition of frelh
matter, or in an orbicular manner, while the original
done remains like a real kernel. Thefe additional coats
are either red, white, adi-coloured, or bluifh.
The done in the bladder may caufe an inflammation,
with its fymptoms; as alfo preflures, attritions, ulcers,
purulent urine, dranguries, obdrudtions of the urethra,
an inability to difcharge the urine, unlefs in a fupine
podure; a hetdic fever, and a confumption. Sometimes
the done gets into the urethra, and plugs up the paf-
fage.
A done in the kidneys may be known from a dull ob-
tufe pain therein; from bloody urine after walking in a
rough way, of after violent motion of the body, efpeci-
ally by being (hook in a cOach or other wheel’d carriage;
from having voided dones formerly ; and from the urine’s
being mixed with caruncles, pus, and filaments.
A done of the bladder is known from a pain at the
time of, as well as before and after making water ; from
the urinfe coming away by drops, or dopping fuddenly when
in a full dream; by a violent pain in the neck of the blad¬
der upon motion, efpecially on horfeback, or in a coach
over the dones; from a white, thick, copious, (linking,
mucous fediment; from an itching in the head of the
penis ; from a tenefmus while the urine is difcharged ; by
fearching, with introducing the finger in the anus, or with
a catheter ; as alfo from the effefts produced by the done
before mentioned.
As to the cure of the done in the bladder, the medi¬
cines of Mrs Stephens were lately much in vogue as
a diflblvent; and Dr. Hartley, by leaving out the fuper-
fluous part of them, has reduced them to the following
form.
1. Take 2 or si fcruples of calcined egg-fhells, thrice
a day, in any convenient liquid, drinking after each
dofe a third part of the following decodtion :
2. Take 2 or 27 ounces of Spanidi foap, and diflblve it
in a fufficient quantity of boiling water; filter, and
fweeten with honey or white fugar..
The powder maybe taken in three or four fpoonfuls of
any liquor that is not acid: If the larged quantity of the
decodtion is taken, it will be bed to divide it into four dofes.
The egg-lhells mud be calcined in a crucible eight or
ten hours, to bring it to a lime; and then be expofed to a
dry air, for. fix weeks or. two months, that is, till they
CINE. 123
(lacken or fall off into an impalpable powder, which mud
be lifted and put into bottles well corked.
The taking of thefe medicines mud be continued for
fome time after the complaint ceafes, led any part of the
done (hould remain, which would be then rugged and un¬
equal, and occafion exquifite pain afterwards.
It is common, after a few days ufe of thefe medicines,
to have a great increafe of pain in making water; at which
time, opiates, emollients, warm baths, fomentations, a
foft diet, and red, are proper.
Dr Hales, after feveral trials of the different in¬
gredients of Stephen’s medicines, found that the diffol-
ving power of them lay in the lime. And Dr Jurin, ha¬
ving taken 'foap-lees, the ingredients of which are pot-
aihes and lime, beginning with a few drops, andincreafing
the quantity, till he took an ounce, or an ounce and a
half, every day in a proper vehicle, was cured of bloody
urine, pain, and paffed (everal dones ; after which
he bad no uneafinefs. Hartley thinks the capital foap-
lees are bed taken in milk, half an ounce of which requires
half a pint of milk. He thinks an ounce and a half, or two
ounces, may be taken thus every day with perfed fafety.
But Hales rightly conjedured, that lime-water alone was
likely to have a goodeffedrin diffolving the done ; which
put Dr Whytt upon making experiments therewith,
which have happily fucceeded; whence he propofes the
following method of cure.
Let the patient fwallow, in any form, an ounce of Ali-
cant foap every day, and drink three pints or more of
oyder or cockle Ihell lime-water. If the foap be taken
in pills, it may be divided into three dofes : the larged
may beJaken early in the morning-fading, the fecond.at
eleven before noon, and the third at five in the •afternoon,
drinking after each dofe a large draught of lime-water, ,
the remaincler of which maybe drank at meals, indead, of
the ufual liquors.
The difagreeable tade of the lime-water may be. miti¬
gated by adding a very fmall quantity of new milk to it.;
and is quite dedroyed by walking rhe mouth immediately
with a little vinegar and water, and carefully fpitting it
out again. A dram and a half or two'drams of juni¬
per-berries, infufed in every quart bottle, will mend
its talle much But if the patient diflikes pills, let him
diffolve an ounce of foap in a pint and a half of warm
lime-water made of (hells, which have been long expo-
fed to the weather ; and take this at three different times,
drinking the red of the lime-water by itfelf.
If the (hell lime-water cannot be had, let him take the
fame quantity of done lime-water, with at lead an ounce
and ahalf of foap, becaufe it increafes its diffolving power.
If there is an invincible averfion to foap, thefe is rea-
fon to think, from experiments that have been made, that
oyder-lhell lime-water,alone, taken in larger quantities,
will have greater effeds in diffolving the done, than done
lime-water even when aflilted by ioap.
At fird the patient Ihould begin with fmaller quantities
of lime-water than that mentioned above, which, he may
increafe by. degrees, and ought to. preftvere in the ufe of
it, efpeciaily if he finds any abatement of his complaints
or fymptoms of the done’s diffolving, for feveral months,
or, if the done be large, years; during which he Ihould
abdain from add or fermented liquors.
Tor:
124 M E D I
For his drink, he may ufe milk and water, or a potion
made with roots of marfhtnallows, parfley, and liquo¬
rice. But if he has been accuftomed to more generous
liquors, he may drink fmall punch made without acids.
Spirits mutt not be drank at all, nor the weak punch but
very fparingly. It will be alfo proper to forbear the ufe
of fait meats, honey, and acid fruits, or at moft to ufe
them fparingly. Artichoaks, afparagus, fpinnage, let¬
tuce, fuccory, parfley, purflane, turnips, carrots, po¬
tatoes, radiflies, green peafe, may be fafely ufed; but
onions, leeks, and celery, fliould be preferred to moft o-
ther vegetables.
The patient ought to drink no more of any liquor than
is fufficient to quench his thirft ; and he Ihould retain his
urine as long as he can without uneaflnefs, that it may
have the greater time to adt .on the ftone.
If the lime water occafions coftivenefs, it will be ne-
oeceffary now and then to take a purgative; the moft
.proper are aloes, manna, rhubarb, fenna, or jalap.
Such as haveaftone in the bladder, ftiould, while they
are taking the medicines, have four ounces or upwards
■of tepid fliell lime-water injedted into the bladder every
day, and retain it as long as they can without pain, and
ihould evacuate their urine immediately before injedtion.
Were it not for the trouble of introducing the catheter,
an injtdfion. might be made at leaft twice a-day ; and if a
flexible catheter were always kept in the bladder, it might
be done at pleafure, and thediflblution of the largeft ftone
quickly procured.
That the injedtion of the bladder may be more fafe,
and attended with lefs uneafmefs, a dram of ftarch may
be boiled in fix or feven ounces of lime-water, and juft be
brought to boil over the fire. The fourth part of the
yolk of an egg, being mixtwith fix ounces of lime-water,
does not weaken its virtues any more than the ftarch, and
may be occafionally ufed in its Head.
Such as have no ftone in the bladder, but are fre¬
quently troubled with fits of the gravel in the kidneys,
may probably prevent them, by drinking every morn¬
ing a pint of (hell lime-water, two or three hours be¬
fore breakfaft ; and though it may be too fmall a quanti¬
ty to diffolve the ftone, yet it may prevent any new con¬
cretions.
Of the Rheumatism.
The rheumatifm chiefly attacks perfons in the flower
.of their age, after violent exercife, or a great heat of the
body from any other caufe, and then being too fudden-
]y cooled. but fpares neither men nor women, old nor
young, efpecially if the perfon is full of blood depra¬
ved with any kind of acrimony. The difeafe is nearly a-kin
to the gout.
It begins with chilnefs and {hivering, followed by in¬
quietude and thirft. Which is preceded with fpontaneous
laflitude, a heavinefs of the joints, and coldnefs of the
extreme parts When the fever appears, there is an in¬
ward heat, chiefly about the piascordia, attended with
anxiety. ’The pulfe is quick and ftrait, the appetite is
loft, and the body coftive. In a day or two, fometimes
fooner, the patient feels a racking pain, fometimes in
one joint, fometimes in another, but more frequently in
CINE.
the wrifts, fhoulders, and knees ; frequently fliifting fruni
place to place, and leaving a rednefs and fwelling in the
part viftted laft. The pain is exafperated upon the leaft
motion ; it fometimes attacks the loins and coxendix.
When it feizes the loins, it is called the lumbago; and
there is a moft violent pain in the fmall of the back,
which fometimes extends to the os factum, and is like a fit
of the gravel, only the patient does not vomit. If this
difeafe is unlkilfully treated, it may continue feveral
months or years, but not always with the fame violence,
but by fits. If it continues and increafes, it may caufe a
ftilF joint, which will fcarce yield to any remedy.
Its proximate caufe feems to be the inflammation of
the lymphatic arteries, of the membranes near the liga¬
ments of the joints, but not fo violent as to bring on a
fuppuration. The blood is like that of perfons aftli&ed
with the pleurify.
Take away ten ounces of blood'on the fide affe&ed.
This muft be repeated three or four times, or oftener,
once every other or every third day, according as the
ftrength of the patient will bear.
The diet muft be very thin, and an emulfion of the four
cold feeds may beprefcribed ; and alfo a poultice of white
bread and milk, tinged with a little faflfron, may be laid
on the parts affetted.
If the patient cannot bear frequent bleeding, after the
fecond or third time, give the common purging potion-
every other day, and an ounce of diacodium at night, till
the patient recovers.
If the rheumatifm begins with a febrile effervefcence,
temperate diaphoretics, with nitrous things, in a mode¬
rate dofe, and often repeated, are beneficial; fuch as
crabs-eyes, burnt hartfliorn, amber, cinnabar, purified
nitre, with diapnoic and gently anodyne waters, alfo ci¬
tron-juice, or its fyrup. The common drink fhould be
whey acidulated with citron-juice or cream of tartar ; or
deco&ions of thelhavings of harfliorn, roots of fcorzonera,
fuccory, liquorice, or fennel-feeds.
To purge, it may be proper to chew or eat rhubarb,
from twolcruples to a dram, with raifins or currants.
In an incipient rheumatifm of the ftioulders, nothing
is better than a blifter laid between the fcapulae.
But if the patient happens to be plethoric, nothing is
better than adeco&ion of the fudorifi* woods, to the quan¬
tity of a quart a-day, for a month or fix weeks together.
This laft is good in the venereal rheumatifm, when af-
fifted with crude antimony and mercurius duicis.
Young perfons who are temperate livers, and not ad-
didted to ftrong liquors, may be cured by a fimple refri¬
gerating diet, and moderately nourifliing, as certainly as
by repeated bleeding; for inftance.
Let the patient live four days upon whey alone; and
after that white bread may be allowed for dinner, and, on
the laft days of his illnefs, he may be allowed it for flip¬
per. When the fymptoms ceafe, he may be allowed
boiled chickens, or other things of eafy digeftion ; bute-
very third day he muft live upon whey only, till his
ftrength returns.
Boerhaave’s method of cure is to the fame effedt,
only he advifes warm baths and ftrong blifters to be laid
upon the part affedted, nay, even cauteries themfelves.
Arbuthnot
M E D I
A&BtrTHtfOT fays, cream of tartar in water-gruel,
taken for feveral days, will abate the pains and fweliings
confiderably, by its acidity correfting the alkaline faits of
the blood.
Ridley ufe-dmercurius dnlcis in rheumatic cafes, as a
purge, with good fuccefs, giving a fcruple in conferve of
violets over night, and three pints of epfom waters, eva¬
porated away to one half, in the morning.
Dr James has wrote a treatife to prove the efficacy of
mercurial preparations, as well in the rheumatifm as in
the gout, which is fupported with verygood authorities.
And Huxham fays, that the obl'inate rheumatic pains,
■which remained after the epidemical fever of 1737, would
yield to mercurial cathartics ; but he preferred to every
elfe what he calls the effence of antimony, which is no
thing elfe but emetic wine made with glafs of antimony,
with the addition of a little fpicy ftcmachic. This, gi¬
ven to 20 or 30 drops, operates by gentle fweats, and
purges in a larger dofe very mildly.
Hoffman Jikewife recommends mercurials and anti-
monials in particular cafes; that is, when a violent and
obllinate pain affli&s the lower parts of the body, about
the ofla ifehii and the os coccigis, and the patient is of a
robuft conftitution, then the more powerful chemical me¬
dicines may be made ufe of, fuch as mercurius dulcis,
the folar precipitate rightly prepared, or the medicinal re-
gulus of antimony, to which a deco&ion of the fudoyfic
woods may be added. From fuch medicines as thefe
great relief may be expe&ed.
Cheyne fays the hot and inflammatory rheumatifms
have all the fymptoms of the gout, and like it change from
place to place and byover violent evacuations may be tranf-
mitted upon the noble organs. And by the way it may not be
amifs toobferve, that exceflive bleeding, and other violent
evacuations, cotiftantSy bringon aheflicordropfy on the pa¬
tient in this cafe; difeafes of a much, more dangerous na¬
ture in themfelves, and far more difficult to be cured, than
the original one. And therefore in this difeafe, only
prednfing fo much bleeding as will prevent a fever and
mortification, and fomewhat abate the pain (which gentle
dofes of calomel and gum guaiacum will do more effec¬
tually, though not more fpeediiy, than bleeding itfelf) the
reft is to be done by large dofes of the bark and iEthiops
■mineral mixed; and a relapfe prevented by gentle dofes of
gum guaiacum, with antimony diaphoretic, and cinnabar
of antimony.
Pringle obferves, that rheumatifms are generally
mild, though they fometimes appeared with all the vio¬
lence taken nCtice of by Sydenham. For which reafon
the firft fort were generally cured in two or three days
by twice or thrice bleeding, and promoting a diaphorefis
by the cooler medicines, particularly by vinegar-whey.
But if it was intended with an inflammatory fwelling of the .
joints, fweating was improper, and the cure was only to
be obtained by repeated and almoft daily bleedings. But
then it is to be carefully remarked, that thofe were af-
flifled with it who were beft able to bear tbefeevacuation^.;
and in this difeafe he thinks frequent bleedings weaken
the body lefs than in any other.
If the pain and fwelling of the joints remain after this
treatment, three or four leeches muft be applied to the
Vol. HI. N°. 74. 2
CINE. 125
part where the inflammation and tumour are the greateft,
and the blood is to ooze till it ftops of itfelf. This may
be repeated freely without danger. But unlefs there is
both an inflammation and fwdling, leeches will do no
fervice. The beft internal medicines, in a true acute
rheumaiifm, are neutral faits, with very fmall doles of
camphor. The diet muft be of the loweft kind. AH
outward applications are to be omitted as long as any
fever or inflammation remains.
The chronic rheumatifm is either the remains of a
rheumatic fever, or a continuation of pains that proceeded
at firft from leffer but negie&ed colds. The blqpd in
this cafe is fizy. It is an obftinate difeafe, but bleeding
is the moft efficacious remedy. Eight ounces of blood is
to betaken away-once in eight or ten days, as long as it
is fizy, or the complaints remain.
Bleeding has been repeated, in many cafes, three or four
times, to no manner of purpofe ; nor would the pains abate
withoutdeobftruents, diaphoretics, purges, and anodynes.
Sometimes they have yielded to the cold bath alone.
Dr Clerk of Edinburgh declares the Arthritis Va- •
ga, or flying gout, erroneoufly called the. Scorbutic
Rheumatism, may be oftfin diftinguiftied by the urine
of the patient; for certain filaments float in it not fo
tranfparent as the urine itfelf, but when taken out they
appear as pellucid as cryftal. They will rope to a great
length, and when dried turn to a white calx. This he
takes to be the morbific matter of the gout, gravel, gou-
tifti fciatica, and all true arthritic pains, diftind from
the rheumatifm. Soap is the beft diflblvent of it yet
known, half an ounce of which to an ounce may be ta¬
ken in a day for a month together, if neceffary, in the
fciatic and other arthritic pains.
Of the Gout.
The gout is a very painful difeafe, whofe feat is in
the joints and ligaments of the bones of the feet ; the prin¬
cipal times ofits invafion are the fpring and The autumn.
In treating of this difeafe, we ftiall firft give an account
of the regular gout, and afterwards of the irregular.
The regular gout ufually feizes the patient in the lat¬
ter end Of January or the beginning of February all of a
fudden, and without any previous notice, unlefs the pa¬
tient has been troubled with crudities of the ftoniach and
indigeftion for fome weeks before ; the body likewife may
have feemed to have been puffed up with wind, with a
kind of heavinefs, which daily increafes, till at length the
fit comes on ; a few days before which, there is a torpor,»
and as it were a defeent of wind down the mufcles of the
thigh, with a kind of fpafmodic affe&ion of them. • Like¬
wife, the day before the fit, the appetite is more voracious,
but not natural.
Though the patient Teems to go to bed in good health,
yet about two in the mbrning he is awakened by a pain
which moft commonly affedis the great toe, fometimes the
heel, the ancle, or the calf of the legs, which pain re-
fembles that of diflocated bones ; there is likewife a fen-
fation as if water almoft cold was poured on the membranes
of the part affedled. Soon after, a Ihivering and ftiaking
fupervene, with, a feverifti diforder. The pain which at
firit is tolerable, becomes more violent in proportion as
I i * the
126 M E D I
the fltaking decreafes, and grows more intenfe every hour
till night, and then it is at the height ; fettling itfelf a-
bout the little bones of the tarfus and metatarfus, whole
ligaments it affefts. Now there feems to be a violent
extenfion of the ligaments, or there is a fenfation of their
being lacerated, or gnawed by a dog. Sometimes they
feem to be prelfed or fqueezed together. At this time
the part affe&ed becomes fo exceeding fenfible, that thej
cannot bear the weight of the Iheet, nor the {halting of the
room by a perfon’swalking about.
The patient is now in great torture, and is continually
fliifting his foot from place to place inTiopes of eafe. His
body likewife is in as conllant agitation as the part affec¬
ted. This always happens at the accellion of the fit.
But the pain continues without remiffion till two or three
in the morning, that is, twenty-four hours from the firft
trafet, at which time he begins to be at eafe, which he
is willing to attribute to the laft pofture in which he
placed the affefted member. Now he falls into a gentle
breathing fvveat, and gets a little fleep, and, when he
awakes, perceives the part to be fwelled, and the pain
much abated; for before, the veins of the member, be¬
ing turgid, were only more confpicuous than ufual.
The next day, or perhaps two or three days afterwards,
if the gouty matter is copious, the part affeffed is a little
in pain, which growMnore violent towards 'the evening,
and abates at the crowing of the cock.
In a few days the other foot begins to be affeffedjn
the fame manner; and, if the pain has ceafed in the firfl:,
the weaknefs which is left behind foon vanilhes. The
fame ttagedyis now adled over again. Sometimes, when
the gouty matter is in great plenty, it attacks both feet
at once, but ir generally feizes one after the other.
After both the feet have been tormented, the fits which
follow are out of rule, both as to the time of invafion and
the duration ; only the pain grows more intenfe at night,
and remits in the morning.
From a' feries of thefe fmall fits arifes what is called a
fit of the gout, which is longer or Ihorter, according to
the patient’s age. For it is not to be fuppofed that,
when a patient has been laid up with the gout two or
three months, that it is a fingle fit, but rather a feries or
chain of fmall fits, which continually grow fhorter and
milder, till the peccant matter is at length ponfumed, and
the former health reftored. This happens to the more
Vigorous, and whom the gout feldom vifits, in fourteen
days ; to perfons advanced in years, who have often felt
its rage, in two months ; but thofe who are debilitated
with age, or the long flay of the difeafe, it does not leave,
till fummer, being pretty far advanced, drives it away.
For the fourteen days the urine is higher coloured^
and depofites a fediment like gravel, and not above one
third of what the patient drinks paffes off by urine ; the
body on the firft day is coftive, the appetite decayed,
there is a Ihivering towards the evening, as alfo a heavi-
nefs and troublefome fenfation in the parts not affe&ed,
Whed the fit goes off, there is an intolerable itching in the
affefted foot, chiefly between the toes,-from which and
from the feet fall -branny fcales, as if the patient had
fwallowed poifon.
The difeafe thus terminated, the patient’s good habit
CINE.
of body and appetite return in proportion to the feverity
of the pain in the laft fit; and in the fame proportion the
next fit will be either accelerated or retarded ; for, if the
laft fit was very fevere, the next will not come on in lefs
time than a folar revolution.
Hitherto you have an account of the regular gout,
and its genuipe phenomena ; but when it is difturbed by
incongruous medicines, and the patient is worn out by the'
long continuance of the difeafe, it becomes irregular, and
the fubftance of the body is as it were changed into a fomes
of the difeafe, and nature becomes unequal, to the talk
of conquering the malady thus changed, in the accuftomed
manner.
The feet were at firft the feat of the dtfeafe, but now
it attacks- the hands, wrifts, elbows, knees, and other
parts of the body. Sometimes it fo difto/ts the fiqgers,
as to make them refemble a bunch of parfnips, and at
length ftony concretipns appear about the ligaments of
the joints, which, breaking through the Ikin, refemble
chalk, or crabs eyes. Sometimes the gouty matter in¬
vades the elbows, and creates a whitilh fwelling of the
fize of an egg, which foon affumes a red colour, and be¬
comes inflamed. Sometimes it affeds the thigh in fuch
a manner, as if a great weight was hanged thereon, and
yet without any remarkable pain. From thence it de-
icends to the knee, which it handles more roughly,
hindering all motion, for the patient continues in the fam®
place and pofture ais if he were nailed to the bed.
Now the gout affiids the patient all foe year, except
two or three months in fommer ; and the particular fit,
which did not laft above a day or two, continues ten or
fourteen days; and the firft or fecond day after the onfet,
he is difturbed with ficknefs as well as pain, ^nd a total
lofs of appetite.
His limbs alfo begin to be contraded and unapt for
motion ; and though he can Hand, and perhaps creep a-
bout a little, yet fo flowly, that you can fcarce perceive
he gets forward at all. If he ftrives beyond his ftrength,
hoping by exercife to regain his legs, and to become lefs
fufceptible of pain, the fomes of the difeafe will attack
the vifcera in a more dangerous manner. The urine is
like that of a perfon troubled with a diabetes, and there is
a troublefome itching in the back and other parts, efpe-
cially at bed-time.
Nature being at length oppreffed with the difeafe and
old age, the fits begin to grow more mild, and, inftead
of the ufual pain, there is a kind of ficknefs, with a pain
in the belly, a fpontaneous wearinefs, and fometimes a
difpoiition to fall into a diarrhoea ; which fymptoms
vanifh as often as the pain returns, to the joints. And
thus, the patient being alternately affliffed with pain and
ficknefs. the paroxysm becomes very long and very tedious.
This difeafe feldom invades any patient till he is up¬
wards of thirty, and men are more fubject to it than
women ; as alfo perfons of acute parts, who follow their
ftudies too clofely, efpecially in foe night, with an intenfe
applicAion of mind. Likewife thofe who live high, and
ind.ulge their appetites, drinking plenty of rich gener¬
ous wines; or who ufe acids too freely, or white eager
wines ; or who have been addi&ed too early to venereal
pleafures: or whofe bodies are large, grofs, and full.
Thofe
MED
Thefe alfo are liable to it, wbofe fweaty feet are too
fuddeniy chilled ; or who fuffer their feet to fweat in
wet Ihoes and dockings. Hence hunting and riding in
in the cold are pernicious. It may likewife'be received
by contagion, and is hereditary, defcending from father
to fon.
The curative indications require, firft, -that the primas
vis be fet free from a load of indigefted crudities, and
the vifcera be reflored'to their pridine vigour: that by
thefe means the aliments may be duly concodted and afli-
milated into healthy fluids, and fuch as will pafs freely
through the fmalled veflels; while whatever is unfit
for nourifhment may pafs off by perfpiration, in due time
and quantity. Secondly, that the fluid dagnation in,
and duffing up the fmalled veflels, may be expelled the
body, and a free paffage through the contrafted vefTels be
redored.
The fird intention may be anfwered by vomits and
gentle cathartics, repeated as occafion requires ; by hitters,
aromatics, antifcorbutic medicines; by alkaline fixed falls, .
taken in fmajl quantities for a long time ; by aliments
and drinks that are no^urifliing, light, eafy of digedion,
quickly affimilated and taken in due quantity ; by power¬
ful exercife often repeated and long continued, and efpe-
cially by riding in a dry, pure, ferene air ; by fri&ion,
by motion of the afFedted parts, by going to deep at early
hours.
The fecond intention may be anfwered partly by the
preceding article, as well as by procuring gentle fweats,
by bathing in natural and artificial baths ; by fweating
in a bagnio ; or by the ufe of volatile falls, and copi¬
ous drinking of attenuating liquors adtually hot, in the
morning while in bed, in order to procure a fweat; as
alfo by mercurial purges, taking a large quantity of di¬
luents after them ; by fridlions of the whole body, efpe-
cialiy the parts affedted, with hot, dry linen cloths, till
a rednefs appear ; by cold baths, and the like. Thefe
things being ufed with prudence, and according to the
various temperaments of the patient, will yield no fmall
relief, even in the nodous gout itfeif.
As^ the proximate caufe lies in the vitiated ftate of the
fmallefl: nervous veffeis of the body, and of the fluid that
pafies through thefn, it is no wonder that bleeding will
not reach the matter, ftate, or caufe of the difeafe ; yet
it may fometimes do good by accident, by caufing a fmall
revulfion, and by abating the urgent fymptoms.
Nor will emetics or cathartics yield fo much re¬
lief as is commonly thought, becaufe they often raife
a difturbance in the nervous fluid, diminilfi the other
fluids, and weaken the expulfive faculty. But much
greater benefit may be expefted from fudorifics rightly
adminiftered.
Nothing is more fatal than to hinder the gouty matter,
now grown mature, and remaining unexpelied, as well as
uncorrefied by proper medicines, from falling on the
ufual parts, which indeed caufe great pain, but no danger.
If it invades the brain, it will occafion apoplexies, pal-
fies, a delirium, weaknelTes, dozing, tremors, or univer-
£il convulftons : If it attacks the lungs, it produces an
afthma, a cough, or a fuffocation ; if the intercoftals
and pleura, a convulfive pleurify ; if the abdominal vi-
I C I N E. 127
fcera, naufeas, anxieties, vomiting, belching, gripings,
or fpafms of the vifcera. It is almoft incredible how
many difeafes it creates, which are fuddenly mortal; or
at leaft not to be cured but by reviving the fit of the
gout, which had been difturbed, and rendering it as fevere
as poflible.
Thefe laft mentioned evils happen from injudicious ap¬
plications of narcotics, refrigerants, aftringents, or in-
craflants ; or from medicines which caufe a revulfion from
the difeafed part, or from debilitating, evacuating, or
fuffocating remedies. Hence bleeding, purging upwards
or downwards, plafters, poultices, of the nature above-
mentioned, and all opiates, produce thefe efFefls ; as alfo a
fpontaneous weaknefs brought on by extreme old age ; or
from the extreme parts being fo obftru&ed, corrupted,
withered, or periflied, that the morbific matter cannot
pafs through them any longer.
To abate the exceflive pain in the part afFe&ed, if there
be an abfolute neceffity, opiates may be given internally,
and the patient may drink plentifully of hot whey, or
any other liquor of the like nature. External emollients
and anodynes may be ufed laid on pretty hot, or the part
afFcdted maybe beat with nettles, or it may be anointed
with terebinthinated balfain of fulphur, or tow may be
burnt thereon.
Though there is nothing of any moment to be done in
the fit, yet it will be proper to abftain from flefh for feme
days, and to live upon water gruel, or fuch like diet;,
but no longer than the ftomaeh is averfe to flelh, for fear
of bringing on a difturbance of the animal Ipirits ; but
then gteat care Ihould be taken in the diet, both as to
quantity and quality..
As foon as the pain is almoft gone, and the fwelling
and the weaknefs onlyremain, nothing can be better than
warm ftomachic and fpicy purges, dofed and repeated ac¬
cording to the ff length of'the patient. This being pre-
mifed, if the patient’s ftrength is impaired, and his fleih
wafted, give afFes milk with pearl, half a pint or a pint
in a morning early, and at five or fix o’clock in the af¬
ternoon and to keep up the appetite which the milk
commonly palls, and to prevent its cooling effeAs on the
ftomach, a light bitter made of gentian, cinnamon, and
orange-peel only, the laft double to the other two, infu-
fed in fherry or white, wine, and taken two hours before
meals, may be ufed moft conveniently. This courfe may
be .continued two or three weeks ; after this a courfe of
Bath or German-fpaw waters with fteel, riding, a light
white food diet, and generous wine drank temperately,
will be moft proper.
Out of the fit, thofe things are moft proper which pro¬
mote the conco&ion ©f the aliment, whether by medicines,
exercife, or diet.
In the diet there is a medium to be obferved ; the pa¬
tient fhould neither eat more than the ftomach will digeft,
nor be fo abftemious as to defraud the parts of iuch a
proportion of aliment as is neceffary to maintain the
ftrength and vigour. As to the quality of the food, the
patient’s palate is to be confulted: but he Ihould dine up¬
on one difli of meat only; for feveral kinds of flelh, eaten
at the fame meal, difturb the digeftive faculty more than
the fame quantity of any one fort. As for other things,
the
123 MED!
the patient may Feed apon what he likes bed, provided it
is not (harp, nor faked, nor feafoned with fpices. He
fliouid eat^no fupper; but inftead thereof Ihouid drink a
draught of good fmall-beer, whereby the breeding of
the gravel may be prevented, if the patient is troubled
with the gravel or done, and makes bloody water, be
may purge with manna once a week, and take a paregoric
at night.
The mod datable drink is fuch as is not fo drong as
•wine, nor fo weak as water, for the latter by its coldnefs
will deprave the domach. Of this fort is the -London
table beer, or water with a little wine. But, when the
gouty matter has feized the whole body, he mud abdain
-from all fermented liquors, though evet fo mild and
- fmall.
But if the patient has been ufed to drong or fpirituous
liquors, 'or is advanced in years, or through weaknefs
cannot diged his aliment, he may, at meals, indulge
himfelf with a draught of Spanifh wine, which is better
than French.
Regard mud likewife be had to the fymptoms, which.
In the fit, endanger the patient’s life. The mod com¬
mon is a weak and languid dotnach, attended with fick-
nefs and gripes, as if from wind. In this cafe nothing is
better than a glafs of Canary drank now and then, to¬
gether with exercife. But, if the fymptoms will not ad¬
mit any truce, give twenty drops of the thebaic tin&ure
in fpirituous alexitereal water, provided the head is not
attacked, and let the patient compofe himfelf to red.
If the nephritic pains fliould come upon _the gout,
which often happens, let the patient omit all other medi¬
cines, and drink a large quantity of poffet-drink, in which
the leaves and roots of mallows and marfhmallows have
been boiled. Then let a clyder be given, and afterwards
a large dofe of laudanum.
When the gout has. feized on the head, it is to be
treated as any other head-each, or as an inflammation
of the brain and its membrane; bleeding in the arm or
jugular, cupping on the back, and blidering between the
■flibulders, but efpecially on the ancles, to give the gouty
humour a vent downwards. In young and drong condi-
tutions mercurial and antimonial vomits will do wonders.
Likewife gentle domach purges are to be poured down
continually, that is, two or three fpoonfuls every third
hour, till the effeft is obtained.
Mercurial vomits are not only proper for the gout in
the domach, but they are abfolutely neceffary as well as
mercurial purges, when the gout becomes fixed.to, and
permanent in a place, as alfo when it is difperfed all over
the habit like a rheumatifm. Thefe adlive medicines mud
fird render the humours fluid, which gum guaiacum,
with diaphoretic antimony, perfided in, will afterwards
carry off.
Bf the Sciatica, or Hip Gout.
The fciatica is a violent and obdinate pain in the hip,
chiefly in the joint where the head of the thigh bone is
received into the acetabulum of the coxendix. The pain
•will fometimes extend itfelf to the lower part of the loins,
to the thigh, leg, and even to the extremity of the foot;
•yet, outwardly, there is no fwelling, no inflammation,
tior change of colour in the Ikin.
CINE.
Sometimes there is fuch a fpafm of the mufdes on the
fide affe&ed, that the patient cannot dand upright, with¬
out the utmodpain.
When the fciatica has continued very long, there is
fuch a colle&ion of pituitous humour in the cavity of the
joint, that, by relaxing the ligaments, it often caufes a
luxation. Sometimes it caufes an aridura, or wading a-
way of the adjacent parts.
When the pain leaves the hip, and moves downwards,
it is a fign that the fpafms are refolved. A violent mo¬
tion of the body generally exafperates the pain.
After a gentle cathartic, or clyder, bleeding will be
proper, efpecially in the ancle ; alfo leeches applied to the
hsemorrhoidal veins have been found beneficial Strong
purges are hurtful; but mercurius dulcis given with fcam-
mony, or fome other purgative, will be of fervice.
If the patient is old or weak, lenient purges will be
mod proper; and on the intermediate days a dofe of
calomel, which is afterwards to be purged off; and fb
repeated alternately for fome time.
Baglivi obferves, that if nothing elfe will do, in pains
of the external parts, recourfe mud be had to cau-'
dies, particularly the leaves of ranunculus, or a mixture
of quicklime and foft foap, which are beneficial in the
hip-gout.
Cheyne obferves, that when the gout is difperfed dver
the whole habit, or is fixed and fettled an a particular
joint, mercurial vomits and purges are neceflary todidodge
it; but the fciatica will not yield to this, and but rarely
to any*other methods of ufe; but, by the following
method, a perfedl cure may always be obtained, if the
didemper is a genuine fciatica, though of many years
danding.
It confids in taking one, two, or three drams, to half an
ounce, according to the drength of the patient’s .domach,
of the ethereal oil of turpentine; which is that which
comes off between the fpirit and the oil in drawing off
the common oil of turpentine; this is to be taken in tri¬
ple the quantity of virgin honey, in a morning fading, for
four, five, fix, or eight days at farthed, intermitting a
day now and then, as the patient’s occafions require, or
his domach differs by it. Large draughts of fack-whey
mud be drank after it, to fettle it on the domach, or
carry it into the blood; likewife every night mud be ta¬
ken a proper dofe of Matthew’s pills []or half a fcruple of
thtpil. faponacea~\ that is, if the oil has been taken in the
morning.
To remove the groffer remains anddrengthen the weak¬
ened part, the patient mud take a dram or two drams of
flower of brimflone, for fome time twice a-day, in a tea-cup
full of milk. If through great intemperance, or a violent
cold, the patient relapfes, let him repeat the former me¬
dicines for a day or two. Then, to Arength<;n'the pritna
via and enliven the fpirits, let him drink the Bath or
Spaw waters with deel, and bitters with volatiles.
Of a Virulent Gonorrhoea.
A virulent Gonorrhoea, or Clap, proceeds from im¬
pure coition with an infe&ed woman.
This didemper begins and makes its progrefs in the
following manner. The patient, fooner or later, accord¬
ing as die woman with whom he has had converfation was
more
M E D I
more or lefs Infected, and according to his conftitution,
by which he may be more or iefs difpofed to receive the
infection, is firlt feized with an unufual pain in the geni¬
tals, and a kind of feniation like a rotation of his tes¬
ticles. Afterwards, if the prepuce conftantly cover his
glans, these appears an eruption or puliule, which by its
fize, colour, and figure, refembies a fpot of the meafles ;
prefently after appears a weeping matter like femen, which
daily changes colour, and becomes more purulent and more
yellow, till at length, if the diforder be highly virulent,
it affumes a greenifh hue, or appears like a thin farnous
matter mixed with blood.
The puftule at length becomes an ulcer, commonly
called a chancre, at firft not unlike‘the thrufh in chil¬
drens mouths, which", daily eating deeper and wider, at
laft is enccompaffed with hard and callous lips.
Thofe whofe glans is uncovered, feldom have fuch a
puftule, either becaufe it is hardened by being continually
expofed to the air, or by the frequent rubbjog of the
fhirt, and fo is lefs liable to imbibe the infesflion.
The running brings on a heat or Smarting in making
water, which is moft violent when it is over, for then it
feems to burn the whole dud of the urethra.
Another fymptom is the cordee, or contradion of the
fraenum, by which the penis is bent downwards. There
is likewife, when the penis is ereded, great pain as if
comprefled tranfverfely with a ftrong hand. This chiefly
happens inahenight, when the patient is warm in his bed.
Sometimes the urethra being eaten and excoriated with
long running of the acrimonious pus, nature breeds a foft
fpungy flelh, to fupply the defed, which daily increafing
forms caruncles or carnofities, fo far as to plug up the
urinary paflage and flop the urine. However, the little
adjoining ulcers continue to pour forth a kind of an ichor;
and this ftate is not only troublefome to the phyfician,
but almoft as bad as death to the patient.
It alfo often happens, through fome violent motion,
or the ill-timed ufe of aftringents, that the fanies which
ftiould be carried off by the gonorrhoea, is tranflated to
the fcrotum, and caufes one or both of the tefticles to
fwell and inflame with intolerable anguilh and pain; the
running at the fame time decreafing, while the fcalding
of the urine is as great as ever.
To thefe fymptoms may be added the phimofis, which
happens when the prepuce cannot be drawn back to un¬
cover the .glans ; but this the cafe of many in a healthful
ftate. Alfo the periphimofis or paraphimofis, when the
prepuce, being fwelled, cannot be brought forward to>
cover-the head of the penis. There are fometimes alfo
watery bladders or veficles called cryftallines, and at length
buboes or fwellings of the glands in the groin. When
•thefe laft appear, the lues venerea is generally fuppofed
to begin.
Women are not fubjed to fuch a variety of fymptoms
as men ; their chief complaints being a difficulty of urine,
and a running ; however, they are liable to chancres and
venereal warts as well within as on the outward parts of
the labia pudendi, as alfo to buboes in the groin. As for
the coardation of the fphinder vaginas, purling up as it
were the external orifice, this is not a phimofis, though
by fome improperly fo called.
V.ol. III. N° 74. a
CINE. 129
The caufe of a virulent gonorrhoea is a taint by impure
coition, conveyed from a woman infeded with a malig¬
nant gonorrhoea, or the lues venerea, firft to the genitals
of a man, and afterwards through the pores to the lymph
or feminal liquor • the due cralis and natural mixture it
entirely deftroys, by inducing partly a cauftic and corro¬
ding, and partly a putrid ftate thereof. Hence arife the
pains and heats, the tumours,' the inflammations, and the
exulcerations of the genitals : For at firft the glans is
only affeded, whilft, in coition, the poifon infinuates it-
felf into the open pores. Then it foon proceeds to the
glans of the urethra, then to the proftatse, which are
porous, and afterwards to the veficulas femjnales.
If the infeded lymph is conveyed to the inguinal glands
through the lymphatic veflels, which Cowper difcovered
to run from the prepuce to the groin ; then a venereal
bubo is formed, which is a hard tumour without pain.
But if the feat of the gonorrhoea is deeper, and an in¬
flammation arifes at the beginning of the urethra, where
the veficulse feminales difcharge the feminal fluid, then
thefe veffels are fo comprefled by the tumour, that the
femen cannot be conveyed to them from the tefticles,
whence it happens that the tefticles fweli.
As to the prognoftics, wemuft ohferve, that the greater
the infedion is, the more violent and obftinate the dif¬
order will prove; though it feldom brings on a pox urn*
lefs the difcharge is imprudently flopped by the prepofter
rous ufe of fndorifics and aftring.ents ; for, immediately
on the fuppreffion of the difcharge, buboes, tumours of
the fcrotum and tefticles, caruncles of the urethra, and
other terrible fymptoms appear, together with a confirmed
pox. The more regular the difcharge is made, the more
mild all the fymptoms are.
- But when the running is fmall in quantity, the urine
is highly fetid, and the matter yellow or greep, it is a
bad fign.
It is a certain fign the diforder is mitigated, when the
painful conftridion of the penis in eredion, and the heat
of urine, are removed ; as alfo when the impaired ftrength
begins to return, and the countenance, which before was
pale, afiumes a florid or a natural colour.
It is a fign the gonorrhoea is cured, if, upon compref-
fing the penis, a drop or two of thin limpid liquor, like
the white of an egg, is difcharged.
The regimen, during the time of the cure, requires
the patient to abftain from all oily food ; and he muft al¬
fo avoid every thing which by its acrimonious quality
ftimulates to venery ; fuch as fpices, bulbousroots, fleffi,
eggs, fiffi, and fermented liquors ; for the inflation of
the penis retards the curet This is of the utmoft confe-
quence ; and therefore all venereal incitements, fuch as
obfcene books, and whatever elfe inflames the fancy, ffiould
be ffiunned like death.
Water and whey are the heft drink, and feeds and
fummer-fruits the heft aliment.
All poffible care muft be taken that cold never
reach the penis ; and that it be kept always moift, left
the pores contrafting repel the flux of matter. An e-
mollient and fomewhat antifeptic cataplafm will he be¬
neficial.
In the place of mercurials given internally, Aftruc dt-
K k re&s
I30 M E D I
refts the ufe of crude quickfilver, as in the common unc¬
tion, to be rubbed upon the parts, as about the body of the
penis, efpecially under the urethra to the perinxum, and fo
up to the pubes and tefticles.
Turner approves of this method in all local affec¬
tions, fuch as chancres, a phimbfis and paraphimofis from
a venereal taint: As alfo when there is a cailofity in the
urinary paffage, or an induration of the telficles, parti¬
cularly their epididymes, left after the hernia humoralis,
and the like. Nor does he difapprove of it in common
claps during the courfe of the purgation.
If there is no difcharge of virulent matter from the
penis, it is called gonorrhoea ficca, or a dry clap, the
fymptoms of which are a dyfury or difficulty of making
water, and after, from the increafe of the inflammation
and tumefadtion, an ifchury or total fuppreflion of ur;he
In the cure of the dry clap, Aitruc advifes plentiful
bleeding in the beginning, to take off the tenfion, and to
abate the inflammation; as alfo emollient decodtions of
mallows, linfeed, tic. in milk, to foment the parts ;
but perhaps it might be better to make a poultice of thefe
ingredients, after Boerhaave’s method, to lay to theparts
affedted ; or, which is bell of all,, to ufe them one after
the other.
He likev/ife advifes lenient clyfters, cooling emulfions,
and ptifans with fal prunella and anodynes between whiles.
During the continuance of the inflammation, no mercuri¬
als mud be ufed ; and if the fymptoms increafe, threat¬
ening an abfcefs outwardly in the perirseum, it is to be
forwarded as much as poffible by fuppurative poultices, and
the matter difcharged.
Of the Cure of the Symptoms.
I. Of the Hep-nia Humorauis, or Swelling
of the TelHcles.
Astruc, in the cure, recommends frequent bleeding,
and an antiphlogiftic regimen, and fomenting the parts
with a decodtion of mallow-roots and linfeed; or milk
pretty warm ; or an anodyne cataplafm oflily-roots, with
leaves of henbane, mallows, and branc urfine, boiled to
a mucilage, and mixed with the flower of linfeed and oil
of lilies. After the inflammation and fever are abated,
he advifes a gentle purge; after mild refolvents external¬
ly, and antivenereals internally.
The hardnefs of the epididymes is to be difcufled by
fuccinated balfam of fulphur, mercurial plafters, and oint¬
ments. During the ufe of thefe applications, a fufpen-
fory bandage ffiould not be negledled.
When pus is formed in the tefticles, it muft be dif¬
charged with a lancet. If it fhould leave a fiftulous ul¬
cer, he advifes a mercurial ointment.
II. Of a Bubo.
Astruc aflerts, that venereal buboes are of two kinds:
the firft is eflential, happening immediately after coition
with an infefted perfon ; the fecond fymptomatical, which
follows the luppreflion of the gonorrhoea, or the drying
up of the ulceration. He likewife mentions a third,
v hich does not appear fo early as the other two, and is
therefore a pathognomonic fign of a lues venerea or pox.
CINE.
He propofes to cure it by mercurial purges, to carry off
the humour ; in the mean time rubbing a mercurial oint¬
ment into the part, to diffolve the induration which he
thinks is more gentle and eafy, than to promote the fup-
puration by ripening poultices, and then opening the
tumour by a cauftic, giving mercurials inwardly at the
fame time.
De Salt cures all the fymptoms by rubbing into the
parts a ftrong mercurial ointment, cauftng the pa ient to
anoint himfelf from the anus all along the urethra to the
glans and prepuce. The following day he gives a ftrong
dofe of jalap, that is, from two fcrupies to a dram. His
diet drink is to be fpring-water in which mercury revived
from cinnabar has been boiled. If the patient cannot
bear much purging, he may have a truce for a day or
two, but the ointment is to be continued every night.
The firft friftion gives confiderable relief, the fecond yqt
more, the third commonly makes the pain ceafe, and the
fourth and fifth generally (ilence the complaints. Five
or fix weeks generally perfefts the cure.
In buboes, the patient is to rub the ointment into the
groin, fcrotum, and parts in either fex ; purging every
day, and drinking the mercurial water ; by whkh means
the buboes melt away, the phimofis, paraphimofis, and
chancres difappear, and the former health returns. If
there is matter already formed in the bubo, then he
allows it muft be opened. Heifter’s method is much the
fame.
Ill Of Caruncles and Carnofities in the Urethra.
The obfta les which hinder the free paffage of the
urine, according to Aftruc, are thefe which follow, i.
Ulcers in the urethra. 2. Cicatrices left behind after the
healing thefe ulcers. 3. Caruncles. 4. A fchirrus on
the verumontanum, or caput gallinaginis. j. Indurati¬
ons of the proftatae and veficulae feminales. 6. Carnofities
rifing in and ftraitening the canal.
He propofes to cure the ulcers by the fame regitnen as
the firft period of a gonorrhoea, viz. by repeated bleed¬
ings, lenients and refrigerants, to abate the fluxion, and
take off the inflammation.
Turner, in the worft cafes, would not have the urethra
laid open, ,but only have the perinaeum well greafed with
the mercurial liniment, by which he has known many
large callofities infenfibly diflblve, while the candle or
leaden probe, fmeared alfo therewith, has been kept
within.
But there has been lately introduced into pra&ice by
Daran a new method of curing thefe diforders with
bougies, the compofition of which he keeps a fecret.
According to him, if the canal of the urethra be open
enough to admit the extremity of the bougie, a fuppura-
tion will enfue from the difeafed part of the urethra,
which will in time relax and open the ftridture ; or, if
the ftri&ure oppofes the entrance of the bougie, yet ftill
the mere point of the bougie will fuppurate it in a fmall
degree, and by and by, though much more tedioufly than,
in the other cafe, by relaxing, open it.
The firft difcharge procured by a bougie is generally
very fanious, and evidently flows from the place where
the obftrudlion is, that part of the bougie only being
covered
M E D I
covered with matter that anfwers to the obftru&ion. A-
gain, the cordee, excited by the ufe of the bougie, is in¬
finitely more painful where the obftrudtion is, than in the
other parts of the penis. It will, it mufl: be owned,
produce a cordee in a found penis ; but then it extends
through every part of it, and is by no means fo painful
as the other.
If the fymptoms of the ftriftures, callous fears, car¬
uncles and tumours of the corpus fpongiofum urethrae are
efiehtially different, thofe differences are not mentioned
by any writer ; except that, when the urethra only is af¬
fected, the patient, in making water, voids matter before
his urine; but when the proftate glands or veficulae femi-
nales only are concerned, matter follows the laft drop
of urine. But it frequently happens that one is compli¬
cated with the other.
The properties requifite in a bougie, are a fufficient
degree of firmnefs, that it may be introduced with fome
force : A fupplenefs and tenacity, that it may conform
to the motions of the body without breaking : A lenient
fupp.urative difpofition, to bring on a difeharge without
pain : And, laflly, a fmoothnefs of furface, that it may
not only be introduced with more eafe, but that it may
lie eafy in the paffage till it begins to diffolve.
That chiefly made ufe of is as follows ;
& Emplaji. commun. cum pice Burgund. jij • Argent .
viv. $j Antimon. crud. pulv. 5b. M.
The emplaji. com. or diachylon, mult be made with oil
and a little Burgundy pitch added to it, to render it fuf-
ficiently tenacious : the antimony muft be finely levigated,
that it may give a fmoothnefs and good confifience to the
bougie.
'T'he quickfilver, whether it be divided in half, fulph.
or honey, muft not be put into the plafter till the moment
before the bougies are made, nor mult the plaffer be boil¬
ing hot at that time. When the quickfilver is mingled
with the plafter moderately hot, flips of fine rag muft be
ready to dip in the compofition. They muft be of differ¬
ent lengths, from fix to nine or ten inches, and about three
inches broad. Roll them up loofely, and, taking hold of
one extremity with the left hand, let it fall gently on the
furface of the plafter, and then draw it out gently. As
it is drawn out, it will unroll, and take up a quantity of
the plafter upon its furface, equal to the thicknefs of a fil-
ver groat. It may be proper to aflift the unrolling with a
fpatula. The plafter muft be hot enough to foak through
and difcolour the rag. The ladle in which it is melted
ought to be broad and flat at the bottom ; and the platter
muft be kept ftirring tb preferve it in equal confiftence.
The bubbles on the furface of the cloth may be fmoothed
with an iron fpatula a little warmed.
One rag will make fix bougies of a mo 'erate Gze; they
are beft cut with a knife and ruler They ftu u!d be made
taper at the end, by cutting off. a Hope about an inch and
a half long. When they are rolled up, it rnuft be with
that fide outward which is covered with plafter ; and they
muft be firft rolled up with the finger and thumb as clofe
as poflible, before they are rolled upon a board or mar
bie. In the winter it will be proper to hold them a little
before the fire to facilitate their rolling.
Before a bougie of any kind be introduced into the ure-
C I N E. 131
thra, it will be neceftary to fmear it with fweet oil, that
it may go in eafily, and not ftiroulate too much at firft.
The patient may either ftand or lie down in the pofture
of being cut for the ftone; then the furgeon muft grafp
the penis near the glans, and extend it gently, that the
urethra may not be wrinkled, and then it will meet with
no impediment but what is occafioned by the difeafe.
It often happens at the beginning, that the bougie can¬
not be too fmall ; and then the end muft be round, that
it may readily flip over the p!ic& of the urethra ; it is alfo
exceedingly delirable that it enter within the obftrudion.
However, it is neceftary to defift from pufhing it when
once it begins to bend. When it meets with any refift-
ance, to avoid the bending, turn it round with your fin¬
ger and thumb feveral times, and, as you turn it, prefs
it a little forwards. If by this method it advances, con¬
tinue to do the fame thing till it flops. But it muft be
owned that the operator in this cafe may be eafily deceived.
The bougie muft be confined in the penis by fome
kind ,of bandage, or rather we may keep it fjxed in the
urethra by a cotton firing tied about its extremity, and
then pafled round the penis ; no other thread is neceflary*
When the patient is timorous, or the part tender, it
may be left in two or three hours in a day only at firft,
but otherwife fix or feven. When the patient finds he
cannot bear it, it may be difeontinued two or three days,
according to the nature of the fymptoms.
There are inftances of its having firft cured, and then
brought on a fiefti ftrangury In this cafe, forbear its ufe
for two or three days, and the ftrangury will ceafe.
Some have been able to wear it night and day without
intei million; and as they withdrew one, introduced ano¬
ther. And this is a prudent ftep ; for the more fuppu-
ration is procured, and the longer the urethra is kept di-
ftended, the cure is ^nore likely to be radical, When
this cannot be done, the day is better for its ufe than the
night, becaufe in thb night it is more fubjeA to ere<5hons.
Two bougies in a day generally anfwer the purpofe
one in the morning, and one in the evening, as more iuit-
able to the patient’s avocation; though fome can walka¬
bout with them.
If the tefticles fhould inflame, or any feverifh diforder
come on, they may be kept in an hour, or half an hour
in a day, to prevent the urethra from contrafling again
till the fymptom is removed ; to prevent thefe diforders,.
the patient fhould obferve a cooling, regimen during the
treatment.
Some are relieved by the bougie in a few weeks, fome.
not till many months. Generally the cure may be per¬
formed in feven, eight, nine, or ten weeks. This is known
by the removal of every fymptom of the diforder ; for
fome degree of running wiil generally continue as iong as
the bougie is. employed.
When the patient judges himfelf we!!, it will be beft
to defiftgradually, wearing it at firft only an hour or two
in a day, and then two or three'times a week, after which,
it may be entirely left off. If any gleet ftill remain, or
any obilru&ion threatens to return, it will be neceffary
to ufe the bougie four or five weeks longer.
In fuppreffions of urine it will be always advifeable to-
ictrcduiQS the catheter if poffble, and indeed to keep it
T32 M E D I
in the bladder two or three or four days ; after which,
the canal will perhaps admit a bougie, and then, afuppu-
tation being once procured, it may eafily be prel'erved open..
IV. Gleet.
In what manner, fays Sharp, a gleet is furnifhed,
cannot well be determined, without fir ft afc|rtaining the
exaift feat of a gonorrhoea. That the lacunaetaf the ure¬
thra are ufually ulcerated in a gonorrhoea, is now generally
affented to. Yet though all allow the exiftence of ulcers
during that difeafe, they will not admit that a gleet is the
difeharge of an ulcer.
But it is mort probable, that the running is not all
of it a purulent matter, but partly matter, and partly a
difeharge from the fecretory organs, as alfo from the
veficulas feminales, when they or their duds are affed-
ed. For the running is produced in lefs time after the
infedion than is requifite for the formation of matter
in every other inftance $ and the appearance of matter is
frequently the firft alarm in a gonorrhoea, the heat of
urine and other fymptoras of an inflammation and ulcera¬
tion following fometimes two or three days after.
Forthefe reafons, it isfuppofed, that the venereal poifon,
in its firft operation, irritates only, and thereby increafes
the fecretion; efpecially as the fame thing happens to the
glands of the inteftines from purgatives, from the fali-
vary glands, from fmoaking, i&c. As the poifon operates
more ftrongly, the inflammation increafes, and the'ulcers
form and extend, when not only the matter from the ul¬
cer is famous, but all the fecretory veffels Communicating
with the ulcerated lacunae feparate a’thinner fluid than
ufual ; and both the matter and fecreted fluids continue
to be thin fo long as the inflammation is violent.
It is even pofiible that in fome flight gonorrhoeas,
which difappear in a few days, the venereal poifon may
not have adivity enough to bring on an ulceration of the
urethra, but only a mere irritation of the lacunae. Be-
fides, in other cafes, the quantity of the running is ge¬
nerally much greater, if we may judge by analogy, than a
few ulcers in the urethra could poffibly furnifh. Of this
we have almoft ocular proof in women ; for, though the
gonorrhoea be exceeding plentiful, yet, upon the niceft
infpedion, we often cannot find the leaft degree of ulce¬
ration of the vagina, though, if the difeharge was purely
the digeftion of ulcers in that part, it is likely fome few
of them may be vifible.
When the inflammation ceafes, and the ulcers of
the urethra heal at the fame time, the cure of a gonor¬
rhoea is perfeded ; on the other hand, if the inflamma¬
tion be only removed, and the ulcers remain open, a gleet
muft enfue.
It is upon this principle of ulcers fubfifting in the ure¬
thra, that Daran accounts for the adion of his bougie,
fuppofing it to have the property of healing them with a
found cicatrix after the urethra is opened. And, if in the
operation it can be u.nderftood when there are ulcers, it
will not be difficult to comprehend it when there are none;
■fince it feems to have the power of opening every unfound
cicatrix of the urethra, and bringing them immediately
into an ulcerated ftate.
There are many who imagine that the prodigious in-
C I N E.
creafe of certain gleets-at particular times, lading only for
two or three days, and then fuddenly abating tq their
Wonted quantity, is inconfiftent with a purulent diichafge;
and therefote conclude a gleet to, be nothing but a preter¬
natural excretion from the relaxed veffeIs of the urethra.
But it is probable, that, however the matter oi a thick
gleet may be furnilhed by fecretion, ftill the ttimulus
provoking the fecretion is kept up by the fubfiftence of
ulcers ; and al£b that, when the gleet is very thin and ia
fmall quantities, it is the mere dilcharge of thofe ulcers.
Atemporary increafe of a gleet is not wonderful, becaufe
habitual ulcers of every other part of the body are often
in a fluduating ftate, and generally fuffer fromexcefles of
every kind.
Aftruc, in this diforder, recommends milk, either of
affes, goats, or cows* to be drank morning and evening
for fome time; then mineral waters, whether chalybeate
or vitriolic, for 15 or 20 days; and afterwards balfamics,
to deterge and cicatrifethe ulcers concealed in the urethra,
fuch as balfam of capivi, from 6 to 12 drops, made into
a bolus with powder-fugar ; laft of all, aftringents to dry
up the ulcers, and to recover the loft tone of the parts,
fuch as infufions of the leaves of mint, horehound, agri¬
mony, plantain, red rofes, ffiepherd’s purfe, fage,
or the mint-water of Quercetan, fo often recommended
by Riverius againft obftinate gleets.
V. Of Chancres.
Astruc obferves,,that chancres were the caries puden-
donim of the ancient writers, and are generally feated ®n
thofe parts which have a fine and tender covering, through
which the virulent fanies, ifluing from the exulcerated ge¬
nitals of either fex, has the eafier admittance. Such are
the inward duplicature of the prepuce, the infide of the
pudenda in women, the nipples of nurfes, the lips and
tongue of proftitutes. In very bad cafes they will appear
on the dorfum penis, as well as on the pubes and infide of
the thighs.
In the cure of the recent chancre, he firft orders bleeding,
to abate the inflammation ; then fomentations, to relblve
the induration ; not omitting mercurials in the mean time,
but fo as to avoid a falivation. After which he advifes
the ufe of fudorific decoiftions of china, farfaparilla, guai-
acum, and falfafras boiled with antimony.
Turner formerly ufed red precipitate fprinkled on a
proper ointment.
Of late years, he fays, he always found fmoaking the
parts with cinnabar fuccefsful in chancrous ulcerations on
the glans and prasputiurn of men, as well as the labia and
finus pudoris of women. His method was to throw a
dram of cinnabar on a heater or hot iron, letting the
fume afeend through a funnel, or a feat perforated like a
clofe ftooi, all round the difeafed parts. This was done
everyday, and fometimes twice a day for a week. The
iron was hot enough to raife flame with fmoak, but not
fo fiery red as to make it inftantly confume away in flame
alone.
VI. Of the Phimofis, Paraphimofis, and Cryftalline.
These are diforders proper to men, except the cryftal¬
line ; but Aftruc affirms, that women have fomething of
the
MED!
the fame nattir«; and even extends them to their nipples,
where the ulceration eonftraining the area or circle round
about them irritates the fame. The phimofis of women
is the •conftridtion of the entrance into the vagina.
He begins the cure with bleeding and gentle purgatives,
filch as caffia cum manna and mere, dtilc. indead of
brifleer cathartics and emetics, which, as Turner thinks,
by making a ftronger revulfion, afford fpeedier relief.
He then advifes anodyne emollient fomentations and ca-
taplafms to relax and foften, and afterwards difeutients
to breathe forth tjie humours ; and, if the penis is foak-
ed therein an hour or two twice a-day, the effedt will be
more certain; but if a dagnation is threatened, and thence
a gangrene, the prepuce is to be divided in the phimofis
on each fide the glans, and the folds of it to be cut through
in the paraphimofis; by which the drangled glans may be
fet free, and the chancre, if any, brought into view. The
like mud be done forthe crydalline, in order to difeharge
the imprifoned lymph, and forward the fubfidence of the
prepuce, thereby inflated and puffed up.
The affedted parts in women flrould likewife be foment¬
ed with the like emollient and mucilaginous decodtions,
of the roots of marlh mallows, white-lily, water lily, and
the leaves of branc urfine, mallows, linfeed, 'be. feveral
times a day. Afterwards, a peffary made of linen or
fponge dipped in the emollient liquor fhould be introduced
into the vagina.
VII. Of Tubercles and Scirrhous Cords.
The tubercle is a callofity remaining after healing the
chancres of the glans, which hinders the free play of the
forefkin over the glans. If this will not yield to a ftrong
mercurial undfion, the only remedy is circumcifion.
The feirrhous cords are tubercles which arife where
there has been an ulceration; and may be left under the
Ikin of the penis, fometimes round, and fometimes like a
cord. They arife gradually, and difappear with the help
of a little mercurial undtion, and a courfe of mercurial
purging, unlefs complicated with other fymptoms of a
worfe kind.
VIII. Of the Porri, Condylomata, Chriftsc, and the
like Excrefcences.
The venereal porri, vPhofe feat is the pudenda, if they
are recent, fmall, and foft, fometimes dry and fall off of
themfelves, after the poifonhas been deftroyed by mercu¬
rial fridfions; but if they are hard, large, and have deep
roots, they will fometimes continue after them, and grow
like warts in other parts of the body. In this cafe they
muft be cut with the point of the feiffars as near the flan
aspoffible, and a mercurial plaftermuft be prepared with a
large proportion of mercury, and mixed with diach. cum
gum. to promote a fuppuration, and to diffolve the callofi-
ties at the bafes of the porri, before a cicatrix is formed.
But if the balls is hard, and furrounded with hard
and deep callofities, flight mercurial friaions muft be
ufed; and the wound muft be dreffed with bafilicon, fprink-
led with red precipitate, to confume the callofities by lit¬
tle and little, to foften the edges of the ulcers and difpofe
them to heal. If this ftiould fail, ftronger corrofives
Ihould be ufed.
Vox. III. Numb. 74.
CINE. 135
The fame direSions are applicable to the whole tribe
of condylomata, chriftae, mora, fici, either about the pu¬
denda or anus.
Of the Lues Venerea, French Pox.
When a gonorrhoea has continued a long while. Or
long enough for the poifonous matter to make its way
into the blood, or, by aftringects given unfeafonably, it
cannot make its exit, then the patient is infe&ed with the
pox.
The buboes in the groin conftitute the fit ft degree;
then follow pains which cruelly torment the head and
joints of the flioulders, arms, and ancles, coming on by
fits, but at no certain intervals, uniefs in the night when
the patient is warm in his bed, feldom leaving him till
towards the morning.
There are alfo fcabs and feurf in various of the body,
which are as yellow as a honey-comb, and which diftin-
guifhes them from all others. Sometimes they have large
furfaces, anfwering the defcription which authors give of
the leprofy. But the more thef e fcabs are difperfed over the
body, the lefs he is tormented.
All thefe fymptoms gradually increafe, efpecially the
pain ; which becomes fo intenfe, that the patient is un¬
able to lie in bed. Afterwards nodes or exoftofes ariffc
in the fkul!, fliin-bones, and bones of the arms, which,
being attended with conftant pain and inflammation, at
length grow carious and putrefied.
Phagedenic ulcers likewife feize various parts of the
body; but generally firft begin with the throat, and from
thence gradually creep by the palate to the cartilage of the
nofe, which they deftroy, and the nofe, being deftitatfe
of its prop, falls down flat.
The ulcers and pain daily increafing, the patient finks
under the torment; and being not able any longer to ftrug-
gle with ftench, rottennefs, and the lofs of one mem¬
ber after another, his mangled offenftve carcafe is hurried
into the grave.
Befides the fymptoms proper to the pudenda and parts
adjacent, which have been already mentioned, the fol¬
lowing are obfervable in a confirmed pox; which however
do not appear in all patients, nor at the fame time.
I. The fkin, efpecially about the neck and bread, and
between the ftioulders, is covered with flat fpots lik6
freckles, of a rofy, purple, yellow, or livid colour, fome¬
times diftinft, fmall and round like lentils, fometimes
more large and extended.
It is full of itchy puftules, tetters, and ringworms, a
ferpigo, a herpes miliaris, and exedens. There are chaps
in the palms of the hands and foies of the feet, with itch¬
ing, from whence proceeds a dear ferous liquor, and the
epidermis peels off in large flakes.
It abounds with hard, callous, round puftules, ri'fing a
little on the top, generally dry, but fometimes moift,
fcaly, branny, and yellow; frequently on.the corners of
the lips, and the frdes of the npftrils, but more efpecially
on the forehead, temples, and behind the ears where
they appear in rows like a .firing of beads, and gradually
creep among the hair.
The hair not only falls off from the head, but all parts
of the body where it grows. Then the nails become un-
L 1 2 equal.
1^4 M E D I
equal, tliiek, wrinkled, and rough ; afterwards ulcers a-
rife which^caufe them to fall off.
II. The infide of the mouth, throat, and nofe, are alfo
affefted ; the uvula and tonfils become , painful, hot,
inflamed, and ulcerated ; puftules appear in the roof of
the mouth, which degenerate into round, malignant,
phagedenic ulcers, which rot the bone as far as the
noftrils. The pituitary membrane is likewife liable to
puftules, which produce malignant qlcerations that infedl:
the bones of the nofe with a caries, particularly the vomer;
which being eaten away, the nofe falls down; the voice
becomes hoarfe and low ; the gums being covered with
aphthae, ulcerate and rot; the teeth ache, grow rotten, and
fall out; and the breath is very offenfive.
III. The patient is excruciated with pains in the night¬
time, when in bed and covered with cloaths : thefe are
either tenfive, pricking, pulfative, or rending ; fixed or
wandering ; which fometimes occupy the mufculous and
membranous parts like the rheumatifm, fometimes the
tendons and ligaments about the joints refembling the
gout; fometimes they are with tumour or inflammation,
fometimes without.
IV. The bones are affe&ed in various manners; in the
middle exoftofes arife, either foft or hard, fometimes with
intenfe pain, fometimes without. The heads of the bones
enlarge every way, but unequally, which produces tu¬
mours, pains, difficulty of motion, and ftiff joints. As the
earies increafes, they become brittle, and break upon tfie
leaft effort. Sometimes they are fo fardiffolved, as to bend
like foft wax.
V. When the lymph is infedfed, the lymphatic or con¬
globate glands become hard and callous, and form, in
the neck, armpits, groin, and mefentery, hard, meveable,
circumfcribed tumours, like the king’s evil. The lym¬
phatic veffels are dilated, extended, and enlarged by a
thick ftagnating lymph, and form foft encifted tumours
or gummata : In the tendons it caufes nodes, in the
nerves ganglions, and in the ligaments of the joints tophs.
VI. Neither do the ears and eyes efcape the fury of
this difeafe : for the latter are externally affefted with
pain, rednefs, itching, and lippitude ; and internally,
being loaded with humours, the fight is deftroyed, and
fometimes a fuppuration fupervenes. If the vitreous hu¬
mour of the eyes is thickened, it caufes a glaucoma; if the
cryftalline, acataraft; if the aqueous, hairs or fpiders webs
feem to float in the air.
The ears are affeffed with a finging noife, hardnefs of
hearing, deafnefs, and pain, whilft their internal fubftance
is exulcerated and rendered carious.
After this catalogue of fymptoms, it is no wonder that
all the animal, vital, and natural funftions fhould be de¬
praved, the face be pale and livid, the body emaciated
and unapt for motion, and that the patient fhould fall in¬
to an atrophy and marafmus.
Women have diforders proper to the fex; as, cancers in
the breaft, a fuppreffion or overflowing of the menfes, the
whites, the hyfteric paflion, an inflammation, abfcefs,
fcirrhus, gangrene, ulcer and cancer of the womb They
are either barren or fubjetf to abortion ; or the children
they bring into the world have an univerfal eryfipelas,
are half rotten, and covered with ulcers.
C I N E.
The methods of curing the pox are principally fourt
I. The common, by falivation ; 2. By givingtprickfilver
pills; 3. By mercurial fridlions, which are to be purged
off before a falivation is raifed ; 4. By fweating, with a
decoffion of guaiacum.
The; fafeft and moll commodious method of falivation is
by mercurius dulcis fix times fublimed, given inwardly in
the milder pox; or by mercurial unftion, when the difeafe
is got into the bones.
Fifteen grains of mercurius dulcis may be given.in a
morning, and the like dofe at night, with elettar. e fcordio.
After three, four, or five days with 'this management,
we ufually obferve the fauces to inflame ; the infides
of the cheeks to be tumid, or high and thick, being,
ready to fall within the teeth, upon (hutting the mouth;
the tongue looks white and foul, the gums ftand out, the
breath (links ; and the whole infide of the mouth appears
fhining, as .if parboiled, and lying in furrows.
The infide of the mouth thus beginning to be wbealed,
you may expeft foon to fee them ulcerated, efpecially a-
bout the falival glands, which empty themfelves thereinto.
Now it may be proper to defift a day or two, to obferve
the increafe of the ulcers, what (loughs are like to be
raifed, and what their depth and dimenfions are like to
prove ; from which a near conjecture may be made of the
duration as well as quantity of the fpitting now begun,
and the confidence of the drillingjympha whether more
or lefs fluid.
When the falivation is thus begun, your only bufinefs
is to encourage your patient chearfully to go on. Let
his diet be fmall chicken-broth, water gruel, and panada.
His drink, fmail fack-whey, or poffet-drink, with a draught
of good fmall-beer with a toad between whiles.
Thus, after fome days refpite, if, after the fpitting
comes on, you find the patient hearty, his chaps but little
fwelled on the outfide, and as little fore within, the ulcers
not increafing, with few or no Houghs appearing therein,
the flux alfo inconfiderable in quantity, you may now give
afcruple of mere. dulc. in elett. e fcord. at going to reff,
repeating it two or three days following, as you find oc-
cafion, and then wait the iffue again. This is the fafeft
and mod prudent method.
If he (hould have taken half an ounce of calomel, with
little alteration as to thefwellingand forenefsof his mouth,
and as l ittle appearance of his Havering, his pulfe and other
circumftances favouring the fame, and no ill fymptom ap¬
pearing, you may vomit him with viij or x grains of turjjeth
mineral in conferve of rofes, or mixed with x or xv grains
of calomel, encouraging the operation with fmall draughts
of common poflet-drink between whiles upon each mo¬
tion to reach, but not loading the ftomach therewith, as
is cuftom&ry in other emetics. If there is occafion, it
may be repeated two or three days after, which will for¬
ward the falivation more effectually than more dofes of
calomel firuply repeated would have done.
If a falivation cannot be raifed to any quantity, as in
fome it cannot, you muft forbear and purge it off, and
give calomel once or twice a-week, and purge it off the
nex$ day, or two days after.
When the fpitting goes well forward, it may be left to
take its courfe till it declines of itfelf; which, in pro¬
portion
M E D
portion to the ulcers and thicknefs of the Houghs about
the patts of the mouth, may happen at the end of twenty-
one days, or a month from its ri'fing ; that is, from the
time of fpitting a pint and a half a-day, till it comes to
three pints, or even five pints, in twenty-four hours, when
it gradually goes off again. For often the firft four or
five days, or a week, are fpent in bringing it to the firfl
proportion;
In the more Hubborn and rebellious pox, attended not
only with cruel night pains, gummata, tbphs, nodes, and
alfo rotten or foul bones, if the patient has been ufed to
mercurials, or if falivated before, then the cure muft be
attempted with falivation by undfion.
You may mix an ounce of quickfilver with three ounces
of axungia; of which, an eighth part is to be ufed night
and morning, letting the patient rub it in with his
own hands gently by the fire, beginning with his ancles
up to his (hins and knees, all round his joints, and fo to
his thighs, which are prefently after to be covered with
yarn-ftockings and flannel-drawers ; then let him ufe
what remains of his eighth part about his elbows and
flioulders, wiping his hands clean about the glands of his
arm-pits, or thofe of his groin. His body, during the
undtions, fhould be fkreened from the cold with a blanket
hung behind him, and then be wrapt up in a warm flan¬
nel ; that is, he muft have a flannel Ihirt, waiftcoat and
drawers, a cap, a muffler pinning it up thereto behind, and
covering all his throat, chin, and cheeks before, to de¬
fend them from the cold air. The fame things are re-
quifite in the former way. The weak need only be a-
nointed once a-day.
If, when the ointment is divided into four parts, after
the third undfion the patient begins to complain of bis
chaps, you muff flay a day pr two before you proceed
farther : The fame when gripes or bloody ftools approach.
Where there are a gummata, tophs, and nodes, the
ointment muft be chafed particularly into thofe parts, and
then apply the mercurial plafter upon them. If the fpit¬
ting declines too fuddenly, give a fcruple of calomel e-
very day, or every other day, for two or three times, as
you {hall fee occafion.
When he is a little recovered, and his chaps pretty well,
he may eat a little chicken, veal, rabbit, or mutton, well
roaffed, without fauce or .gravy.
The patient (hould'be prepared for a falivatioa by a
lenitive purge or Iwo ; and, if plethoric, hefhould bleed :
Likewiie bathing in warm water, for fome hot, lean,, e-
maciated people, has been found ferviceable. Women
ffiould be laid down juft after their menftrual flux is over.
Temperate-weather is the moft fuitable.
If the patient is troubled with ficknefs and vomiting;
if juild, give him freely of afmall chicken-broth, poffet-
drink, or thin water-gruel, refrefhing him with a little
mulled wine between whiles. But if there is a cardialgia,
and intolerable pains at the mouth of the ftomach, with
inceffant vomiting, fpafms of the members, fainting, cold
fvveats of the forehead and eyebrows, the patient is in
the utmoft danger, and you muft ceafe giving mercury,
and if poflible turn it downwards, by dire£ling the com¬
mon clyfter with 2 or 3 ounces of brown fugar, and as
niuch oil-olive.
I C I N E. 13s
To prevent the jaws from being locked, up, it is ne-
ceffary to ufe a bit of {tick covered v/ith a foft rag, which
muft be held between his backward teeth : But, if there
fliould happen an adhefion of the infide of the cheek to
the gum, hindering the patient from eating and opening
his mouth, the fame is to be carefully divided.
If, during the falivation, a blood-veffel burfts open,
make a little pellet of lint, and cover it with the fine pow¬
ders of alum or vitriol, or dip it in the tin&ura ftyptica, ^
and thruft it clofe down into the cavity, which will fe-
cure the effufion, being held tight with the finger for a
little while. If it happens from the feparation of the
floughs from the fide of the cheeks, a little oxycrateheld
in the mouth will do the bufmefs, or an aftringent decoc¬
tion of oak bark.
If the patient has been without a ftool for fome days,
give an emollient clyfter of warm milk, fugar, and oil.
At this time he may drink freely of fmall beer with a
toaft, barley water, fma'll fack-whey, or poffet-drink.
For diet, water-gruel, oatmeal-caudle, fmall chicken or
veal broth, a roalled pippin, or a few ftewed prunes.
If, notwithftanding your care in giving fmall dofes of
mercury, the fauces fliould fuddenly inflame and tumefy,
endangering a fuffocation of the patient, the moft certain
relief is to bring the humours downward by (harp cly-
fters, and, if he can fwallow it, a cathartic by the mouth.
An ozaena, or ulcer oi the noftnl, is bell cured, by a
cinnabarine fumigation, which fubdues the malignity,,
dries up the ulceration, and difpofeth the caries, if any,
to a feparation beyond all others . after which, and fome-
times before, calomel muft be given and purged off; or,
if there are other fymptoms of a profound infeftion, you
muft falivate by undion.
The like method muft be ufed for ulcers of the palate,
uvula, and tonfils. The fume rarely fails to ftop the far¬
ther erofion, and thirefore it is always to be directed,
though a falivation is intended. It cures, in two or three
days time, the moft putrid and corrofive venereal ulcers,
or after the fecond or third fmoking.
Aftruc difapproves of any other method of falivation
but by friffiocs; and he would have pure mercury ground
in a mortar, with juft fo much turpentine as will reduce
it into a brown or black powder, and mix with it equal
parts of frefh lard, and fo well mixi, that the particles of
the mercury fliall not be vifible by a magnifying glafs.
He alfo allows that occaflonally there may be double the
quantity of lard.
He diftinguiflies the friflions into weak and ftrong;
for the ftrong he allows not lefs than two drams of the
ointment, nor more titan four. The firft time, the patient
is to be anointed from the feet to the calves of the legs;
two days after, from tnence to the middle of the thigh ;
then the third time, as far as the buttocks. If after the
feventh day there appears no fign of a falivation, you muff
proceed to the fourth friffion, from the buttocks along
the loins, and back to the neck, with a large quantity of
ointment. If on the ninth day nothing appears, ano¬
ther fricftion muft be from the wrifts to the (boulders.
During the falivation, he allows the patient, if he has
ftrength, to get up fometimes, and fit by the fire; or, if
he cannot, to fn up in bed: when belies down, he would
t *6 M E D I
have him tie in as prone a pofiure as he can, that the
faliva may be evacuated more eafily, and not fall into his
flomach.
In the weak or flight friSion he allows from one to two
ounces of the ointment. The firfl fri&ion is to be only on
the feet ; the fecondon the legs ; the third on the knees;
the fourth on the thighs,; the fifth'on the buttocks and
perinseura ; the fixth on the loins; the feventh on the
back and between the Ihoulders the eighth and ninth,
if there is occafion, from the arms to the vvrifts. There
may be three, four, five, or even fix or feven days be¬
tween each fridtion, if the patient is very weak: But the
rule is, to look into the patient’s mouth before a new
friftion, that you may be certain not to bring on too
plentiful a falivation. The dofe of the ointment muft be
fo managed, that, after the' fourth or fifth friciion, a fa¬
livation may come on that is gentle, eafy, governable,
without a fwelling of the head ; with only a few aphthae
in the mouth, oratnjoft a few fuperficial ulcers, and the
patient not fpitting above a pint or two in twenty-four
hours: and to this point it muft be kept up, with a new
IVidHon, if there be occafion. Likewife it may be kept
tinder with clyfters and plentiful drinking of the ptifan ;
.and, if neceffary, with lenitive purges. This treatment
may be continued, fro re nata, from 30 to 50 days, or
longer.
Till the falivation comes on, the patient may be in¬
dulged in weak foups, rice, cream, panada’s <bc. and
even milk for breakfaft; but after that they muft be left
off; and he muft drink a large quantity of ptifan to dilute
the blood. He may fit up all day, if his room be warm.
If, after a due repetition of mercurial fri&ions, a fali¬
vation does not appear, it generally happens that a loofe-
nefs, a flux of urine, copious fvveats, or at leaft a plen¬
tiful tranfpiration, will fupply that defedl, andferve in its
ftead. In this cafe, the patient may think himfelf ex¬
ceeding happy and fortunate, that he has obtained a com¬
plete cure by a method more certain and convenient than
by falivation, and without its incommodities and dangers.
The fecond method"of curing the pox is by a quickfiiver
pill. This was brought into reputation by Bellofte; and
though he has kept the compofition a fecret, yet there is
no reafon to -doubt but it is quickfiiver mixed with a cer¬
tain proportion of a cathartic. s
The third method of curing the pox is by mercurial
friftions, which De Salt gives as follows :
When the patients have a pox of a long continuance,
and the venereal poifon is difperfed all over the body,
they fliould be prepared by bathing and drinking whey.
But in a recent pox the bath is not neceflary, or at leaft
■need not be ufed long, becaufe the blood is fufficiently
diluted.
After this, inftead of raifing a falivation, bring on a
ilux of the belly; the whole fecret of which confifts in
-keeping the body open by clyfters of a deccwftion of fenna
and the pulp of cafiia, before the fri&ions are adminifter-
ed; by which the inteftinal glands being opened, the
mercury will more readily tend that way. When the
joofenefs does not anfwer the number of the fridtions,
not the quantity of the mercury made ufe off, purge the
patient with powder of jalap, and procure copious'ftools.
CINE.
which fecure the mouth. While the loofeaels is going
on, the fridtion does the office of a purge ; and in propor¬
tion as they are repeated, the flux of the belly revives;
and -when it flackens or flops, have recourfe to the cly¬
fters and purges of jalap. Purfue this method t^ll the
fymptoms ceafe, and till, by the abundance of the evacu¬
ations, the venereal poifon is entirely drained off.
The Jaft method is fweating with ftrong decodtions of
guaiacum. This we have the firft account of from Sir
Ulrick Hutton, who purfued it himfelf. A pound of
guaiacum is to be boiled in a gallon of fpring-water to
one half, and the fcum referved to anoint the fores, and
a fecondary decodiion wasto be ufed for common drink.
But, when falivations-and other mercurial courfes have
failed, the heft method of cure is by the root of farfa-
parilla ; which difcovery we owe to Dr Hunter, who put
Mr Fordyce, a furgeon in the army, upon making atrial
of it ; the refultof whofe experience is as follows.
1. It will commonly relieve venereal head-achs and
nodturnal pains in a very fhort time ; and, if perfifted in,
he believes it will always cure.
2. In emaciated and confumptive habits, from a vene¬
real caufe, it is the greateft reftorer of the appetite, flelh,
colour, ftrength, and vigour, that he knows.
3. When the throat, nofe, palate, or the fpungy bones
in general, are affedled with a Hough or caries, it will
commonly complete the cure, if perfevered in longenough,
provided a mercurial courfe by undtion has preceded the
ufe of the farfaparilla.
4. When the body is covered with dry blotches or
moift fores from a venereal caufe, it will greatly promote
the cure, nay often complete it; but, without the aflift-
ance of mercury, there will be danger of a relapfe.
5. In Ample chancres it will do little ferviee; but, if
it is given in cafes where the chancres or buboes will not
heal or diflblve after the ufe of the mercurial undtion, it
will often cure, and do always manifeft fervice.
6. It will often anfwer, and that fpeedily, without
fweating, confinement, or any ftridt regimen, at all fea-
fohs of the year, when mercurial undtions and long con¬
tinued courfes of ftrong decodtions of guaiacum, either
by itfelf limply, or compounded with a fmall proportion of
farfaparilla, have failed.
7. It feems probable, that farfaparilla root is the only
medicine to be depended upon in venereal cafes where mer¬
cury has failed, or at leaft has preceded the ufe of the de-
codtion ; for it is not to be trailed alone. When no mer-
cure has been given, it and this decodtion may be admi-
niftred together, and then there will be no room to doubt
of fuccefs.
8. Mercury alone will cure moft venereal complaints,
and farfaparilla will perhaps always cure them when they
refill the power of mercury ; and therefore a proper com¬
bination of mercury and farfaprilla will probably cure e-
very cafe that is truly venereal.
The method of ufing it is this ; to three ounces of th£
farfaparilla root, which has not been fpoiled with age,
worms, fea-water, or moifture, add three quarts of river-
water, and make it boil as fpeedily as poflible, in an o-
pen veffel, till two pints of the drained l-'quor remain,
that is, about tv/o pounds avoirdupoife weight; a little
liquorice-
M E D I
liquorice-root added to it will make it more palatable.
This quantity is enough for twenty-four hours, and may
be 'given at two or three dofes either warm or cold. It
muil be made ftelh every other day, and what is not ufed
on the day it is boiled mull be kept in a cold cellar.
The patient Ihould live abflemioufly while he*takes it, par¬
ticularly with regard to wine.
There is another compendious and efficacious method
of curing the lues venerea, which has formerly been at¬
tempted by the fame medicine, but in a different manner,
and not with the fame fuccefs.
Dr. Pringle recommended a method of curing the lues
venerea, which at fird was brought into a regular practice
by baron Van Swieten. His method confided in giving
corrofive fublimate in French brandy or moloffes fpirits.
The proportion was a grain of the mercury to two ounces
of the fpirits; and his common dofe was from half an ounce
to an ounce, or, which is the fame thing, from one fpoon-
ful to two, twice a-day; adjuding the quantity to the
ftrength of the patient and to the virulence of the difeafe.
The operation was either by fweatorurine, efpecially when
the medicine proved mod fuccefsful. It was continued as
long as any of the fymptoms remained, with a low, fpare
diet, plenty of barley-water, and a little milk, or fome fuch
diluting liquor.
Of the Yaws.
The Yaws is a didemper endemical to Guinea and the
hotter climates in Africa ; but has- of late fpread by in-
fedtion over many parts of Europe. All are liable to it,
but more efpecially in childhood or youth.
It makes its fird appearance in little fpots on the cuti¬
cle, not bigger than a pin’s point, which increafe daily,
and become protuberant like pimples. Soon after, the
cuticle frets off; and then, indead of pus or ichor, there
appear white Houghs or fordes, under which is a fmall
red fungus. Thefe increafe gradually, fome to the fize
of a fmall wood-drawberry, others to that of a rafpberry,
others again exceed the larged mulberry, which in ffiape
they very much referable. In the mean time, the black
h^ir in the yaws turn to a tranfparent white.
It is not an eafy matter to determine the exadt time
which the yaws take in going through their different da-
dia. Ludy well-fed negroes have had feveral yaws as
big as a mulberry in a month’s time ; whereas the low in
fleih, with a fcanty allowance, have paffed three months,
without their growing to the fize of a ftrawberry.
The yaws appear in all parts of the body, but they are
mod plentiful and of the larged fize about the groin, pri¬
vy-parts, anus, arm-pits, and face. They are larged when
fewed in number, and vice verfa. They are not painful
unlefs handled roughly, nor caufe a lofsof appetite. They
continue long without any fenfible alteration; and whether
thhy would not in time, when the peccant mattter is ex-
'hauded through the fkin, vanifh of themfelves ; or turn
to corrofive ulcers, and affedt the bones with nodes, exo-
ftofes, and caries ; or, by enlarging the excretory dudtsof
the miliary glands, caufe a fluid totranfude more vifcid
than fweat, which by drying on the Ikin would render the
patient fcorbutic, fcabby, or leprous; is hard to fay. It
ss an infedtious difeafe.
Vox., III. N°. 74. 3
CINE. r37
The yaws are not dangerous, if the cure is flcilfully
managed at a proper time; but if the patient has been
once falivated, or has taken any quantity of mercury, and
his Ikin once cleared thereby, the cure will be very diffi¬
cult, if not impradticable.
The negroes who have been cured in Africa never have
them again in America.
As foon as the yaws begin to appear on a negroe, he
mud be removed to a houfe by himfelf; or, if it is not
certain whether the eruption is the yaws or not, ffiut him
up feven days, and look on him again, as the Jews were
commanded to do with their lepers, and in that time you
may be commonly certain.
As foon as you are convinced that it is the yaws,
Take a fcruple of flowers of fulphur ; five grains of
camphorated fpirit of wine; a dram of Androma-
chus’s treacle; and a fufficient quantity of fyrup of
faffron. Make them into a bolus, to be taken at
bed-time.
Repeat this bolus every night for a fortnight or three
weeks, or till the yaws come to the height ; that is, when
they neither increafe in fize or number: Then throw your
patient into a gentle falivation with calomel given in fmali
dofes, without farther preparation; five grains repeated
once, twice, or thrice a-day, is fufficient, as the patient
can bear it. If he fpits a quart in twenty-four hours, it
is enough. Generally, when the falivation is at this height,
all the yaws are covered with a dry fcaly crud, or fcab;
which, if numerous, look terribly. Thefe fall off daily
in fmall white fcales, and in ten or twelve days leave the
Ikin fmooth and clean. Then the calomel may be omit¬
ted, and the falivation permitted to go off of itfelf. A
dram of corrofive fublimate diflblved in an ounce of rum
or brandy, and the folution daubed on the yaws, will
clear the Ikin in two days time. After the falivation,
fweat the patient twice or thrice.
He may likewife drink the decodion of guaiacum and
faffafras fermented with moloffes, for his. condant drink.
Sometimes there remains one large yaw, high and knob¬
bed, red and moid; this is called the mader-yaw. This
mud beconfumed an eighth or a tenth part of an inch below
the Hein, with equal parts of corrofive mercury and burnt
alum, and digefted with an ounce of yellow bafilicon and
a dram of corrofive mercury, and cicatrized with lint
prefled out of fpirits of wine, and with the vitriol done.
To children under fix or feven years old, at the proper
time of falivating, £when the yaws are come to their full
growth,J give a grain or two of calomel in white fugar,
once a-day, one in two days, or once in three days, fo
as only to keep their mouths a little fore till the yaws
dry, and, falling off in white fcales, leave the Ikin clean.
This fucceeds always, but requires a longer time than in
adults.
The venereal difeafe and the yaws feem to be very di-
dinft didempers ; but the fymptoms, in confequence of
the yaws ill cured, coincide fo exaflly with the fymptoms
ofan inveterate French pox, that in mod cafes it will be
very difficult if not impoffible todidinguilh them.
Of the Scrophula, cr King’s Evil.
The King’s evil is attended with hard, feirrhous, and
M ra _ -often
138 M E D I
often indolent tumours, which arife by degrees in the
glands of the neck, under the chin, armpits, groin, hams,
arms, and wrifts; but it is moft commonly feated in the
neck, and beneath the ears.
Likewife cold tumours, which appear'on the joints and
bones, as on the knees, elbows, hands, and feet, but
more particularly on the fingers, are diforders of the fcro-
phulous kind: as alfo the greateft part of thofe obftinate
fluxions, which fall gradually on the joints, without a
manifeft caufe; and which are attended with an abfcefs,
a caries, and fwelfingof the bones, called the fpina vento-
far especially of the apophyfes and epiphyfes. Of the
fame-kind are likewife the oedemata or white fwellings
which arife in the arms, legs, and feet, principally about
the joints. They confilt of a jelly or coagulated lymph,
which puffs them up, but do not pit when preffed with
the fingers like dropfical fwellings.
In the eyes the fcrophula creates inflammations ; in
the eye-lids a puffing up of their edges with great forenefs
and fmall ulcers; in the angles of the eye a fifhila la-
chrymalis, by ulcerating the gland planted there for the
percolation of tears ; in the lips, exceffive and preterna¬
tural thicknefs; in the nofe it often creates the crufly ul¬
cer called ozasna. All which, except the laft, are often
the forerunners of this difeafe, antecedent to the great
fwellings and foul ulcers which appear in its maturer date.
The glands of the external parts are not alone attacked
with this difeafe ; for thofe of the mefentery are almoft
always affefted; which appears from the opening of per-
fons dying of this difeafe. Sometimes the difeafe begins
in the mefentery; and fometimes the liver, fpleen, womb,
Jungs, windpipe, brain, and other internal parts, are fcro-
phulous: Hence fcirrhous tumours, incurable cancers, ob-
Ilinate fluxions, rebellious ophthalmies, malignant abfcef-
fes, fiftulous ulcers, dangerous quinfeys, terrible epilep-
fies, mortal confumptions of the lungs, ftubborn jaundices,
dropfies, cholics, hypochondriac and hyfteric affedtions.
The fcrophulae are hard tumours, becaufe they are pro¬
duced by a thick coagulated matter ; they are cold, be¬
caufe they are caufed by a dagnation of the lymphain the
part affedted.
The fcrophulse may be faid to be benign, when they are
fuperficial; when they do not much raife the flcin, nor
change its colour ; when only the glands are puffed up,
and are foft, moveable, without adhefion and indolent.
The malignant fcrophulae are evident from the largenefs
td" the tumour, its hardnefs and adhefion ; from its be¬
coming livid or red; from its being painful ; and, when
ulcerated, from the callofity of the lips of the ulcer, and
from their, difficult cure.
As to the prognodics; the benign fcrophulae admit of
an eafy cure, efpeciaily if they are feated in the conglo¬
bate glands, and are moveable, fuperficial, and foft. Thofe
which attack the joints, the tendons, the ligaments, the
bones, which are near large veflels, or comprefs the afpe-
ra arteria, or the oefaphagus, are very difficult to cure.
The internal fcrophulse are much'more dangerous than the
external; for when they turn to an abfcefs, they are incu¬
rable. They are alfo more or lefs troubiefome in propor¬
tion to the progrefs they have made, the parts which they
attack, and the temperament of the patient. If the drumae
have been long ulcerated, and are become finous and vi-
C I N E.
rulent, and if they lie near one another, they often find a
communication, though they appear didinft: In this cafe
the lips grow callous, and the ulcers corrofive, frequently
fordid; and the cure is not to be expefted as long as one
cydis remains of the vedels that feed them. Thofe who
are feized with drumce in the neck after forty years of age,
feldom recover.
If drumous tumours arife from a caries in the bones of
the fingers or hands, the cure is difficult; but more fo in
the feet and toes. If in the os calcis, joint of the ancle,
or adragalus, or in the knee-bones, or ilchia, or the like,
where they cannot be fafely laid open, the cafe is deplo¬
rable, and the patient generally dies of a marafmus.
In the cure, the diet fhould be thin and attenuating!
light and eafy of digedion ; and all fait and fmoke-dried
meat fhould be carefully avoided; as alfo beef, pork, fids,
hare, cheefe, and in general all things that are hard of
digedion, or which yield indifferent nourifhment. The air
fhould be pure, fweet, and dry; and the body fhould be
kept always open.
The cure may be begun by bleeding, efpecially if the
patient is plethoric, and then a mercurial or antimonial
vomit; after which he fhould take a gentle purge, often
repeated, fuch as the common purging potion of Syden¬
ham ; and, as almod all remedies which are good in ve¬
nereal cafes are ufeful in this, mercurial vomits and purga¬
tives will be proper.
Some give ethiops mineral alone for three months; be¬
ginning with twelve grains, and increafing the dofe gradu¬
ally to a fcruple, or half a dram, and decreafing in the fame
manner.
It is certain that the united force of mercurials and an-
timonials will do wonders in thefe cafes, if prudently gi¬
ven and long continued; always beginning with fmall doles
at firfl.
Some make ufe of the decoftion of fponge ; the dofe
is four ounces : others, burnt or calcined fponge.; the
dofe is half a dram morning and evening. Turner
mentions a cure from an eledtuary made of the moft
gritty and fabulous fponges that could be got, which
were dried in an oven fo much as to be fit to pulverize.
The dofe was a Ipoonful night and morning.
Others recommend the abforbent powders and diapho¬
retic antimony ; others again, tindture of antimony in a
glafs of the decodtion of the woods ; Dr Francis Fuller, ■
the decodtion of colts-foot ufed for a long time. Fallopius
praifes the root of butchers-broom ; the dofe is a dram
with x. gr. of the root of common fiower-de-luce. Ara.
de Villanova looks on the root of fcrophularia or figwort
as a fpecific; the dofe is a fcruple in powder. And Allea
mentions two cures performed by white archangle, boiled
in milk, which it coagulates ; the whey of which muft
be drank, and the curd applied to the fores. Of late the
mineral waters of Moffat in Annandale have been drank
with great advantage.
Epfom fait diffolved in a pint of water in fuch a quan^
tity as to keep the body open, and taken like fea water,
has often cured this difeafe.
After al], we have another medicine whofe virtues in
curing this difeafe.have, been lately celebrated, viz. the
jeftuts bark.
x. Take of the belt rhubarb, half an ounce ; of ffo-
rentine
M E D I
rentine orris, an ounce ; of dried red rofes, a dram
and a half. Infufe thefe, after they have been cut
and bruifed, in two quarts of fnaall ale; and let the
patient drink a glafs of the colature twice a- day, with
the quantity of a nutmeg of the following eledluary:
2. Take of the powder of the Peruvian bark, fix drams.;
of faffafras bark in powder, tw-o ounces. Make them
into an eleftuary w ith afufficient quantity of the fyrup
of fugar.
Dr Fothergill has likewife long given the bark in fcro-
phulous diforders, and affirms that it may not only be given
with fafety, but to manifeft advantage in many pf thefe
cafes.
He gives the bark in a liquid form, in the following
manner :
3. Take of Peruvian bark in powder, an ounce; and
boil it in a quart of pure water to a pint. Towards
the end, add of diced liquorice-root half an ounce.
To the colature add of nutmeg-water two ounces,
and mix them. The dofe is two, three, or four
fpoonfuls, wdth ten, twenty, to forty drops of the
volatile tin&ure of guaiacum, twice or thrice in a
day.
A fmall quantity of winter’s bark, added to this me¬
dicine, gives it a grateful warmth, and renders a quantity
of the compound water lefs neceflary ; and a little li¬
quorice, a few raifins, gum arabic, or the like, added to
the deco&ion before it is taken off the fire, by making
the liquor vifcid, enables it to fufpend more of the fine
particles of the bark, and at the fame time renders it lefs
difagreeable.
The dwellings of the joints, commonly called white-
fwellings, are of the ftrumous kind, and of two forts :
they are both made by congedion, and increafe gradually;
the one arifes externally upon the tendons, and between
them and the fkin, or between them and the bone ; the
tuber internally, within the bone itfelf.
That which arifes externally affeds the ligaments and
tendons firft; and fometimes relaxes them to fuch a de¬
gree, that the heads of the joints frequently feparate one
from another, and the membfer wades away and grows
ufelels. But mod commonly the humours, by over-
tnoidening the ligaments and tendons, produce a weak-
nefs and uneafinels in the joints, raifing a tumour exter¬
nally, and, in its progrefs,. the membranes and bones are
corroded by the humour. It will be more certain that
the tumour is the offspring of the king’s evil, if there are
drumous fymptoms in any other part of the body
In order to the cure, in the beginning of the fluxion,
apply adringent and drying pladers of red lead and bole,
with moderate bandage, and place the member in fuch a
pofition as may prevent the defeent of the humours. The
internal remedies maybe the fame as in the general cure.
Gheyne and Allen fay, water pumped.on the tumour is a
certain remedy.
Of tie Cancer-.
ACancer is a hard, round, unequal, painful, and ge-
nerally-immoveable tumour, of a livid, blackifh, or leaden
colour, iurrounded with fwtlled, crooked, varicous vef-
c I N E. 1.3 9
fels, in fome fort refembling the feet of a crab, from
whence this tumour takes its name.
A cancer is either occult or manifed. An occult
begins at fird with a fmail and almod indolent turaour, a-
bout the fize of a pea, or a hazle-mut, which does not
change the ,colour of the Ikin, and fometimes lies dormant
for feveral years without making any progrefs.
But as foon as the virulent humour begins to be¬
come more a<$ive, the-fmall tubercle becomes all of a
fudden a large, round, livid tumour, with an unequal
fuperficies. It is generally attended with an intenfe
ffiooting pain. At length it begins to eat and break
through the fkin, and fo becomes a manifed of ulcerated
cancer, from whence proceeds a fordid, vifcid, bloody,
fanious or ichorous matter, attended with an infupportabie
dench
Though a cancer may infeft any part of the body, it
generally appears in the breads, armpits, behind the ears,
in the lips, nofe, and private parts: women are more fub-
je<3 to them than men. Its general feat is the glands,
and is a-kin to a feirrhus,
An occult cancer is known to be formed, when, after
the figns of a preceeding feirrhus, a titillation, itching,
heat, rednefs, are gradually perceived, with a ffiooting,
burning, pricking pain. The colour of the fkin likewife
changes from a carnation to a deep red ; then it becomes
purple, blueiffi, livid, and at length black: The part
feels very hard, unequal, and rough ; then it rifes with
an apex in the middle; the fwelling increafes, and the
adjacent veins become tumid, knotty, varicous, thick,
and black. .
When it begins to break, the fit in is excoriated, and
there tranfudes through it a thin ffiarp ichor.
After this the found veffels on the edges of the cancer,
being diftended by the rifing of the tumour, are broken ;
hence arifes a putrefatfton, which turns into a fubti]>
fliarp, fetid, cadaverous fanies, which, corroding and
eating away the found parts, makes a progrefs in depth
as well as in circumference, and fends forth malignant
roots, by which it takes fafl: hold ; the lips become tumid,
parched, and offenfive to the fight; the pain is intoler-,
able, with a fenfe of burning, pricking, and gnawing;
the colour becomes cineritious, livid and black. After¬
wards arifeoccult cancers communicating with the glands*
haemorrhages; convulfions; a flow fever ; a general
wafting; lofs of fmell; callous tubercles in the ears with¬
out pain ; fainting, fits. The parts being thus eaten ar
way and confumed, death enfues.
In perfons of a good habit, an occult cancer may be
pretty eafilyborne; but if it bedifturbed, the preceding
ravage muft be expected.
A fmall, incipient, free cancer, feated in a fuitable
place-, not joining to large veffels, arifing from an ex¬
ternal caufe, in a juvenile, found body, and being the
only one in .the body, ffiould be extirpated without delay,
Outward applications of all kinds,. except the pluniT
beous and narcotic, are to be fhunned, becaufe they ha,ve
a tendency to ulcerate an occult cancer.
If the cancer be large, old, adherent, in a place unapt
for extirpation, growing to or lying upon large veffels
arifieg
14® M E D §
arifing from an internal caufe ; and the patient being old,
dlfpofed to^thefe kind of diforders, and having more than
one; neither excifion nor topics are proper.
ForUnlefs it be extirpated, root, branch, and feed, it
will be exafperated, and ftrike inwards, generate others,
, and increafe thofe already formed.
The caufe of a cancer mult be taken away with it, or
before an attempt of that kind is made.
A cancer of the fauces, palate, armpits, or groin, is
incurable; of the lips is hard to cure.
When a cancer is large, &c. as above-mentioned, all
we can do is to leave it at reft, and to appeafe thefymptoms.
The firlt point is obtained by defending it from exter¬
nal injuries, by applications confiding of plumbeous in¬
gredients and narcotics ; by diminilhing and correcting the
caufe. For this purpofe cathartics with mercurials in a
fmall, and fometimes in a double dofe, will be proper;
as alfo diluents, aperients, and fubalkalious remedies;
taking care not in any manner to increafe the caufe.
When the cancer is ulcerated, if it cannot be taken off,
it Ihould be kept as clean as'poffible, and be appeafed
with the mod foft faturnine applications.
Mr Gataker has found, that the folanum hortenfe, as
well as the lethal, otherwife called belladonna, has had
furprifing effefts in the cure of obdinate pains, ulcers
without malignity, fcorbutic eruptions, and even cancer¬
ous ulcers of the face, and fcrophulous fores on the thighs.
Junker affirms belladonna has cured a mod deplorable
cancer of the bread. The dofe of either is a grain or
two at night going to bed, which fometimes makes the
>.patient giddy at fird. Three will often vomit, fweat,
or purge the patient moderately. Boiling water mud be
poured upon the herb, which mud be afterwards fqueezed
out.
0/* Elephantiasis, or Leprofy 0/ /^Arabians.
The leprofy is faid to be of two kiuds ; that of the
Greeks, and that of the Arabians. The latter is called ele-
phantiafis, from the roughnefs, inequalities, and tubercles
in the Ikin, refembling that of an elephant. Lucretius fup-
pofed it to be generated in Egypt, and no where elfe ;
but if the leprofy of the Jews is the fame as that of the
negroes, which is highly probable, then we may affirm
? that it is endemical to the fouthern and inland parts of
Africa.
That it was contagious, all hidories agree, as well fa-
cred as profane ; and thePerfians would not let a leprous
perfon come within the city-walls.
Pliny informs us, that the fird appearance of the ele-
phantiafis is in the face, particularly a fmall fpeck appears
on the nofe or nodril ; and, as the difeafe increafes, the
whole body is full of fpots of various colours ; the’ikin
is thick in one place, and thin in another, hard and
rough, with fcabs. In procefs of time, the ikin turns
black, andthe difeafe eats away the fleffito the very bones.
Celfus obferves, that the fpots grow tumid and red, and
then turn black, and the ikin is covered, as it were, with
fcales. Then the body falls away, the mouth, legs, and
feet fwell, and the fingers and toes are hid with a fwelling ;
even the bones themfelves do not efcape; afterwards a
fever arifes, to which the patient falls an eafy viftim.
But to fet this matter in a dill clearer light, it will be
C I N E.
neceffary to add dhedefcription of this difeafe from Guido
deChauliat. The leprofy, fays he, commonly begins in
the face and forehead, in which filthy tubercles make
their appearance, and by degrees fpread all over the bo¬
dy, The eyebrows fwell; the nodrils grow wider out¬
wardly, and draiter inwardly; the lips are disfigured
with an unfightly tumour; the voice is hoarfe and fnuf-
fling ; the ears are turned back ; the forehead is protu¬
berant ; the face is of a purple colour ; the veins under
the tongue are varicous and black ; the mufcles between
the fort-finger and the thumb are eaten away; the hair
falls off from the head and e/dbrows ; afterwards the Ikin
of the whole body becomes black and full of fpots, rough
and unequal, with crudy fcabs full of knobs and fiffures,
of horrible afpedt, which makes it appear like the fkin of
an elephant. After this, the fingers and toes begin to
fwell; and then the legs, which, being covered with
rugged inequalities, feem like two facks for magnitude.
Befides all this, the patient is infatiable with regard to ve¬
nereal pleafures. The blood is fetid, fpotted and black,
and will not coagulate.
This difeafe is hereditary and infe&ious: for it may be
caught by the faliva of a leper, if a found perfon drinks
after him ; by touch ; by lying in the lame bed ; and by
coition.
An inveterate leprofy was judged to be abfolutely in¬
curable. But Aretaeus fays, when the difeafe is new
and recent, there are hopes of a cure. What he and
Celfus prefcribe in oifder to the cure, are not worth re¬
peating ; for, if any medicines will do, they mult be of
the Herculean kind. Authors are exceffive in the praife
of viper’s fleffi, which Hoffman judges to be quite infig-
nificant. Joel advifes bleeding and purging, with xij
grains of the extract of black hellebore, or iij gr. of the
glafs of antimony in conferve of rofes ; but the vitrum ce-
ratum is more fafe, and may be given in a larger dofe.
Towneconfeffes, that antimonial preparations yielded moft
relief in Barbadoes ; but he could not fay that they per-
fe£led the cure. On the other hand, mercury exafpe-.
rated the diflemper, irritated the ulcers, and made them
fpread the fatter.
Of the Impetigo, or Leprofy 0/the Greeks.
This diftemper begins with red pimples or puftules
breaking out in various parts of the body; fometimes
they appear fingle; fometimes a great number arife toge¬
ther, efpecially on the arms and legs: as the difeafe in¬
creafes, freffi pimples appear, which joining the former
make a fort of clutters, all which enlarge their borders
and fpread in an orbicular form. The fuperficies of thefe
puttules are rough, whitiffi, and fcaly: when they are
fcratched, the fcales fall off; upon which a thin ichor
oozes out, which foon dries and hardens into a fcaly crutt.
Thefe clutters of puttules are, at fiitt, fmall and few,
that is, three or four in an arm, or leg only, and of the
fize of a filver penny. But, if the difea’e is fufftred to
increafe,, they become more numerous, and the clutters
enlarge their circumference to the bignefs of a crown-
piece, but not exactly round. Afterwards it gradually
increafes in fuch a manner that the whole body is covered
with a leprous fcurf.
Willis
M E D I
Willis blames all dried and faked meats, efpecially
hog’s flefh ; and fifh, particularly fhell-fifti, becaufe the
poor people in Cornwal, inhabiting near the fea coaft,
were formerly much fubjed to leprous difeafes, and had
many hofpitals ereded on that account.
In the method of cure, fays Hoffman, we fhould en¬
deavour to difcharge out of the body the mafs of corrupt,
glutinous, and acrid humouis, by fufficient bleeding and
abftinence, and by purges, as well gentle as draflit;; then,
by proper aliment and a good regimen, promote the'genera-
tion of wholfome juices ; and, likewife by external, de-
terfivey confolidating, and drying remedies, to free the
parts from pains, tumours, itching, and ulcers.
The purges may confifl: of the root and the refin of
jalap, the extrad of black hellebore, elaterium mixed
with calomel, or ethiops m neral, and gum ammoniac.
Among thofe things which kimulate the folid parts to
an excretory motion, and more powerfully melt down
the tenacious humours, the lignum and cortex guaiac. ex¬
ceed all others, as they will generally alone cure the lues
venerea. The mofl confiderable, befides thefe, are the
tartarized and acrid tindure of antimony, fulphur of an¬
timony, cinnabar, and, if a venereal taint is fufpeded, a
decodion of crude antimony. Which medicines, in a
convenient dofe, in the morning, with purifying decoc¬
tions drank in bed, afford very great relief.
But, if thefe fail, recourfe muft be had to mercury,
which fome, after extindion, mix with flowers of ful¬
phur. and camphor, and rub it on the joints to promote a
falivation : others qiore properly give mercurius dulcis,
with double the quantity of crabs-eyes and calx of anti¬
mony, rifing gradually from three or four grains to a
fcruple, in order to falivate; with the ufual precautions.
The cure may alfo be performed with alterative and dia¬
phoretic preparations of mercury, fuch as mercurius fo-
laris and jovialis ; of which a few grains may be exhi¬
bited every morning in conferve of rofes for fome weeks,
drinking in bed after it a pint of fome proper decodion.
But it muft be obferved, that each of thefe methods
of cure requires an air very temperate, a fpare thin diet,
and an abftinence from fat, and boiled flefh, and acids.
Of the Itch.
The itchis a cutaneous difeafe, arifing from a corrup¬
tion of a ferous lymphatic matter, fometimes attended
with mild, fometimes with more obftinate and dangerous
fymptoms. The itch of the milder fort appears either
with moift or dry puftules, at firft about the joints, and
from thence fpreads by degrees over all the body, the
head only excepted. In the moift fort, to which chil¬
dren and the fanguineo-phlegmatic are moft fubjed, the
puftules are more fullbf apurulent matter, attended with
a flight inflammation, which is manifeft from the rednefs
which appearsTound about themtill it fuppurates., The
dry fort chiefly attacks thofe that are lean, old, or are
of a melancholico-choleric conftitution: In thefe, the
puftules are much lefs, and excite a moft intolerable
itching, efpecially in the night-time. The moft ufual
places-where the eruptions appear very numerous, and the
itching is greateft, are between the fingers, on the arms,
hams, and thighs.
Vol. III. Numb. 75.
CINE. 141
^ ' This difeafe is, truly and properly fpeaking, a difeafe
of the fkin ; becaufe it often is fafely cured by topics a-
lone, if timely applied. It is contagious, and may be
caught by drawing on a glove or flocking, wiping oh.
the linen, or lying in fheets after perfons infeded with this
malady. Some think it owing to an impurity in the fe~
rum, and fome to animalculse. But however that be, it
often affeds fuch who have been long kept in prifon, who
lead inadive lives, and are ufed to live in a fluttifh nafty
manner, or who conftantly eat fifh or flefh dried in the
fmoak or fun, and ufe any other unwhojefome food or
drinks ; or who live in a cold, moift, aud cloudy air,
which, hindering a free perfpiration, caufes a ftagnation
of humours in the fuperficies of the body, which are for
that reafon liable to corrupt.
The milder fort of itch is noway dangerous, and very
eafy to cure; but the moift more eafy than the dry.
While it is recent and fuperficial, it much fooner yields
to remedies, than when it is deep, and has infeded the
mafs of blood ; and the cafe is ftill worfe, if there be
any fault in the vifcera it is more difficult in old perfons
than young; in a leuco-phlegmatic or hydropical difpofi-
tion, as alfo in a very dry hedic one, it is hard to cure ;
and, when it becomes univerfal, it may bring on the leprofy. ■
The patient fhould avoid fhell-fifh, and all faked and
high feafoned meats ; as alfo wine, fpiritous liquors,
ftrong beer, and every thing elfe that may inflame the
blood. For this reafon a llender diet is belt, unlefs per¬
fpiration beobftruded.
If the body is phlethoric, we are to begin by bleeding,
and afterwards to purfue it by purging, which cannot
fafely be omitted.
Inftead of repeating purging, it is common to give
flowers of fulphur in milk, or treacle, with good fuccefs.
Willis and many others have a great opinion of the ef¬
ficacy of fulphur ufed both internally and'externally; to
which Turner affents, except in hedic and confumptive
cafes. But Shaw thinks it is not to be depended on
when outwardly ufed. Yet it is very certain that poor
people find a great deal of benefit who drink it inwardly
with milk, and ufe it outwardly with butter, or hog’s-lard.
Turner prefers the fait of tartar to moft other reme¬
dies, it thoroughly purging and cleanfing the blood taken
inwardly, and, made into a lixivium with Ipring water, is
an excellent wafh outwardly.
When the blood is thought to be foul, it will be pro¬
per to ufe diet-drinks, through the whole courfe, of the
roots of china, farfaparilla, oxylapathum, fcorzonera,
chichoreum, glycyrrhiza, polypodium, the barks of faf-
fafras, cinnamomum, the lhavings of the woods of faf-
fafras, and the like ; which will ftrengthen the folid parts,
and dry up fuperfluous humidities.
It has been a very common practice to cure the itch by
quickfilver girdles; but Turner thinks them too hazar¬
dous to b^ brought into regular practice, and Shaw feems
to be of the fame opinion.
But after all this, if the difeafe fliould prove fo ftub-
born as not to give way to the moft powerful of the pre¬
ceding methods, recourfe muft be had to falivation as
the dernier refort, which will prove effedtual when every
thing elfe fails; which, however, is not to be made .ufe of till
N n 2 the
i42 M E D I
the cafe is fo defperate as to render it abfolutely neceffary.
OyH/EMORRHAGES in general.
The blood, which flows fpontaneoufly, generally pro¬
ceeds from thofe places which are of a fine and thin tex¬
ture, in whofe furface the flender veflels creep along
with various meanders ; fuch as the inward part of the
noflrils, the bronchia of the lungs, the flefhof the gums,
the left fide of the ftomach, the gut ilium, and the ex¬
tremities of the re<3um, as alfo the external fubftance of
the womb and vagina. When thefe parts are diftended,
and the fmall arteries open, the blood often breaks out
with violence.
Sometimes, though but feldom, haemorrhages happen
in other places where the veffels lie deeper ; as from the
little finger, from the hand and knee, the breafts in the
time of menftroation. There are likewife inftances of
periodical fluxes from the penis in men.
They generally happen to perfons whofe bodies are of
a foft, fpongy, tender texture, and whofe velfels are
turgid with blood and ferum. Thefe were formerly faid
to be of a fanguine conftitution, and are fuojeft to hae¬
morrhages as long as they live. But the choleric, who
have larger vefluds, whofe fibres are more firongly bra¬
ced, and whofe blood circulates with greater rapidity, are
liable to a fpitting of blood in their youth. The fan-
guineo-melancholtc are fubjedt to the bleeding piles; and
women who are fanguineo-phlegmatic, are obnoxious to
vomiting blood.
Boys and youths are moft fubjedt to bleed at the nofe;
in young men the blood feeks an exit from the lungs,
whence hasmoptoes and confumptions; the middle-aged
are more liable to haemorrhoidal evacuations, and decrepid
old men to pilling of blood.
Haemorrhages are moft frequent at the fpring and fall;
hence fanguineous apoplexies at thofe feafons, which are
nothing elfe but eruptions of the blood in the middle of
the brain. Vomiting and'pilling of blood are more fre
quent in the autumn. In fome, thefe excretions happen
periodically.
When haemorrhages proceed from a fulnefs of the vef¬
fels, they conduce to the prefervation of health ; but when
they are caufed by a poifonous acrid matter, as in malig¬
nant and fpotted fevers, they are exceeding dangerous.
Alfo when they are derived from an infarction, indura¬
tion, and corruption of the vifcera, efpecially of the
liver, fpleen, or lungs, they are generally fatal, becaufe
they bring on a cachexy, dropfy, the black difeafe of
Hippocrates, and a mortal heCtic.
Of BtEEDt-NG’ at the Nose.
A H^morrhagr at the nofe is owing to the more
plentiful appulfe of blood to the noftrils by a ftrange-mo-
tion of the heart, whereby the fmall arteries in the pitui¬
tary coat become turgid, and too much diftended, till at
length they gape, and the blood rulbes out. (
A bleeding, of the nofe may be promoted when perfons
of fedentary lives that indulge their appetites, and fo be¬
come plethoric, put their blood into extraordinary agita¬
tion by violent paflions and exercife, by fpirituous liquors.
CINE.
fpices, heating volatile medicines, hot baths, or fuddenly
chilling their feet.
Likewife the fudden change of air from hot to cold,
and cold to hot, by firs, efpecially at the equinoxes,
may caufe this bleeding; as alfo when from cold and
moift the air becomes highly elaftic, and vice verfa.
Thofe, moreover, are liable to it who are afflufted with rheu¬
matic, nephritic, arthritic, andifchiadic pains, or whohave
fevers or fpafms. It fometimes happens before the erup¬
tions of the fmall pox and meafles, and to thofe who have
loft a large limb, or who labour under obftrudtions of
the liVer and fpleen ; hence, in an inveterate f.urvy, drop¬
fy, and cachexy, there often happens a fatal haemorrhage.
It differs much as to the quantity; fome lofe only a
few drops, fome feverai ounces, and fome five or fix
pounds. No haemorrhage.is more apt to return ; which
it does to fome in a few days, to others in a few hours.
To the plethoric it is generally falutary; and there are
many inftances of a vertigo, a fcotomia, dull heavy pains
of the head, a phrenzy, and even an epilepfy, being car¬
ried off by a bleeding at the nofe. On the contrary,
from its f'uppreflion there have arifen vertigoes, apo¬
plexies, epilepfies, convulfions, noife in the ears, and
hardnefs of hearing, and even a gutta ferena.
Thefe haemorrhages are critical and falutary in a fy-
nochus on a femicritical day, that is, between the third
and fourth, or on a critical day, viz. the feventh : for,
as thefe fevers are generally caufed by a plethora, they
are carried off that way.
But enormous and long-continued bleedings at the
nofe, when they arife from fpafms of the internal parts,
and are preceded with coldnefs of the extreme parts, and
fainting fits, generally terminate in death.
After a revulfion by bleeding, there is nothing equal to
nitre to appeafe the orgafm of the blood, and to relax the
fpaftic ftridure. Next to thefe are vegetable acids; fuch
as the juice of Seville oranges, barberries, the water and
juice of wood-forrel; but more efpecially the diluted fpirit
of vitriol, tinftureof rofes, made with the water of wood-
forrel and the fpirit of vitriol, and drank with fpring-
water. [Five or fix fpoonfuls of the' common tindlureof
rofes may be given at a time, and repeated ^s occafion
requires.]
If the bleeding is very inordinate, it will be proper to
ufe cooling emullions, gentle or ftronger opiates to mode¬
rate the fpaftic ftridhires, as occafion {hall require. Cam¬
phor, mixed with nitre and calx of antimony, will be
highly neceffary, if the matter of exanthemata or cuta¬
neous eruptions is the caufe of the haemorrhage, as is often
the cafe.
A revulfion may be made from the head, by bleeding
in the lower parts; then by temperate pediluvia, and
putting the hands into warm water.
As there is often an acrid bilious matter lodged in the
hypochondria, the parent of wind and fpafms, the powder
of rhubarb will be proper, mixt with a few grains oftartar-
vitriolate and nitre; as alfo emollient and carminative
clyfters, with a due proportion of oih
Externally, refrigerants may be mixed with difcutients,
and applied to the forehead, nofe, and neck.
But
M E D I
But it muft be noted, that, when the patient is plethoric,
the bleeding mufl: not be flopped haflily, if at all ; nor
when the menfes in women have been fupprefled, or the
lochia, or the bleeding piles in men accuftomed thereto ;
muchlefs mufl a ftoppage be attempted when the bleeding
itfelf is periodical.
In perfons of a bilious conftitution, cold water alone,
drank freely, has had a goodeffecS.
The cachetflic fhould perfift long in the taking of rhu¬
barb, either alone, or mixed with digeftive falts, fuch as
tartar-vitriolate. If there is any fcorbutic diforder in the
vifcera, befides rhubarb, the patient ftiould drink plenti¬
fully of whey.
If any dHeafe proceeds from the ceflation of this cu-
ftomary haemorrhage, it ftiould be promoted with a pen
or a flraw thruft into the nofe.
Some recommend the weaker fpirit of vitriol, and
would have eight or ten drops.of it be given in every
draught of liquor. But perhaps the beft method of all
in obflinate haemorrhages is that recommended by Mead
in the bloody fmall-pox ; or the Peruvian bark alone will
generally befufficient.
Of the Bleeding and Blind Piles.
A Flux of blood from the haemorrhoidal veflels is
called the bleeding piles ; when the veflels only fwell
and difcharge no blood, but are exceeding painful, they
are termed the blind piles.
All copious fluxes of blood from the anus are not to be
reckoned of the morbous kind. For the habit of body,
ftrength, age, and temperament, are to be coqfidered.
That which is enormous and exceflive to one perfon,
may be be moderate and falmary to another. That only
is to be efteemed pernicious, which continues too long,
and enfeebles the patient; whereby digeflion, nutrition,
and other funftions are hurt, and there is reafon to fear
the produdtion of dangerous chronical difeafes.
Anexceflive hasmorrhoidal flux is generally preceded
by a heavy prefling pain of the back and loins ; fometimes
a numbnets of the legs and thighs- a conftriftion of the
external parts, with a flight fliivering, and a fubfidence of
the veflels therein; a hard contratted pulfe ; a drynefs of
the mouth and faeces; the urine diminifhed in quantity,
and moft, comnfonly pale ; a fenfe of weight about the
anus extending to the perinseum; a, weaknefs of the fto-
mach; a flatulency in the lower belly; a frequent defire
to make water and to go to ftqol, with fometimes an
exclufion of white bilious mucus; the old and weak have
a procidentia ani.
In this' cafe, the blood is generally at firft black and
very grumous, and fometimes comes away in large clots
from the varicous veflels; afterwards It becomes red; and
at lafl ferous: fometimes it is pituitous, or like the white
of an egg. There are inftances of voiding a pint or a
quart of blood daily; it often continues long, from twen¬
ty to thirty, or even forty days.
This flux entirelyprocteds from the hasmorrhoidal vefi
fels. The^external ot blind piles feldom bleed, but turn
to painful varices ; which being opened weep a little, but
will not yield much blood. But the internal piles, which
are the offspring of the fplenic branch, and are extended
CINE. 143
to the inner fubftance of the reflum, and as far as the
fphin&er of the anus, together with the fmall arteries de¬
rived from the lower mefaraic, not only bleed plentifully,
but, when the flux is fupprefled, create difeafes of the
liver, fpleen, pancreas, mefentery, and inteftines.
The perfons fubjeifl to this difeafe are thofe of a loofe,
fpongy texture, of a bulky fize, who live high, and lead
a fedentary life; or to whom it is hereditary. Sharp
purges, aloetics, bigh-feafbned food, free drinking of
fweet wines, negleft of cuflomary bleeding, anger, fad-
nefs, hard riding, and the like, will ufher in this diforder.
This haemorrhage is dangerous, becaufe it decays the
ftrength, waftes the body, and produces a fenfe of weight
in the thighs, The fleep is laborious, and the praecordia
oppreffed-. there is a rumbling in the belly, and a weak
pulfe. When it continues long, the ancles fwell, and the
countenance is ghaftly; there is a ftraitnefs of breathing;
and laft of all it terminates in a cachexy, dropfy, or a
flow and bedtic fever.
If the patient is plethoric, bleed; and let his drink be
cold water of the chalybeate kind, or whey turned with
orange-juice; or juleps made with tincture of rofes, cool¬
ing waters, and lyrup of rofes ; likewife nitre in pow¬
der, with abforbents and ftrengtheners ; and, to appeafe
the fpafms, opiates of the mildeft kind.
If it continues long, and the flux begins to be ferous,
then-give rhubarb with curants or tamarinds, or, which
is much the fame, w ith cream of tartar. Then gentle
diaphoretics may be compounded of burnt hartftiorn,
calx of antimony, wine-vinegar mixed with crab’s-eyes,
water of elder-flowers, fimple alexitereal water, and dia-
fcordium; or hot decodtions of yarrow, veronica, <&c.
maybe taken in bed, in order to fweat; alfo half a grain
of camphor, mixed with nitrous and bezoardic powders.
In the Blind Piles there is a moft intenfe pain, es¬
pecially at the time of going to ftool, and the excrements
are tinged with blood. Sometimes tumours like warts
lie hid in the fphindter, or appear in the verge of the anus.
Sometimes the veins, in the blind piles, are fo much
dilated with blood as to be very painful and raife tuber¬
cles as large as peas, g’apes, or eggs : They appear li¬
vid, and black, from the ftagnation of a thick blood, and,
when preffed with the fingers, feel like a bladder filled
with liquor. Somr are foft and indolent; others hard,
inflamed, and painful; render the patient unable to walk,
ftand, or fit; and produce fuch a fpafm in the anus as
not to admit a clyfter. Sometimes they bleed, or turn
to troublefome itching ulcers, and occafion an abfcefs or
fiflula.
Linen dipped in warm fpirits of wine, and emollients,
are often of infinite fervice; and, w'hen they-fail, leeches
may be applied to exhauft the blood’: If they are not
at hand, and the parts are inflamed, the lancet muft be
ufed; then dreffmgs.muft be made with lint, with comprefles
and the T bandage. The tubercles, which are full and large,
maybe removed by a ligature, unlefs inflamed. Sometimes
they are high in the retfum ; and then a fpeculum ani
mufl be ufed; in which cafe they muft be either fcarified
with a lancet, or divided with fciflars, that the thick
noxious blood may be difeharged, and the pains relieved.
Of
T44 M E D I
Of the Immoderate Flux of the Menses.
Th e fymptoms which attend this diforder, are lofs of
ftrength, anxiety of the praecordia, fainting, coldnefs of
the extreme parts, palenefs, convulfions, fuffbcations; and,
when it is inveterate, oedematous fwellings of the feet, a
cachexy, dropfy, the fluor albus, a heflic fever, and an
atrophy.
Sometimes the flux returns twice in a month ; and at
others continues feveral days longer than ufual. It
comes fometimes before and fometimes after abortion.
Sometimes florid blood rufhes out with impetuoflty, mofl:
Frequently before a mifcarriage, and after it from a reten¬
tion of part of the after birth, which keeps the orifices of
the veflels open. Sometimes clots of blood come away
of the fize of an egg, when the menfes have been flopped
for two or three months. A black, grumous, coagula¬
ted blood will now and then come away on the firft days
of child bed, when the patient is flender and plethoric.
In the cache&ic, the flux will be often thin and watery; in
the fcorbutic corrupt and fetid, attended with fliarpnefs
and pain.
It is fometimes caufed by a great afflux of blood to the
•uterus, which is not returned in due quantity by the
veins; for which reafon the veflels often burft. The
‘fame happens from a plethora, and from hard labour.
About the fiftieth year, when the menfes ceafe fpontane-
oufly, a great and fometimes dangerous flux will happen,
and then quite difappears. If it fhould fuddenly and un¬
expectedly return about fixty, with flooding, it brings on
a fatal heCtic fever.
This difeafe is generally preceded and accompanied
with a tenfion and inflation of the hypochondria ; a heavy,
prefling pain about the loins, with a chilnefs ; as alfo a
coldnefs of the extreme parts, a fubfidence of the veflels,
a palenefs, a quick pulfe, an inward heat, a coflivenefs,
and little urine.
If a child-bed woman is not fufficiently cleanfed at her
lying-in, a great haemorrhage will follow fome months
after, with fainting fits, and will not terminate till the
excretion of a carnous mafs as big as one’s lift, which the
fex call a mole.
If the body is cacochymic, and full of depraved juices;
fcorbutic, or infeCled with the venereal lues; when the
vifcera are unfound, and the liver, fpleen, and meferaic
veflels are fluffed with a black, thick blood ; this difeafe
is not without danger. The patient’s life is greatly in
danger when the child is dead before delivery, and a
great flux of blood happens. It is dangerous when
caufed by a violent extraction of the after-birth ; or
when pieces of it are left behind, which afterwards be¬
come moles, and greatly vitiate and increafe the menftru-
al flux.
if the patient is plethoric, bleed in the arm. If there
is an orgafm in the blood, diluents, humeCtants, and re¬
frigerants, will be moft efficacious : in this cafe fpring-wafer
may he drank alone, or with a little nitre, or with fpirit
, of vitriol and fyrup of poppies; the fpafms require gentle
opiates. To carry off the impure ferum, two ounces at
leatt of manna muft be given, with a dram of cream of
CINE.
tartar in an aqueous vehicle. If the flux is obftinate,
recourfe muft be had to aftringents.
Thomfon of Montrofe recommends an khprovement
of Helvetius’s ftyptic powder; which confifls of two parts
of crude alum, and one T>f dragon’s blood.; whereas
Thomfon’s is equal parts of each ; and the alum is to be
burnt in a crucible, and the dragon’s blood added to it,
and afterwards powdered. Mead has three parts of burnt
alum to one'of dragon’s blood.
He fays he never found this medicine fail in uterine
hxmorrhages, whether to correCt|the too frequent return
of the menfes, or their too great abundance, or to flop the
flooding of women with child, or to moderate the flux of
the lochia.
The quantities which he gives are more or lefs, ac¬
cording to the exigencies of the patient. In violent bleed¬
ings, half a dram every hour; and three drams or half
an ounce feldom or neyer fail to flop the flux.
Of a Haemorrhage from the Urinary paflfages.
This diforder is commonly called piffing of blood; and
is an emiflion of blood with or without urine, from the
veflels of the kidneys or bladder, which may be either
enlarged, broken, or eroded. It is more or lefs dangerous,
according to the different circumftances which attend it.
If pure blood is voided fuddenly without interruption
and without pain, we may conclude it proceeds from the
kidneys. It likewife comes from the kidneys, if the
urine is coffee-coloured or more florid, and generally
precedes a fit of the gravel, but fometimes accompanies
the paffage of a ftone through the ureters. But if the
blood is fmall in quantity, and of a dark colour, with or
without purulent matter, chiefly if it is emitted with heat
and pain in the pubes, it certainly proceeds from the
bladder. This is fometimes attended with fainting, dif¬
ficult breathing, alow, fmall, and frequent pulfe, anaufea,
anxiety, and cold fweats.
When it proceeds from the ureters, which are hurt by
a large, rough ftone, and a fmall quantity of blood is
mixed with the urine, there is a (harp pain in the loins and
ilia, and a difficulty of making water, which when made
has a fabulous fediment, and other figns of a ftone flick¬
ing in the ureter. When the coats of the bladder are
hurt by a ftone, and a little blood follows, it is attended
with a moft acute pain and a previous ftoppage of the u-
rine, together with grumes and fabulous concretions ;
which alfo fometimes happens when a ftone is firmly fixed
in the kidney.
It may be occafioned by a ftoppage of the hsemorrhoid-
al flux ; from violent motion of the body, efpecially ri¬
ding; from a ftone concealed in the kidney : from an ero-
fion and ulcers of the bladder ; from external violence ;
from griping p^ins caufed by violent purges; from ffiarp
diuretics, efpecially cantharides.
All bloody urine has fome degree of danger; but it is
moft fo when mixed with purulent matter.
If the patient is plethoric, or if it proceeds from the
fuppreflion of afanguineous evacuation, bleeding is necef-
fary; as alfo cooling nitrous draughts, and purified nitre
mixed with abforbents, with whey for a vehicle, or barley-
water.
M E D I
water, or fmall-beer,, acidulated with feme drops of the
fpirit of vitriol. The body muft be kept open with lax¬
atives, as rhubarb with currants, or with cream of tartar ;
as alfo emollient clyfters. The relaxed veflels mull be
agglutinated with deco&ions of vulnerary herbs; fuch as
agrimony, ground-'ivy, yarrow, golden-rod, and the roots
of comfrey dulcified with virgin-hbney, to which milk
may be occafionally added. Almond milk is likewife
good, efpecially if ufed as a vehicle with bole-armeniac.
If there is an ulcer in the kidneys or bladder, medi¬
cines mufl be given that fheathe the acrimony ; Tuch as
fyrup of marfhmallows ; alfo infufionS of the vulnerary
herbs above mentioned ; likewife of the bark of the roots
of acacia and cherry tree gum.
When grumous blood plugs up the paflage of the ure¬
ters into the bladder, or the fphin&er of the bladder, and
occafions a difficulty or ftoppage of urine, warm water
drank plentifully, and baths of the fame, are ufeful; like¬
wife warm water ffiould l?e injefled into the bladder with
a fyringe, that the ffiarp humour may be diluted and the
grumes diffolved. But, if the urine Ihould be quite flop¬
ped with a fpafm, then give emitlfions of the four cold
feeds, with crab’s-eyes and calx of antimony; or a powder
made of fperma ceti, crab’s-eyes, and nitre. Externally,
apply a bladder filled with the decoftion of emollient
flowers in milk to the abdomen ; and keep the body open
with manna, or an emollient oily clyffer.
Milk and whey are likewife excellent in thefe diforders,
if a dram of bole armeniac is taken in every draught.
Of the Lethargy, Carus, and other Jleepy difeafes.
The lethargy has fome affinity to the apoplexy and
palfy, and often attends them.
By fleepy difeafes are meant a preternatural propenfity
to fleep, fometimes attended with, and fometimes without
a fever : The immediate caufe of which is a very languid
and diminiffied influx of the animal fpirits from the cor¬
tical part of the brain into the medulla oblongata, and
from thence into the nerves defined for fenfe and motion.
There are feyeral kinds of thefe diforders, the princi¬
pal of which are a coma vigil, a coma fomnolentum, a
carus, and a lethargy.
A coma vigil is known by thefe figns : a burning and
extenfive pain in the head, attended with a fenfe of e-
bullition therein ; they-have a ftrong inclination to fleep,
and yet either don’t fleep at all, or, if they do, awake
immediately with little relief, but have no delirium.
This coma differs from the pervigilium, which is frequent
in acute fevers, for in this th'ere is no propenfity to fleep.
This diforder is always fymptomatic, and often attends
acute, burning, and malignant fevers ; as alfo an inflam¬
mation .of the dura mater, and uffiers in a phrenfy.
In a coma fomnolentum, the patients are languid,
and their chief complaint is a conftant drowfinefs. They
often fail afleep at their meals, in converfation, and in
the midft of bufinefs, and, when they are awaked, foon
fall afleep again. This diforder principally feizes old
men, who live luxurioufly, and negleft bleeding. It is a
primary difeafe, and without a fever.
A earns is a profound fleep, out of which the patient
cannot be roufed by clamours, fliaking, nor even with the
Von. III. N0. 7J. 2
CINE. 145
pricking of a needle ; or, if they arefenfible of the. pain*
they continue filent, and fall afleep again. It is fome¬
times a primary difeafe, and fometimes fymptomatic.
When it is fymptomatic, it is of three kinds : The fird
happens in acute fevers, in the beginning or increafe ;
^nd, if the convuluons and hiccups fijpervene,• it is foon
fatal. The fecond comes after acute fevers; and, when
the patient is exceeding weak, the fleep will continue for
feveral days; being awaked, he will anfwer queftions,
but immediately fall afleep again. When he recovers,
he remembers nothing that he laid. If it happens in acute
fevers, on critical days, with a fweat, it is a good omen.
The third happens a day or'two before death : for, the
patient’s ftrength bein^ exhaufled, he lies deprived of
fenfe and motion, as it were in a profound fleep, and un¬
der that expires.
A lethargy is a heavy and perpetual fleep, with fcarce
any intervals of waking. It is attended with a flupidity,
and fo furptifing a forgetfulnefs, that, when the patient
yawns, he forgets to Ihut his mouth ; or, if he takes the
chamber-pot to make water, he forgets to do it, and falls
afleep.
A lethargy is attended with a fever, which is a fymp-
tom thereof, and is chiefly difeovered by the frequency
of the pulfe ; whereas a carus is often a fymptom or a
confequence of a fever, and is likewife attended with in-
fenfibility. It does not invade fo fuddenly as an apoplexy,
which is attended with an abolition of all fenfe and vo¬
luntary motion, and kills fooner than a lethargy.
In the cure of thefe difeafes, three intentions ffiould
chiefly be regarded ; 1. To roufe the patient from fleep.
2. To remove the difficulty of circulation, and the flag-
nation Or extravafation of the blood or ferum in the head.
3. To reftore the ftrength of the membranes and veflels
of the brain.
Thofe remedies are efficacious in the firft cafe, which
aft: on the nervous parts, by inducing a tremulous and
ofcillatory motion through the whole nervous fyftem:
fuch as powerful acids, mixed with tinfture of caftor;
volatile falts; fetid things, as galbanum, burnt partridges
feathers ; cold water thrown on the head ; cataplafms
made with vinegar, rue, bay-leaves, tops of favory, muf-
tard-feed, caftor, and camphor, applied to the head,
forehead, and temples.
The ferous colluvies is derived from the head by fter-
nutatories ; the beft is ten grains of fait of white vitriol
diffolved in half an ounce of marjoram water, and drawn
up the nofe; blifters on the feet and neck ; cupping-
glaffes, either with or without fcarification ; ftrong fric¬
tions on the lower parts ; ftimulating clyfters, with the
addition offal. gem. common fait, or the root of fquills.
To remove the ftagnation, and promote the circulation,
if the veffels are turgid with blood, vensefeftion is necef-
fary ; then gentle laxatives, and nervous medicines with
diaphoretics. A powder made of fait of hartffiorn, fait
of amber, cinnabar of antimony, and bezoar mineral, has
very great and falutary effefts.
A carus, efpecially the firft fpecies of it, requires
plentiful bleeding ; and the patient muft be roufed by
clyfters, rendered ftimulating with the powder of fquills;
by blifters; by putting diftilled vinegar in the noftrils ;
o 0 and
M E D I
and by appeafing the orgafm of the fluids with cooling
fixed diaphoretics and acids. The fecondfpecies requires
but little or no afliflance; and the third is incurable, at
leaft if blifters fail.
A coma fomnolentum is divided into ferous and fanguine.
The firft requires the natural ferous evacuations to be re-
ftored or promoted. Gouty fits are to be invited by fric¬
tions of the feet, blifters, relaxing applications, and warm
baths. Sternutatories are of great ufe, as they difcharge
the ferum through the nofe, and ftimulate the nerves.
When a vifcid phlegm offends the ftomach, vomits are
ufeful, with half a fcrupleor a fcruple of powder of fquills,
or ij gr of emetic tartar, with a laxative potion.
In a fanguine coma fomnolentum, when the blood cir¬
culates flowly, or ftagnates in the head, as in the hypo¬
chondriac or fcorbutic, all hot fpirituous remedies are as
bad as poifon : But bleeding, clyfters, gentle laxatives,
Cooling and nervous powders, are ufeful.
A red face, eyes turgid with blood, indicate bleeding.
Warm baths are bad in all fleepy diforders ; likewife faf-
fron, poppies, and opiates of ail kinds.
0/ the Catalepsy.
The catalepfis is alfo called catochus, and catoche; and
whoever is affefted with it is in an inftant rendered as im¬
moveable as a ftatue, without fenfe, and without motion j
and continues in the fame pofture they were in at the mo¬
ment they were feized.
The proximate caufe of this difeafe is the immobility
of the common fenfory from the time of the firft attack;
therefore there is an abfolute reft of the blood in the brain,
of the glands of the brain, and of all its emiflaries; where¬
by all the functions of the brain are injured, as well as
thofe that depend thereon: The mufcles only remain tenfe
as in the beginning; the refpiration and pulfe indeed
continue, but they are very faint.
But Hoffman afferts, that the pulfe is natural, and the
breathing free and eafy; that the limbs are moveable,
but remain in the fame fituation in which you place them.
They neither hear nor fee, though their eyes are open ;
nor feel, though they are pricked ever fo much ; yet, if
you thruft any thing into their mouths, they will fwallow
it: But their bodies are fo bound, that you cannot thruft
the fineft pipe into the anus. The colour of the face con¬
tinues florid. At laft they fetch deep figbs, and come to
themfelves, and tell wonderful things of what they have
feen and heard during the paroxyfm ; fome declare they
have enjoyed exquifite pleafures, or feen tragical fights,
or have had divine vifions, and the converfation of. angels.
This difeafe is generally preceded by obftinate inter¬
mitting fevers, efpecially quartans ; by a dry, melancholy,
lean temperament of body ; by a retenfion of the menfes,
and haemorrhoids ; by great and fudden frights; by a
profound, conftant, fixed meditation on one objeA, or
by ttrong fevers in perfons of a'fanguine conftitutioh.
• The method of cure is various, according to the dif¬
ferent caufes. The patient fhould be excited with things
that greatly ftrike the fenfes ; fuch as light, noife, ftimu-
lating things, volatile falts, pain, fri&ions, continual a-
gitations ; by caufing an haemorrhage of the nofe; by pro-
raoting the hemorrhoidal or menftrual flux ; by fternuta-
C I N E.
tones and emetics ; by blifters; by ifiues; by fetons ; by
a moiftening diet.
Of the Vertigo.
A vertigo, giddinefs, or fwimming in the head, is a
diforder in which all vifible obje&s feem to turn round,
attended with ftaggering, or danger of falling.
A giddinefs, when it is not an original diforder in the
head, is caufed by a long turning round of the body; by
looking from a high place ; in fome, by pafling over a
broad river, by riding in a coach, by failing in a fliip or
boat, and by drunkennefs.
A higher degree of a vertigo is a fcotomia, when the
patient is feized with a fudden dimnefs or temporary
deprivation of fight. The highelt degree of all is, when
he falls down in the fit : This borders nearly on the e-
pilepfy.
But it may be doubted whether a fcotomia is always a
fymptom of a vertigo, properly fo called; becaufe it often
follows, great haemorrhages, long fading, and very hard
labour.
A vertigo will fometimes arife byconfent, from difor¬
ders of the ftomach; and, as Etmuiler obferves, often
merely from falling, and then a morfel or two of bread
will drive it away.
An inveterate vertigo, beginning without anymanifeft
external caufe, foretells in young men an epilepfy, in old
men an apoplexy.
The vertigo often arifes from a congeftion of blood in
the head, when the patient is plethoric; or where any
ufual evacuation of blood is fupprefled, or from an omif-
fion of bleeding when accuftomed thereto. It affe&s fome
whole heads are debilitated with hard ftudy, or whofe
ftomachs are loaded with vitiated, efpecially bilious, hu¬
mours.
In plethoric cafes, laxatives, bleeding in the foot, pe-
diluvia, refolving attemperating powders, cinnabar, nitre
with an infufion of tea or betony, are proper. If from a
fupprelfion of an ufual hsemorrhage, it is to be promoted ;
but, if this cannot be done, bleeding mull be fubftituted.
Outwardly, camphorated fpirit of w’ine alone, or mixed
with fpirit of hartlhorn, applied to the top of the head
and temples, will be ufeful ; or Hungary-water, or vola¬
tile falts, or fpirit of lavender, may be held to the nofe.
The fame things are good when it proceeds from hard
ftudy, with moderate diet and frequent exercife. As alfo
a glafs or two of wine at meals, and other ftrengtheners.
But becaufe many learned men have been hurt by the ex¬
ternal ufe of volatile and fragrant fpirits as well as apo-
pleftic balfams, thefe are to be tried with great caution.
If a vertigo proceeds from crudities in the ftomach, they
fhould be prepared or diflblved by neutral falts, fuch as
tartar vitriolate; and then they ftiould be evacuated by an
emetic; but, if anything forbids, by a purge. After¬
wards give ftomachics and cephalics, and advife a mode¬
rate ufe of wine at meals, a fparing aromatic diet, and exer¬
cife of the body. Pyrmont water is excellent in this cafe.
Of the Hysteric Passion.
The hyfteric paffion is a fpafmodico-cotvulfive affec¬
tion of the nervous fyftem proceeding from the womb, and
caufed
M E D I
caufed by the retention or corruption of the blood and
lymph in its veflels; and more or lefs infeiting the nervous
parts of the whole body, by means of the nerves of the os
facrum, the loins, and the whole fpinal marrow.
This difeafe has been very improperly confounded with
the hypochondriac paffion ; for a ftrangulation of the
fauces, an intercepted breathing even to fuffocation, a
fainting away, a lofs of voice, a profound deep, are the
true, proper, and eflential figns and fymptoms of this
uterine difeafe.
An hyfteric fit is generally preceded with a prefling pain
in the forehead, temples, or eyes, with an effufion of tears
and dimnefs of fight, a dulnefs of the mind and fenfes,
and a loathing of all things. When the fit comes on, the
patient is exceeding coltive, and yet has a ftrong ftimulus
to difcharge her urine, which is as clear as water ; the
breathing is uneafy, difficult, and fltort; and a langour
feizes the whole body, To thefe fucceed a pain in the
loins, and a great fftiveringand ftiaking ; the belly is hard
and inflated ; afterwards the navel is drawn inwards, and
outwardly leaves a gieat pit; then they feel a fort of a
globe arife from the lower part of the belly to the hypo¬
chondria and diaphragm. Soon after, the heart begins to
flutter and beat, with a hard, unequal, and fometimes in¬
termitting pulfe; the extreme parts grow cold ; the fauces
are ftraitened, and feem to be bound with a cord; the face
is pale, the breathing exceeding difficult, the voice ceafes,
the pulfe is almoft imperceptible; and there is fuch a ftric-
ture of the belly, that no flatus can be emitted, nor no
clyfter given. In fome there are convulfions of the head
and limbs ; others lie in a profound fleep. without fenfe or
motion; others have their face and neck look red and in¬
flamed, with a ftrong pulfe; and others again break out
into immoderate laughter, and, regaining their voice, fay
a great many filly things.
When they begin to come to themfelves, the pulfe, which
was before weak, languid, and obfcure, becomes briflt, foft,
and ffrong ; heat returns to the extreme parts; the face
which was pinched in and pale, begins to expand and look
ruddy; the'wind forces its way upwards ; there is a rum¬
bling in the belly ; and at length the patients, waking,
as it were, out of a profound fleep, have their voice, fenfes,
and motion reftored. Yet they complain of a heavy pain
in the head; a languor of the body, feet, and thighs ;
fome have continued in a fit fo long that they have been
laid out for dead, and have been even buried.
The hyfteric paflion attacks women that are pregnant,
in child-bed; widows that are full of blood, after fome
grievous paffion of the mind ; or maids, after a fudden fup-
preffion of the menftrual flux. It Ijkewife oftentimes comes
on fo fuddenly, violently, and at unawares, that being de¬
prived of all fenfe and motion, they immediately fail down.
This difeafe may be caufed by whatever promotes a
more plentiful and rapid afflux of blood and the genital
fluid to the uterine parts, qr impedes the eruption of the
menfes, or occafions their fuppreffiqn : hence maids and
widows are moft fubjeft thereto alfo women of a fan-
guine or-bilious confticution who live high, drink generous
wines, feed on high-feafoned aliment, and are.iubjedt to
violent paffions and commotions of the body and mind.
On the other hand, thefe who live & fedentary life, feed
CINE. i4r
on coarfe, acid, low diet, who have omitted ufual bleeding,
who are oppreffed with forrows, cares, and difappoint-
ments, are liable to this difeafe ; for by thefe the blood
is thickened, the folid parts weakened, and confequently
the flowing of the menfes rendered more difficult. Like-
wife fudden terror, and the body being expofed to uncom¬
mon cold during the time of the menftrual flux, by giving
it a check procure hyfteric fpafms.
However dreadful and cruel this difeafe may appear, yet
it is not very dangerous in itfelf, unlefs ill managed, or
the patient be exceeding weak and valetudinary ; it is moft
apt to turn into convulfions and aneptlepfy. When it pro¬
ceeds from abortion, or hard labour, it is very liable to
return from any flight irritation of the nervous fyftem.
Nor is it very uncommon for the hypochondriac and hy¬
fteric diforders to be united, and then the cure is very dif¬
ficult This happens to women who lead a fedentary life,
indulge extravagant affeftions of the mind, and are guilty
of errors in diet and regimen.
In the cure, it muft be carefully obferved whether the
woman is plethoric, or exhaufted of blood and ftrength.
In the former cafe, the fpafms or convulfions are more
violent, and copious bleeding is a prefent help; and
many have been brought to themfelves who were feeming-
ly dead, if the florid colour of their faces had not fhewn
the contrary.
In the fit, it will be proper to apply fetid things to the
nofe; fuch as afa-fatida, preparations of caftor, partridges
feathers burnt, <&c. For women in childbed, a girdle
made of Ruffia leather, and bound pretty tight, is excel¬
lent. Likewife clyfters made with roots and feeds of lo-
vage, which are fpeciflcs, camomile flowers, elder-flow¬
ers, veronica, the carminative feeds boiled ;.to which may
be added oil of elder, dill, or camomile.
Externally, plafters made of opoponax, bdellium, gal-
banum, fagapenum, and afa-fetida, may be applied to the
navel; or.
Some greatly commend fumigations for the uterus o£
mufk. civet, ftorax, and benjamin.
Inwardly, the patient may take 30 or 40 drops of tinc¬
ture of caftor in cold water.
Some hyfterical diforders obferve the lunar phafes, and
partake of the nature of an epilepfy : They feldom require
bleeding, and purging fhould be ufed with caution : Eme¬
tics are of greater fervice, efpecialiy a little before the fit.
In the fit. the beft medicines are thofe which repair the
lofs of fpirits, as Ruffian caftor, gum-ammoniac, fait of
amber in pills.
€?ut of the fit, native cinnabar and wild valerian root
are moft proper for correcting the juices.
To prevent its degenerating into a chronic difeafe, par¬
ticularly the hypochondriac paffion, care muft be taken
to keep the menfes regular; which muft be done by bal-
famics, compofed of myrrh ard-amber, with bitter and:
carminative extracts, .efpecialiy zedoary and orange peel,
made into an elixir, with a moderately fpirituous menftruum.
This, frequently taken, helps the digeftion, and promotes,
a regular menftrual difcharge.
But it is neceffkry to obferve,, that in hyfteric cafes re¬
medies have a different effeCt on different women. Some
cannot bear fetid medicines4 which to others are an im¬
mediate;
I48 MED!
mediate relief. Some have fallen into a terrible fyncope,
and have come to themfelves by fprinkling cold water on
the face, when more powerful and fpirituous things have
failed. Others cannot endure hot things inwardly nor
outwardly, as baths, fomentations, liniments, and nervous
applications. ' Anodynes and opiates, which procure eafe
and reft to fome, are very injurious to others who are
greatly debilitated, and whofe nerves are weak. Some
have recovered from a violent paroxyfm, by a draught of
cold water; which, given to others, has increafed the dif-
order.
Peruvian bark given morning and evening, a fcruple at
a time, is an excellent remedy in byfteric convulfions.
Of /^Hypochondriac Passion.
The hypochondriac paflion is a fpafmodico-flatulent af-
fe&ion of the ftomach and inteftines, arifing from an in-
vverfion or perveriion of their periftaltic motion, and by a
confent of parts, throwing the whole nervous fyftem in¬
to irregular motions, and difturbing the whole animal oeco-
nomy.
This difeafe is attended with fuch a train of fymptoms,
that it is a difficult talk to enumerate them all; for there
is no fun&ion or part of the body, that is not foon or
late a fufferer by its tyranny. It begins with tenfions and
windy inflations of the ftomach and inteftines, efpecially
under the fpurious ribs of the left hypochondrium, in
which a pretty hard tumour may fometimes be perceived.
With regard to the ftomaeh, there is a naufea, a
loathing of food, an uncertain appetite, fometimes quite
decayed, and fometimes ftrong ; the aliments are ill di-
gefted, breeding acid and vifcid crudities; there is a pref-
diog, heavy pain in the ftomach, chiefly after meals; a
fpafmodic conftridtion of the gullet, a frequent fpitting
of limpid phlegm, an impediment of fwallowing, a vio¬
lent heart burn, a heat at the ftomach, very acid belch-
ings, a reaching to vomit, vomiting, bringing up fuch a~
cid fluff, that the teeth are not only fet on edge thereby,
but the very linen or ffieets are fometimes corroded.
In the volume of the inteftines, efpecially the fmall
ones about the navel, there are felt heavy excruciating
pains, wringings, .grippiftgs, with a rumbling murmur¬
ing noife; in the grofs inteftines the pains are more acute.
Sometimes there is a loofenefs, fometimes a moft obfti-
mate coftivenefs, with a retention of the wind; which,
when it breaks out either upwards or downwards, is at¬
tended with an alleviation of the fymptoms, but they foon
rage again with as great violence as ever. When there
is a frequent urging to goto ftool, tubercles, generally a-
rife, and the blind piles befet the anus ; nay, fometimes
a fymptomatical flux of blood will burft out. Making wa¬
ter in fome is difficult and painful; the urine is thin,
limpid, and pale; fometimes it has a copious fediment
mixt with fabulous concretions, and often refembles a
fit of the gravel.
In the breaft there is a great ftraitnefs, conftriflion,
exceffive difficulty of breathing, fometimes with a fenfe
of fulnefs, a fluttering and palpitation of the heart.
As the difeafe increafes, the head is molefted with an
head-ach, hemicraniu'm, various fixed fpaftic pains, and
what is commonly called the clavus hyftericus. A noife
CINE.
in the ears, with difficulty of hearing; the eyes are
clouded with a fcotamia; fome have double vifion, or a
pain and drynefs of the eyes. In the tongue there is a
moft troublefotne. burning pain fixed to a certain fpace,
with a plentiful excretion of fpittle,- as it the patient was
in a falivation.
At length the animal fumftions are impaired ; the mind
is difturbed on the moft trivial occafions, and is hurried
into the moft perverfe commotions, inquietudes, anxieties,
terror, fadnefs, anger, fear, or diffidence. The patient
is prone to entertain wild imaginations and extravagant
fancies; the memory grows weak, and the reafon fails.
Perions are moft liable to this difea’fe from twenty to
fifty, and whofe folids are foft, lax, and flabby, and
their blood-veflels fmall; asalfo whoare naurally languid,
or have been weakened by tedious maladies. Likewife
thofe who lead fedentary lives, and ftudy too hard ; in-
fomuch that this is the peculiar difeafe of the learned.
The remote caufes of thefe diforders are the fuppreflion
of the haemorrhoids and menfes, and other periodical
fluxes of blood ; an hereditary difpofition thereto ; a cold
and moift conftitution of the air; grofs, impure, flatu¬
lent diet; a fedentary, ftudious life; fadnefs, cares,
troubles, intenfe thinking on a Angle objeft; tedious dif-
eafes not rightly treated; hard labour in child-bearing.
As to the prognoftics, if the difeafe be recent and left
toitfelf, it is rather troublefome than dangerous ; but if it
be inveterate, and not flcilfully treated, or abad regimen
is followed, it is attended with more grievous fymptoms,
producing obftru&ions and fchirri of the -vifcera, a ca¬
chexy, a dropfy, an he£tic, a convulfive afthma, an in¬
curable melancholy or madnefs, a fatal polypus, ebir.
But if it is caufed by a fuppreflion of the menfes, or
bleeding piles, the reftoring the flux is the cure of the
difeafe.
As continual fear and diffidence are fymptoms of this
difeafe, the patients are always foreboding terrible things,
and live in conftant dread of death; which render them
fickle, impatient, and prone to run from one phyfician to
another. Therefore, when,a cure is attempted, they muft
be admoniftied to be conftant and patient; and then the
following indications may be purfued : i. Tocorreftand
evacuate the acid, vifcid, bilious filth, and flatulent
fordes from the primae vise, which yield continual few-
elto this difeafe. 2, The fpafms being appeafed, to re-
ftore the natural order of the periftaltic motion of the
inteftines, and to recover it from a languid ftate, that
there maybe a due concoction of the aliment, and a lau¬
dable chyle and other fluids generated. 3. To difperfe
the ftagnated juices ; to render the circulation of the
blood equable through the abdomen and the reft of the
body; and to free the fluids from all acrimony, after
facilitating the excretions by urine and through the Ikin.
4. And laftly, to corroborate the whole nervous fyftem.
To anfwer the firft intention, nothing is better in the
fit than clyfters made with emollient herbs, water gruel
ftrained, camomile-flowers, the tops of yarrow, the oils
of fweet-almonds, dill, camomile, linfeed, foe. adding
a carminativefpecies made of caraway, dill, but more e-
fpecially cumin feeds. Thefe ffiould be repeated, if the
fpafms render them ineffeflual. If the faeces are harden-
M E D I
ed, it will be proper to give oil of fweet almonds and wa¬
ter gruel inwardly. Nor mull: gentle laxatives of man¬
na, rhubarb, and cream of tartar, be negledted, with a
few drops of oil of juniper.
If there is a great deal of acid filth in the ftomach,
crabs eyes alone will purge.
To corrrefl: the fordes in the prim# the ab-
forbent, precipitating, and antifpafmcdic j/ovrers, fuch as
crab’s-eyes, mother of pearl, puivis marchionis, purified
nitre, prepared amber, cinnabar, tartar'vitriolate, with
a little caftor. It will alfo be proper to take a decodlion
of any of the following things in the morning in bed, to
promote a diaphorefis, viz. balm veronica, betony, a-
grimony, fcordium, carduus benediftus, tops of yarrow,
daify flowers, camomile flowers, fennel feed, &c.
To reftore the digeftive power of the Itomach, give
cflence of orange-peel, tin&ure of tartar, dulcified fpirit
of nitre, &c.
The paroxyfms are relieved by tepid pediluvia, made of
wheat, bran, water, aed camomile flowers. The feet
nuifl be put pretty deep therein.
Out of the fit, to difcufs the ftagnation of the blood,
bleeding in the foot will be neceflary, efpecially at> the
equinoxes, and at other times as occafion. lhall require;
but this Ihould be after laxatives and pediluvia. If there
is a difpofition to an hsemorrhoidal flux, leeches Ihould
be applied every month to the anus; and the patient
Ihould alfo take balfamic pills, with antifpafmodic nitrous
powders. -
To ftrengthen the nervous fyflem, nothing is better
than chalybeates; for they, by a gentle aflri&ion, reftore
the nerves to their former ftrength. .Outwardly a fapo-
naceous plafter, with camphor, may be laid to the hypo¬
chondria with no fmall advantage..
Nothing is more friendly, nor gives greater energy to
the blood and fpirits, than riding on horfeback almoft e-
very day, and for a confiderable time together. Nor
does riding in a coach want its lhareof falutary effe&s.
0/Melancholy Madness.
Melancholy and madnefs may be very properly con-
jfidered as difeafes nearly allied ; for we find they have
both the fame origin; that is, an exceflive congeftion of
blood in the brain : they only differ in degree, and with
regard to the time of invafion. Melancholy may be look¬
ed upon as the primary difeafe, 6f which madnefs is only
the augmentation.
When perfons begin to be melancholy, they are fad,
dejefted, and dull, without any apparent caufe; they
tremble for fear, are deftitute of courage, fubjeft to
watching, and fond of folitude; they are fretful, fickle,
captious, an^finquifitive; fometimes niggardly to an excefs,
and fometimes foolifhly profufe and prodigal. They are
generally coftive ; and when they difcharge their excre¬
ments, they are often dry, round, and covered with a
black, bilious humour; Their urine is little, acrid, and
bilious; they are troubled with flatulencies, putrid and
fetid eruftations. Sometimes they vomit an acrid humour
with bile Their countenances become pale and wan ;
they are lazy and weak, and yet devour their vi&uals
with greedinefs.
Vol. III. Numb. 75.
CINE. 149
Thofe who are aiflualiy mad, are in an exceflive, rage'
when provoked to anger. Some wander about;, fome
make a hideous noife; others fliun the fight of mankind ;
others, if permitted, would tear themielves to pieces.
Some, in the higheft degree of the diforder, fee red ima¬
ges before their eyes, and fancy themfelves ftruck with
lightning. They are fo falacious, that they have no
fenfe of fhame in their venereal attempts. When the
difeafe declines, they become ftupid, fedate, and mourn¬
ful, and fenfibly affefled with their unhappy fituation.
The antecedent figns are, a rednefs and fuffufion of the
eyes with blood ; a tremulous andinconftant vibration of
the eyelids; a change of difpofition and behaviour; fu-
percilious looks, a haughty carriage, difdainful expref-
fions, a grinding of the, teeth,, unaccountable malice to
particular perfons; alfo little fleep, a violent head-ach,
quicknefs of hearing, a finging of the ears ; to thefe may
be added incredible ftrength, infenfibility of cold, and,
in women, an accumulation of blood in the breads, in the
increafe of this diforder.
Thefe things being duly confidered, together with the
ftate of the brain in perfons who died of this difeafe, we
may conclude, that melancholy is a ftrong and lively work¬
ing of the fancy, with a fixed attention of the mind to a
particular objed, which it continually dwells upon; to¬
gether with a delirium, a long continual deje<ftion, dread
and fadnels without any manifeft caufe, arifing from a
difficult circulation of blood through the veffels of the
brain, where it is too eopioufly congefted and becomes
ftagnant. Madnefs is a violent rage, attended with
ralhnefs and preternatural ftrength, caufed by an impe¬
tuous motion of a thick melancholic blood through the
veflels of the brain. It differs from a phrenzy, which is
a' delirium accompanied with a fever, and arifes from an
inflammatory ftagnation of the blood in the brain ; for we
learn from experience, that all the fhining faculties of the
mind are changed or depraved, diminiftied or totally de-
ftroyed, when the blood and humours, receding from
their natural temperament and due quantity, are not con¬
veyed to the brain in a moderate and equable manner,
but on the contrary with an impeded, flow, and languid
motion, or with too brifk and violent an impetus.
Both thefe diforders luppofe a weaknefs of the brain,
which may proceed from violent diforders of the mind,
efpecially long continued griefr fadnefs, dread, uneafinefs
and terror ; as alfo clofe ftudy and intenfe appl.cation of
.mind, as well as long protradled lucubrations. It may
alfo arile from violent love in either fex, efpecially if at¬
tended with defpair; from profufe evacuations of the
femen ; from an hereditary diipofition ; from narcotic
and ftupefa&ic medicines ; from previous difeafes, efpe¬
cially acute fevers. Violent anger will change melan¬
choly into madnefs ; and exceflive cold, efpecially of the
lower parts, will force the blood to the lungs, heart,
and brain ; whence oppreflive anxieties, fighs, and ffiort-
nefs of breathing, tremors and palpitations of the heart-'
. thus vertigoes and a fenfation of weight in the head,
fiercenefs of the eyes, long watchings, various workings
of the fancy intenfely fixed upon a fingle objedt, are
produced by thefe means. To thefe may be added a
fuppreflion of ufual hasmorrhages, and omitting cuftomary
P p 2 bleeding;
i5® M E D I
bleeding: hence melancholy is a fymptom very frequent¬
ly attending hyfteric and hypochondriac diforders.
The caufes which contribute to the generation of a
thick blood, areidlenefs and inaftivity, which weaken the
body, impair the fun&ions, diminilh the falutary excre¬
tions, and render the humours thick, vifcid, and ftag-
nant: All 'which are heightened by folitude, which is apt
to give rife to various fantaflic and gloomy ideas in the
patient’s mind.
Likewife acid humours in the ftomach will increafe the
appetite, and tempt them to feed on coarfe, grofs, fla¬
tulent aliments, without drinking enough to dilute them
fufficiently* whence a matter proper to nourifli thefe
difeafes will proceed. It is evident from obfervation,
that the blood of maniac patients is black, and hotter
than in the natural Rate; befidesj the ferum feparates
more flowly and in lefs quantity than in healthy perfons.
The excrements are hard, of a dark-red or greyifh co¬
lour, and the urine is light and thin.
Difeafes of the mind have fomething in them fo dif¬
ferent from other diforders, that they fometimes remit
for a long time, but return at certain periods, efpecially
about the folftices, the times at which they firft appeared.
It may likewife be obferved, that the raving fits .of mad
people, which keep the lunar period, are generally ac¬
companied with epileptic fymptoms.
This difeafe, when it is primary or idiophatic, is worfe
than the fymptomatic that accompanies the hyfteric or
hypochondriac paflion, which is eafily cured ; as is that
alfo which fucceeds intermitting fevers, a fuppreflion of
the menfes, the lochia, the hemorrhoids, or from narco¬
tics. When the paroxyfms are flight in the idiophatic
kind, the cure is not very difficult: but if it is inveterate,
and has but ftiort remiflions, it is almoft incurable; which
isoften owing to this, that they reje£l phyficians.and their
medicines as poifon. It is a bad fign., if, after a profouud
fleep, the patient ftill continues delirious, and is infen
fible of cold, or is unaffected with ftrong draftic medi¬
cines. If after want of fleep and long abftinence the pa¬
tient is exceeding weak, or becomes epileptic, convulfive,
or lethargic, death is not far off. Mad people are fel-
dom fubjeCt to epidemic or other diforders, and fome have
lived feventy years and upwards in this unhappy Rate.
Sometimes this difeafe terminates by critical excre¬
tions of blood from the nofe, uterus, or anus. Some¬
times diarrhoeas and dyfenteries will terminate thefe dif¬
orders. Puftules, the itch, and ulcers, have alfo done
the fame.
In the cure, bleeding is the moft efficacious of all
remedies; and where there is a redundance of thick,
grumous blood, a vein is firft to be opened in the foot,
and a few days after in the arm; then in the jugular vein,
or in the noftrils with a ftraw ; and, laft of all, the
frontal, vein with a blunt lancet, for fear of hurting the
pericranium, a I gature havingbeen firft made round the
neck to render the veins tumid.
Tepid baths are alfo convenient, to drive the blood
from the head to the inferior parts; and before the pa¬
tient enters the bath he (hould have cold water poured on
his head, or itftiouldbe covered with a cloth dipt there¬
in; tot cold water, pumped or poured on the head con-
C I N E.
ftringes and corroborates the veffels of thcbrain weakened
with ftagnant blood, and promotes the more eafy difcuflion.
of the humours congefted therein.
Purgatives are likewife ufeful ; but the lenient are
preferable to the draftic : Thus manna, caffia, rhubarb,
cream of tartar, tartar-vitriolate, are moft convenient
when the difeafe arifes from the hypochondriac palfion,
and a ftagnation of the blood in the inteftines, and the
ramifications of the vena port#; efpecially when they are
taken in decoftions and infufions, not all at ence, but at
repeated intervals, fo as to operate in an alterative manner.
Some kinds of mineral waters are alfo highly effica¬
cious in melancholy and madnc-fs ; for fince madnefs ge¬
nerally derives its origin from the melancholy, and me¬
lancholy from the hypochondriac paffion, and the hypo¬
chondriac paflion from impure and peccant fluids llowly
circulating through the inteftines and vifcera of the
abdomen, the circulation of the blood ought to be rendered
free and eafy. It is no wonder therefore that mineral
waters have been held in high efteem for the cure of thefe
diforders; for thefe being impregnated with a highly
pure alkaline and neutral mineral fait, if they are drank
in a due quantity, they not Only change the peccant
humours, but incide fuch as are thick, render the glutin¬
ous fluid, and open the obftruftions of the veffels; they
alfo relax the tenfe fibres of the folids, and corroborate
the weak and tender, as well as, by ftimulating the
emumftories, they reftore all the falutary excretions.
The waters of Selters mixed with affes or goats milk have
not their equal in thefe cafes. They {hould be drank in
the fpring and fall for five or fix weeks. - The proportion
is one part milk to three of water.
But, after all, there is nothing better to remove the
caufe of thefe diforders than depurated nitre, but efpecially
in that fpecies of madnefs which inclines to melancholy $
for it Corredls the bilious acrimony of the humoursj
allays the tumultuous motions of the folids, by diminifti-
ing the preternatural heat. Sennertus and Riverius affirm,
that nitre, given with a little camphor, is a fpecific in
madnefs.
Particular medicines among vegetables are, balm, be-
tony, vervain, brook lime, fage, wormwood, flowers of
St John’s wort, of the lime-tree and camphor : from
animals, affes blood dried : among minerals, Reel, cin¬
nabar, fugar of lead, and the calx and tindture offilver.
Camphor is much praifed by the moderns, particularly
by Ermuller.
And Dr Friewald affirms, that with a few dofes of cam¬
phor, of xvjgrainseach in pills, he has cured feveralmad
patients, even in inveterate cafes.
Stahl recommends a powder of the following cephalic
and nervine herbs, vervain, fage, betony, with plaintaia
and white maidenhair.
As to diet, the patient ffiould carefully abftain from
fait and fmoak-dried flefti, whether beef or pork; from
{hell fifli; fromfifhofa heavy and noxious quality ; from
aliments prepared with onions and garlicky all which
generate a thick blood. In general, he {hould-eat no
more than is neceffary to fupport nature. Small-beer or
pure cold v/ater are the beft drink. Sweet and ftrong
wines are highly prejudicial; as is alfo exceffive.fmoaking
tobacco*
M E D I
tobacco ; for it not only penetrates thick blood, but throws
the fluids into preternatural commotions. Change of air
and travelling may be beneficial.
Though in deliriums bleeding is highly ufeful, yet it
agrees heft with thofe that are plethoric, bilious, and in
the vigour of youth: thefe likewife will bear frequent
purges of correfted hellebore; but,then theftrength mull
be repaired by cordial, corroborating, and anodyne fe-
datives. When the patient is exhaulted, bleeding is
hurtful, and reftoratives good.
As a high degree of the itch has terminated thefe
difeafes, it will be proper to make ilfues in the back, or
to procure ulcers with a potential cautery near the fpine
of the back.
Sedative medicines are good; but not opiates and
narcotics, for thefe induce ftupidity and folly. Thofe
that are good in an epilepfy, will be beneficial here;
fuch as caftor, (havings of hartlhorn, the roots and feeds
of piony, and anti-epileptic powders, the valerian root,
flowers of the lily of the valley and of the lime tree.
And to the other fort of madnefs, which proceeds from
being exhaufted and weakened by autumnal, violent, and
obftinate intermitting fevers, and from their being inju-
dicioufly' treated with bleedings and purgings, it is only
to be cured by reftoratives, cordials, and corroboratives,
long perlifted in.
Of the Hvdrophobia.
This difeafe, as it generally proceeds from the bite
of a dog, is called rabies canina, or the canine madnefs ;
and from its moft terrible fymptom, the dread of water,
hydrophobia. It almoft always arifes from the infection
communicated by the bite of a •mad animal: yet it has
been obferved to arife fpontaneoully in feme animals af-
fedled with acute difeafes.
Almoft all kindf of animals may be affliifted with this
diforder, and may infeift other animals, and even men ;
as dogs, cats, wolves, foxes, horfes, afles, mules, horn¬
ed cattle, hogs, monkeys, and cocks; but it moft fre¬
quently attacks the dogs, wolves, and foxes, without any
previous contagion.
A hot climate, exceffive heats and fudden colds : a long
and dry feafori; feeding upon putrid, ftinkihg, verminous
flefh ; want of water; worms generated in the kidneys,
guts, bram, ornoftrils; are the preceding caufes of mad¬
nefs in thefe animals.
When they are going to run mad, they appear dejefted,
Ihun company and hide themfelves ; they will not bark,
but feem to mutter or murmur, and are averfe to .fpod
and water ; they will fly upon ftrangers, but retain fome
regard for their mailer ; their ears and tails hang down,
and they walk along as if they we re fleepy. Tins is the
firft degree of 'the difeafe; and, though the bite is then
bad, it is not at the worft. Afterwards they begin to
pant, hang out their tongues, froth at the mouth, and
gape Sometimes they, feem dull and half afieepfome-
times they will run, but not direftly forward, and foon
ceafe to know their mUfters.' Their eyes are dejedled,
look watery and dully, their tongues are of a lead colour,
they fall away fuddeoly, and grow raging mad. A bite
at this time is incurable; and the nearer, they are to
C l N E. 151
death, with the more dreadful fymptoms it is attended.
There is fcarce any poifon infetftious fo many ways rs
this: for it takes effedl through the cloaths, withoutfetch-
ing blood ; by the breath of the animal drawn into the
lungs ; by a touch of the froth, if recent ; and by ap¬
plying it to the lips or tongue, when it has been long
dried; or by killing a dog that is mad.; or by handling the
wound or kiftrument which was the death of the animal;
or by handling things Which have been infedted by any of
the former means.
Again, there is fcarce any poifon which produces fuch
terrible eflFefls, and caufes fuch a wonderful change in the-
perfon infefted. When it begins to work, it is moft:
violent and quick ; and yet, as it is faid, it will fome-*
times lie dormant" for years together before it exerts
itlelf. This diverfity depends on the heat of the feafon,
the degree of the difeafe of the infected animal, and the
temperament of the perfon bit. For the bilious are fooneft
affedted by it; the phlegmatic and hydropic the leaft p
likewife fomething may be attributed to the way of living, ,
diet, and medicines.
A healthy man, infedted with this contagion, finds the
effedU of it difeover themfelves in the following order.
There is a pain in the place where he was bit, or received
the contagion ; and then wandering pains in the other
parts, chiefly thofe that are near it ; a laflitude, heavi-
nefs, liftleffhefs of the whole body ; inquiet troubled:
fleep, and terrible dreams, with convulfions, and fublultus
of the tendons ; continual inquietude ; fighs, fadnefs,
love of folitude : This ends the firft degree of the difeafe.
Afterwards all the former fymptoms increafe, with a
prodigious ftraitnefs or oppreffion about the praecordia ; a
difficult fighing refpiration ; horror ; a (baking and trem-
'bling at the fight of any liquid, or bright, pellucid thing;
lofs. of appetite ; a poffibility of fwallowing any thing
folid ; but, if any liquid is touched with the lips and
tongue, it eccafions an incredible anxiety, trembling, and
terrible convulfions, almoft forcing the patient into a rage;,
then a vomiting of dark, bilious, vifeid matter, or por-
raceous bile ; an increafed heat, a fever, continual watch*
ing ; a priaprim ; a confufed feries of wild, extravagant
thoughts : Here the fecond degree of the difeafe may be
faid to terminate. Now all the fymptoms grow worfe
and worfe : the tongue hangs out, and is rough; the moutlf
is wide open ; the voice is hoarfe,; the third great;
(trange horrors, ftarting, and wild looks, at the fight of
water ; a frothing at the mouth ; an involuntary inclina¬
tion tofpit at the by-ftanders,. as alfo to bite them, which
the(patient cannot refift. he foams at the mouth, and
gnaffies with his teeth; and would do mifehief, if not
forcibly with-held. .His pulfe and breathing fail : there
is a cold fweat, and ftie higheft fury : yet during all this
time, which is wonderful, the patient continues in his
fenfes, and is afraid of doing any harm. On the fourth
day from the firft'degree of the difeafe, the patient falls
into cenvujfions, with great difficulty of breathing ; and
then dies.
The diffeflion of perfons who died of this, difeafe has
(hewn, that the organs of fwallowing have been in fome
meafure inflamed ; that various kinds of bilioui vifeidities
are colletfed in theftomach ; that the gall-bladder is full
of.
JS2 M E D I
• 'of a black blie ; that the pericardiurn is dry ; that the
lungs are incredibly difiended with blood ; that the heart
is full of an almolt dry blood ; that the' arteries are full,
and the veins almoft empty ; that the blood is very fluid,
and will hardly coagulate when expofed to the air ;
whereas that which was drawn from a vein three days
before, coagulated as ufual ; that all the mufdes, vifcera,
brain, cerebellum, and fpinal marrow, are more dry than
common.
The prevention and cure of this difeafe, except in a few
inllances, are very doubtful and uncertain : which may
i be attributed to the boafting pretences of fome to fpecifics,
and the negledt of a due method of cure, founded on the
hiftory of the diforder. .
So far therefore as may be conjectured from the pre¬
ceding hiftory of the diforder, and from comparing it
with .other difeafes, as alfo from the few inftances which
have been attended, with.a happy event, it feems chiefly
to confift in an affeCtion of the- nerves, which moft nearly
refembles convulfions, which occupy the vifcera and the
veflels thereof; whence arifes a diforder in the blood and
humours, which is not unlike a gangrenous inflammation.
The feat of the difeafe is chiefly about the llomach and
the neighbouring parts.
The preventive cure conftfts in making deep fcarificati-
ons, as foon as poflible after the bite, in the part affeCted,
and thofe adjacent to it; that they make a confiderable
difcharge of blood, and apply large cupping-glafles
thereon ; or it may be burnt pretty deep with an aCtual
cautery. Then it Ihould be made to fuppurate by feme
corrofive application proper for that purpofe ; and during
all that time it Ihould be continually fomented with a
pickle made with vinegar and fait: this fliould be con¬
tinued for flx months at leaft. The garments he had on
at the time of the bite fhould be cautioufly laid afide or
deflroyed. He fliould likewife with all convenient fpeed
be dipped in a river, or the fea, making him believe that
he is going to be drowned. This is to be often repeated ;
for the effedh confifts in terrifying the mind, not in the
falt-water, as we have learnt from experience. Then he
fliould alfo be often and ftrongly purged with rhubarb,
agaric, and the juice of elder-bark.
The patient Ihould alfo be put into a fweat every mor¬
ning falling, with a mixture of aromatic vinegar, fea-fait,
and hot water. His feet and hands fliould alfo be daily
fomented in a warm bath ; and he fliould walh his head,
mouth, and fauces.
Let him often drink cold water, and throw.it up again
by vomiting ; and let his drink be acidulated. His aliment
- fliould be moift, light, and laxative, and often taken in
fuch a quantity as to vomit it up again. He fliould like¬
wife abjlain from things that are to fpicy, from wine, from
heating things, from violent exercife, and from commoti¬
ons of the mind.
The cure ftiould be attempted when the difeafe is in
the firfl: degree, and in the beginning of the fecond, by
treating it as highly inflammatory, by letting blood from
a large orifice even to a deliquium, by giving clyfters
foon after with nitrous or moderately fait water.
After this let the patient be blind-folded, and thrown
into a^pondof cold-water; or let cold water be thrown
CINE,
upon him till the dread of it almofl: ceafes; then let a
large quantity be forced down his throat: let this be his
treatment daily, and at night let fleep be procured. And
this'method is better than that pernicious one of giving,
him the moft acrid heating and drying medicines ; which ex-
afperate the nervous fyftem, and are in this cafe as bad
as poifon, to a patient already almoft parched with heat.
Celfus informs us, that it was the practice of old to
put the patient bit by a mad dog into a bath, and there
to let him fweat as Jong as his ftrength will permit, at
the fame time keeping the wound open, that the virus
might be difcharged from it; and then to give him plen¬
ty of good generous wine. This being done for three
days, they judged him out of danger.
This may give fome light into the nature of the pulvis
antijyflus publiftied by Dr. Mead, and received into the
difpenfatory of the college, wherein pepper is one of the
ingredients:
X. Take four drams of afti-coloured ground liver-wort,
and two drams of black pepper, beat into a powder.
This is to be divided into four dofes, whereof one to be
taken in warm milk in a morning, fafting, for four mornings
fucceffively. After this he is to be put into a cold bath,
pond, or river, for thirty days together, early in the
morning before breakfaft.
Another famous Specific is the Eaft-india medicine ;
which is doubtlefs an egregious antifpafmodic, and is as
follows:
2. Take native and factitious cinnabar, of each 24
grains, and 16 grains of mufli. Make them into a
powder.
This is to be taken in a tea-cup full of arrac or brandy,
and is faid to fecure the patient for thirty days,, at the
expiration of which it is to be repeated ; but, if he has
any-fymptoms of the difeafe, it muft be repeated in three
hours, which is faid to be fufflcient for a cure.
Dr. Wall of Worcefter has found two dofes of mulk,
of xv grains each, to produce very happy effeCts on two
perfons labouring under a fubfultus tendinum, with ex¬
treme anxiety, and want of fleep, from the bite of a mad
dog ; for it perfeCtiy relieved them from their complaints.
We have a Angular cafe of a woman actually feized with
an hydroprobia, given by Dr. Nugent; who was cured.
He ordered this powder to be taken in honey every three
hours, after flie had loft 1 y ounces of blood, and a pill
of 2 grains of pure opium along with the powder, till reft
was procured.
CyPoisoNs.
There are three eflential marks of poifons which diftin-
guifti them from other things that are noxious to human
bodies.- The firft is, that they confift of moft fubtile
parts, and confequently are pernicious in a fmall quanti¬
ty. The fecond, that they pervert, in a fhort time, the
regular motions of the folids and fluids throughout the bo¬
dy, and induce the moft grievous fymptoms, even death
itfelf. And the third, that they exercife their cruelty
on the moft fubtile fluid, and the moft nervous parts.
AH the th'. ee kingdoms have poifons peculiar to them-
fejves; but the animal kingdom affords the moft fubtile,
which are communicated by the the bite of mad or venom¬
ous
M E D I
»bs beads when they are angered. The mineral king¬
dom produces arfenicals and mercurials ; and the vege¬
table, herbs and plants, of a moll acrid, noxious and de¬
leterious quality, fuch as the molt violent cathartics and
narcotics.
Every fort of poifon feems to have an effeifl peculiar to
itfelf: thus mercury attacks the fauces and their glands,
producing ulcerations therein ; arfenic occafions the molt
cruel torments, convulfions, and mortification of the coats
of the inteftines ; the feeds of datura, a kind of dramo-
nium, induce madnefs or abfolute ftupidity; hyofciamus
caufes a (lupor, and fo troubles the imagination, that the
perfon affe&ed believes he fees daemons and fpeftres. O-
pium brings on fleepinefs, and a torpor on the mind.
Sharp, drallic purges inflame the inteftines. The bite
of a mad dog occafions the dread of water. The fting
of a fcorpion produces a fudden and exceeding cold
fweat. Litharge, unwarily taken, caufes a convullive
colic, with an obftinate coftivenefs. The berries of dead¬
ly night lhade produce madnefs, rage, or folly ; as do
alfo the roots of cicuta terreftris.
The bites of mad animals have been already treated
of: and, as for others, it appears from experience, that
the bites or flings of other animals, fuch as fpiders, fcor-
pions, and vipers, are moft pernicious in hot countries;
and neither the infers, nor any other animals, are poi-
fonous of themfelves, but their flings or bites, when they
are mad, or provoked to anger.
The venom of animals, whether in a rage or madnefs,
communicates an infedion by the faliva, milk, and lympha.
The fymptoms which follow the bite of a viper, are a
ftiarp, pricking pain in the wounded part; a tumour,
which is firft red, and afterwards livid, fenfibly extend¬
ing itfelf to the neighbouring parts: the Ikin frets, and
breaks out into little bladders : feme time after, a
remarkable faintnefs fupervenes, with a. quick, weak,
and fometimes an intermitting pulfe, a palpitation of
the heart, a ftupefadion of the fenfes, an anxiety of
the prxcordia, a great ficknefs of the ftomach with bi¬
lious vomitting,* a dulnefs of fight, fometimes pains a-
bout the navel or the region of the liver, difficult breath¬
ing, hiccups, tremblings, convulfions, cold fweats, cold-
nefs of the extremities ; after which, death clofes the
fcene, unlefs prevented by timely remedies. If the pa¬
tient furvives, a tumour with inflammation continues for
fome time. Sometimes a fanies flows from the wound,
and puftules appear, like the herpes exedens ; the Ikin be¬
comes yellow, as if the patient had the jaundice.
Hoffman obferves, that externally in all venomous bites
it will be proper to apply fuch things as relax and molli¬
fy the-ftridures of the parts, that open the pores, andfo
procure an exit for the virulent matter.
Boyle obferves, that a hot iron held over the wound¬
ed part, immediately after the bite, fo checks and weak¬
ens the venom, that the patient will have nothing to com-
plain-of but a pain in the part of fhort continuance.
But, above all, Mead, from many experiments, recom¬
mends the fat of vipers, which, being rubbed into the
wounded part, renders all others ufelefs; and, if that is
not at hand, it appears from fome late trials, that com¬
mon fallad-oil, rubbed warm into the part, will do as well,
Vofc. III. Numb. 75. 2
CINE. 153
The bite of a Rattle-Snake, hitherto looked upon
as a moft terrible accident, may now be cured in a fim-
ple, eafy manner. It is the invention of a negro; for the
difcovery of which, he had his freedom purchafed, and
an hundred pounds per annum fettled upon him during
his life by the general aflembly of Carolina.
Take of the roots of plantane and horehound (in the
fummer the roots and branches together) a fufficient quan¬
tity; bruife them in a mortar, and fqueeze out the juice,
of which give as foon as poffible one large fpoonful ; if
the patient befwelled, you muft force it down his throat.
This generally will cure ; but, if he finds no relief in an
hour after, you may give another fpoonful, which never
fails.
If the roots are dried, they, muft be moiftened with a
little water. To the wound may be applied a leaf of good
tobacco moiftened with rum.
The mineral kingdom furniflies- very few real poifons:
the only natural one is cobalt; the fadtitious are arfenic,
corrofive fublimate, and glafs of antimony.
Cobalt is a kind of a marcafite, which is found in great
plenty in the mines of Mifnia; and is well known for its
poifonous quality, fo fatal to infedts, brutes, and men.
In making the blue glals, or enamel, called fmalt, from
this mineral, a fort of white flowers arifes, which; being
melted in a ftronger fire, is called white arfenic. If this
be melted again with an eleventh part of fulphur, it be¬
comes yellow arfenic, and, with a fixth part of fulphur,
red. Of thefe, the white is the moft deadly poifon.
As for the true mineral poifbns, they were entirely
unknown to the ancients; for they reckoned quickfilver,
crude antimony, all kinds of vitriol as well as cerufs, and
the lapis lazuli, in that clafs ; but orpiment, which they
called arfenick, asCelfus teftifies, and looked upon as a poi¬
fon, is void of all virulence and- deleterious qualities;
and fandarach they termed red arfenic, which is made of
melted orpiment, but is no more noxious than the for¬
mer. Indeed, it muft be owned, that the above catalogue
are not altogether friendly to human nature, or may be
endued with a corroding quality ; but they want the true
charafteriftic of poifons.
Quickfilver, diflblved in acid mineral fpirits, is like-
wife a poifon, though of itfelf it is entirely innocent.
This has chiefly appeared from errors in praftice, when
the mercury has not been rightly prepared and corrected.
Likewife glafs of antimony reduced into powder, and
exhibited, caufes enormous vomiting, with moft cruel
gripings, which often end in death.
Arfenic, taken inwardly, creates a pricking, vellica-
ting, irritating, burning fenfation, with a heat and moft
violent pain in the ftomach, a racking torture in the bowels,
vomiting, unquenchable thirft, a roughnefs and drynefs
of the tongue, fauces and gullet, with hiccups : then fol¬
low moft cruel anxieties, palpitation of the heart; faint¬
ing, coldnefs of the extremities; fometimes black vomits,
and ftools with a fetid cadaverous fmell; a gangrene and
mortification of the ftomach and inteftines, which ufher
in death.
Milk is very ufeful againft all corrofive poifons, by its
foft, oleous contexture, blunting their acrimony; and is
a good vehicle to bring them up by vomit,
Qjl . ' ^
154 M E D I
In al! cafes where a perfon is fufpe&ed to have been
poifoned by fwallowing any fubftance of a corrofive na¬
ture, oil with milk for a vehicle yields the mod certain
relief; and even when acid mineral fpirits are'taken bymi-
ftake. they will blunt or Iheathe the acrimony fooner than
fixed falts and teftaceouspowde.r will change their nature:
befides, fallad-oil is generally at hand in all places as
well as milk; and the fooner it is given, the lefs is the
danger.
The mod dangerous vegetable poifons, are wolf’s-bane,
the deadly night-lhade, henbane, and datura ; to which
maybe added the roots of oenanthecicutae facie, or hem¬
lock-dropwort, cicuta vulgaris or common hemlock.
Hoffman affirms, that milk in a large quantity is an
univerfal remedy againd all poifons that kill by inflamma¬
tion, and if taken jn time will prevent the direful confe-
quences. Allen thinks a vomit with warm water and oil,
taken in large draughts and often repeated, will be of
great fervice; as alfo warm water with fieffi butter, milk
and oil, or milk and butter. If the above things will not
provoke the patient to vomit, oxymel of fquills, fait of
vitriol, or a decodtion of tobacco, may be ufed, as having
a more immediate effedf. It is hardly fafe to give even the
mod gentle cathartic.
The domach being thus emptied of allj or as much as
poffible, recourfe mud be had to generous wine and alexi-
pharmics, fuch as Venice-treacle, confedfio alkermes, the
bezoardic powder, &c. When there is a fufpicion that
the coats of the domach or intedines are corroded or ul¬
cerated, it will not be proper for the patient to ufe fpices
or vinegar, nor to indulge.in too much wine, but to take
a decodtion of barley with raifins, or a decodtion of china-
root, faflafras, <&c:
The fame method is mod likely to anfwer when any o-
ther deleterious herb or root has been eaten by midake,
though the particular fpecies ffiould not be known ; and
Hoffman affirms, that when the patient has been dupified
by the narcotics, the bed remedies are vomits mixed with
oil, to facilitate the operation.
Of a Gutta Serena.
A Gutta ferena, or amaurofis, is an abolition of the
fight, when no fault appears in the eyes, except in the
pupil which is larger than ufual and more black, nor will
itcontradf, though any luminous objedt is placed diredtly
before it, but continues quite immoveable. It may be
didinguiflied from the diforder of the eyes proceeding from
the vertigo; fort he objedls feem to turn round: From a
cataradt; for then an opacity of the crydallrne humour is
perceivable, and the pupil, will contradl in a glaring light.
When this difeafe comes on fuddenly, it generally pro-
deeds from external caufes, as blows,, falls, and the like.
When it comes on by degrees in old perfons, it arifes from
a hemiplexy or palfy ; as alfo in other weak and languid
conditutions. Sometimes its concomitants are pains in
the head, the vertigo, fleepinefs, noife in the ears, and
fometimes it comes on without any preceding fymptoms.
From diffedtions it has appeared, that the optic nerves
have been in fault; that is, they are waded away or much
lefs than common; as alfo compreffed by extravafated
fluids, or hard tumours about their origin.
CINE.
The indications of cure are, to difcufs the dagriating
humours, which comprefs the nerves, and then to drength-
en the affedled parts.
Heider affirms, it is to be cured by aromatics, carmi¬
natives, and attenuants; chiefly eye-bright, veronica, hyf-
fop, rofemary-flowers, fage, fennel, and anifeeds, vale¬
rian root, faflafras, cinnamon, wood-lice, either in infufion
or powder: the juice of wood lice newly expreffed, and
taken for fome weeks, increafing th& dofe, is of excel¬
lent ufe ; as likewife mercurials, taken in very fmall dofes,
and a long while together.
If it arifes from a fuppreffion of ufual haemorrhages,
they are to be reflored; but, if this cannot be done, ar¬
tificial bleeding is to be fubdituted.
Externally, iffues are held to be good, clyders and fe¬
lons, efpecially in the phlegmatic. The .eyes may be
waffied with fennel, valerian, eye-bright, or rofe-water,
fpirit of wine, Hungary water, and fal-volatile oleofum
diluted, or an infufion of fennel-roots in wine, with bags
of drengthening herbs and fennel-feeds often put thereon.
Sneezing powders may likewife be proper, efpecially flo-
rentine ornce, or horfe chefnuts; likewife fpints of hartf-
horn, or fal-volatile. oleofum, may be applied to the
nofe.
In all diforders of the eyes, but particularly in this,
the body mud always be kept open, that the humours may
be invited downwards, with laxative pills mixed with ca-
calomel. Likewife drong clyders are of very great ufe.
Of Suffusion, or Cataract.
A Suffusion, or cataradf, is an obdruiSion of the
pupil, by the interpofition of fome opaque fubdance, which
diminiffies or extinguiffies the fight : Some are thicker
than others; fome are white, black, citron-coloured, or
brownifli. It is always contained between the uvea and
fclerotica, where it fometimes fwims and fluAuates like a
bit of lawn in the aqueous humour, and fometimes it ad¬
heres clofe to the coats. It is generally an opacity of the
crydalline humour.
The medicines above mentioned, in an incipient or re¬
cent cataratd, from thick or vifcid humours, may do good,
efpecially if they arife in the crydalline humour, as Hei¬
der affirms, becaufe they attenuate, refolve, and render
the humours fluxile, and increafe the fpirits. A grain or
two of mercunus dulcis, given with twice the quantity of
prepared oider-ffiells for thirty days together, has dedroy-
ed the rudiments of a cataraA. But, if thefe have no
effedt, and the cataraft grows inveterate, ripe, or perfect,
it is to be depreffed ; for which, fee Surgery.
Of a Glaucoma.
A Glaucoma is a change of the crydalline humour
into an azure colour, from its drynefs and condenfation,
as fome affirm : but Heider fays, it arifes from an opaci¬
ty of the vitreous humour, which becomes of a whitiffi
green colour; for, in a fuffufion, an opaque body is pla¬
ced behind the pupil, or is next to the uveous part.
Sennertus fays, this malady is known from a very re¬
markable whitenefs appearing in the eyp, and lying deep
behind the pupil, and all things are feen as through a
fmoke or cloud; it is faid to be incurable.
Of
M E D I
0/*/^ Amblyopia, or Obfcurity of Sight.
The amblyopia is an obfcurity of fight, and is four¬
fold : myopia, or fhort-fightednefs; prelbytopia, or fee¬
ing only at too great a dillance; nyftalopia, or feeing
only in the night; amaurofis, of which before.
Myopia proceeds' from the too great convexity of the
cornea, or cryflalline homour, or from the eyes being lar¬
ger than common, as we learn from optics. This is beft
alMed by concave gialfes.
Prelbytopia proceeds from the contrary caufes, and
receives affiftance from glaffes of a convex form.
Ny&alopia is a. twofold malady, in which the com¬
plaints are contrary to each other. In the firft fpecies,
the fight is belt in the night', and in obfcure places; but
in a clear light the fight fails, and they can hardly fee
any thing at all. In the other fort,, which is improperly
called a ny&alopia, they fee nothing at all, except in a
clear and bright light. This infirmity ariies from a na-
turallybad formation of the eye, and is therefore incurable.
The prefbytopia may likewife be affilled by cephalic and
ftrengthening medicines, by watery and vinous infufions,
and comforting eye-waters.
Of a Strabismus, or Squinting.
A Strabismus, commonly called fquinting, is an
unequal contradion of the mufcles of the eye, either
from a fpafm, an epilepfy, or a palfy, whereby the axis
of the pupil is drawn towards the nofe, temples, fore¬
head, or cheeks ; fo that the perfon cannot behold an
obieft dire&ly. Infants readily contraft this diftemper,
fometimes for .want of care in the nurfes, who place the
cradles in a wrong pofition, with regard to the light.
Children likewife, while growing up, fometimes fall into
this diforder, either from ill cudoms contracted in play¬
ing, or by looking on others who are affeCted with it.
This diforder is very difficult to cure , therefore the
utmod careffiould be taken to preyent it, and the cradle
Ihould be fo placed, as not to occafion the. child tojook
a-wry. i&gineta contrived a malic, and fo adapted it to
the face, that nothing could be feen except through two
holes ftraight forward; and for the fame purpole what
we call gogglers are ufed.
Of the Alkvgo, or SpotEye.
An Albugo, or leucoma, is a whitiffi fpot of the tranf-
parent cornea; the broader and thicker it is, the more
it obfcures the fight; when it is fuperficial, it appears the
whiter; and, when it is deeply rooted, it tends to b'lack-
pefs, and is fcarce curable. That whi. h is in reality a
cicatrix, or fear, left after a wound or ulcer in the eye,
is very difficult to he diffipated ; that which follows an
inflammation of the eye often goes away of its own ac¬
cord.
It may be diflinguiffied from a cicatrix, becaufe this is
of a Ihining white and without pain ; whereas the albugo
looks like chalk,,is attended with a 'flight fluxion, and
feme degree of an inflammation with pain. It is general¬
ly the forerunner of an ulcer.
The intentions of cure are anfwered by emollients,
refolveats, and 4ifcutients, which mult be ufed with great
CINE. 15^
caution. To take away a cicatrix, the ffiarpeft topics,,
nay, cathaeretics, are fometimes to be ufed, with a very
prudent hand: but, firft of all, mild things may be tried;
and, if they fail, we may proceed to ftronger.
Of a Sugillation, or Blootlffiot Eye.
A Sugillation firft appears of a reddiffi colour, and
afterwards livid or black. It is caufed by a ftroke or fall,
or violent vomiting, whereby the b'lood is extravafated
in the coats of the eye. If the cornea is affedted very
much, all objefts appear of a reddiffi colour; for fome
veins run to the cornea, in the part towards the iris, or
the blood maybe poured out into it from the neighbouring
veflels.
If the diforder is great, there will be occafion for bleed¬
ing-and purging, for the grum’ated blood in the fugillation
is to be refolved and difeufled, which may be done by
dilcutients, fuch as juice of fennel, with balfam of Peru,
juice of celandine, fimple honey-water, mixed with other
eye-waters.
If from this or any other caufe there ffiould happen to
be an ulcer of the eye, Demours recommends coarfe fugar
as a good ingredient for deterging thofe of the cornea, in
whjch aftringems are hurtful; but it muftbe mixed with
collyria. When the aqueous humour of the eye is,eva¬
cuated at a wound or ulcer of the cornea, he expofes the
patient to the light, from time to time, till the cornea is
again raifed by the aqueous humour ; for the light occa-
fions a motion in the iris, which may prevent its adhefioa
to the cornea.
Of the Epiphora, or Lippitude of the Eyes.
An epiphora is a defluxion of a fait ffiarp humour
upon the eyes, attended with itching, pain, and rednefsy
as alfo a dimnefs of fight. It is but flight when there is
no defedt in the bulb of the eye, when the eye-lids fwell
And look red, when the matter of the fluxion is thick and
fometimes glues the eye-lids together in the night, con¬
tinuing in this ftate for dome time.
Children are often afflidled with this difeafe, particularly,
thofe wholiave had a feald-head improperly cured ; or who.
have fweilings in the glands of the neck or about the ears,,
and then it cannot be cured until thefe tumours are dif¬
eufled It fometimes likewife/ucceeds the fmall-pox and*
meafles.
The feat of this difeafe is in the glands of the eye,,
efpecially in thofe called the lachrymal glands.
This difeafe may be certainly cured in the beginning,
by a plentiful drinking the infufion of the leaves of ve¬
ronica, in the manner of tea, for fome time. When it is
invererate, the patient ,muft be very regular in his diet,
and muft avoid every thing fait, (harp, acid, wine, ftrong-
beer, and drams. His common drink'may be a decoc¬
tion of hartfhorn and fennel-feeds, ufing warm pediluvia;
at night going to bed. ,
Externally a grain of vitriol may be mixed with un-
falted butter, to which a fmall portion of fugar of lead;
.may be added and put into the greater corner of the eye.
This is a moft uleful medicine. When the lippitude is
of the dry kind all acid applications muft be avoided,
and the eyes ir.uft. be covered with a poultice of. white
bread;!
ijS M E D I
bread and milk, with a little Saffron mixed with it. The
fuccefs of fetohs and iffues is uncertain, but a perpetual
blifier on the nape of the neck is of great fervice. But it
mult be continued for a confiderable time.
Fistula Lachrymalis.
The filtula lachrymalis is a difeafe which attacks the
great caruncle in the inward corner of the eye, and Hop¬
ing up the natural paflage of the tears, forces them- to
run down the cheek: But this is the firlt degree of the
difeafe. The fecond is, when pus is mixed with the
tears, which proceeds fometimes from an opening in the
Hein between the nofe and the great corner of the eye.
The laftis, when the pus has not only corroded the neigh¬
bouring parts which are foft, but has affefted the bone
which lies underneath. This fort of" fiftula fometimes
turns cancerous; and Riverius advifes not to meddle with
it at all.
Whatever may be the caufe of this diforder, whether
the fmall-pox or the French difeafe, it always Hops up
the nafal conduit, which is opened by an operation. See
Surgery.
Of Deafness.
The caufes of deafnefs are a cutting off the external
car, or an obftruftion of the auditory paffage from wax
or other things; from a rupture of the membrane of the
tympanum, or when it is corroded or ulcerated, or the
auditory nerve is obllru&ed or compreffed. External
caufes are, falls from high places, exceffive noife, fuch as
the explofion of cannon; likewife acute diforders near
their Hate, which are like to terminate by a critical hae¬
morrhage.
As to the prognoflics, thofe who are born deaf are
rarely cured. A real deafnefs is hard to remedy. A
deafnefs in acute difeafes, with crude urine, foretells a
delirium; but, when the figns of coition are good, it
portends a critical haemorrhage.
With regard to the cure ; if the obltrudtion be in the
external cavity of the ear, it is difcernible by the fight.
If there is"occafion to fyringe the ear, a decoition of fage
and rofemary-flowers will be proper, with equal parts of
water and white-wine; but great camion fliould be ufed.
Some pump the head with warm bath waters. Some
fay, the eggs of ants bruifed and put into the ear, with
the juice of an onion, cure the moft inveterate deafnefs.
Others affirm, that a falivation will fometimes perform a
cure.
A critical deafnefs will ceafe of itfelf. Etmuller re¬
commends amber arid mulk.
Hoffman fays, deafnefs fometimes arifes from a flack-
nefs of the auditory nerves, which often happens from too
great a humidity, which, if negledted, will terminate in
a perpetual and incurable deafnefs, and may be difperfed,
if taken in time, by proper cephalics and fudorifics.
Some for this purpofe recommend equal parts'of fpirit of
lavender and hungary water, which ffiould be dropt warm
into the ear. Lindanus advifes the gall of an eel mixed
with fpirit of wine ; and others, the fumes of fulphur
conveyed into the ear, with a pipe or funnel. But regard -
muft be had to the caufe, if difcoverable.
C I N E.
Of a Tunnitus, or Noife in the Ears.
Hoffman obferves, that this is caufed by the fpafms
of the coats of the ear, which line the inward parts,
fuch as the labyrinth, cornea, and auditory paffage, which
is often attended with intolerable anxiety.
The cure is to be performed, fays Heifter, by tempe¬
rate diaphoretic powders, and refolving effences, com¬
monly called anticatarrhales ; as Of amber, the woods,
rofemary; together with diaphoretics and alexipharmacs,
taken often in a day, with tea of betony, with rofemary
flowers, fage, or lavender andfaffafras. In the morning,
and at noon, the effences are to be taken; and at night
the powders.
Outwardly, effence of amber may be applied, either
alone, or with a few drops of oil of amber, or one or two
drops of camomile put into the ear with cotton, morning
and evening; or a grain or two of amber and mulk, or
caftor in cotton, either alone or with Peruvian balfam;
or carminative oils, fuch as anife, fennel, carraways, or
calomel; not negledting pediluvia, and frequent rubbing
of the feet and head.
Of a Coryza, or Catarrh of the Nofe.
A Coryza is too great a moifture of the nofe, by a
thin lharp /erum, which gradually becomes thick, and
fometimes coloured.
The caufe of this diforder proceeds from the lympha
and mafs of blood, moft commonly in the winter-time,
which hurts the noftrils ; at firft it arifes from a thin,
{harp humour, which excoriates the parts, which, beco¬
ming more thick, almoft flops the noftrils and hinders
breathing. Sometimes it arifes from fternutatories too often
taken, and from mineral fumes ; this is accompanied with
fpitting and a cough. Sometimes the effluvia, affe&ing
the noftrils, have the nature of a ferment, and become
infeftious.
As to the prognoftics, it is without danger, unlefs the
lymph is exceeding (harp and ulcerates the noftrils, and
fo degenerates into an ozsena, or fordid ulcer of the
noftrils. Hoffman fays, this excretion is often falutary,
and is exafperated by purges.
With regard to the cure, the irritation is to be flopped
in the beginning, by joining laxatives with fudorifics, ac¬
cording to the condition of the patient, the feafon of the
year, and the reigning difeafes. To flop the irritation,
oil of anifeed is very proper; but if the noftrils are red,
painful, and excoriated, it muff be mixed with barley-
flour well dried. Camphor diffolved in oil of almonds is
likewife good externally applied, and the fmell of horns
when rafped, as well as the vapours of gum-anime, re¬
ceived into the mouth and nofe. The vapours of amber,
frankincenfe’,’ maftic, and benjamin, are likewife ufeful.
A coacervation of the mucus may be evacuated by diflilled
oil of marjoram, amber and anifeed, mixed wdih leaves
of marjoram, and made intofnuff; or, by a fternutatory
of calcined white vitriol, twelve grains of which may be
• mixed with two ounces of marjoram water, and filtrated.
If the noftrils are obftrufted, the vapour of vinegar upon
hot iron will be profitable. If the head is heavy and dull,
the vertex Ihould be anointed with balfam of Peru, which
may
TM E D I
may be made Wronger with oil of amber. To preferve
the moath, troches may be held therein, made with
roithridate and olibanum.
To preferve the fauces and windpipe, it is common to
take raifiris deeped in fpirit of anifeed.
, Of the Oz^na.
The ozaena is a fordid ulcer affe&tng the noftriis ;
wherein the humour is-very acrid-cr corrofive. intolerably
fetid, famous, -and often mixed with a bloody mucus.
•With regard to the cure, the leaves of tobacco, or
tobacco ointmerrr, are very ufefnl : If it gathers'.to a cru't,
it may be removed by oil of fweet almonds. - Some make
ufe of the fumes of cinnabar, or injeft mercurius dulcts j
others ufe precipitate mixed with an emollient ointment,
and applied with tents. Some ufe an injedtion of oil of
fweet almonds,, an ounce with a dram of oil of cafior to
foften the acrimony of the humours. If the pain.be great,
they add a fcruple of camphor and faffron, with half a
fcruple of opium. To take away the. cruft, they make a
powder of rofemary and lavender flowers, dried lemon-
peel. and common fnuff.
When the matter is well digefted, the running abated,
and the pain gone, it may be cicatrifed with lotions, and
waihed with warm milk.
Of Watching.
Watching is produced by too great a determination
of the nervous fluid to-the organs of the fenfes t from
its too great influence in the brain, while the lower parts
are obftrudted with colds or other caufes, as in hypochon¬
driac, melancholic, and mad patients, whofe lower parts
are cold : by any irritating body, in whatfoever part it
is placed, which difturbs the fenfes, and efpecially the
brain : from too great a motion of the humours, while
the palfages of the brain are open : from diforders, in
which the caufes above-mentioned are predominant; as
fevers, phrenfy, melancholy, pains, fuppurations, and
fuch-like diforders.
When the caufe is known, it muft be removed, if
poffible; and the irritated fpirits muft be appeafed with
emulfions, efpecially of poppy feed,. or with the thebaic
tinfture, - or theriaca and other opiates in general, not
negle&ing the original difeafes. In fevers, a moift foft-
ening diet is beneficial • as alfo preparations of barley, e*
mulfions of poppy-feeds, and almonds, .deco&ion of fcor-
zonera-roots, almond-cream, and winter-flummery, ufed
as aliment ; likewife tea made of cowflip-flowers, and
gentle laxatives. When the patient is reftlefs and wake¬
ful the night before a crifis, no hypnotics ihould be
given.
When there is no other difeafe, the patient fhould ftvun
'all care, and ifitenfe thinking, efpecially in the evening j
he fhould mfe exercife, and eat light fuppers. If it is
caufed by pains, they fliould'be appeafed by antifpafmo-
dics, things which temperate, and diaphoretics : if
thefe -will not dx>; mild opiates muft be added. In old
perfons, all care and folicitude fliould be bamfhed, the
mind fhould be quiet, and the moderate ufe of generous
wine may be allowed m the evening ; Jikewife medi*
Von.. III. N0. 75. 2
CINE. 157
cines of amber and muik will be proper, and con feet io
aikermes or theriaea with wine. ~The drinking of ho*
water, and principally coffee, muft be forbid after dinner.
Of the Incubus, or Night-mare.
W ill is obfsrves, that the incubus rarely fuzes any
orie, except during fleep, add when the ftomach is op-
preffed with aliment of hard digtftion, efpecially if-the
patient lies on his back.
Thofe that are feized with it, feem to have a hearintf?
on their breafts, and about.their prsecordia; and,, if they
want to fpeak, they cannot: fometimes they fee fp eft res
of various forms, and cannot get rid of the load, or move
their body, but after a long ftruggle : at length they
awake, and the imaginary weight vanifhes; but fome¬
times they find a tremor of the heart, and many times a
quick and violent vibration of the diaphragm.
Heifter obferves, that thofe who have troubled dreams,
or walk in their fleep, are to be cured in the fame man¬
ner, as proceeding from the fame caufe, and fhould purge,
bleed, and ufe a Tpare diet.
Etmuller is much of the fame opinion, and advifes the
patient to eat flight Tappers, and to lie with thsif. heads
raifed pretty high. If it be very troublifome, anti-epi¬
leptics may be ufed, as welj as medicines prepared of
fteel. It frequently affedls children, becaufe they eat
more than they can digeft. There are feme inftancer of
its being mortal, though it is generally without danger.
Dr White has proved that the incubus is owing to wind
in the ftomach and bowels; and therefore recommends a
dram of brandy before going to bed,
Of the Syncope, or Fainting.
Heister obferves, that this diforder may arife from
want of ftrength from profufe bleeding, from fudden and
violent terror and dread, or from the fight of any greatly
affefting thing. The patient is deprived of fenfe and mo¬
tion, either wholly or in part, with palenefs of the face,
and a very weak or low pulfe. They are generally rou-
fed by fluking and pulling, or by volatile medicines; which
diftinguifhes it from the apoplexy.
There are two kinds; the one flight, the other grie-
/■vous. The flight kind is attended with palenefs of the
Face, difturbed vifion, finging of the ears, and fometimes
with a vertigo ; the ftrength fails, and the patient is al-
moft deprived of fenfe, falls or finks down, till fome pro¬
per remedy is applied t,o the nofe and fnputh. The more
grievous fort is,‘when the patient falls into a delirium,
and is deprived of all fenfe and motion, except breathing,'
and a very fmall pulfe 5 but yet he may be rouzed by fpi-
rituous medicines and other means, much moreeafily than
in the apoplexy;
Befides the caufes already mentioned, there may be
added the hyftertc paflion, which feems to proceed from
fpafins: feme of this fort are thus affe&ed with the fmeil
of fweet things. Some incur this diforder by deep ftudy,
great inanitions, and failing,
With regard to'the prognoftics, it has generally more
terror than danger attending it, tmlefs it proceeds from
profufe bleeding, or wounds, or a iefe of ftrength by 0-
ff. r ther
158 M E D I
ther difeafes, or a niofl: violent terror. The (lighter
fainting-fits have little danger; and, patients are brought
to themfelyes by volatile medicines, taken by the. mouth,
or applied to themodrils.
As to the cure, if the (lighter fort happens when a vein
is opened, or from the fight of blood, wounds, ulcers,
or any chirurgical operation, which proceeds from hor¬
ror and fear, affedting the imagination, it often happens
that changing the room, and going into frelh air, will
perform a cure. But if any thing hinders this, that they
can neither walk nor leave the room, the fmell of hungary
water alone, or volatile fpirits, or wine and ftrong vine¬
gar, ‘or fprtnkling the face with cold water, or a draught
of generous wine, will bring them to themfelves.
In more grievous fainting fits, where gentle cordials
are of little ufe, the ftronger fort mud be applied, fuch
asTpirit of fal ammoniac to the noftrils, temples and puifes,
with ftrong fridtions ; or 40 or 50 drops of volatile fpirits
may be given inwardly, to which may be added cinnamon
water, orange-flower-water, or the like; not forgetting
a draught of generous wine, with vellications and fridlions
of the extremities of the nofe, ears, head, hair, drc. till
they recover.
When the patient is hyderic, none but fetid things
fhould be applied to the nofe, fuch as cador, afa-fcetida,
partridges feathers burnt, or burnt leather, horn, or the
Kko ; as alfo fetid fpirits, in a grievous fit; not omitting
Vellications and fridlions of the aforefaid parts.
Of the Spasm of Lower Jaw.
In the fpafm of the lower jaw, when the patient can
neither open his mouth, nor eat, as when perfons are
wounded, and fomething foreign is lodged there'in, or
when the nerves are hurt, or when (harp things, fuch as
vitriol, are applied to dop the blood, the cure mud be
performed according to the diverfity of caufes, as parti¬
cularly treated of in furgery. But when this happens
fpontaneoufly in infants, they generally die, though the
bed nervous and antifpafmodic medicines have been ufed
both inwardly and outwardly .
Of the Cynic Spasm, oy Conviilfion of the Mufcles of
the Mouth.
A Cynic fpafm, if it proceeds from vegetable poifons,
as it generally does, they are to be expelled immediately
from the body by a vomit, and then giving generous wine,
warm with ginger or pepper. If it happens from other
caufes, it mud be treated with antifpafmodics and nervous
medicines, both inwardly and outwardly; and chiefly
with plafler of betony and bay-berries, prepared with oil
of amber, and applied to the temples, and behind the ears.
Of the Paxpitation of the Heart.
Th e heart .often palpitates fo much as to be heard at
a diflance by the by jfanders, which they fuppofe to be
an affe&ion of the thorax. This ma'y fometimes happen,
from a violent motion of the body, chiefly when afcend-
ing high places, and principally in thofewho are plethoric
and hypochondriac Sometimes it is caufed by fear or
dread, when the blood is forced too violently to the heart.
When it proceeds from violent motion or terror, and re-
C I N E.
turns offen, it caufes a kind of polypus, as is evident
from the difledion of thofe bodies who have died of this
difeafe. Hence", almoft a continual palpitation arifes.
Sometimes it proceeds from a bad conformation of the
heart and the neighhouring-veflels, fuch as an aneurifm
of the aorta, when it becomes, boney.
Others affirm, it fometimes may be caufed by wounds
in the ventricles or abfcefles in the heart; or from wind,
or a diforder of the animal fpirits, inducing fpafmodic
atFedtions.
In the beginning of the cure, if the patient is pletho¬
ric, or when ufual bleedings have been fiopt, it will be
proper to bleed, by way of prefervation, in the fpring and
autumn.
Befides this, faline, nitrous, and cinnabarine temper-
ating medicines are to -be ufed, particularly antifpafmo¬
dics, to appeafe the motion of the heart, and render the
blood more fluid. The aqueous infufions of tea, balm,
veronica, primrofes, or citrons, are likewife proper, ef-
pecially with the eflence of fcordium, carduuS benedi&us,
citron, or orange-peel, with a little dulcified fpirit of
nitre, taken morning and evening ; as alfo temperate pe-
diluvia, moderate frequent exercife, riding, moderate
diet, plenty of thin drink, whey, mineral waters, efpe-
cially the chalybeate kind, are very ufeful in this difeafe.
Of a Polypus of the Heart.
A Polypus is a mafs compofed of varipus'pellicles
and fibres, generated in the heart and large velfels. They
are generally founded in acute as well as chronic difeafes ;
and there are few bodies to be met with, wherein they
are not to be found after death. Its principal feat is in
the heart, pulmonary artery, and the aorta.
They principally attack the fanguine con'flitutions, and
patients who have fmaller veflels, foft fibre's, of a feden-
tary life, who drink little, or are free in the ufe of acid
wines and fpirituous liquors, as alfo thofe who eat large
fuppers.
The beginning of a polypus may be known by a com-
preffion of the bread, a fixed pain about the heart, and
when it increafes there is a frequent palpitation of the
heart, from a flight caufe, and the pulfe is ftrangely unequal
and often intermits. When there is a violent motion of
the body, or the patient has taken a medicine which dif-
turbs the blood, or the mind is violently affefted, 'a (hort-
nefs of breath and an incredible anxiety of the heart will
arife^ Laflly, there are frequent faintings without any
evident caufey or from a certain pofition of the body. If
the blood is let fall into hot water, it will congeal like
jelly, and cleave into white filaments.
In the cure, an exa£t regimen and diet mud be made
ufe of, with a frequent exercife and motion of the body,
and mineral wafers, efpecially thofe of the chalybeate
kind, and abounding with alkalious fait.
Of the Hiccup.
A Hiccup is a fpafmodic affe&ion of the domach and
diaphragm, arifing from any thing that irritates and velli-
cates their nervouacoats. When it proceeds from a d’ght
error in diet, it will foon end fpontaneoufly, or by drink-
irg any thing which dilutes the acrid matter. Sometimes
M E D I
it is of a more grievous kind, and may proceed from .a
hurt pf the ftomach, poifon, an inflammation of the
ftamach, inteftines, bladder, diaphragm, or the reft of
the vifcera. Sometimes, immediately before death, it
may proceed from gangrenes of the outward parts. In
acute fevers, and chiefly the malignant, a hiccup is fre¬
quent, and often fatal.
When it happens in old or weak peffons, from a plen¬
tiful meal, efpecially from hard and flatulent aliment, a
draught of generous wine, or a dram of any fpirituous
liquor, will generally take it away. Likewife ftomachic
poyvders mixt with Peruvian bark, and taken in generous
wine, are profitable ; as alfo if it proceeds from cold, or
drinking cold liquors.
When it proceeds from other caufes, efpecially from
acid humours in the ftomach, abforbent and alkalious
medicines are good. If it proceeds from an acute fever,
or an inflammation of the ftomach, it is a dangerous dif-
eafe. However^ dulcified fpirit of nitre, joined to an
alexipharmac, and given often, is proper ; a dram or two
of diafcordium, given in the evening, may perform a cure.
If it proceeds from a gangrene or mortificatiori, it is ge¬
nerally incurable : but Peruvian bark, with medicines a-
gainft internal inflammations, is moft likely to fucceed.
If a poifon is the caufe, plenty of milk muft be taken with
oil, as has been already taught.
Of the Soda, or Heart-burn.
This diforder is a heat or troublefome burning about
the pit of the ftomach, or its left orifice, which fometimes
is extended the whole length of the oefophagus, with a
preflufr or fpafmodic conftridtion, ufually attacking the
patient hy fits. The caufe is generally fat aliment, if
cold drink be taken foon after. In fbme it proceeds from
acids, in others from aromatics, fpirituous liquors, or
bilious humours. It ■ frequently torments pregnant wo-I,
men. This diforder is generally flight, and vanifhes of
its own accord j but in fome it is of long duration.
In the cure, the caufe muft always be attended to: If
from acids, abforbents are proper, particularly crabs-eyes
and prepared (hells, mixed with a fourth or fifth part of
powder of nutmeg, given to half a dram. It is common
to take chalk alone, or mixed with nutmeg; Jaut care
Ihpuld be taken not to be too free in its ufe. Oil of tar¬
tar p:r deliquium, given from 20 to 30 drops, in tea,
coffee, broth, or warm beer, is ufually efficacious ; as
alfo tinfture of tartar and fpirit of hartfhorn. If it pro¬
ceeds from bilious humours, 30 or 50 drops of dulcified
fpirit of nitre imwater, tea, or coffee, will take away the
pain. When it is caufed bv fat things, and draughts of
cold liquor, a dram of brandy is good. Now and then
laxatives fhould be given, .to carry of, the humours. In
fanguine conftitutions, bleeding may be proper.
Of the C akdialgia, ok Pain-of the Stomach..
Of all pains of the ftomach, the cardialgia is the moft*
fevere. It is a fpafmodic pain of the orifice of the fto¬
mach f fometimes of the right and fometimes of the left. '
One kind of this diforder may proceed from a (harp cau-
flic, or poifonous matter ; fometimes it arifes from a re¬
dundant or cauftic boil, or from a dyfentery. At other
CINE. 159
times it may proceed from the bloody when any ufual e-
vactiations are fupprefied, and the nervous membranes of
the ftomach are diftended thereby. Hence it often happens
to women after the fiftieth year; and, in the cure,;
bleeding or fcarifications are proper: on the other hand,
if it is deduced from a cauftic mat ter in the ftomach, oily
appeafmg things, afles milk, an infufion of camomile
flowers, cream, with abforbents, are proper. It muft
be diftinguifhed from a painful inflation of the ftomach,
in which there is a tumour like a bladder under the falfe
ribs, chiefly on the left fide, and under the pit of the fto¬
mach; but the inflation is generally on the right fide, with
great difficulty of breathing. This is common in infants
before they are weaned; but more fo in hypochondriacs,
if they are too luxurious.
If it proceeds from the remains of the aliment grown
(harp, whence flatulencies arife, it generally gives way to
tea or coffee alone, or adecoftion of camomile flowers,
efpecially mixed with ftomachics ; likewife prepara¬
tions of fennel, ajnife, orange peel, and other carmina¬
tives are ufeful ; as alfo a dram of the powder of orange
peel, or camomile-floWers, with a few grains of faffron,.
in an ounce or two of wine.
When the flomach is too much filled with aliment dif¬
ficult of digeftion, or fat things, a gentle emetic will be
neceflary, efpecially if there is a naufea or reaching to vo¬
mit ; after which, a fufficient quantity of warm water muft:
be drank, to wafh the ftomach : this will be beft promoted
with a decoftion of carduus benedidtus, or half a dram of
tartar-vitriolate, fait of worm-wood, and'thelike; after
which ftomachics muft be given.
In a very violent cardialgia, from congeftions of blood,
vomits are improper, but bleeding neceflary, with anti-
fpafmodicsof tartar-vitriolate, nitre, cinnabar, crabs eyes,,
and the like, in a proper vehicle ; as alfo fpirit of hartf¬
horn mixt with tindlureof tartar to 50 or 6a drops. To.
thefe may be added emollient and anodyne clyfters, and a.
bladder of hot milk, with camomile flowers, applied to?
the pit of the ftomach.
Cy Flatulencies Eructations.
The caufe of thefe diforders is generally a weak fto¬
mach, and crude flatulent aliment, Tuch as peafe, beans,,
lentils, coleworts, turnips, radifhes, hard fat fle/h, and
the like ; which degenerate into wind, creating great an¬
xiety, if not evacuated, and difficulty of breathing. It
is a diforder familiar to hypochondriacs, and, the ftomaxh
being ftrongly coatra&ed, the wind breaks out with vio¬
lence.
Another caufe of flatulencies are congeftions of blood!
in the branches of the vena portse; whence proceed an¬
xieties of the piascordia, difficult breathing, cofic pains,,
and the cardialgia, and, by confent of the ftomach- with
the head, pains in the head, the vertigo, and watchfulnefs.
If it arifes frqm crudities in the ftomach, evacuations
are neceflary firft of all ; andthen ftrengtheners, aromatics,
bitters, and carminatives, fuch as have been mentioned in
the preceding difeafes; with a fparing diet and excercife.
It it proceeds from congeftions of the blood in the
branches of the vena ports, which is the cafe of hypo¬
chondriacs, or when ulual bleedings areJuppreflecf, a vein-
■todt
M E t> I
muft be opeaed; if ^he body is coftive, an emollient clyf-
ter ora gentle laxativ> will be proper. If thefe fail, cha¬
lybeate medicines muft be ufed, fuch as the tindure of vi¬
triol of mars, fteel-filings finely powdered to 6, 8, or 10
grains, or oil of cinnamon with fugar, or bitters, or fpaw-,
waters, with conftant exercife.
>0f Worm s .
Worm's are various with refpeft to their fhape and
magnitude, and have their feat in the llomach and intellines.
The round are furriilhed with a proboTcis, and a kind of
crooked claws, wherewith they fometimes gnaw and tear
the membranes. If thefe lodge in the llomach, their
bites a,< attended with an inexpreffible pain, anxiety, in¬
quietude, naufea, and flux of fpittie ; a fetid fmell exhales
from the mouth ; the countenance is now pale, and then
red; there is an itching of the nodrils, with an inclination
to vomit, and a dry and troublefome cough by fits, and
fometimes fainting.
When thiy are contained in the inteftines, efpecially
the ilion, then they produce the following fymptoms.
Thebellyds ftrangely diftended, efpecrally in infants, and
they feem to be afflifted with the tympany, with now and
then a diarrhoea, and the fasces are of an alh-colour, not
ur.like"c6w dung ; the upper parts wade away, infomuch
that the'bones are vifible, and yet the appetite is great.
The face is generally,pale and tumid; the excrements
feem to be full of cucumber-feed, or the like.
The figns of the afcarides are as follows: Their feat
is chiefly in the grofs inteftines, and they are mod plen¬
tiful in the return. They are like book-worms, and are
thrown out in large quantities. They have many things
in common with the other infers,-.and produce inflation
of the belly, leannefs, and a naufea; they are attended
with a great itching of the anus, and caufe fetid excre¬
ments.
The broad worm, called taenia, is like a narrow tape
two or three ells long, or longer, divided through the
whole length with crofs joints or knots; Andry affirms,
that there is only one in the body at a* time, and therefore
is called folium.
The Greeks called the remedies againft worms anthel¬
mintics; the mod approved of which are afa-fcetida and
fagaptnum, efpecially if mixed with purges, fuch asffier
durius dulcis, and extradl of rhubarb in pills; with this
caution, that before and -after the ufe of them, a few
fpoonfuls of falad oil, or oil of fweet almonds ffiould be
taken,. for all things of that kind are of great ufe. The
feeds of cina, fantonicum, and tanfey, are likewife ufeful,
by fell ding the putredinous colluvies, and redoring the
tone of the intedines.
Some affirm, that bitters are good remedies, as the
tops of wormwood, the leffer centaury, fcordmm, and
flowers of tanfey; likewife Peruvian bark, and eleutheria,
in beer or wine, chiefly Canary, in which feme fpbonfuls of
the infufion or decodtion fliould be taken every day.' Aloes,
myrrh, and corallina, are likewife powerful medicines in a
proper vehicle, or with honey, in the form of an eledfeaty.
The frtfh* juice ‘of water-crefTes, taiken every morning for
feme days, is likewife proper.
The, filings of deel didurb the lumbrici and afearides; as
Cl N E,
alfo Spaw waters ;’ likewife fpirit of vitriol or felphur,
and the elixir of vitriol: Wine itfelf is not a bad thing
drank at meals.
Medicines of qu>ckfilver are likewife .good, efpecially
half an ounce of it boiled in a pint of wormwood water,
in a giafs-velfel, for half an hour, dirring the quickfilver
with a dick : the dofe is a fpoonful for a boy, often in a
day : an adult, may take three, in an ounce or two of fo-
lurive fyrup of roles; or it may be boiled in milk, if the
children prefer it.
If thefe fail, a purge feould be given every third or fourth
day; fuch as mercurius dulcis, with aloes, diagridium,
redo of jalap, or troches of alhandal.
When internal things are rejected, the belly may be
anointed with oxes gall made hot, two or three times a-
day, or with oil of coloquintida, or-of wormwopd, with
didilkd oils of wormwood and tanfey, to which the de-
codlion of quickfilver with milk may be added.
To kill the afcarides, chalybeates are good, and mercu¬
rial purges, with clyders of a decodtioh of wormwood,
feeds of cina, myrrh, and quickfilver, to which may be
added an ounce and a half or two ounces of oil of worm¬
wood made by deception. Or the clyder may be of fa-
lad oil, or oil of fweet almonds, or linfeed alone, and in-
jedled often,
The pqwder of tin has. been* ufed many years as a re¬
medy againd worms, and particularly the flat kind which
often elude the force of Other medicines; but the feccefs
of this depends upon the proper dofe, and then it will have
remarkable effefts.
Take an ounce and an half of^ewter, and grind it to a
fine powder, .and mix it with half a pint of treacle.
To adults give two ounces of the powder of pure tin,
fifted through jhe fined hair fieve, mixt with eight ounces
of treacle, after the patient has been purged wbth an infu-
don of fena and manna.
£?/“ Difficulty cr Suppression c/" Urine.
Difficulty of urine arifes generally from a done, or
from an inflammation of the kidneys or the neck of the
bladder. In fanguine perfens, it may proceed from the
fuppreffion of feme ufual hemorrhage, or from the blind
piles ; or there may be a congedion of blood in the fpun-
gy or cavernous part of the urethra, which may be fo dif-
tended and inflated, as not to tranfmit the urine, or at
lead with great difficulty. In feme it maybe owing to a
fpafm of the neck of the bladder, or to (harp urine ; in o-
ahers to a palfy of the bladder, or a caruncle of the ure¬
thra ; or from a tumour, abfeefs, or ulcer, in the prodrate
gland ; or from its being toolarge, or indurated, as often
happens. Likewife in bloody urine it is not feldom fup-
pre'ffed; at lead it is expelled with great pain and trouble,
which proceeds from a concr- tion of blood. Etmuller
affirms, that adyfuryis generally occafioned from tfie want
of mucus of the urinary paifege, or its being worn off.
As the. caufes of an ifehury are various, they ought to
be carefully didinouiihedfrom each other. . When it pro¬
ceeds from an inflammation of the kidneys, the pain-and
heat are principally in that region, attended with a fever ;
if from a done in the kidneys, it is accompanied with vo¬
miting ; if from a done in the bladder, there is a violent
M E D I
pain in the bladder, which is extended to the very extre¬
mity of the urethra ; a mucus or pus is excreted with pale
urine; and, upon proper examination, the ftone may be
felt; but the njoft certain fign is fearching the bladder
with a catheter. When this diforder arifes from a ftone
in the urethra, it may beealily felt. If from an inflam¬
mation of the neck of the bladder, there is a tumour and
pain in the perioaeum; but it may be belt perceived by
tbruftirg the linger into the anus, and turning it up towards
the bladder ; for a tumour will be perceived by the phy-
fician, and by the patient a burning and prefling pain ;
and when a catheter is introduced into the urethra, an
impediment will be felt near the neck of the bladder, which
will hinder it from proceeding furthet. To thefe figns
may be added, when the diforder is great, a tenefmus, a
eon/triftion of the anus, an anxiety of the praecordia,
coidnefs of the extreme parts, vomiting, and a frebile
pulfe. When the cavernous fubftance of the urethra is
too much diftended with blood, and the urine is fupprefled,
a filver pipe cannot be admitted into the urethra, efpecial-
ly if the patient abounds with blood. When there is a
fpafm in the neck of the bladder, it appears from the
caufes aforefaid ; and likewile the patient perceives a fpaf-
modic conftridtion about the neck of the bladder, and a
catheter will pafs thereto, but no farther ; and there are
no figns of a done in the urethra or bladder.
If the urine is (harp, and produces a fpafm, we may
difcoyer it from its being very (linking, efpecially if the
patient is old or fcorbutic ; and there are many faline par¬
ticles in the urine like lime. When there is a caruncle
in the neck of the bladder, it may be known from the
figns mentioned in the lues venerea, where the cure is
treated of. An abfcefs in the proffrate gland often is mif-
taken for a caruncle. When a fcirrhus of the proftrate
gland is the caufe of a fupreflion, there is a hard or in¬
dolent tumour in the perinseum, or at lead the pain is not
great.
When the urinary paflages are obftru&ed by folid bo¬
dies, that is, the pelvis of the kidneys, the ureters, or
the neck of the bladder, or the urethra', from a done con¬
tained therein; if it' be fmall, diuretics will be proper,
which are mentioned in a fit of the gravel or done ; to
which may be added a decoSion of eringo-root and Ep-
fom fait or Sellers waters taken often therewith. But
if the done is large, and cannot be excreted by this means,
drong diuretics are highly hurtful, and it mud be cured
by feftion ; (fee Surgery.) But if the patient is too
weak, or too old, and cannot undergo the operation, the '
done, if poflible, mud be driven back ; and the pains mud
be appeafed with antifpafmodics internally, and with le-
nients, lubricant and oily medicines, as well-as gentle
anodynes : Externally, with emollient clyders, ointments',
liniments, and bath's. If the pains are violent, lenient
injeflions may be thrown up into the bladder, of falad,
Unfeed, and white poppy oil, or oil of fweet alm<lnds, or
as decodtion of linfeed or roots of mallows in milk, with
the addition of a little frefti butter. This done, the pati¬
ent mud have recourfe to lime-water.
If the urine is fuppreiTed from an inflammation of the
Sidneys or bladder, diuretics are pernicious, and mineral
waters notfafe; but rather refrigerating nitrous remedies,
Vox. III. Numb. 7;. 2
c I N E. 161
neutral falts, crabs-eyes, tartar-vkriolate, may be given,
with a grain of camphor in every dofe. To render them
more efficacious, they may be joined to a decodtion or
infufion of parfley roots, eringo tea, ground-ivy, or the
like; likewife emulfions of the four colds feeds, withcrabs-
eyes, calx of antimony, and nitre, orfeeds of violets, which
are laxative and gently diuretic: to thefe may be added
fomentations, and a bladder filled with hot milk or water,
or emollient and refolvent cataplafms, applied to the re¬
gion of the kidneys or bladder, or perinteum, according
to the place of the inflammation, as well as baths of the
fame kind ; but above all, bleeding is neceffary, efpecially
in the plethoric, and the promoting of ufual haemorrhages.
In the mean while aperients and refolvents muft be given,
fucb as powders of crabs-eyes, arcanum duplicatum, tar¬
tar-vitriolate, and nitre ; or medicinal waters, with, bit¬
ter cathartic falls given now and then.
When the fpungy fubflance of the urethra is fwelled with
blood, and as it were inflated, a copious bleeding is the
principal remedy.
When a fpafm affe&sthe neck of the bladder, it muff be
treated with temperating and antifpafmodic powders, diu¬
retic waters, and infufions, with emulfions, or lenient oils
now and then, fuch as falad:oil, oils of fweet almonds,
poppy or linfeed : externally, cataplafms, ointments, cly-
fters, and baths, of the emollient a!nd demulcent kind;
with gentle opiates, if the difeafe requires them.
If the fpafm proceeds from a ffiarp urine, from the furvy,
or dtherwife, it muft be treated with gentle purges and
diaphoretics, and abforbents, fuch as crabs-eyes, mo¬
ther of pearl, prepared chalk, calx of antimony, and am¬
ber ; with lenient decoiftions of china root, farfaparilla,
•or mallows, wfith emulfions and demulcent oils; to which
maybe added fyrup of marfh-mallows; when the pains are
violent, they mufl be appeafed with moderate opiates.
If the difficulty proceeds from blood remaining in the
bladder, or its neck, the concretion is to be refolved and
expelled with warm infufions of digeflive herbs drank lijce
tear fuch as ground-ivy, arnica, chervil, or veronica ; with
timflure of tartar, or liquor of the terra foliata of tartar,
with digeflive powders of crabs eyes, faturated with the
juice of oranges or lemons, fperma ceti, tartar-vitriolate,
nitre, and cinnabar: to which may be added the water of
chervil or parfley ; with roafted onions applied hot to the
region of the pubes, perinseum; or cataplafms of wheat-
flour boiled in milk, with butter and a little faffron, or
with white lily roots, mallows, mat fh-mallows, or ca¬
momile flowers applied to relax the fpafm of the neck of
the bladder ; or with a bladder of hot mirit, in which
camomile flowers have been boiled ; \tfith emollient and
refolvent clyfters of camomile-flowers boiled in milk,
with oil or freffi butter : but, if all thefe fail, a catheter
is t© be introduced into the neck of the bladderj to break
the concretion, and evacuate the urine.
When there is an ulcer in the bladder, which will ap¬
pear from purulent and fetid urine, with a moft violent
pain in the bladder, as if a ftone was contained therein ;
all fharp and ftimulatingthings mult be avoided, and the
infufions of vulnerary abforbent roots and herbs muft be
given with mucilages and foft balfamics, efpecially balfam
of Mecca, Tolu, &c. with a moderate ufe of quickfilver,
f S f efpecially
c
I
N E.
162 M E D I
efpecially if the cafe is venereal. Then mineral waters
may be drank, either alone or with warm milk, for fe-
Veral weeks, or the hot bath waters : to thefe may be
added injedlions of a decoilion of the traumatic herbs,
fuch as agrimony, St John’s wort, plantain, or yarrow;
or, in their ftead, milk with fyrup of marlh-mallows, or
frefh butter, or oil of St John’s wort.
If there is a difficulty of urine in pregnant women
towards the laft months, diuretics muft be ffiunned.
The beft remedy in this cafe is to eafethe preflure upon
the part; but, if that will not do, to ufe a catheter.
Laftly, if it proceeds from a fwelling of the proftate
gland, or if it is become fcirrhous, it muft be treated as
luch, as will be hereafter taught.
But, if thefe remedies wilf not do, the bladder muft
be pierced with a trochar, which is called the pundfure
of the perinseum ; and, when the perforation is made,
the water muft be evacuated, as in the dropfy : The in-
ftrument muft he left in the wound, and be faftened in
fuch a manner that it does not fall out, that fo the urine
may be made as often as there is occafion : It is a trouble-
fome operation, but the only one left.
Of the Diabetes.
A Diabetes happens when the urine comes away
crude, exceeding the quantity of liquids drank, attended
with weaknefs, which generally proceeds from the kid¬
neys, which are too weak and lax, efpecially in thofe who
have been accuftomedto drink too much. Heist.
Lifter obferves, that a diabetes comes flowly on, and
is along while inbreeding. In the beginning, the mouth
is dry, and the fpittle a little white and frothy; the urine
being fomewhat more than ufual, with a fmali thirft. A
heat begins to be perceived in the bowels, which is a little
pungent; the patient falls away, and the mind is anxious
and unftabie. In time the thirft greatly increafes, the
urine is plentiful, and the body waftes. When they
make water without intermiffion, the thirft becomes into¬
lerable; and, though much is drank, it is not proportion-
able to fhe water. When the urine is retained a little
while, there is a fwelling of the loins, ilia, and teftes,
and it comes away with pain. Now death is at hand.
The urine is pale, not fweet, but it is more fweetilh at
laft than at firft.
Strengtheners, moderate aftringents, and fpecies of
hyacinth, with crocus martis, are good in this difeafe,
efpecially with anodynes : or Japan earth, or the tin&ure
of vitriol of mars, red wine with water in a fmall quan¬
tity : the drink ffiduld be fparing, and all excelfes avoid¬
ed. Exercife and fri&ions of the body are likewife pro¬
fitable, becaufe they ftrengthen the parts, and increafe
perfpiration.
Lifter fays, almonds and a milk diet are proper in this
diftemper; as alfo wine with ginger; allowing in the mean
time a draught of milk and water to allay the thirft.
Willis declares, he has often prefcribed tin&ure of an¬
timony with good fuccefs ; and lime- water with faffafras,
auifeeds, raifins, or liquorice.
Of WOMENS DISEASES.
Of the Chlorosis, or Green-Sicknefs.
Sydenham looks upon this to be a fpecies of thehy-
fteric affeftion, and is known by a paleriefs arid difcoloura-'
tion of the face and the whole body. The complexion
appears a little fublivid or greeniffi, with a red or dark
circle under the eyes ; the face is bloated, the eyelids and
ancles are apt to fwell ; the whole body is heavy and dull;
there is a tenfive laffitude of the legs and feet, difficulty
of breathing, palpitation of the heart, pain of the head,
a feverifh pulfe, a drowfinefs; a pica, or defire’of eating
unfit things, fuch as coals, chalk, <&c. and a fuppreffion
of the menfesv The clavus hyftericus often attacks pa¬
tients in the height of this diforder.
The cure is to be attempted with chalybeate medicines,
fuch as are prefcribed in the hyfteric diforder, given ac¬
cording to the patient’s age, drinkings wine after them;
or the corroborating infufion with angelica root. If the
patient is not very weak, (he may be purged.once or twice
before the courfe is entered upon.
Heifterrecommends attenuants, evacuants, and ftrength-
eners, with a good diet and exercife; particularly from
v to viij grains of powder of fteel, with half a fcruple of a
proper elspfaccharum, or with bitter extrafts given in the
evening; as alfo emmenagogues at due times, with pe-
diluvia and bleeding in the foot about the time of men-
ftruation. If thefe will not fuffice, he thinks matrimony
a certain cure.
Of the Suppression of the Menses.
As foon as a healthy female arrives at her full growth,
Ihe generates more blood than can be conveniently, con¬
tained in the veflels -. wherefore the fuperfluity is evacu¬
ated by.the uterine arteries, and is called the Menfei.
Boerhaave obferves, that in a foppreffion of the menfes
there is a plethora, with a liftleffnefs to motion; a heavi-
nefs, a palenefs, a pain of the loins and of the groin ;
all the fundtions, whether natural, vital, or animal, are
depraved. Sometimes the menfes will force a way thro’
the eyes, ears, noftrils, gums, the falival dudts, bladder,
breafts, fkin, wounds, or ulcers.
Hence often arifes a depravation of all the vifcera, as
alfo difeafes without number, partly from a putrefaftion
already begun, and partly from the hurt which the veffels
have received.
From this diforder proceed want of appetite ; the pica
and malacia, or a depraved appetite. If it is habitual
and obftinate, a fcirrhus or dropfy of the womb are to be
feared, or a rupture of fome blood-veffel, efpecially of
the lungs. It is not fo dangerous when the uterus is not
infardted, or. when there is no other fymptom of the men¬
fes. If this difeafe is attended with the floor albus, it
may become habitual, and from yellow become green and
acrid, corroding the uterus, and laying a foundation of a
dropfy therein
Things which retard the menfes are, immoderate cold,
forrow, a fudden fright, too great evacuations, incrafla-
ting
M E D I
ting -diet, a crudity of the hamours, acids, and afiringent
medicines.
This diforder is to be cured in the fame manner as the
hyderic affedion; but, if the rerhedie's for that fail, the
patient muft take every morning five fpoonfuls of an hy-
fteric,julep, with twelve drops of fpirit ofhartfhorn ; and
every night a fcruple of compound powder of myrrh made
into a bolus, or pills with fyrup of lemons. Allen recom¬
mends cantharides and camphor; the dofe is from two
grains to fix.
Hoffman directs chalybeates, or pills made of aloes,
myrrh, faffron, amber, cador, and round birthwort. Pit¬
cairn thinks mercury more efficacious than deel.
If the fluids are inclinable todagnate, their fluidity may
be preferved by fomentations and fridtions of the feet;.by
opening a vein in the foot, and bleeding effewhere ; by
giving uterine purges ; by emmenagogues; by pladers,
fomentations, liniments, vapours and heat; by ftrength-
ening the veffels debilitated with a plethora, by chaly¬
beates and adringents.
Uterine cathartics are aloes, myrrh, bryony, colocyn-
thus, gum-ammoniac, bdellium, fagapenum, opopanax,
afa-fetida, galbanum, and elixir propnetatis.
Emmenagogues, befides the former, are, aridolochia,
mugwort, motherwort, camomile, juniper, marjoram,
tnarum, feverfew, pennyroyal, rue, favine, Page, elder,
wild-thyme, tanfy, thyme. To which may be added
balm, roremary, waiJ-flowers, faffron, bay and juniper
berries, amber, rhubarb, and aromatics. As alfo borax,
alkaline and volatile falts; warm, dimulating, acrid, and
aromatic oilsthe barks of guaiacum, faflafras, cinna¬
mon, and juniper ; the rinds of oranges, citrons, and
lemons.
Refolving pladers are thofe of cummin, melilot, gal-
banum, bayberries, labdanum, oxycroceum, which mud
be applied to the foies of thefeet, navel and groin. The
. fomentations may be made of Venice foap, and fome of
the ^bove mentioned herbs.
Of the Immoderate Flux of the Menses, tr
Uterine Haemorrhage.
Every large flux of blood from the" uterus is not to
be edeemed noxious, but fuch only as is attended with
lofs of drength, which brings on other fymptoms, fuch
as. want of 3ppetite, crudities from indigellico, a fenfa-
tion oS weight near the regimen of the domach, an ill
colour in the face, a languid pulfe, often with a gentle
heat, an cedematous fwelling of the feet, and a didurbed
_ fleep without refreftiment.
Sometimes the menfes flow in too great plenty and
with impetuofity at the ufual period ; fonietimes twice or
oftenerin a month; fometimes again they continue feveral
days longer than ordinary.
This flux fometimes confids of thin florid blood, which
happens chiefly in abortions; and from a retention of
pieces of the fecundines, which keep the mouths of the
veflils open Sometimes there are coagulated and dot¬
ted maifes like fldh come away with theblood, of the lize
of an egg, which is occafioned by a doppage of the men¬
fes for two or three months., At other times the blood
is grumous, coagulated, and black; generally on the iirit
CINE. 163
days of child-bed, in flender and plethoric fubjedts.
When the patient is cachedic, and the flux continues
long, it is thin, watery, andmucid. In the fcorbutic, it
is corrupt and fetid, with acrimony and pain. In the
younger fort, before child-bearing, if the evacuation be
immoderate, it is commonly followed by a fluoTalbus,
or the dripping of a white, impure, mucid matter.
. The caufe may be referred to a copious and impetuous-
afflux of blood to the uterus,- and an unequal and impe-
ded reflux by the veins ; which diftending and relaxing the1
uterine vefiels, make the orifices too wide, or rend and
corrode them, by which the blood flows too freely.
This may happen from a plethora, or when there has
been a long fnppreflion, or an abortion, or a difficult la- *
hour. It generally happens to women about the fiftieth
year, when the menfes are going to leave them; and nor
always without danger. It fometimes happens to women
upwards of fixty, which, if attended with a flow fever,
haftens death.
The concomitant figns are generally thefe: A tenfion
and inflation of the hypochondria, a heavy preffing pain
about the loins, fometimes with a chilnefs ; a coldn fs of
the extremities, a linking of the velfels, a palenefs of
the face, a quick pulfe, with an internal heat, a coftive-
nefs, and’little urine; all which Ihew there is not only,
a debility and laxity of the uterus, but fpafmodtc flric--
tures of the vafculous and nervous parts, which force the .
blood to the uterus.
If the body is cacochymic or fcorbutic, or full of bad.
humours, orafflifled with the venereal difeafe; when the'
vilcera are unfound, and the liver, fpleen, and meferaic
veins, are fluffed with thick blood, the cafe is dangerous
and troublefome ; for the fault of the fluids and cachexy
continually increafe : Befides, the more the ftrength is
weakened, the more the flomach. and digeflion are hurt;
the blood is depraved, and ’the excretions diflurbed and
leflened. When this happens to women when the child
is dead, their lives are in great danger, and nothing but
fpeedy afliflance from a man-midwife can fave them. The
cafs is alfo dangerous when the fecundines are violently
extraAed, or parts of them are retained, and which fonie¬
times degenerates into moles.
Immoderate evacuations are produced by a fedentary
life, which gives room for abundance of thick chyle and
milk. It is caufed likewife by too frequent ufe of fait,
acrid, and feafoned meats ; by fpiritous liquors, he. by
violent agitations and paffions of the mind, from Ioffes,
gaming, love, anger, he. It may be obferved likewife,
that violent exercife does as much harm as the moderate
is ferviceable, efpecialiy if the patient is fubjeft to this
flux from other caufes; fucb as immoderate repetitions of
the venereal adl, efpecialiy in women of a delicate conffi—
totion ; too frequent child-bearing.
The cure ffiould refpedt the reflraining a prefent flux^
and the keeping within bounds afutureone.
It fflould be begun with reft, if convenient, in bed ;
the patient lying on her back, and filent as much as pof-
fible. Bleed in the arm, according as the conftitution and
ftrength of‘the patient, as well as the urgency of the
fymptoms, will admit or require. Avoid ligatures of the
limbs. Let the patient fare fltnderlyon veaUnd chicken-
broths,
s&4 M E D I
broths, fifti Toops ; and drink a ptifan of nettle-tops, yar¬
row, and plantane, with orange-peel, or of the greater
conifrey ; if (he be hot and bilious, with linfeed.
If thefe fail, have recourfe to allringents.
Fluor Albus, or Whites.
The finer albus confifts in the efflux of a whitifit,
lymphatic, ferous, of aqueous humour, from the matrix.
It is fometimes white, fometimes pale, yellow, green,
orblackifh; fometimes it is (harp and corrolive, fome¬
times foul and fetid : the face is difcoloured, there is a
pain in the fpine of the back, the appetite is loft, and the
eyes and feet fwell. Some women have a periodical flux
of the whites inftead of the menfes.
The fymptoms are, a pain and weight in the loins,
which is word in the lymphatic flux, as being attended
with a fwelling of the uterus, turbid urine, barrennefs,
a pronenefs to abortion ; a loathing of fome things, and
longing for others; indigeflion; thicknefs and crudity of
the blood ; whence proceed cedematous fwellings of the
feet by day, and of the face by night; difficult breathing,
palpitation of the heart, fyncope, relaxation of the liga¬
ments of the uterus, a total or partial procidentia uteri:
if the flux is acrid and corrofive, it ulcerates the vulva ;
creates phlyflenm; which laft generally proceed from a
fcirrhus or cancer in the uterus; a flow fever ; dropfies
of different parts; of which, or aconfumption, the patient
generally dies.
It may be known from a virulent gonorrhoea ; becaufe
this is attended with pain and an inflammation of the ex¬
ternal parts of the pudenda, chiefly about the clitoris ;
heat, (harpnefs and difficulty of urine, pain in coition ;
it makes its progrefs fooner. If the gonorrhoea is inve¬
terate, it is very like a fluor albus.
Befides arterial blood, the menfes confift of redundant
lymph or ferum, chiefly from the membranous cells, and
ventricles of the glands of thofe parts of the membrana
ceilulofa which are more immediately conneded with the
kidneys, uterus, and ovarium. When this lymphatic
fecretion becomes morbid, it is called the fluor albus.
At firft the parts of the membrana adipofa of the loins,
kidneys, and uterine appendages, are wafted by it; but
at length the flux becomes acrimonious, and may melt
and carry off all the fat of the body.
The fluor albus fometimes is difcharged from the ute¬
rine veffels, and fometimes from the glands of the vagina:
in the firft cafe it (lops when the menfes begin to flow ;
in the latter it continues with them, and pregnant women
are not exempted from it.
When this flux is unfeafonably flopped, it caufes the
belly to fwell, with pains of the loins, flow fevers, numb-
nefs of the joints, and great laflitude of the body.
When the flux is lafteous, it may be cured in fifteen
days. The patient muft feed fparingly, ufe frequent
exercife, and fleep little. If this is not complied with,
Ihe muft bleed in the arm once or twice a-month, and
take purges and emetics, or at leaft frequent clyfters.
The efficacy muft be affifted with diaphoretics, decoftion
of the woods, and diuretics.
In the femila&eous flux, infpiflating and nouriffiing
diet will be beft, fuch as creams, foaps, boiled milk,
CINE.
roaft meat, jellies, i&t. milk, or milk turned with a de-
co&ion of china, is very good.
Narcotics are highly Uieful, -efpecially if the patient is
reftids, or delirious. In the beginning the dofe muft be
fmall, which may be gradually increafed.
When the veficulae laftere are relaxed, the tone muft
be reftored with hot mineral baths, fomentations and in¬
jections of and bathing in the fame. The ftream may alfo
be conveyed into the vagina with a funnel.
Decodtions of the woods are alfo good as diaphoretics;
and diuretics of a decoction of roots of eringo and reft-
harrow, with powder of millepedes, or glauber’s fait.
If the lymphatic flux is attended with a fcrophulous,
fcorbutic, or venereal taint, thefe diforders muft be firft
removed. If the uterine lymphatics are compreffed by
fcirrhofities, cancers, ganglions, or the like, regard muft
be had to the caufes,
In obftrudtions of the glands of the uterus, begm with
bleeding ; then a gentle purge, or an emetic of iij grains
of tartar emetic or ipecacuanha. Afterwards, if the
patient’s conftitution is cold, attenuating aperients. If
(he is hot and bilious, with a fenfible pain in the uterus,
cooling broths and apozems, with the addition of cray-
fiffi ; affes milk, with a decodiion of barley ; chalybeate
whey, with chervil boiled therein. Gently purging mi¬
neral waters, baths, and half baths, are convenient in the
fummer.
Of the Furor Uterinvs.
Salacity in women, attended with impudence, reft-
leffnefs, and a delirium, is called the/aror
It arifes from a too great fenfibility or inflammation
of the pudenda, or parts wherein the venereal ftimulus
refides, which are chiefly the clitoris and vagina ; or the
too great abundance and acrimony of the fluids of thofe
parts; or both thefe caufes may exift together.
In the delirium maniacum, the patient is entirely (hame-
lefs ; in the melanchoiicum more referved, and her folly
is confined to fewer objedts.
It may proceed from the abufe of hot aperitives ; thus
fal amoniac, borax, and cantharides, have produced it:
from powerful emenagogues in hot and bilious conftitu-
tions; fometimes from difficult and fuppreffed menfes;
from remedies given againft fterility. Mu(k diflblved in
oleum aromaticum, and rubbed on the membrum virile,
has raifed a phlogofis in the vagina, whence a furor uteri-
nus enfued.
It is difficult to cure in thofe whofe menfes are difficult
at firft ; in inveterate cafes; in old fubjedls. It is eafier
cured, when the furor uteiinus is effential, and the deli¬
rium fymptomatic, than when the delirium is effential,
and the furor fymptomatic. The maniacal delirium is
harder to manage than the melancholic. If it continues
a month or two, the fault of the brain becomes obfti-
nate, for it degenerates into real madnefs.
The indications of cure, are to^diminiffi the beat and
fenfibility of the affetfted parts ; to cool, fweeten, and
dilute the blood, and to render it balfamic; or to purfue
both intenfions at once.
The firft indication is anfwered by frequent and copious
bleedings, as in an incipent madnefs; even to eight times
MEDICI N £. 16$
in two days, n notmng roroias; u ms raims, mere is
no danger. She mu ft likewife be purged, as mad folks
are, with jalap, fcatnmony, diagrid. The dofe muft be
increafed one third, as being hard to purge. Emetics
are alfo' good ; for they evacuate the bile, which abates
the .acrimony of the humours. In the intervals, order
frequent emollient clyfters •. to which add half a dram
offal prunella, or a little vinegar morning and night, baths
and fe.micupia ; moderate the heat, irritation, ancj fenfibi-
]ity of the parts affeifled : as alfo emollient injedtions in¬
to the vagina, and fomentations, or peflaries of cotton
may be fteeped therein; fal prunella may alfo be mixed
,therein.
Of an Inflammation 0/ the. Womb.
An inflammation of the uterus appears from extraor¬
dinary heap, and a fixed pain in the groin, with an acute
fever, a pain in the loins and belly, an inflation of the
abdomen, a ftimulus to make water and go to ftool ; heat,
and difficulty of urine ; tumour, pain, heat, and tenfipn
-of the hypogaftric region; rednefs of the os uteri, and
great heat of the vagina. If the fore-part of the uterus
is affefted, there is a dyfury or heat of urine ; if the back
.part, a tenefmus, frequent faintings and cardialgia. a
burning fever ; or, if the inflammation is violent, a ly-
pyria, in which the external parts or extremities are cold,
and the internal burn, and the pulfe is imperceptible; a
delirium and phrenfy: the breads fweil in proportion as
the inflamed uterus.
This difeafe may be faid to be fuperficial or more
grievous and profound. It is eafy formed in child-bed
women, and frequently accompanies the milk fever ; and
may be cured in a few days, if rightly managed: But
when it is very intenfe, and attended with grievous fymp-
toms without remiffion, it killson the feventh, ninth, or
eleventh day; and a white miliary fever generally fuper-
venes, which is the worft omen, for it {hews a mortifica
tion of the uterus. When this fever happens, there are
fpaftic and painful ftridures in the abdomen, the flux of
the uterus is {topped, the body is coftive, the feet are
cold ; there is an urging to make water, which is painful;
the head looks red, and fwells ; the eyes ffiine ; drops of
blood fall from the nofe ; the mind is difturbed ; the fleep
is little, vvith terrifying dreams: there is likewife moft.dif-
ficult breathing, faintings, convulfions, a phrenetic deli-
riuro, which commonly have a fatal tendency.
This difeafe fliould be diftingniflted from an inflamma¬
tion of the bladder or redtum; which may be done from
the place of the pain : in that of the bladder it is fuperfi¬
cial, as if it were in the integuments ; in that of the rec¬
tum it is very deep, as if about the os facrum ; in that of
the uterus it is in the middle, with a violent heat in 'the
vagina, if the finger is introduced. If the bladder is af-
fefted, there is an extraordinary heat and retention of u-
rine ; and a tenefmus, if in the redtum : In the bladder ;
the pain is precifely on the os pubis; in the redtum, the
anus isaffedted. If thefe fymptoms happen in an inflam
mation of the uterus, they are more flight.
If the inflammation is not refolved, it generally ends
in a mortification, ulcer, or cancer. A mortification foon
Vol. Ill, K° 76. 2
Kins, ana me woma ana vagma atter a diiiedtion appear
to be of a blackifti brown. If it ends in a fuppuration,
the difeafe is of longer date, which generally happens to
women not in child bed : It begins to difcoyer itfelf about
the ninth or tenth day, by the cdlation of molt of the in¬
flammatory fymptoms, which will return about the twelfth
with a {hooting pain in the affedted part.
A gangrene of mortification happens on the fourth or
fifth day, and is known by a weak, languiihtng, and inter-
iritting pulfe, and by afudden ctflation of all the-fymp¬
toms.
If the difeafe exceeds the time of the' former termina¬
tions, and the inflammation is fuperficiai, it is apt to turn
to an induration or fcirrhus ; which ulcerating, becomes
a cancer, and is incurable. If, about the twenty fecond
day, there is a renitency or hardneis, and a dull heavy-
pain in the region of the uterus, therein a fcirrhus formed.
Women in child-bed fometimes have the womb inflamed
from the fault of unflcilful midwives, or hard labour ; or
the lochia are flopped by pains, or hyfterical fpafms,
dread, or-cpld; wherefore proper precautions fliould be
ufed to prevent it; which may done by keeping them un¬
der a gentle diaphoretic regimen, and by allaying the ai-
moft febrile heat. Oil of almonds is proper alone, or
with a fourth part of fperma ceti, given daily to half an
ounce in chicken-broth ; externally the whole abdomen
fhould be anointed with oil of dill, camomile and white-
lilies, of each an ounce, oil of caraways a dram, or a dram
of camphor; laying a warm napkin doubled over the
fame.
The tumult being thus appeafed, the lochia are to be
promoted with pills of bitter extra&s, temperate refinous
gums, and aloes well corre&ed, of which xv gr. is a dofe
morning and evening, to be continued from five to eight
days. Thefe are alfo good when the after-birth or part
of it is retained.
If there is a fever, the belly is diftended with wind,
the lochia are retained, and the fpafms tend to the upper
parts, you muft bleed in the foot.
The drink may be chicken-broth, with fcorzonera root, -
fuccory, and {havings of hartfhorn boiled therein. As alfo
temperating and refolving powders made of crabs-eyes, and
their folution. nitre, and fal polyehreft. To which may
be added clyfters of whey, camomile-flowers, mug-wort,
fage, fac. with honey, nitre, and fat of hens.
In women out of child-bed the inflammation generally
happens in the neck of the uterusand the vagina; and then
befides the foregoing things, you muft apply epithems to
the pubes, uterine injections, peflaries, and fuppofitories.
The epithem may be of arquebufade water four ounces
eflence of faffron, camphorated fpirit of wine, of each two
ounces, nitre a dram, diflblved in elder-flower water*
and, as circumftances require, mixed with vinegar, or rue
or fcordium, and applied with a double cloth. The in¬
jection may confift of alfes milk, with flowers of elder
myrrh, and faffron ; and a little nitre may be added tothe
decoCtion. The tenefmus may be appeafed with emollient
half baths, or with an ounce of oil of fweet almonds, and
xij grains of faffron, injected into the anus. Thefe re-
medics are ufeful in cafe of a fuppuratioh,
T t
Of
i66
M E D I
Of the Abscess of the Womb.
Abscesses of the womb are either inflammatory, tu¬
berculous, or fleatomatous.
The fymptoms of an incipient abfcefs are much the
fame as the inflammation, fuch as pain, heat, tenfion, <bc.
•which intermit for fome time, and appear again, when
the fuppuration begins-; of which the inflammatory is
moft fenfible, the fteatomatous the lead. When the ab-
fcefs is formed, all the fymptoms of inflammation vanilh :
but coldnefs of the extremities, a flow fever, and marafmus,
gradually increafe from the abforption of the pus into the
blood.
If no infl ammation has preceded, and^the patient was
fubjedt to obftruftion?', efpecially of the glands of the u-
terus, and had a Jymphatic fluor albus, it may be tuber¬
culous ; if the tumour is foft and indolent, it may be
fteatomatous ; but thefe are rare. The place may be
partly dif overed by the touch, but more efpecially by the
complaints of the patiems.
If it breaks into the bladder, and pafles off l?y urine,
or into the redtum, and is difcharged by ftool, or into the
groin, it is dangerous ; if into the abdomen, incurable :
If it breaks into the vagina, it may become an ulcer,
which is commonly mortal ; or the patient may perifli by
a hedtic fever before the eruption. The tuberculous and
fteatomatous are much the floweft.
The work in this cafe muft be left to nature, in a con¬
firmed abfcefs . unlefs it can become at through the vagina,
and opened with a lancet, and thendeterfive injedtions may
perform a cure.
Of the Ulcer of the Uterus.
An ulcer may have its iffue and feat in the concave fur-
face of the uterus ; or may be lodged more deep, and have
iffues into the redtum, bladder, groin, or cavity of the
abdomen.
The caufes of an erofion may be the fluor albus, or
rather lymphaticus ; the corruption of the foetus, or pla¬
centa, in the womb ; acrid or cauftic injedtions ; the fre¬
quent ufe of cantharides, the lues venerea, or acrimonious
menfes.
If the ulcer proceeds from an abfcefs, it may be in¬
flammatory, tuberculous, or fteatomatous ; if from an
erofion, it may be venereal, fcorbutic, fcrophulous, or
Ample: It may be alfo Ample, fcirrhous, or cancerous.
The chief Agn of an ulcer is the efflux of purulent mat¬
ter ; and the greater the quantity, the profounder the
ulcer. If the flux is fanioos, or mixed with blood, the
blood-veffels are eroded. Mortal haemorrhages fometimes
fupervene. Sometimes they may proceed from a fever,
and rarefadtion of the blood.
An ulcer is hard to be diftinguilhed from a fluor albus :
however pus is always more compadl and fetid, unlefs
it is lymphatic ; and there is always a fixed pain from an
ulcer.
All ulcers of the uterus are dangerous ; when they are
fiftulous, or fcirrhous, or both, they portend death : the
fame may be laid of the cancerous ; or when they are at¬
tended with a flow hedtic fever, fwellings of the feet, a
marafmus, <bc.
CINE.
In order to the cure, it is neceffary to know whether
the ulcer is feated in the body of the uterus, or near the
os uteri, in the vagina; or whether it be venereal, for the
laft muft be treated as that diftemper requires.
Tocorredtthe vicious acrimony of the blood, ufe broths,
or decodtioos of lettuce, fuccory, borrage, with fal pru¬
nella ; fometimes with veal ora pullet; alfo chalybeated
whey, fweetened with fyrup of violets. But the heft
thing is a milk-diet ; to which, for vafiety-f,ke, maybe
added rice, eggs, a decodtion of china, barley, (be. or
chervil, agrimony, fumitory, or. the fecond lime water,
or fteel-waters alone. Like wife emollient baths or fe-
micupia.
Injedtions of whey and brown fugar are good.
To confolidate the ulcer, ufe injedtions of agrimony,
with the fecond lime water ; or warm fuiphureous bath¬
waters, and the fumigations of the gums.
To eafe the pain, give gentle narcotics.
Of the Sc. rrhus of //£<? Uterus.
Sometimes an inflammation of the uterus ends in a
feirrhus, which is a hard, renitent, and indolent tumour,
without heat and pain.
It is a very troublefome diforder, and often incurable,
and the attempt to remove it is dangerous, though it is
apt to bring on dropfies, a cancer, a marafmus, be. Its
feat is in the glands, lymphatic veffels, or ladtealsof the
uterus.
The fymptoms are, a weight in thehypogaftrium, when
the patient {lands or walks ; difficulty of lying on the well
fide ; if the tumour is painful, flie is obliged to lie on her
back ; the menfes are fuppreffed ; Tmetimes there are
violent and dangerous haemorrhages; a dropfy of the ab«
domen or uterus : If it fuppurates, there are'figns of an
abfcefs. It may be partly difcovered,by prefling the hand
on the region of the os pubis.
If the tumour be fmall, recent, 3nd void of pain, yon
maygive broths of eringo, reft-harrow, and afparagusroots,
of each half an ounce. Whey, with variolate tartar,
or chalybeated whey, are very gentle. Or give a pint
every day of vitriolic waters, for two or three months.
If thefe heat too much, (he muft drink affes or goats
milk. This is a palliative cure. But, to diflblve the
fcirrhous matter, the patient muft ufe baths, and half
baths, of emollient decodtions. Emollient injedticins and
moderate clyfters are very beneficial.
When heat, pain, and tenfion of the uterus are per¬
ceived, forbear deobftruents, and-bleed. Ufe no ape-
rit;ves at the time of purging. At other times ufe di¬
luents and narcotics. If the tumour does not drminifti,
leave thefe medicines off, and have recourfe to the palli¬
ative cure.
Of the Cancer of the Uterus.
A Cancer is a feirrhus become exquifitely painful;
When there is a darting or lancinating pain in the feirrhus,
and in fifteen days or a month it becomes much larger
than it was before, and fcabrous that is, -angular and
rugged,; and the fltin that covers it is fmoother, till
a fiffure appears ; the lips of which are retorted, and
an ichor or acrimonious ferofity proceeds therefrom,
with
M E D I
with a foft fungous flefh about the fiiTure ; you have the
progrefs to a confirmed cancer. The matter never be¬
comes pus.
An ulcer of the uterus refembles a cancer, when a pu¬
trid fantes iflues from the corrupted fubdance of the womb,
with <*reat ftench, exquifite pain, and grievous fymptoms.
This difeafe is almod incurable.
The principal.fymptom of a Cancer is pain, which is
attended with reftleffnefs, watching, indigedion: which
produce a flow fever, confumption, marafmus, and the like.
A hard, renitent, painful tumour, preceded by an in¬
dolent fcirrhus, plainly evinces the exiflence of a cancer.
If nothing is difcharged by the uterus, but a limpid, pel¬
lucid lymph, it is an occult cancer ; if acrid ferum, or
ichor, it is open.
There is nothing to be done in this cafe, but by demul¬
cents and lenients. If there is any hope of cure, it muft
be placed in afles milk, the Selters waters, and in bath¬
ing in foft water wherein wheat-bran has been boiled; in
which the patient muftfit for an hour, or longer. She
muft: abftain from all ftrarp, acrid, ftimulating, and heating
things.
Of the Procidentia Uteri,
It is a common diforder; and the uterus prefents it-
felf in the vagina between the labia, or is quite vifible.
Sometimes it is only the internal membrane of the vagina,
fometimes the body of the womb.
This diforder is rarely dangerous, for women bear it
a long time.
The cure confifts in reducing the uterus, and retaining
it in its place. To reduce it, order a Ample clyfter to
evacuate the rectum; the patient ftiould alfo bleed three
or four times : Then emollient cataplafms ftiould be ufed
of white bread and milk, 'or of emollient plants ; emol¬
lient baths are alfo to be employed. The parts being
thus relaxed, the patient muft lie on her back, with her
hips higher than her head, and her legs quite afund'er ;
then put back the uterus by degrees, where you And the
lead reAftance, and without any violence. This done,
the patient muft be confined to her bed for about Afteen
days, with her thighs clofed, or her legs acrofs, and her
hips raifed.
The cure muft be compleated with aftringent injedions,
baths, and peflariesv; with fumigations of frankincenfe,
red rofes, and maftich.
For Abortions,
For Child-birth,
fee Midwifery.
Of CHILDRENS DISEASES.
Of Diforders from a Retention of the Meconium.
Infants newly born, from a retention of the meconi¬
um and other fordid matter in the prim# vine, are fub-
jed to gripings or pains in the belly, which produce con-
ftaot crying, hiccups, ,the jaundice, wakefulnefs, reft-
leflhefs, ftartings, frights, convulAons, and epiiepftes ;
which, unlefs timely prevented, are fatal.
To carry .this, off, infants ftiould fuck the Arft milk of
. their mother, if they give fuck } otherwife they ftiouLd
CINE. 167
faft ten or twelve hours; or take the following mixture,
which will foften it :
, Take 6 drams of frefli milk whey, and one dram of
honey ; make them into a draught.
Heifter advifes a grain or two of the powder of jalap,
or two or three of rhubarb in fyrup of rofes foiutive, or
a folution of manna ; fome give half an ounce of oil of
fweet almonds, with a little barley-fugar. A grain of
aurum fulminans is the fureft remedy.
d/~ Diforders from Coftivenefs and Wind.
If after fome time the excrements become hard, with
coftivenefs and a retention of wind, they will caufe the
fymptoms abovementioned. In this the fame remedies
‘may be uftd, till the child’s belly is open, and the acid
or corrupted milk Ihould be correded with abforbent
and teftaceous powders ; whereof half a fcruple is a dofe..
Harris believes an acid to be fo predominant in infants,
as to caufe all their difeafes. Boerhaave affirms, if ab-
forbents are ufeful at any time, they muft be in thefe cafes,
and orders vij grains of the teftaceous powders three times
a day.
The nurfe muft forbear to feed upon any thing that is,
four or acid.
O/Watching, or Want c/Sleep.
Want of fleep proceeds from the gripes, or coftive¬
nefs, and wind and pain occaAon edthereby : we judge of
the health of children by their fleeping quietly, and of their
illnefs by their watching, crying, and {creaming. Watch¬
ing may proceed froth the milk being corrupted in the fto>-
mach, or from coftivenefs, or from wind.
In this dtforder the body ftiould be always kept open,
Arft by a clyfter, and then a purge; and the abforbents
are to be given, and carminatives, particularly powder of
anifeed ; and the belly is to be anointed with carminative
oil. Soon after the purge, give two drams of oil of al¬
monds. The nurfes fliould avoid acid and flatulent things,
and catching cold. Opiates, diafcordium, and theriaca,
muft never be ufed, unlefs in cafes of extreme necelEty.
Of the Aphthte, or Thrufli.
The aphthae are little whitifti ulcers affe&ing the whole
fuperAcies of the mouth, that is, the lips, gums, checks,
tongue, palate, and fauces; nay, they even defcend through
the cefophagus to the ftomach and inteftines, and to the
anus ; but then they are very dangerous, and commonly
put a period to the infant’s life.
Boerhaave fays, if the aphthae are of a pearl-colour,,
pellucid, white, few in number, fuperflcial, foft, and
fall off eaflly, apt to return in part, they are of the beft
fort ; but if they are white or opake, like bacon, yellow,
brown, black, thick, denfe, running together, hard, te¬
nacious, conftantly reftored, corroflve, they are bad.
Harris believes gargles to be of little fervice, becaufe
infants cannot ufe them, inafmuch as they fwallow every
thing that is put into their mouths. He therefore relies
for a cure on the teftaceous powders, and the moft gentle
cathartics, and believes them fufticient,
Allen fays the decoftion of elm-bark is the beft gar-
garifm for the cure of the aphthae.
This
i6S MED!
This difeafe often attacks Adults in acute difeafes
and inflammation of the vifcera. Boerhaave obferves
they are molt common among the northern people, that
inhabit low marlhy places, and often attend a continual
putrid fever, or an intermittent becoming continual ; and
that they are ufhered in with a diarrhoea, ora dyfentery,
a naufea, vomiting, lofe of appetite, great anxiety about
the prxcordia often returning, fome great evacuation of
the fluids, a ftupor and dulnefs, fleepinefs, a perpetual
complaint of weight about theflomach.
To curf this diftemper, hot, diluting, refolvent, and
detergent medicines muft be given, that the crufl may be
difpofed to fall off eafiiy.
Huxham advifes, when the aphthx fupervene in fevers,
to ufe gargles frequently of emollients and detergents,
made with figs, hydromel, decoition of turnips, To
give rhubarb inwardly, chiefly if the patientis griped and
loofe, adding an aromatic altringent with abforbents.
^Galling Ex,coriation.
There is often an excoriation of the parts near the
pudenda, chiefly of the groin and fcrotum; in the wrinkles
of the neck, under the arms, and in other places, pro¬
ceeding from the acrimony of the urine and fweat. From
-this proceed itching pains, crying, watching, and reft-
leffnefs.
To remedy this, the parts affedted may be walked often
with warm water, and fprinkled with drying powders,
fuch as chalk, burnt hartfhorn ; but efpecially tutty, and
cerufs, which may be tied clofely in a rag, and the pow¬
ders Ihook out on the difordered places,
If the parts affected are more fore, and tend to a real
ulceration, it will be proper to add a little faccharum fa
turne to the powders. Likewife a little white vitriol dif-
folved in fpring v/ater, and daubed upon the part, will
dry and heal it very powerfully.
Of the Stoppage of the Nose.
The noltrils of infants are often plugged up with a
grofs mucus, infomuch that they can fcarce breathe, or
fuck, or fwallow ; which renders them ve'ry unquiet and
uneafy. To cure it, after a fuitable purge, diffolve two
or three grains of white vitriol in half an ounce of mar¬
joram water ; then filtre it, and apply it now and then
to the noft rils with a linen rag.
Or you may apply oil of fweet almonds, impregnated
with the oil of marjoram, to the bottom and fides of the
noflrils, which will refolve the filth, and render the re-
fpiraticn free.
Of the Scabby Eruptions and Crusta Lactea
The heads of children are often troubled with achores
•or fcabby eruptions; and if the face isaffedted with them,
they are called crufta ladlea. Thefe are expelled by the
benefit of nature; and, before the eruption, the infant
is often troubled with epileptic fits from the irritation of
the morbific matter.
If the humours ftrike in, either fpontaneoufly or by
improper applications, or if the exanthemata are of a
blackifh colour, they are very dangerous, and the infant
generally falls into an atihma or a fatal epilepfy.
CINE.
Io the cure, externals, and efpecially fu:h as are re¬
pellent, fhouldbe avoided; and things fliould be given in¬
wardly which corredf and temperate the blood, and expel
the noxious matter by a diaphorefis. After the primx
via; are purged, both the nurfe and .child fhoald take a-
lexipharmics in the morning, and the teltaceous pow¬
ders with calx of antimony, amber, and cinnabar, in the
afternoon.
Externally, nothing of fulphur or mercury (hnidd be
applied, or repellen t lotions, or any thing cold. To mol¬
lify the fcabs, freflt butter, or calves marrow, or cream,
arefufficient. This cafe often proves obftinate; and then
the nurfe ftiould obferve a firitl regimen, ufe good diet,
takefweetenersof the blood, and purgatives now and then.
Of a Diarrhoea Vomiting.
The diarrhoea of infants is not to be flopped, either
with aflringents or narcotics :^For aftringents turn the
flux of (harp humours towards the noble parts, and endan¬
ger the life of the child; and, though narcotics appeafs
the ferocity of the turgefcent humour for a time, yet they
afterwards break out with greater force. Befides, opiates
are too powerful for the tender conftitution of infants,
and muft not be given at all, or with the utmofl caution.
In flight cafes, diafcordium maybe ventured upon, to five
or fix grains j buti if there is a fever, it cannot be given
without danger.
Therefore the beft way is to give chalk,. coral, pearls,
and the like, of which about half a fcruple is a dofe ;
which will abate the orgafm of the humours, without
kindling any ndw heat: after which the cure may be
compleated with rhubarb, fromfix grains to halfa fcruple,
in folutive fyrup of rofes. I
With regard to Vomiting, if there is great plenty of
ferous and n oxious humours in the ftomach, iijfomuch
that the ftomach can retain nothing, if the child is a year
or two old, he may fafeiy take fome grains of ipecacuan¬
ha ; Harris fays xv: but furely a third part of that quan¬
tity, nay, one or two grains, may be fufficient; for this
does not require the fWaHowing Co much liquor after it as
fome pthe'rs ; and yet clears the ftomach of crudities, vif-
cidities, and other bad humours.
Of Difficult Breeding the Teeth.
Among all the diforders which afflift children, there
are none that generate fuch grievous fymptoms as difficult
dentition. About five or fix months after birth, the teeth
generally begin to make their appearance; firft the inci-
fores, or fore-teeth; next the canini, or dog-teeth; and
laftly, themolares, or grinders. About ..the feventhyear
there comes a new fet; and at twenty-one the two inner
grinders, called dentes fapientiae.
At the time of cutting their teeth, they Haver very
much, and have a diarrhoea, which is no bad fign; but
when it is difficult, efpecially when the canine teeth begin
to be in motion, and to make their out-way out through
the gums, the child has ftartings in his fleep, tumours of
the gums, gripes, inquietude, watchings, a loofenefs or
coftiveoeis, greeniffi ftools, the thraffi, fever?, difficult ,
breathing, fuffocating catarrhs, convulfions, epileplies,
which often end in death.
It
M E D I
It (hews dentition is like to be bad, if the child is per¬
petually crying, thrufts his fingers into his mouth, and
bites the nurfe’s nipples ; if unequal tubercles are per¬
ceived in the gums, both by the light and touch, where
the teeth are expected to appear ; if there is heat in the
mouth and the whol&body ; if they dart without a eaufe,
efpecially in fiee£. Thefe do not cortre on without great
Havering, and fometimes a diarrhoea, as was mentioned
above,
Harris obferves, that, when an inflammation appears,
the phyfician will labour in vain, if the cure is not begun
with applying a'leech under each ear. When the fwell-
ing of the gums fliews it is timeto cut it, to make wayfor
the tooth, he would have it done with a penknife, not with
a fine lancet, lefttbe wound fliould heal, and form a cica¬
trix The food he directs to be no more than luke warm.
Heifler internally advifes aqueous mixtures, temperating
powders; externally, oil of fiweet almonds, with fyrup of
violets, or fyrup of wild poppies, lightly acidulated with
fpirit of vitriol, wherewith often to rub the gums; as alfo
with the coral or other fmooth things, which will have
the fame effedt.
Morgan affirms in this cafe, it will be bed to abate the
effervefcence <5f the blood with diluters; to appeafe the
pain with gentle opiates ; to open the body with purges
gad clyders to draw off the fermented ferum by bli-
ders; to promote the cutting of the teeth by cooling, re¬
laxing, and opening the gums ; for this purpofe diaco-
dium is good^ or a drong deco&ion of marffi-mallows
. and poppy heads, in thick milk, cream, or neats-foot .oil:
Thefe take off the heat, and aflwage the pain.
Rickets.
Children are feldom attacked with rickets before
they are nine months, and after they are two years old;
but it frequently happens in the intermediate fpace be¬
tween thefe two periods. It may proceed originally from
the diforders of thet parents, and may be increafed-by
thofe of the nurfe.
It is like wife promoted by feeding the child with aqueous
and mucous fubffances, crude fummer-fruits, fifh ; by
unleavened farinaceous aliment, and too great a quantity
of fweet things ; by an intermittent autumnal ague, or
other chronic or acute diforders ; by a linking in of the
itch or herpes; by the fuppreffion or injudicious cure
of ulcers ; by being enervated with baths, fomentations,
ointments, or moift vapours ; by continual reft in a per¬
forated chair, with his coats up.
This diforder is known, in thofe who cannot walk,
MED
Medicines, whateverfubffances fefve to reftore health.
Medicines, are either fimple or compound : the for¬
mer being formed by nature alone ; and the latter owing
to the induftry of men, by varioufly mixing the limple
ones together.
Medicines are likewife diftinguiffied, from the man¬
ner of ufing them into internal or external; and with
regard to their efftfls, they are faid to be aftringent,
cathartic, emetic,
Vot. III. N°, 76. 2
CINE. \69
from the eaufes preceding; from his brothers 6r fffterg
having the- fame difeafe ; from a flaccid tumour of
the head and face ; from a flabby loofe 1km ; from a
fwelling of the abdomen ; from a falling away of the reft
of the parts, efpecially of the muffles ; from protube¬
rances of the epiphyfes of the joints, fuch as the wriils,
ancles, knees, elbows, &c. ; from the magnitude of the
jugular veins and arteries, while the reft dtcreafe. The
legs, grow crooked.
In thofe that have begun to walk, befides the former
figns, there is a flownels, debility, and tottering in his
motion ; which foon proceeds to a conftant dtfire of fit¬
ting, and afterwards changes to lying down; infomuch
that nothing at laft is moveable, but the neck and bead.
Add to thefe, an early wit, an underftansting which exceeds
his age, while the appetite and digeftion continue unhurt.
As he grows older, his head is enlarged, with ample
futures; his thorax is comprefled on the fides; and his
ffernum rifes up ffiarp, while the extremities of the ribs
are knotty. The abdomen is protuberant, and the teeth
black and carious. Thefe diioiders lenfibly increafing,
are the caufe ever after of pe<nicious difeafes of the fame
kind; principally a fpina ventofa, and a caries of the bones.
In the mean while a flow feverilh diforder preys upon
the whole body, till the time of death ; and then all the
fibres, veflels, and vifcera appear to be foft, flaccid, and
the fluids diflblved and mucous.
The cure is to be attempted with light, nourifliing,
dry aliment, not fat, but feafoned, and taken often;
With a little found drink, fuch as beer, not ftale, but
- well boiled and fine; With a dry warm air, and dry
warm woolen cioathing: With being carried about in
the arms, and often Ihook, fwung, and put in motion ;
With being drawn in a vehicle oyer the ftones : With
repeated friftions with warm dry flannel, fprinkled with
aromatics; efpecially the abdomen and fpine of the
back: With prudently repeated blifters, withftrengthen-
tng purges, for feveral days fucceffively: As aifo by the
continued ufe of ftrengthening, drying, antifcorbutic re¬
medies, and fuch as raife the fpirits.
Particularly for food, the bread fhould be bifcuit, with
a little faffron and fpices. The flefh Ihould be pigeons,
pullets, veal, rabbets, mutton, gently roafted, minced, and
mixed with bifcuit, fait, a little parfley, thyme, nutmeg,
or the like.
Likewiferice, millet, pearl barley, boiled withraifins;
to which add a little wine and fpice. The drink may be
generous French red wine, of which give an ounce three
or four times a-day.
MED
Pcc^Z-Medicines, in furgery, thofe which a furgeon
ought to carry always about him, in a box or conve¬
nient cafe.
Thofe, according to Heifter, are the common di-
geftive ointment, and the brown or Egyptian ointment,
for cleanfing and digefting foul ulcers, and fotne vulne¬
rary balfams, as the linimenrum arcafi, or the balfam of
Peru, of Gilead or Capivi, or the Samaritan balfam :
to thefe muft alfo be added a plafter or two, as the
U u diachylon,
M E I> (
diachylon, or ftypticum Crollii, Cnee one or other of
thefe is almoft conftantly wanted. Neither fliould
there be wanting a piece of blue vitriol for the taking
down luxuriant flefh, and to (top haemorrhages; but
if vitriol is wanting, burnt alum, red precipitate, the
infernal ftone, or any other corroGve medicine, will
fupply its place in corroGve intentions, and thelaft will
alfo ferve to open abfeeffes, to make iflues, and perform
many other operations of that kind.
With thefe there fhould always be kept in readinefs
alfo a quantity of feraped lint, that the furgeon may
be able to give immediate affiftance to wounded perfons$
fince, if he is unprepared for this, they may eafrly be
taken off by an haemorrhage; a circumftance which
ought alfo to prevail with him to be always provided
with fuitable bandages.
MEDINA, a city of Arabia Deferta, Gtuated two hun¬
dred miles north-weft of Mecca : in E. long. 40° 35'.
N. lat. 240 30'.
This is called the city of the prophet, on account of
Mahomet’s being received and protected by the inhabi¬
tant’s on his flight hither from Mecca, where the Ma¬
hometan sera commences.
MEDITERRANEAN sea, extends from the ftraits of
Gibraltar to the coafts of Syria and Paleftine, being
upwards of 2000 miles in length, but of a very unequal
breadth’: the weft-part of it feparates Europe from
Africa ; and the Levant or eaft-part of it divides AGa
from Africa.
MEDITULLIUM, is ufed by anatomifts for that fpungy
fubftance between the two plates of the cranium, and in
the interftices of all laminated bones.
MEDIUM, in logic, the mean or middle term of a fyl-
logifm, being an argument, reafon, or conflderation for
which we affirm or deny any thing: or, it is the caufe
why the greater extreme is affirmed or denied of the
lefs in the concluflon.
Medium, in arithmetic, or arithmetical medium, or
mean, that which is equally diftant from each extreme,
or which exceeds the lefler extreme as much as it is
exceeded by the greater, in refpeft of quantity not of
proportion: thus 9 is a medium between 6 and 12.
Medium, in philofophy, that fpace or region through
which a body in motion paffes to any point thus air,
is the medium wherein bodies move near our earth ;
water, the medium wherein fiffies live and move ; and
glafs is alfo a medium of light, as it affords it a free
paffage. That denfity or conGftence in the parts of the
medium, whereby the motion of bodies in it is retarded,
is called the reGftance of the medium; which together
with the force of gravity, is the caufe of the ceffation
oft’ emotion of proje&iles.
Subtile or atherial Medium,. See Mr her,
MEDLAR, in botany, See Meepilus.
MEDULLA, in anatomy See Anatomy, p. 147.
Medulla oblongata. See Anatomy, p. 287.
Medulla spinalis See Anatomy, p. 288.
MEDUSA, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging to
the order of molufea. The body is gelatinous, roundiffi,
and depreffed; and the mouth is in the centre of the
170 ) MEL
under part of the body. There are twelve fpeci^s, all
natives of the fea.
MEDWAY, a river which rifes in Affidon foreft in Suf-
fex; and running through Kent, is divided into two
branches by the Ifle of Sheppy, one of which is called
Eaft Swale, and the other Weft Swale.
MEISSEN, once the capital of the marquifate of Miffen
or Mifnia, in Upper Saxony, on the river Elbe, ten
miles north of-Drefden.
MELAMPODIUM, in botany, a genus of the fynge-
neGa polygamia neceffaria clafs. The receptacle is pa¬
leaceous and conical; the pappus conflfts of one valve-
ffiaped leaf, and the calix of five leaves. There are
two fpecies, both natives of Britain
MELAMPYRUM, a genus of the didynamia angiofper-
mia clafs. The calix has four fegments ; the upper
lip of the corolla is compreffed, and bent back at the
edge; and the capfulehas two oblique cells,;containing
two gibbous feeds. There are ftve fpecies; four oT
them natives of Britain, viz the criftatum, or crefted
cow-wheat; the arvenfe, or purple cow-wheat; the
pratenfe, or meadow cow-wheat ; and the fylvaticum,
or yellow cow-wheat.
MELANCHOLY, in medicine, a kind of delirium, at¬
tended with gloomy thoughts, heavinefs, and forrow.
See Medicine.
MELANTERI A, in natural hiftory, a very beautiful
foffil of a denfe, compaft, and regulair texture, and of
an extremely bright pale yellow, referabling nothing fo
much as the pureft gold : it is remarkably heavy, and
is ufually found in little irregular maffes of the bignefs
of a pigeon’s egg, which are broken with a flight blow:
but it is ufually met with in the form of a fine gold-
coloured elflorence or vitriolic and pyritical bodies; or
in loofe, ffiattery, and friable maffes of a more duftcy
yellow; in which latter ftate it fo much refembles a na¬
tive fulphur, that it is frequently miftaken for one;
however, it is not inflammable ; but calcines in the fire
to a greyifli powder,, which by burning longer changes
to a deep and fine purple.
The Greeks ufed it externally, as a gentle efeharotie
and a ftyptic : they made it an ingredient in their oint¬
ments for old ulcers, and ufed to fprinkle the powder
of it on freffi wounds to ftop the haemorrhage.
MELANTHIUM. in botany, a genus of the hexandria
trigynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix petals ; and
the filaments are compofed of the long ungues of the
corolla. There are three fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
MELANURUS, in ichthyology, See Sparus.
MELASTOMA, in botany, a ge,nus of the decandria
monogynia clafs. The calix is bell-ffiaped, and has
four fegments ; the petals are five, inferted into the
calix ; and the berry has five cells. There are twelve
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
MELCHITES, in churcii-hiflory, the h'ame given to
the Syriac, Egyptian," and other Chriflians of the Le¬
vant. The Melchites, excepting fome few points of
little or no importance, which relate only to ceremo¬
nies and ecdefiaftical difeipiiae, are in every refpeft
profeffed
MEL (
profefled Greeks; but they are governed by a particular
patriarch, who refides at Damas, and aflumes the title
of patriarch of Antioch.
MELCHISpDECHIANS, in church-hiftory, a fe£t
which aroie about the beginning of the third century,
and affirmed, that Melchifedek was not a man, but
a heavenly power,4 fuperior to Jefus Chrift ; for Mel¬
chifedek, they faid, was the interceffor and mediator
of the angels; but Jefus Chrift was fo only for men,
and his prietthood only a copy of that of Mechifedek.
MELCOMB regis, a borough-town of Dorfetffiire,
fix miles fouth of Dorchefter. It fends two members
to parliament,
MELEAGRIS, the turkey, in ornithology. Th.e
head is covered with fpongy caruncles ; and there is
1 kewife a membranaceous longitudinal caruncle on the
throat. There are three fpecies, viz. i. The gallo-
pavo, or North-American turkey of Ray, has a carun¬
cle both on the head and throat; and the bread of the
male is bearded. He lives upon grain and infedts.
When the cock ftruts, he blows up his bread, fpreads
and eredls his feathers, relaxes the catuncle on the
forehead, and the naked parts of the face and neck
become intenfely red. 2. The cridata, or Brafilican
pheafant of Ray, has an eredtcred of feathers on the
head, and violet-coloured temples: it has a caruncle on
the throat, but none on the head. 5. The fatyra, or
horned pheafant of Edwards, has two blue horns behind
the eyes, a red body fpotted with black and white.
It is a native of Bengal.
MELES, in zoology. See Ursus.
MELIA, the bead tree, in botany, a genus of the
derandria monogynra clafs. The Calix confids of 5
teeth, and the corolla of 5 petals ; the nedtarium is
cylindrical, about the length of the corolla, and has
ten teeth .on the margin ; and the drupa, which is
fiiaped like an egg, has five cells. There are two fpe¬
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
MELIANTHUS, in.botany, a genus of the didynamia
angiofpermia clafs. The calix confids of five leaves ;
and the corolla of four petals, with a nedtarium within
the lowed one ; and the capfule has four cells. There
are two fpecies, both natives of iE:hiopia.
MhLICA, in botany, -a genus of the triandtia digynia
clafs. The calix confids of two valves, containing two
flowers. There are three fpecies, only_ one of which.
viz. the nutans, or melic-grafs, is a native of Britain.
MELICERES, in furgery, a kind of encyded tumours,
fo called when their contents are of the confidence of
honey.
MELILOT. SeeTRiFontuM.
MELINDA, the capital of the province of the fame
name, and of all the Portuguefe fettlements on the
coadof Malabar, in Africa: E. long. 390, S. lat. 30.
MELINUM, in natural biliary, the name of an earth,
famous in the earlied ages of painting, being the only
white of the great painters of antiquity; and, according
to Pliny’s account, one of the three colours with which
alone they performed all their works. It is a fine,
white, marly earth, of a very compadt texture, yet
remarkably light ; a fort of texturewhich mud.render
any earth fit for the painter’s, ufe, that is of a proper
colour. It is frequently found forming a ftratum in
171 ) MEL
the earth, lying immediately under the vegetable mould"
It i> of a very fmooth, but not gloft'y furface, is very
foft to the touch, adheres firmly to the tonge, is eafily
broken between the fingers, and dains the Ikin iru
handling. It melts readily in the mouth, and is per*
fedfly fine, leaving not the lead grittinefs between the
teeth. Thrown into water, it makes a great bubbling
and loud biffing noife, arid moulders away into a fine,
powder. It does not ferment with acids, and fuffers
no change in the fire. Thefe are the charadfers by
which themelinum of the ancients is didinguiffied from
all the other white earths. It is dill found in the fame
place from whence the painters of old had it; which is
that from whence it has its name, the illand of Milo,
called Milos by the Greeks, and is common in mod of
the adjacent illands. It has been of late tried here as.
a paint, and is found not to make fo bright a white as
the other fubdances now in ufe among the painters;
but feems not liable, like them, to turn yellow ; and
if fo, would be worth the confideration of perfons in
the colour-trade, efpeciahy as it may be had in any
quantities for carriage.
MELISSA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The calix is dry, and plain above p
the upper lip of the corolla is vaulted and bifid : and
the middle lobe of the under lip is cordated. There
are eight fpecies, two of which are natives of Britain,.
viz. the calamintha, or common calaminth ; and the
repeta,' or field calaminth.
MELITENSIS terra, earth of Malta, an earth of
which there are.two very different kinds ; the one of
the genus of the-boles, the other of the marles. The
latter is that known by medicinal authors under this
name ; the former is the Malta earth now in ufe : but
both being brought from the fame place, are confu-
fedly called by the fame name. The Maltefe marie,
which is the terra Melitenfis of medicinal authors, is
a loofe, crumbly, and very light earth, of an unequal
and irregular texture, and, when expofed to the wear
ther, foon falls into fine foft powder ; but when pre-
ferved and dried, it becomes a loofe, light mafs, of a
dirty white colour, with a greyiffi call: it is rough to
the touch, adheres firmly to the tongue, is very eafily
crumbled to powder between the fingers, and ftains
the hands. Thrown into water, it fwells, and after¬
wards moulders away into a fine'powder. It ferments
very vhdeptly with acid menftruums.
Both kinds are found in great abundance in the
iffand of Malta, and the latter has been much efteem-
ed as a remedy againft the bites of venomous animals,,
but with how much judice we cannot fay. The other
has fupplied its place in the German ffiops, and is ufed
there as a cordial, afudorific, andadringent. SeeBoLE.
MELITIS, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia ciafs. The calix is larger than the tube of
the corolla ; the upper lip of the corolla is plain; the^
under lip is crenated ; and the antherae are in the form
of a crofs. There is but one fpeeies, viz. the melif-
fophyllum, or badard baum.
MELLER, a large lake of Sweden, on the north fide of
wh.ch dands the capital city of Stockholm: it is eighty
miles long, and thirty broad.
MELOCH1A, a genus of the monadelphia pentandria
clafs.
MEN (i*
clafs. It has five ftyli; and the capfule has five cells,
each containing one feed. There are fix fpecier^ none
of them natives of Britain.
MELODY, in mufick, the agreeable effedt of different
founds, ranged and difpoftd in fuccefiion ; fo that
melody is the effedf of a fingle voice or inftrument, by
■which it isdiffinguifhed from harmony.
MELOE, in zoology, agenus of infedts of the order of
• coleoptera. The antennae are jointed, the lafi joint
being oval ; the breaft is toundifh ; the elytra are foft
and flexible; and the head is infledted and gibbous.'
There are 16 fpecics, principally difiinguiflied by their
colour. The veficatorius, orxantharis of the (hops,
when bruifed, is univerfally ufed as a bliftering plafter.
MELON, in botany. See Cucumjs.
MELOTHRIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria
monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments;
the corolla is monopetalous and bell fljaped; and the
berry has one cell, containing many feeds.
In Canada, Virginia, and Jamaica, where this fruit
commonly grows, it is pickled for the table.
MELTING cone, in affaying. See Chemistry,
p. 113.
MEMBER, in architedlure, denotes any part of a build¬
ing ; as, afrieze, corni. h, or the like. This word is
alfo fometimes ufed for the moulding.
Member oj parliament. See Parliament.
MEMBERED, in heraldry, is where the legs or feet of
an eagle, griffin, or other bird, are of a different co¬
lour from the reft of the body,
MEMBRANE, in anatomy, a pliable texture of fibres
interwoven together in the fame plane. See Anat,
part I and II.
MEMECYLON, in botany, a genus of the odtandria
monogynia clafs, The calix is above the fruit, and
has an entire margin ; the corolla confifts of one pe¬
tal ; and the berry is crowned with a cylindrical calix.
There is but one fpecies, a native of Ceylon,
MEMOIRS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of hi-
Ilory, written by perfons who had fome fhare in the
tranfadions they relate ; anfwering to what the Ro¬
mans called Commentarii.
MEMORY, a faculty of the human mind, whereby it
retains and recals the ideas ithas once perceived. See
Metaphysics.
MEMPHIS, once the capital of Egypt, flood on the
weft fide of the Nile, almoftoppofite to Grand Cairo
MENDICANTS, or begging friers, feveral orders of
religious in Popiffi countries, who, having no fettled re
venues, are fupported by the charitable contributions
they receive from others.
MENGRELIA, a province of AfiaticTurky, fituated on
the north-eaft part of the Euxine fea, between Geor¬
gia and Circaffia. where the Turks purchafe boys and
young women for their feraglios.
MENIALS, domeftic or houfehold fervants, who live
under their lord or mafter’s roof. -
MENINGES, or Menynges, in anatomy, a name gi¬
ven to the dura and pia mater of the brain.
MENISCUS, in optics, a lens convex on one fide, and
concave on the other, See Optics.
i ) ME R
MENISPEMUM, in botany, a genus of the dioecia do-'
decandria clafs. The calix confifts of fix leaves, and
the corolla of fix petals. It has three berries, contain¬
ing each a kidney-fhaped feed. There are feven fpe-
ci .none of them natives ofbritain.
MENNONITES, a fefl of baptlfts in Holland, fo call¬
ed from Meanon Simonis of Friezland, who lived in
the fifteenth century. This feil believe, that the
New Teftament is the only rule of faith ; that the
terms Perfon and Trinity ate not to be ufed in fpeaking
of the Fatlier, Son, and Holy Ghofl; that thefirft man
was not created perfed; that it is unlawful to fwear, or to
wage war upon any occafion ; that infants are not the
proper fubjeCts of baptifm; and that minifters of the
gofpel ought to receive no falary.
MENOLOGY, the Greek calendar, in which the lives
of the faints in fiiort, or barely their names, are cited ;
anfwering nearly to the martyrology of the Latin church.
See Martyrology
MENSA, in law-booksf a term that includes in it all
patrimony, and necefficiries for livelihood.
MENSALS, in church-hiftory, fuch livings as tvere
formerly united to the tables of religious houfes, and
hence called menfal benefices.
MENSES, Flours,Courses, Catamenia, in medicine,
the monthly evacuations from the uterus of women not
with child and not giving fuck. See Medicine.
MENSTRUUM, in chemiftry, any body which in a
fluid or fubtilifed ftate is capable of interpofing its
fmall parts betwixt the fmall parts of other bodies, To
as to divide them fubtilely, and form a new uniform
compound of the two. See Chemistry.
MENSURATION, in general, denotes the ad or art
of meafuring lines, fuperficies, or folids. See Geo*
metr y.
MENTHA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The corolla confifts of four fegments;
and the ftamina are ered and diftant. There are 14
fpecies, 11 of them natives of Britain, viz. the fpicata,
or fpear-mint ; the longifolia, or horfe-mint; the ro-
rundifolia, or round leaved horfe-mint; the piperita, or
pepper mint; the gentilis, or red-mint; the verticillata,
or curled-mint ; the arvenfis, or corn-mint; the exi»
gua. or fmooth-mint; the aquatica, or water-mint; the
hirfuta, or round-headed mint; and the pulegium^ or
penny-royal.
MENTZ, the capital of one of the eledorates of the fame
name in Germany, fituated at the confluence of the
rivers Rhine and Maine: E, long. 8°, and N. lat,
50°.
MENYANTHES, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla is hairy ; the ftigma is
bifid ; and the^capfule has but one ceil. There are
three fpecies, two of which are natives of Britain, viz.
-the trifolia, or buck-bean; and the nymphoides, or
fringed water lilly. N
MEOTIS. or Palus Meotis, afeaofTtuky which
divides Europe from Afia, extending from Cum Tar¬
tary to the mouth of the river Don, or Tan . s
MERCATOR’s sailing, that performed byMeicator’s
chart. See Navigation.
MER-
Plate CX.
M E R
MERCHANT, a perfon who buys and fells commodities
in grofs, or deals in exchanges ; or that truffks in the
way of commerce, either by importation or exportation.
See Commerce.
MERCURIAL, fomething confiding of or relating to
mercury.
MERCURLALIS, in botany, a genus of the dioecia
er.neandria clafs. The calix of both male and female
confiffs of three fegments ; neither of them have any
corolla ; the (lamina are from nine to twelve ; the an-
therae are globular and didymous ; the female has twe
Ifyli ; and the capfule has two cells, and one feed in
each. There are four fpecies, two of them natives of
'Britain, viz. the perennis, or dogs mercury ; and the
annua, or French mercury.
MERCURY, in natural hiftory. See Chemistry, p.
85. and 137.
Mercury, Q, in adronomy. See Astronomy, p.
436-
Mercury, in heraldry, a term ufed, in blazoning by
planets, for the purple colour in the arms of fovereign
princes.
MERCY-SEAT, in Jewifh antiquity. SeePROPiTtA-
• TORY. *
MERGUS, in ornithology, a genus of birds, ^of the or¬
der of the anferes,vdidingui(hed by having the beak of
a cylindrical figure, and hooked at the extremity, and
its denticulations of a fubulated form. There are fix
fpecies of this genus, viz. 1. The cucullatus, orcreded
diverof Catefby, has a globular cred, white on each fide;
and the body is brown above, and white below. It is a
native of America. See PL no. 2. The merfanger,
has a Longitudinal cred, fomewhat eretd, a white bread,
and a black head. It is a native of Europe. 3. The fer-
rator, has a hanging cred, a variegated brownilh bread,
and a white collar. It is a bird of Europe. 4. The
cader has a creded afh coloured head, a white throat,-
and a bjack bill and legs. It inhabit's the fourh of
Europe. 5. The albellus,. has a hanging cred, a black
head and back, and white below. It is a bird of Eu¬
rope. 6. The minutus, has a fmqofh gray head, with
a black fpot near the eyes. It is a native of Europe.
MERIDIAN. See Geography, and Astroetomy.
MERIONETHSHIRE, a county of north Wales, bound¬
ed by Caernarvon and Denbighfhire on the north, by
Montgoraeryfhire on the fouth ead, and by the Irifh fea
on the wed.
MERIT, fignifies defert. This term is more particular¬
ly ufed to fignify, the moral goodnefs of the actions
of men, and the rewards to which thofe adlions intitle
them.
MERLIN, in ornithology. See Falco.
MERLON, in fortification, is that part of a parapet
which is terminated by two embrafures of a battery.
MERNS, a county of Scotland, bounded by Mar on the
north, by the German ocean on the ead, by Angus on,
the fouth, and by Gowry on the wed.
MERGES, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of picas. The bill is crooked, flat, and carinated;
the tongue is jagged at the point; and the feet are of
the walking kind." There fix fpecies, viz. 1. The a-
Voi. III. Numb. 76. 2
M E S
piader, or bee-eater, has an iron-coloured back ; the
belly and tail are of a bluifh green ; and the throat is
yellow. It inhabits the fouth of Europe. 2. The
viridis, or Indian bee-eater, is green, with a black belt
on the bread ; and the throat and tail are black. 3.
The congener is yellowiflt, with a green rump. It in¬
habits the fouth qf-JEurope. 4. The fuperciliofus, is
green, with a white line both above and below the eyes,
and a yellow throat. It is found in Madagafcar. 5.
The cinereus, is variegated with red and yellow, with
the two longed quill-feathers of the tail red. It is
a native of America. 6. The cafer is grey, with a
a very long tail. It is a native of ^Ethiopia.
MERSE, a county of Scotland, bounded by Lothian on
the north, by the German ocean on the ead, by Nor¬
thumberland and Tiviotdale on the fouth, and by
Tweeddale on the wed.
MERULA, in ornithology. See Turdus.
MESEEN, the capital of a province of the fame name,
in Ruflia : it is a port-town, fituated on the coad of
the White fea, on hundred and fifty miles north ead of
Archangel.
MESEMBRYANTHEMUM, in botany, a genus of
the icofandria pentagynia clafs. The calix confids of
five fegments, and the corolli of numerous linear pe¬
tals ; and the capfule is flefhy below the flower, and
contains many feeds. There are 45 fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
MESENTERY, in anatomy. See An atom v, p. 262.
MESNE, in law, fignifies him who is lord of a manor,
and who hath tenants holding of him, yet himfelf hold¬
ing of a fuperior lord.
MESOCOLON, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 262.
MESOLOGARITHMS, according to Kepler, are the
logarithms of the co-fines and co-tangents, the former ,
of which were called by lord Napier antilogarithms,
and the latter differentials.
MESOPOTAMIA, the ancient name of Dianbeck. See
Di arbeck.
MESpPTERYGIUS, in ichthyology, a term applied
to fuch fifhes as have only one back-fin, and that fitu¬
ated in the middle of the hack.
MESPILUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria pen¬
tagynia clafs. The calix confids of five fegments, and
the corolla-of five petals ; the berry is below the flower,
and contains five feeds. There are feven fpecies, on¬
ly one of which, viz. the germanica, or medlar, is a
native of Britain.
MESSASIPPI, or Me sen tsippi, a country of North
, America, bounded by Canada on the north, the Britifh
plantations on the ead, the, gulph of Mexico on the
fouth, and the province of New Mexico on the \ved.
MESSENGERS, are certain officers chiefly employed
under the diretfion of the fecretaries of date, and al¬
ways in readinefs to be fent with all kinds of difpatches
foreign and domedic. They alfo, by virtue of the
fecretaries warrants, take up perfons for high treafon,-
ox other offences againd the date.
MESSIAH, the Anointed; a title which the Jews gave
to their expe&ed great deliverer, whofe coming they
dill wait for: and a name the Chridians apply to Je-
X x fus
( 173 )
MET
fus Chrlft, in whom the prophecies relating to the
Meffiah were accomplifhed.
JrlESUA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix has four leaves; the corolla
four petals; and the capfule has four valves, contain¬
ing four feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of
India.
METACARPUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p,
181.
METALS, in natural biftory, are defined to be foffile
bodies, fufible by fire, concreting again in the cold,
and malleable, or diltenfible and dudtile under the ham¬
mer. See Chemistry. .
(SVvA-Metal s, metallic foflils, fufible by fire, and not
malleable in their pureft ftate. See Chemistry.
Metal, in heraldry. There are two metals ufed in he¬
raldry, by way of colours, viz. gold and filver, in
blazon called or and argent.
In the common painting of arms thefe metals are re-
prefented by white and yellow, which are the natural
colours of thofe metals. In engraving, gold is exprefs-
ed by dotting the coat, all over; and filver, by
leaving it quite blank.
It is a general rule in heraldry, never to place metal
upon metal, nor colour upon colour ; fo that if the
field be of one of the metals, the bearing muft be of
MET
fome colour; and if the field be of any colour, the bear¬
ing muft be of one of the metals.
METALLURGY, comprehends the whole art of pre¬
paring and working metals, from the glebe, or ore, to
the utenfile ; in which fenfe, affaying, fmelting, re¬
fining, fmithery, gilding, <bc\ are Only branches of
metallurgy.
METAMORPHOSIS, in general, denotes the changing
of fomething into a different form; in which fenfe it in¬
cludes the transformation of infedts. See Natural
History.
METAPHOR, in rhetoric, a trope, by which we put
a ftrange word for a proper word, by reafoh of its re-
femblance to it ; or it may-b,e defined, a fimile or com-
parifcn intended to enforce and illuftrate the thing we
fpeak of, without the figns or forms of companion.
Thus, if we fay, God n a fhield to good nun, it is a
metaphor; becaufe the fignof coipparifon is not exprefs-
ed, though the refemblance which is the foundation
of the trope, is plain ; for as a fhield guards him that
bears it, againft the attacks of an enetny. fo the provi
dence and favour of God protedfs good men from malice
and misfortunes: but if the fentence be put thus, God
is as a fhield to good men, then it becotjaes a fimile or
comparifon.
( >74 )
METAPHYSIC S.
Metaphysics is that pan of phiiofophy which
confiders the nature and properties of thinking
beings.
Ariftotle, after treating on phyfics, begins his next
book, (in which he pretends to elevate the mind above
corporeal objedfs, to fix it on the contemplation of God,
of angels, and of things fpiritual, and to enable it to
judge of the principles of fciences by abftradtion,) with the
Greek words /zst* QvaiHit, poji phyficam, i. e. after
metapbyfics. His difciples, and fucceeding philofophers,
haveformed, of thefe two, one w'ord, Metaphysics, by
which they mean that fcience of which we have juft now
given the definition.
Metaphyfics is divided, according to the objedfs that
It confiders, into fix principal parts, which are called,
I. Ontology : 2 Cofmology: 3 Aptrophology: 4.
Pfychology: 5. Pneumatology : and, 6. Theodicy, or
riietaphyfical theology.
1. The dodtrine that is named Ontology, is-ahat part
of metapbyfics which inveftigates, and explains, the na¬
ture and general eftence of all beings, as well as the qua¬
lities and attributes that effentially appertain to them, and
which we ought to affign them by abftradlion, as confider-
ing them a priori. Hence it appears, that this dodfrine
fliould proceed in its operations from the moft fimple i-
deas; fuch as do not admit of any other qualities of
which they may be compounded. Thefe firhple ideas are,
for example, thofe of being, of tefience, of fubftance, of
ffijods, of exiftence as well with regard to time as place,
of a neceflary caufe, of unity, the idea of negation, the
difference between a being that is fimple or compound,
neceftary or accidental, finite or infinite ; the idea of ef-
fential and^abftradl properties, as of the greatnefs, per-
fedtion, and goodnefs of beiqgs; and fo of the reiL The
bufinefs therefore of ontology, is to make us acquainted
with every kind of being in its effence and abftradt quali¬
ties, and fuch as arediftindt from all other beings. This
knowledge,being once eftablilhed on fimple principles,
juft confequences may from thence be. drawn, and thofe
things proved after which metaphyfits inquires, and which
is its bufinefs to prove.
It is eafy to conceive, that even a clear hnowledge of
beings, and their effential properties, would be ftill de-
fedtive and ufelefs to man, if he did not know how to de¬
termine and fix his ideas by proper denominations, and
confequently to communicate his perceptions to thofe
whom he would inftrudt, or againft whom he is obliged
to difpute, as they would not have the fame perceptions
that, he has. It is, by the way, _ perhaps one of the
greateft advantages that we have over other animals, to
be able fo to determine our ideas by figns or denomina¬
tions, either of writing or fpeech, as to refer each parti¬
cular perception to its general idea, and each general per¬
ception to its particular idea. To render therefore our
ideas intelligible to others, we muft have determinate
words or denominations for each being, and the qualities
of each being; and ontology teaches us thofe terms which
are fo necdfary to fix our ideas, an<j to give them the
M E T A P 1
requifite perfpicuity Snd precifion, that we may nat dif-
pate about words whea we endeavour to extend the fphere
of our knowledge, or when we debate concerning the ef-
fence of an objeft, or endeavour to make it more evident.
It is for this reafon that ontology was formerly regarded
as a barren fcienee, that confifled of technical terms only ;
as a mere terminology : whereas the bell modern philo-
fophers make it a more fubllantial fcience, by annexing
determinate ideas to thofe words, and the examination of
thofe objects themfelves that thefe terms imply. But the
misfortune is, to fpeak the truth, that in this ontologic
determination there is 1H11 much uncertainty and fophi-
ftry. For, in the firll place, we yet know of no meta-
phyfics where'ail the dennitions are juft; and in the Se¬
cond place, the words that are employed in thefe defini¬
tions have always fomething equivocal iri their meaning,
and haveconfeqtlentty themfelves need of definitions; and
in this manner we may recede to infinity, unlefs we recur
to the firlt impreffions that the fimple words have made
in our 'minds, and the primitive ideas which they there
excite. • The words man, love, coach. See. fay more,
and make a llronger impreffion, than all the definitions we
can give ofthem ; by ontologic explications they are al-‘
moll always covered with a dark cloud.
2 Metaphyfics, after having, in as folid a manner as
poffible, explained and eftablilhed the principles above
mentioned, continues its inquiries to the fecond part, that
is called Cofmology, and examines into the eflence of the
world, and all that it contains ; its eternal laws ; of the
nature of matter; of motion; of the nature of tangible
bodies, of their attributes and elfential qualities, and of
all that can be known by. abllradtion, and fometirries alfo
by adding the lights that man acquires concerning them
by the experience of his fenfes. It is alfo in cofmolo¬
gy that we examine the Leibnitzian fyflem ; that is,
whether- God, in creating the world, mufl neceffarily
have created the befl world ; and if this.world be fo in
effedl. And in this manner they purfue the argument
from coofequence to confequence to its lafl refort. All
philofophers, however, do nat go equally deep. Each
mind has its dofe of penetration. Due care flrould be
likewife taken, that fubtility, in this chain of reafoning,
carried beyond the general bqunds of the human mind, dp
not prejudice either the perfpicuity or the truth of ideas:
feeing that errdr here too nearly approaches the truth ;
and that every idea, which cannot be rendered intelligi¬
ble, is iq effeft equal to a falfe idea.
3. Anthrophology, or the knowledge of man, forms
the third branch of metaphyfics. It is fubdivided into
two parts. The firfl, which confifls in the knowledge of
the exterior parts of the human frame, does not belong
to tins fcience: anatomy and phyfiology teach that. The
bufinefs here is only a metaphyfical examination of man,
his'exiflence, his effence, his effential qualities and ne
ceffary attributes, all confidered «/r/sr/.• and this exa-
men leads at the fame time to
4. Psychology, ■ which is the fourth part of metaphyfics,
and confifts in the knowledge of the foul in general, and
ef the foul of man in particular; concerning which, the
mofb profound, the moil fubtle and abftra<5t refearche$
have beso made, that theliuman reafon is capable of pro-
I Y S I C S. 175
ducing; and concerning the fubftar.ee of which. In fpite
of all thefe efforts, it is yet extremely difficult to affert
any thing that is rational, and ftill lefs any thing that is
pofitive and well fupported.
5. The fifth part of jnetaphyfics is called Pneumato-
logy. It is not a very long time fince this term has beea
invented, and that metaphyficians have made of it a cji-
ftinft do&rine. By this they mean the knowledge of all
fpirits, angels, It is ealy to conceive that infinite art is
neceffary to give an account of what we do not abfolute-
ly know any thing, and of which, by the nature of .the
fubjedt itfelf, we never can know any thing. But the
metaphyfician prefently offers'to ffiow us, “ what is the,
idea of a fpirit; the effective exiflence of a fpirit; what
are its general qualities and properties; that there are ra¬
tional fpirits, and that thefe rational fpirits have quali¬
ties that are founded in the moral qualities of God:” for
this is, in fo many words, what is taught us by pneuma-
tology or pneumatics.
6. Metaphyfical Theology, which M. Leibnitz and fome
others call Theodicy, is the fixth and laft dodlcine of me¬
taphyfics. It teaches us the knowledge of the exiftehce
of God; to make the mod rational fuppofitions concern¬
ing his divine'eflence, and to form a juft idea of his qua¬
lities and perfedions, and to demonflrate fhem by abftradt
reafoning a priori. Theodicy differs from natural
theology, in as much as this laft borrows, in fad, from
theodicy, proofs and demonftrations to confirm the exi-
ftence of a Supreme Being; but after having folidly efta-
bliffied that great truth, by extending its confequences,
natural theology tea- hes us what are the relations and
connexions that fubfift between that Supreme Being and
man, and what are the moral duties that refult, from that*
connexion. As pneumatology is a fcience highly inlidi-
ous and chimerical, fo is metaphyfical theology fufeepti-
ble of found argument and demonftration; to the great
comfort of mankind, the whole'of whole happinefs is
founded on the certainty of this fcience. If the effeds
and operations of fpirits in the uniyerfe were as evident
as the effeds and operations of the Deity, and their ne-
ceflhry exiftence as capable of being proved a priori,
pneumatology would be a dodrine of equal certainty with
theodicy: but as neither one nor the other can be pro- -
ved, with regard to fpirits in general, whilft God mani- *
fefts himfelf in every part of nature, we have only to de-
feend from the moft fimple and abftrad ideas, to thofe
that are the moft compound: and from thence to reafeend,
by a chain of reafonings, from the creature up to the-Au-
thor of the creature and of all nature : We ffi.ail find, that
the refult of all fhefe operations of the nftnd Will conftant-'
ly be. The neceflity of the exiflence of a God; “and we
may at all times determine, though very impsrfedly,
from the weaknefs of our difcernmentv what that Supreme
Being mull be, by pofitively determining what he cannot
be. Every thing that can concur to furniffi new'proofs
on this fubjed, or to elucidate and eftablifh thofe which
are already known, is therefore of jneftimable value to
mankind ; and though this were the only objed of meta¬
phyfics, it would highly merit the attention of thofe of
the moft refined and moft exalted genius.
After giving this general view of the fubjed, we ffiall
, proceed.
ir6 M E T A P H Y S I C S.
proceed to give the fubflance of what Mr Locke has de- f foftnefs and 'warmth in the fame piece of w^.v, yet the
Jivered upon it. fimple ideas thus united in the fame fubjedt are as per-
. ' ... fedly diftinft as thofe that come in by different tenfes.
Of ideas in general, and their original. Thefe Jituplet ideas are fuggefted no other way riiaa
By the term idea, as defined by Mr Locke, is meant from the two ways above mentioned, viz. fenfation ..nd
Whatever is the objed of the underftanding when a man
thinks, or whatever it is which the mind can be employed
about in thinking.
In order to trace thejnanner by which we acquire thefe
ideas, let us fuppofe the mind to he, as we fay, 'white
paper, void of all charaders, without any ideas : how
comes it to be furnifhed i whence has it all the materials
of reafon and knowledge ? From experience and ohferva-
tion. This, when employed about external fenfibie ob-
jeds, we may call fenfation : by this we have the ideas
of bitter, fweet, yellow, hard, &c. which are common¬
ly called fenftble qualities, becaufe conveyed into the mind
by the fenfes. The fanre experience, when employed
about the internal operations of the mind, perceived and
refleded on by us, we may call reflettion : h^nce we have
the ideas of perception, thinking, doubting, 'willing,
reafoning, Stc.
Thefe two, viz. external material things as the ob-
jeds of fenfation, and the operations of our own minds as
theobjeds of refledion, are the only originals from whence
all our ideas take their beginnings : the underftanding
feems not to have the leaft glimmering of ideas, which it
doth not receive from one of thefe two fources. Thefe,
when we have taken a full furvey of them, and their fe-
veral modes and compofitions, we fhall fii?d to contain our
whole ftock of ideas ; and that we have nothing in our
minds which did not come in orie of thefe two ways.
It is evident, that children come by degrees to be fur¬
nifhed with ideas from the objeds they are converfant
with : they are fo furrounded with bodies that perpetually
and diverfely affed them, that fome ideas will (whether
they will or no) be imprinted on their minds. Light and
colours, founds and tangible qualities, do continually fo-
licite their proper fenfes, and force an entrance into the
mind. It is late, commonly, before children come to have
ideas of the operations of their minds ; and fome men have
not any- very clear or perfed ideas of the greateft part of
them all their lives : becaufe, though they pafs there con
tinually, yet, like floating vifions, they make not deep
impreffions enough to leave in the mind clear and lading
ideas, till the underftanding turn^ inward upon itfelf,
and refleds on its own operation, and makes them the ob¬
jeds of its own contemplation.
When a man firjlperceives, then he may be faid to have
ideas ; having ideas, and perception, ftgnifying the fame
thing.
Of fmple ideas.
Or ideas, fome are fmple, others complex. A. fm¬
ple idea is one uniform appearance or Conception in the
mind, which is not diftinguifhable into difFerent ideas.
Such are the ideas of fenjible qualities, which though
they are in the things themfelves fo united and blended,
that there is no feparation, no diftance~between them,
yet the ideas they produce in the mind enter by the fen¬
fes fimple and unmixed. Thus, though the hand feels
refleftion.
The mind being once ftored with the fimple ideas, has
the power to repeat, compare, and unite them to an in¬
finite variety; and fo can make, at pleafure, new com¬
plex ideas. But the molt enlarged underftanding cannot
frame one newfimple idea; nor by any force deftroy them
that are there.
Of ideas of 8ne fenfe.
Ideas, with reference to the different ways wherein
they approach the mind, are of four forts.
Firjl, There are fome which come into our minds by
one fenfe only.
Secondly, There are others conveyed into the mind
by more fenfes than one.
Thirdly, Others that are had from reflection only.
Fourthly, There are fome fuggefted to the mind by all
the ways of fenfation and reflection.
Firft, fome enter into the mind only by one fenfe pecu¬
liarly adapted to receive them. Thbs colours, founds,
fmells, &c. come in only,by the eyes, ears, and nofe.
And if thefe. organs are any of them fo difordered as not
to perform their functions, they have no other way to
bring themfelves in view, and b&.perceived by the under¬
ftanding.
We fhall here mention one, which we receive by our
touch, becaufe it is one of the cbief ingredients in many
of our complex ideas ; and that is, the idea of folidity :
it arifes fiom the refiftance one body makes to the en¬
trance of another body into the place it pofieffe's, till it
has left it. There is no idea which we mbre conftantly
receive from fenfation than this. In whatever pofture we
are, we feel fomewhat that fuppo^ts us, and hinders us
from finking downwards: and the bodies we daily han¬
dle, make us perceive, that while they remain between
them, they do, by an unfurmountable force, hinder the
approach of the parts of our hands that prefs them.
This feems to be the moft effential- property of body,
and that whereby we conceive it to fill fpace: the idea of
which is, that where we imagine any fpace taken up by a
folid fubftance, we conceive it fo to poffefs it, that it
excludes all other folid fubftances. This refiftance is fo
great, that no force can furmount it. ' All the bodies in
the world prefling a drop of water on albfides, will ne¬
ver be able to overcome the refiftance it makes to their ap¬
proaching one another, till it be removed out of their way.
The idea of folidity is diftingui{|ied from that of pure
fpace, in as much as this latter is neither capable of refift¬
ance nor motion : it is diftinguifhed from hardnefs, in as
much as hardnefs is a firm cohefion of the folid parts of
matter making up maffes of a fenfible bulk, fo that the
whole doth not eafily change its figure. Indeed, hard
and foft, as commonly apprehended by us, are but rela¬
tive to the conftitutions of our bodies: that being called hard
whifch will put us to pain fooner than change its figure'
by the preffure of any part of our bodies; and that foft,
which
M E T A P
\Uiich changes the fituatio'n of its parts upon an eafy and
unpainfui touch.
This difficulty of changing fituation among the parts,
gives no more (oiidity to the hardefl; body, than to the
iofteih; nor'is an adamant one jot more folid than water.
He that ffiall fill a yielding foft body well with air or
water, will quickly find its rdiflance. By this we may
difl ioguifh the idea of the extenfion of body, from the idea
of tiie extenfion of fpace : That of body, is the cohefion
or ccniinuity of foiid, feparable, and moveable parts; that
of fpace> the continuity of unfolid, infeparable, and im¬
moveable parts. Upon the folidity of bodies depends
their mutual impuife, refinance, and protrufion.
Of fimple ideas of different fsnfes.
- _Some ideas we get into the mind by more than one-
fenfe\ -azfpace, extenf on, figure, reft, and motion. Thefe
are perceivable by the eyes and touch.
Of 'fimple ideas of reflettion.
Some ideas are had from reflection only: Such are the
ideas we have of the operations of our minds of which the
two principal are, perception, or thinking; and volition,
or ivilling The powers of producing thefe operations
are called faculties-,, which are, xhtunderfunding, and
nnili. The feveral modes of thinking, he. belong to
this head.
Of fmiple ideas of fenfation and refiettion.
There are fome fimpie ideas conveyed into the mind
by all the ways of fenfation and rtfleclion ; fuch are plea-
fur e, pain, power, exifence, unity, fuccejfion. Pleafure or
delight, pain or uneafinefs, accompany almpfl: every im-
preffion on our fenfes, and every adtion or thought of the
mind.
The Author of our beings having given a power to our
minds, in feveral inrtances, to chufe amongfl: its ideas
which it will think on ; to excite us to thefe aftions of
thin ling and motion, he has joined to feveral thoughts
and fenfations a perception of delight; without this we
ffiould have no reafon to prefer one thought or aCtion to
another.
Pain has the fame efficacy to fet us on work that plea¬
fure has.; fince we are as ready to avoid that, as to pur-
fuethis. This is worth our confideration, that pain is
often produced by the fame ohjelds and ideas that pro¬
duce pleafure \x\ us. This their near conjunAion gives
ys new occafion of admiring the wifdom and goodnefs of
cur Maker \ who, defigning the prefervation of our be¬
ing, has. atfnexed pain to the application of many things
to our bodies, to warn us of the harm they will do us,
and as advices to Withdraw us from them. But he not
defigning our prefervation barely, but the prefervation
of every part and organ in its perfection, hath in many
cafes annexed pain to thofe very ideas \yhich delight us.
Thus heat, that is very agreeable to us in one de¬
gree, by a little greater increafe of it proves no ordinary
torment: Which is wifely ordered by nature, that when
any objeCt does by the vehemence of its operation dif-
brder the indrutnents of fenfation, whofe ftruCtures can¬
not but be very delicate, we might by the pain be warn-
Vot/'. III. N0 76. 2
II Y S I C S. 177
ed to withdraw before the organ be quite put out of order,
That this is the end of pain, appears from this confidera¬
tion; that though great light is infufferable to the eyes; yet
the highell degree of darknefs does not at alldileale them ;
becayfe that caufes nq difordeify motion in that curious
organ the eye. But excefs of cold, as well as heat, pains
us ; becaufe it is equally deftru&ive to the temper w hkh
is neceffiary to the prefervation of life.
Exifence and unity are two other ideas foggefled by
every objeCt without, and every idea within. When i-
deasarein our minds, we confider them as being actually
there, as well as we confider things to be a&ually with¬
out us; which is, that they exijk, or have exigence :
And whatever we confider as one thing, 'whether a real
being, or idea, fuggelis the idea of unity.
Power is another idea derived from thefe fcurces: For
finding in ourfelves that we can think, and move feveral
parts of our bodies at pleafure, and obferving-the effetts
that natural bodies produce in one another ; by both thefe
ways we get the idea of power.
Succeffion is another idea fuggefted by our fenfes, and
by reflection on what pafles in our minds : For if we look
into ourfelves, we ffiall find our ideas always, whilfl we
are awake, or have any thought, palling in train, one go¬
ing ^nd another coming, without intermiffion.
Some farther confderations concerning fimple ideas.
What soever is able, by affecting our fenfes, to caufe
any perception in the mind, doth thereby produce in the
underllandingafimple idea; which, whatlover be the caufe
of it, is looked upon as a realpofitive idea in the under-
flanding. Thus the ideas of heat and cold, light and
darknefs, motion and refl, &c. are equally politive in
the mind, though fome of their caufes may be mere/>r/-
vat ions.
That a privative caufe may produce a poftiive idea,
appears from ffiadoWs; which (though nothing but the
abfence of light) are difcernible, and caufe clear and po-
fitive ideas. We have indeed fome names which
Hand not direCtly forpofitive ideas, but for their abfence;
fuch as inf pi d, filence, which denote pofitive ideas, viz.
tafie and found, with a fignification of their abfence.
It will be ufeful to diftinguilh ideas as they are percep¬
tions in our minds, from what they are in the bodies that
caufe fuch perceptions in us; for we are not to think the
former exaCl images and refemblances of fomething in¬
herent in the fubjeCt, moft of thofe of fenfation being, in
the mind, no more the likenefs of fomething exilling
without us, than the names that Hand for them are the
likenefs of our ideas, which yet, upon hearing, they«excite
in us.
Whatfover the mind perceives in itfelf or is the im -
mediate objeCt of perception, thought, or.underftanding,
is an idea : And the power to produce, any idea in our
mind, is the quality of the fuhjell wherein that -power
exills. Thus a fnow W/having the power to produce
in us the ideas of white, cold, and round-, thofe powers,
as they are in the fnow-ball, are called qualities ; and
as they are fenfations or perceptions in our undeiiland-
ings, they are called ideas. Thefe qualities are of two
fiords : Firft, original, or primary; lu.h arefolidily, ex-
i7o ' M E T A P ]
tenfion, motion, or reft, number, and figure. Thefe are
infeparable from body, and fuCh as it conftantly keeps in
all its changes and alterations.
Secondly. Secondary q i dities ; fitch as cohurs, fimelh,
tafites, founds, &c which, whatever reality we bj' mif-
take may attribute to them, are in truth nothing in the
objefts themfelves, but powers to produce various fen-
fations in us; and depend on the qualities before men¬
tioned.
The ideas primary qualities of bodies, are refcm-
blances of them ; and their patterns really extftin bodies
themfelves: But the ideas produced in us by fecondary
qualities h tve no refemolance of them at all; and what
is fiweet, blue, or warm, in the idea, is but the certain
bulk, figure, and motion of the infenfible parts in the
bodies themfelves, which we call fo.
Thus w$fee, that fire atone diftance produces in us the
fenfation of warmth, which at a nearer approach caufes
the fenfation of pain. Now what reafon have we to fay,
that the idea of wirmth is a&ually in the fire ; but that
of pain not in the fire; which the fame fire produces in
us the fame way? The bulk, number, figure, and mo¬
tion of the'pafts of fire, are really in it, whether we
perceive them or noand therefore may be called real
qualities, becaufe they really exift in that body: But
light uni heat are no more really in it, than ficknefs or
pain : Take away the fenfation of them ; let not the eyes
fee light or colours, nor the ear hear founds; let the pa¬
late not tafte, or the nofe fmell ; and all colours, tdfles,
odours, and founds, as they are fuch particular ideas,
vanish and ceafe, and are reduced to their caufes, (that
is,) bulk, motion, figure, 'be. of parts.
Thefey#c««</tf77 qualities are of two forts. ¥irft., Im¬
mediately perceivable ; which by immediately operating
on our bodies, produce,feveral different ideas in us. Se¬
condly, Mediately perceivable; which by operating on
other bodies, change their primary qualities, fo as to
render them capable of producing ideas in us different
from what they did before. Thefe laft are powers in bo¬
dies, which proceed from the particular conflitution 'of
thofe primary and original qualities, to make fuch a
change in the bulk, figure, texture, 8cc. of another body,
as to make it operate on our fenfes different from what it
did before ; as in fire, to make lead fluid. ~ Thefe two
tail being nothing but powers relating to other bodies,
and refiilting from the different modifications of the ori¬
ginal qualities, are yet otherwife thought of; the for¬
mer being efteenaed real qualities, but the latter barely
powers.
Of perception.
Perception is the firft idea we receive from reflec¬
tion : It is by home called thinking in general; Though
thinking, in the propriety of the Englijh tongue, fignifies
that fort of operation of the mind about its ideas, where¬
in the mind is aiftive ; where it confiders any thing with
fome degree of voluntary attention : For in bare percep¬
tion the, mind is, for the moft part, only pajjive\ and
what it perceives, it .cannot avoid, perceiving. What
this is, we cannot otherwife know, than by refledling
©a what paffes in our minds when we fee, feel, hear, be.
I V SICS.
Impreffions made on the outward parts, if they are not
taken notice of within, caufe no perception; as we fee in
thofe whofe minds are intently bulled in the contempla¬
tion of certain objedls.
We may obferve that the ideas we receive from fenfa¬
tion, are often ingrown people altered by the judgment,
without our taking notice of it. Thus a globe of any u-
niform colour, (as of gold, or jet,) being fet before our
eyes, the idea thereby imprinted is of a flat circle vari-
oufly fhadowed: But being afccultomed to perceive what
kind of appearance convex bodies are wont to make in
us, the judgment alters the appearances into their caules;
and, from that variety of fhadow or colour, frames to
itfelf the perception of a convex figure of one uniform
colour. This in many cafes, by a fettled habit, is per¬
formed fo readily, that we take that for the perception
of our fenfation, which is but an 'idea formed by the
judgment; fo that one ferves only to excite the other,
and is fcarce taken notice of itfelf: As a man who reads
or hears with attention, takes little notice of the charac¬
ters or founds, but of the ideas that are excited in him
by them.
Perception is alfo the firft ftep and degree towards
knowledge, and the inlet of all the materials of it ; fo
that the fewer fenfes any man has, and the duller the
impreffions that are made by them are, the more remote
he is from that knowledge which is to be found in other
men.
Of retention.
The next faculty of the mind whereby it makes a
further progrefs towards knowledge, is called reten¬
tion; which is the keeping of thofe ideas it has received.
Which is done two ways :
Firf, By keeping the idea which is brought into the
mind for fome .time aftually in view; which is called con¬
templation.
Secondly, By reviving thole ideas in our minds which
have tiifapeared, and have been, as it were, laid out of
fight: And this is memory; which is, as it were, the
ftore-houfe of our ideas; for the narrow mind of man
not being capable of having many ideas under view at once,
it was neceffary to have a tepofitory to layup thofe ideas,^
which at another time it may have ufe of. But our ideas
being nothing but atfu-d perceptions in the mind, which
ceale to be any thing when there is no perception of them,
this lying up of our ideas in the repofitdry of the memory
fignifies no more but this, that the mind has a power, in
many cafes, to revive perceptions it has once had, with
this additional perception annexed to them, that it has
had them them before And it is by the affiftance of this
faculty, that we are faid to have all thofe ideas in our
underitandings which we can bring in fight, and make the
objeds of our thoughts, without the help of thofe fenfible
qualities which firft imprinted them there.
Thole ideas that are often refrelhed by a frequent re¬
turn of the objeds oradions that produce them, fix them¬
felves beft in the memory, and remain longeft there : Such
are the original qualities of bodi‘s. viz. Solidity, extep-
fion, figure, motion, be. Thefe and the like are feldom
quite loft while the mind retains any ideas at ail.
M E T A P II
Of difcerning, and other operations of the mind.
Another faculty of the mind, is that of difcerning
between its ideas. On this depends the evidence and
certainty of feveral general propofitions. In being able
nicely to diftingudh one thing from another, where there
- is the lead difference, confifts, in a great meafure, that
exattnefs of judgment and clearnefs of resfon which is
to be obferved in one man above another.
To the well diftinguifhing our ideas, it chiefly contri¬
butes that they be clear and determinate; and when they-
are fo, it will not breed any coufufion or miftake about
them, though the fenfes fhould convey them from the
fame objeft differently on different'occafions..
The compatingof our ideas one with another in refpedt
of extent, degree, time, place, or any other cireumftances,
is another operation of the mind about its ideas which is
the ground of relations. Brutes feem not to have this
faculty in any great degree. They have probably feveral
ideas diftindf: enough ; but cannot compare them farther
than fome fenfible circumftances annexed to the objedls
themfelves.
Compof tion is another operation of the mind, whereby
it combines feveral of its fimple ideas into complex ones:
Under which operation we may reckon that of enlarging ;
wherein we put feveral ideas together of the fame kind,
as feveral units to make a dozen.
Jhffraftion is another operation of the mind, whereby
the mind forms general ideas from fuch as it received from
particular objects ; which it does by confidering them, as
they are in the mind fuch appearances feparate from the
circumftancesof realexiftence, as time, place, &c. Trefe
become general reprefentatives of all of the fame kind,
and their names applicable to whatever exifts comformable
to fuch abftradl ideas. Thus , the colour received from
chalk, fnow, and milk, is made a reprefentanve of all of
that kind ; and has a name given it (whiteneff,) which lig
nifies the fame quality, wherever to be found or imagined.
And thus unnerjals, both ideas and terms, are made.
Of complex ideas.
In the reception of fimple ideas the mind is only paf
five having no power to frame any one to itfelf, nor ha¬
ving any idea which does not wholly confift of them. But
about thefe fimple ideas its exerts feveral adts of its own,
whereby out of them, as the materials and foundations of
the reft, the other are framed : The a&s of the mind,
wherein it exerts its power over its fimple ideas, are chief¬
ly. thefe three: Firjl. It combines feveral fimple ideas in¬
to one compound one; and thus all complex ideas are made.
Secondly, It brings two ideas, whether fnnple or complex,
together, and fets them by one another fo as to take a
view of them at once, without uniting them into one; by
which way it gets all its ideas of relations. Thirdly, It
feparates them from ail other ideas that accompany them
in their real exigence: And thus all its general ideas are
made.: As fimple ideas are obferved to exift in feveral
combinations united together, fo the mind may confider
them as united, not only as they are really united in
external objedfs, but as itfelf has joined them Ideas
thus made up of feveral. ones put together, are called
: v s i c s. 17?
complex ; as man, army, heauty, gratitude, &c. By this
faculty of repeating and joining together its Ideas, the
mind has great power in varying and multiplying the
objedhs of its thoughts. But it is Hill confined to thofe
fimple h/w'which it received from the two fources of
fenfation and.’ reflettion. It can .have no other ideas of
fenfible qualities, than what come'from without by the
fenfes, nor any other ideas of the operations of a think¬
ing fubdance than what it finds in itfelf; but having
once got thefe fimple ideas, it can by it^ own power .put
them together, and make new complex ones, which it
never received fo united.
Complex ideas, however compounded and decompound¬
ed, though their number be infinite, and their variety
endlefs, may all be reduced under thefe three heads:
ill, Modes \ Subfances•, gdly, Relations.
id, Modes are fuch complex ideas as contain not the
fuppofitionof fubfiding by themfelves butareconfideredas
dependances on, and afifedlions of fubdances ; as triangle,
gratitude, murder, &c. Thefe modes are of two forts:
Fird, Simple; which are combinations of the fame fimple
idea; as a dozen, fcore. See. which are but the -ideas of
fo many didintfl units puf together. Secondly, Mixed;
which are compounded of fimple ideas of feveral kinds *
as beauty, which confids in a certain compofition of co¬
lour and figure, caufing delight in thebih Jder; theft,
which is the xoncealed change of the podeflion of any
thing, without the confent of the proprietor. Thefe vifibly
contain a combination of idea; of feveral kind’s.
3dly, Subjlances. The ideas of fubdances are only
fuch combinations of fimple ideas, as are taken to repre-
fent didinft particular things fubfiding by themfelves, in
which the confufed idea of fubdance is always the chief.
Thus a combination of the ideas of a certain figure, with
the powers of motion, thought, and reafoning, joined to
fubdance, m. ke the ordinary' idea of man.
Thefe again are either of ftngle fubjlances, as man,
ftone; or of colLflive, or feveral put together, %% army,
heap. Ideas of feveral fubdances thus put together, are
as much each of them one fingle idea, as that of a man
or an unit.
gdly, Relations', which confid in the confideration
and comparing of one idea with another. Of thefe feveral
kinds we diall treat in their order.
Of fimple modes: And, firft, of the fimple modes of
fpace.
Concerning fimple modes we may obferve, that the
modifications of any fimple ideas are as perfectly different
and didindt ideas in the mind, as thofe of the greated di¬
dance or contrariety : Thus two is as didind from three,
as bluenefs from heat.
Space is a fimple idea which we get both by our fight
and touch. When we confider it barely in length be¬
tween two bodies, it is called diftance : when in length,
breadth, and thicknefs, it may be called When
confidered between the extremities of matter,' which fills
the capacity of fpace with fomething folid, tangible, and
moveable, it is called extenfion. And thus extenfon will
be an idja belonging to body ; but fpace may be conceived
without it..
Each.
M E T A PHYSICS;
186
Each different dtflancs is a different modification of
fpace ; and each idea of any different fpace is a fimple
mode of this idea. Such are an inch, foot, yard, &c.
When thefe ideas are made familiar to mens thoughts,,
they can in their minds repeat them as often as they will,
without joining to them the idea of body, and frame to
themfelves the ideas of feet, yards, or fathoms, beyond
the utmoft bounds of ail bodies; and, by adding thefe (fill
one to another, enlarge-their tdea of fpace as much as
they pleafe. Frpm this power of repeating any idea of
didance, without being ever able to come to an end, we
come by the idea of immenfity.
Another modification of fpace is taken from the rela¬
tion of the parts of the termination of extenfion or cir-
cumfcribed fpace amongft themfelves; and this is what
we call figure. This the touch difcovers in fenfible bo¬
dies, whole extremities come within our reach ; and the
eye takes both from bodies and colours, whofe boundaries
are within its view; where obferving how the extremities
terminate either in draight lines, which meet at difcerni-
ble angles, or in crooked lines, wherein no angles can be
perceived; by confidering tbefe as they relate to one ano¬
ther in all parts of the extremities of any body or fpace,
it has that idea we call figure : which affords to the mind
infinite variety.
Another mode belong do this head, is that of place.
Our idea of place is nothing but the relative pofition of
lany thing with reference to its didance from fome fixed
and certain points. Whence we fay, that a thing has
or has not changed /’Arc*’, when its didance either is or
is not altered with refpedt to thofe bodies which which
we have occafion to compare it. That this is fo, we may
eafily gather from hence, that we can have no idea of the
place of'xhz univerfe, though we can of all its parts. To
lay that the world is fiominxihere, means no more than that
it does exijl. The word/’Atce is fometimes take to fignify
that fpace which any body takes up ; and fo the univerfe
may be conceived in a place.
Of duration, and its fimple modes.
There is another fort of dijlance, the idea of which
we get from the fleeting and perpetually perilhing parts
of fucceflion, which we call duration. The fimple modes
of it are any different lengths of it whereof we have di-
ftindt ideas; as hours, days, years. See. time, and eter¬
nity.
The idea of fuccefion is got by reflefting on that train
of ideas which condantly follow one another in our minds
as long as we are awake. The didance between any
parts of this fuccefion, is what we call duration; and .the
continuation of the exiftence of ourfelves, or any thing
elfe, commenfurate to the fucceflion of any ideas in our
minds, is what we call our own duration, or that of ano¬
ther thing co-exiding with our thinking. That this is fo,
appears from hence, that we have no perception of fuc-
’ ceffion or deration, when that fucceflion of our ideas
ceafes, as in fieep: the moment that we fleep, and a-
wake, how diflant foever, feems to be joined and connec¬
ted. And poflibly it would be fo to awaking man, could
he fix upon one idea without variation and the fuccef-
fjon of others. And we fee that they whofe thoughts are
very inteat upon one thing, let flip out of their account a
good part of that duration, and think that time' ihorter
than it is. But if a man, during his fleep, dream, and
a variety of ideas make themfelves perceptible in his mind
one after another, he hath then, duneg fuch dreaming,
a fenfe of duration, and of the length of it.
- A man having once got this idea of duration, can ap¬
ply it to things which exift while he does not think : and
thus we meafure the time of our fleep, as well as that
wherein.we are awake.
Duratfon, as marked by certain periods and meafures,
is what we mod properly call time) which we meafure
by the diurnal and annual revolutions of the fun, as being
conftant, regular, and univerfally obfervable by all man¬
kind, and fuppofed equal to one another.
The mind having once got fuch a meafure of time, as
the annual revolution of the fun, can eafily apply it to
duration, wherein that meafure itfelf did not exid; and
the idea of duration equal to an annual revolution of the
fun, is as eafily applicable in our thoughts to duration
where no fun nor motion was, as the idea of a foot or
yard to diftapccs beyond the confines of the world.
By the fame means, and from the fame original that
we come to have the idea of time, we havealfo that idea
which we call eternity : for havjng got the ideas of cer¬
tain lengths of duration, we can in our thoughts add
them to one another as oft as we pleafe, without ever
coming to an end.
And thus itis plain, that'from the two fountains of all
knowledge before mentioned, viz. fenfation and reflec¬
tion, we get the ideas of duration, and the feveral mea¬
fures of it.
Of numbers.
The complex ideas of number are formed by adding
feveral units together. The fimple modes of it are each
feveral combinations, as two, three, &c. Thefe are of
all others moll diftind, the neareft being as clearly dif¬
ferent from each other as the molt remote: two being
as diftinft' from one, as two hundred. But it is hard to
form d>ftin£t ideas of every the lead excefs in extenfion.
Hence demonftrations in numbers are more general in
their ufe, and more determinate in their application, than
thofe of extenfion.
Simple mode? of numbers being in our minds but fo
many combinations of units, which have no variety but
more or lefs ; names for each diitind combination feem
more neceffary than in any other fort of idsas : For with¬
out a name, or mark, to diiiinguilh that precife collec¬
tion, it will hardly be kept from being a heap of confu-
fion. Hence fome Americans have no dillinft idea of any
number beyond twenty ; fo that when they are dif-
courfed with of greater numbers, they fhew the hairs of
their head. So that to reckon right, two things are re¬
quired :
Firjl, That the mind diftinguifh carefully two ideas
which are different one from another only by the addi¬
tion or fubftradtion of one unit.
Secondly, That it retain in memory the names or marks
of the feveral combinations, from an unit to that number;
and that in exaff order, as they follow one another. In
either
he fenfes of
5 ie tilings
‘ <r-klf, and
ob/erving
LE.
, |Chemistry. *To fallow V. 180.]
Shewing the manner in which natural bodies, confidered in a chemical view, -may be - divided into clafTes ; With their feveral fubdiviliens; their properdes defined ; ; and the mann^ir in which they are obtained, pointed out
r. -SALINE. < Thefe
are foluble in wa¬
ter, fapid, and not
inflaminable. Tlrey
are either
2. INFLAMMABLES’
are thofe bodies tha^
continue to burn of
. them Selves if they
are. once fet on fire.
Divided into
‘Simple, are thole
which can be no fur¬
ther analized by che- ■>
miftry; and are of
two forts, viz.
r Acids. Thefearedi-
ffinguiHied by turning
lyrup of violets red,
and forming with hi- -
kalis neutral falts. The :
different acids yet;
known are thefe.
AH -offt vegetable acids are Mich lefs corrofive, and Ids powerful
^Vegetable, or potafk.
Volatile.
Always obtained from the allies of burnt vegetables. A deliquefcent fait.
Fojftle. A folid cryffaSline fait; foroetimes found native, as the natrurh of Egypt; and fometimes by burning fea-weed, as kelp
ained fijora'ful ammoniac, from the foot of burning bodies, and from the putrefactive fermentation. It is nature
Co -pouND, confill-
ing of two or more )
chemical elements, y
k Divided into v
f
f Oils, are th.ick.ifb
1 vifeous ■ fluids, not !
miicible with water.
| Dividedfinto
Animal,
Vegetable,
both of
which
are divi¬
ded into
naturally in a foliill Hate.
BODTF.?
e 0(3-
iTRY,
info
lafies,
3-METALLIC, are
bodies of a hard and
folid texture, fufible
in the fire, and re¬
fuming their proper
form after thatnot j
mifcible with water, *
nor inflammable. j
Divided into
I 4. EARTHY. Thefe
} are lohd bodies; not
foluble in water ;
i not inflammable 5
and,
Vitriolic I 'Fix^ The inoft ponderous of all fluids next to mercury, and the moft fixed in the fire, and moff powerful as a folvent of 4! the acid:;. Obtained chiefly from fulphur by inflammation.
\Volatile, Obtained;alfo from’fulphur by inflattnnatibn, air being admitted during the operation. This afts lefs1 powetfully aii. a folvbnt than when in its fixt Hate.
Nitrous, or Aquafortis. A volatile fluid of a reddifli colour, emitting noxious fumes when in its concentrated Hate. The nexf acid la, litength the vitriolic. Obtained chiefly from nitre.
Muriatic, or acid of fea-fait. A volatile fluid of a beautiful yellow colour. Inferior in power to the former. Obtained from fea-fali. f|. .it
CNative. This is obtained by expreffion or diffillation from vegetables; as lemon-juice, citnon, forfel, ’ !:f ' i
Vegetable, j f'ermm+ f Tartar. A dry hard lubftance, depofited on the fides of vellels in which wine is fermented. ■ ' ' ; f l ,1.
C r * \Vinegar. By allowing any fermentable 1 quor to proceed in the fermentation till it is pall the vinous ftate,
as fblvents, than any of the former.
Acid of urine. Obtained bp evaporating urine. This is in a-dry form; and much lefs known in arts than the former.
Acid of amber. Obtained from amber in a folid form. This is llkewife little known in arts.
Acid of ants. Obtained from the animal from which it has its name, by diffillation, in a fluid, form. It is alfe little known.
Acid of borax, or fedative fait. Obtained from borax, in a folid Hate and fealy-like form.
Acid of arfenic. Obtained like wife from arlenic.
. Acid of animals. Obtained from all animal-fubftances in dillillation.
Alkalis, turn lyrup( ‘
of violets green, and
. with acids form neu¬
trals j and are divided j
. into
Neutral falts. Thefe are always compofed of an acid and an alkali; and are of many different kinds, as may be feen in the following table. i > i
Metallic falts, are tbofe which are formed by an acidand a metal. The principal of thele are vitriols; the others may be feen in the following table. : ; _ 1
Earthy falts: Compoied of an acid joined to feme earthy bafis, as in allum and gypfum. See the following table.
EJfential falts, are obtained from vegetables; and copram an acid, joined with the juices of the plant in a particular manner not to be imitated by art. Of this kind is fubar, manna, honey, and others of that fort.
s' Wknf ( Expreffed. Thefe are of a raiild and bland tafte, inodorous, and not ibiuble in alcohol. They are obtained by expretlion; aS, oil of olives, rapfeed, almonds, 6r. Animal-fats are of the fame
nature, as is alio wax. 'j.1; ;vf.;;‘ ':t ■■'.v.'
are alwliys obtained by ffiftillation, and are pofiefied of the .tafte and odot of the fubflattce from wfiieh they are drawn, and are foluble j|n alcohol. Of this kind are oil of cloves, fpike,
&c. The oil of ants is yn example in the animal-kingdom*;
Empyreumatic, are obtained )y a confiderable degree of heat; and are of an acrid,taffe and burnt-like flavour, as oil of hartlborn. Theft "are foftble in fpirit of wine.
\.FoJfile.' Thefe are found in the earth in their native .ftatb; and; are called, when ■pure, mpthds which 1$ of an acrid tafte, and extremely volatile; not miicible with aftbhbk A great many inflammable foflUs cohtain
this; as, bitumens, pit-coal, &c.
Sulphur, ,or Inntftone.. A dry friable fubftan.ee,. npt milcible with water. It is found in. many mineral fubflances, metallic ores, &c.f but it is for the moft part obtained from pyrites* . • fi
, Alcohol, or ardent fpirits. A fluid of an acrid.and volatile nature;. mifevBle With water. Obtained from fermented vegetable juices by di{filiation; as, from the juice of the grape, malt filquhrs* rice, dye.
r Gold.' The mofl: ponderous and ductile* and the moll-fixed in the fire, of all bodies; of a yellow colour. It is more commonly found in its metallic ftate than afiy other metal* There is no proper ore of it: But it is found
! in ores of filver; and ahnoft alHands contain {oipe bf it.
j Silver. It is of a filming white colour, and next to gold inweight, malleability, and fixity. Sometimes found in its native ftate; more frequently in that of an ore, with fulphuri! fometimes arfenic; afliiming different appearances.
Lead. Of a dull bluifli colour, exceeding loft, and ejtfily malleable, ^and next to the foregoing metals in Weight. Almoft never found In its metallic ftate y ufually in an c&e with fulphur or arlenic, but feldom with fulphur
alone. The principal ores of it are the cubic, called galena, and the glafiy called fparr. :
Copper." Of a reddifii colour ; hard and fonorous; admits of being extended greatly under the hammer, either hot or cold. It is difficult of fufion.: This i$ generally fouiid in the ftate of an ore with fulphur. The ores
of it are of great variety, and extremely beautiful; blue, red, green, yellow, dye.
I Tin. A white foft metal, the lighteft of all this clafs, pnd very duiftile. The Ores of this-metdi are generally arfenical, and afliime a cryftalline appearap.ee. The cdlour moft ujually a dark brown, and fometimes very beautiful,
L Iron. ' A grey-coloured metal, extremely ductile whefi hot; ‘the lighteft metal except tin* - It is the only metal that admits of being welded* and tempered by coblmg. It is found in almoft every body, and its ores are infi¬
nitely various, • ‘
r Mercury. A white opaque metallic body. Fluid, except in a very intenfe degree of cold; of great gravity, and eafily volatilized in heat. It is fometimeS1 ikit.4.%r lts form; but ufually in a beautiful red ore with
j fulphur, called cinnabar. \ .i'' !'v V.:;; .1 if'v; . V/’:/;: ''' .. vV
Zinc. A bluifh white fubftance, of a fibrous texture,;; {confiderably hard and fonorous, and has a fmall degree of du&ility; eafily fufed and volatilized. Lapis calaminaris tips principal ore.
I Antimony. A blackiih fubftance, of a fibrous needle-like texture; hard and brittle, and confiderably heavy; not difficult of fufion, and eafily converted into glafs. Its only ore is with fulphur, which is the crude antimony
I ■ . of the {hops, ^ > 'X'y 1 ■; i f i: i f . 'i/f' _
and do not BifmUtk, - or tin-glafs.. -A white, ponderous, hard, brittle, and fonorous body, of a plated texture; eafily fufed and vitrified. It is only reduced to an ore by arfenic. Its f^pearance much the fame as the regulus,
Arfenic. A bright fparkling whitifh-cqloured femi-metal.; of a plated texture, very brittle, and extremely volatile* It is generally found in the ores of oiher metals.
Platina. A white femi-metal, refemblingfilver in itsfttilour; nearly of the fume fpecific gravity and fixity .with gold, and refifting the lefts which have itfuafly been applied |for difeovering the purity of gold, fuppofed from
hence to be the fmiris of the ancients. Found ia-fihe Weft Indies. Of its ores we know nothing.
Cobalt. A brittle femi-metal; fufible in a moderate heat,: and eafily converted Into a fine blue-coloured glafs called fmalt. This is.,always obtained from an arferiioal dre, tttiich is likewife called cobalt.
A reddiih white (ubftance, of a clbie fexture^and very bright; eafijy. fufed, but diflicult to vitrify. Of its ores we know nothing, j :
/■' Lime-ft°ne, or marble. This is of infinite variety of colours and texture. Marble is the hardeft and fineft. Thofe kinds of lime-flone uhich feel upffuous to the touch are generally impregnated with
V clay; thole that feel grittyi or where the lime is hard and weighty; contain fand: This is heft for building,; the otjher for panure, !'
<. Chalk. A foft, friable, white iubftance. This is r^uch freer of any heterogeneous mixture than any lime-itone, and is eafily calcined into quick-lixbe. This is probably nothing elfe than lime-ftone
V fuddenly concreted without being cryftallized.
fMErAts. Thefe
are malleable. Di¬
vided into
Semi-metAii s, are
brittle,
I ftretch under the
1 hammer;- and are,
Absorbent. Thefe
j are capable of being ]
united with acids; f
Nickel
r Calcarious. Thofe'
J that can be convert--^'
ed into quick-lime
.Sea-fkclls, are likewife a calcarious earth, and yield a very fine quirk-lime. Thefe are ufed in medicifte.
and. are
k Not eak
calcaneus.
Magnefia alba.- A wlnte.earth^iUiually found combined with the vitriolic acid, and forming bitter purging fait. It is likewife obtained from the motmr-lye of nitre, the allies of burnt vegetables,- dye.
Earth of aflum. A particular Mud of abforbent earth, found in many plates mixed with fulphufeous pyrjtesv as in Yorklhire, dye. Clay of any kind may, by a particular procefs, be converted into
this'earth. ■ {fjll
(-■Earth of animals, dye. This is obtained bythe calcination of animal-lubltances.
Crystali in-e, or Vitrefcent. Thefe are |
hard, and ftrike fire with fteel; may be calci-1
ned in the fire; but are not foluble in acids. <
Argilj aCeous. Thefe are diftinguiflied.
by acquiring a -very hard confiftence when
mto | formed into a pafte with water, and expoied
i to a confiderable degree of heat; not folu-.
i\fi j ble in acids,
Iris infipid fluid well 5^I-VPI'E' Pure rat
known. PMinerai, are thole Ipr
f Elastic. This is a fubtile elaftic fluid,_ every where furrounding this earth, and forming our atmofphere; and in this ftate may be confidered as a menftruum for, water and otlier volatile bodiesL but as it only fufpends them, without altering
A their qualities, it cannot properly, in this ftate, be confidered as an objert of chemiftry.
C Fix r. This is a fluid, fuppofed to be common air, which is abforbed by bodies, and there fixed; forming with them a true chemical mixt, differing in its properties from what, it was without it. ijbe bodies whofe qualities we certainly know to be
altered by this, are alkalis and quick-lime j and it is demonftratively prefent in metals; And it is probably owing to it that they retain their metallic form; but experiments are yet wanting Imre,
if fufed in the j
tire, never again fe- 1
fume their earthy
form, but take that
of glafs. Divided
It can hardly be converted into glafs ; and is therefore ufed as a bhfis to white enamels, dye.
, Of this kind are fond: _/?/»/, etm found plentifully every where. With alkaline fubftances they are eafily converted into glals,-and hence are terrnedlp//re/lM»#.
Precious Jlonesof all kinds are likewife referable to this clafs; but they are of a much greater degree of bar duels and tranlparency thanthe others. j
‘ Common clay ; is of many different colours, but chiefly red or yellow or white. The pureft clay is that which burns white in the fire. i _ ■*
Medical boles, of different forts* Only a purer kind of clay; fometimes mixed wish alktle iron or other matters.
Lapis nephriticus, or fteatite, qi'e indurated clays, found in various parts. Thefe are at, firft foft, and readily cut ; . but turn extremely hard in the aji. Many other varieties of thefe earths might be
mentioned; but as thefe do not differ in their chemical properties fp much as in their external appearance, and being all mixed with ©ne arjitther, they more, properly belong to the natural
hiftorian than the chemift. - • ; \ if
ter. 7'his is never j'^rfrfily f«ire, but aiways contains a fmall portion of mucilaginous matter, which it is impoffible ever to get perfeAly feparated. >: q
ring-waters impregnated with faline fubftances;, the diverfity of which is exceeding great; but they all agree fin having an acid joined with. them. The moft common forts are impregnated with fulphur and iron.
jjl T A B L E> Shew:jig rho coinbinatlpns that the simple chemical elementary bodies.admit of with otie another; the compoxmd
refulting from that mix hire ; and the manner in which the union is effected. ‘With fome account of the principal niEes to which
thefe are applied tn arts or manufactures.
N. S. Tiik maj'k put afeve aUv- wor^guenotes that rhere is foms difficulty in the precefe, or that the union is not very complete.
ACIDS,
ALKALIS.
OILS.
SULPHUR:
ALCOHOL.
[The VITRI¬
OLIC ACID
may be com-
. feiiien ■ Avjtli
tjtele bodies,-
^ tiz.
METALS,
Gold *.
Silver *.
Coffer.
Iron.
Lead,
EARTHS.
NITROUS
ACID.
CNtxRoua AhtD. A mmitre readilyJhdames oils. By iolutIon; getrerating' heat. '
’c TW, Yeoetarle, arid another Acids, vei Known, hy ioiurion,- generathig; heat. But thefe mixtures arc arpl’:'e n> y-rnL r.r-: uh; fu me-'
dieine; or arts. L -- [ VVV VC.; [. v[ > 'CWV a:?. / : V ^ V CV C V"
r Fitritilttled tartar. By folutiou and. cryftallization, or double eletme attraction from a great variety of hitdiesi 7
VE'tET A bi.E. < Id:turn vitrinlatum. A vitriolcUed tai'iar olnaiixed by diftiiling from nitre with the vitriolic acid. -
.'.Vd-huhvL./nw:, By dehagrating nitre wdth fulphur. ^ There are many other kinds dfVvltriohfei tariary khoXvn formerly by dif-
. -fernn.. names, sod' rimpo'cd to be. polfefled of particular.properfies, but they are nowliegleded.
FossilE. GlauberM/fidt, By iblutiori aud cryfEaMization. Mueh tried in medicine as a gentle pitfgative.
^yp LAJiLE, Ssa u a-’i-:w«iac.. -By folation. / Formerly luppofed a -moft powerful menfuramn for metals, &c, hut withoUi any juft fouadatkii,
SEkpRESSLD. Ahl^tihguntiny-likemafe. By folution, generating a confiderable heat,; .N^tiye.gums are. irippofed to owY their;origin tka tnixtury of
tills kind-
'\Essextial. A dark-coloured refinoys mafs. A great heat and violent effervefoence being p; educed by this mixture. Nhrive relins funppfed the fame,
XEMpyRHUM atic. L'iitle known. By folution.
A Foss tLE. A fubftance refembling amber. By folution.
Here there is no proper union of fubltimces: but if (ulphur is boiled in tins acid, it becomes left inflammable and more fixed than any ordinary fulphur#
'Vitriolic (ether. By careful foiufion and diftillation, the agher being feparated by the addition of water.
Spiriius nitrioli dulcis. By folution and diftillatipn. *
Oleum dijfillatio dulcis. By continuing the heat after the asther has arifen.
Oleum anodyimm mineralis. By rediftilling the reiidtmm of the laft witli alcohol. A medicine much celebrated by Hoffman.
Sulphur. By nufhmg*the heat after the oil comes over. Itis to be obferved that this is produced in e'/ery combination of this acid with inflam¬
mables or metals..
IrpperfeiPdy. By a particular ppocefs after, being feparated from aqua regia.
By folution, after it has been precipitated from the nitrous acid by alkalis. The fumes which arife In this folutlOii"are. inflammable.
Blue •oltrtoL This is fometimes a native produriion, .But in this way it is never pure. It is artificially prepared by foliation in a.very concen¬
trated, acid, and cryftalllxing it.
8 Green vitriol, or copperas. Obtained at large by a particular procefs from pyrites; or by folution, &c. in a diluted acid. This is the bafig of
all black dyes, ink, ire. as it-ftrike? a black colour with vegetable aftrihgents.
Salt o f Jhel. By calcining the cxyftajs of green vitriol till it they are converted into a white powder.
Colcotker of vitriols By continuing the calcination till it aftumes a brown colour. f . •
S Saturnus vitriolicus. A folution in a’boiling heat, but is again precipitaledjWhen coJd.
C An indii’-hluble concrete. By precipitation from the nitrous acid;
Tin. Jupiter corrojivus. By a boiling heat in a concentrated acid.
Antimony *. A metallic fv.lt. By elective auraitlon from butter of antimony,
ZiNGi White vitriol: - Often found inrirs native Rate. Arviriei ilL made by foliuioij, a:id cryrtaljjzation in a diluted acid. Ufed by:painfers for dryheg.;
Bismuth. A. corroded calx. By folution in a concentrated acid,
SElvn-METALS. i - > > - By ditto. . ^ ‘ ; . T 1 _ _
f ^1"’S ',URY f /ijwb Gehenne, or infernalis of Paracelfus. By a boiling heat, and repeated coriions with freflt acid when h as evaporated.
1 ^ Turpeth mineral, or mercurius precipitatus flavus. By evaporating to drinefs, and then wafiiing with water.
LCobalt. A rofe-coloured mixture. By folution. If this is precipitated by a fixt alkali, and again ditlblyed, the liquor appears of a beautiful red.
f A corroded calx. By fimple corrofion. This when perfedly edulcorated with water is found to be a true gyffum.
C vLC Riou By precipitation from a very dilute folutiou of chalk in the -nitrous .acid, by means or' the vitriolic; acid. / ;
^aSart-hs-TS Ypfia-!, or P irk-plaffer. Often found in a native ftate. May be artificially formed by precipitating from a-folution of chall; in a very
■ - * A concentrated nitrous acid, Ufed as a cement ; for taking impreffions from rnedals, ire,
v Talc, ajhejlos, ire. A native produdion which, cannot be perfedly imitated by art. Ufed for holding objeds in microfcopcs, making
incombuftible cloth, ire. -
Magnesia. Epfom, or magmfia Glauber's fait. By folution and cryftallization. Much ufed in medicine for the fameparpofes as real Glauber’s fait.
Earth of Alum. Alum, By folution, cryftallization, ire. Ufed by dyers as a preparatory for taking oh the colours, papermakers, goldfmiths, ic.
Earth of Animalr, Osteocello, ire, By folution. The mixtures of thefe are not applied to any particular ufe. -
1 Clay *. AUhn. By digefting pure clay for fome time in this acid, and expofing it for fome. time to the air, an alum is produced; and, if the clay is
precipitated from this aluminous concrete, it is found to be a pure earth of alum, loluhle in all acids.
Flint *. A thickifii coagulant. By digefting the liquor filices in the vitriolic acid.
An acidulated water. Sometimes, thobgh feldom, found ifiiimg along with native Iprings. Applied to no particular ufe. .
r Vitriolic, as above. . . i. v.
N Muriatic, Aqua regia. By folurion. This is the only proper menftruum for gold; and it is a folulion of tin in this menftruum which is the bafis of
A the fcarlet dye. " v;
C Vegetable, and all others. By ditto. Thefe composnds have no particular names; nor are applied to any particular nfes in medicine or arts.^
Cammcm nitre. A native production. Made artificially by folution and cryftallization. This deflagrates with oily or metallic bodies, and
; j ; is the; foundation of gun-powder.
7 Fo s SIL E. Cubic nitre. By folution. , • - -
•. Wo lat i >. r. Nitrous ammoniac. By folution. This differs from all the other ammoniacal felts by being foluble in alcohol.
Expressed. A thick bituminous-like iubftance. Upon the" mixture a colifiderable degree of heat is generated, and fometimes, though very feldom,
adtual flame is produced.
Essential. Ditto. A more violent heat is generated upon the mixture with thefe oils than any other, and with many of them an actual flame is produced.
E-vifyreumatic. This mixture has no name, nor is it applied to any rcmaikable ufe in arts.
Fosbile.- - Ditto.
Nitrous ather. By digefting; the sefher arifing to the furface.
Spiriius nitri dulcis. ■ By ^gefting a little, and then diftiiling. ' ; ,
Gold *. ---v -iiV- Bv a hghing heat in clofe veffelai. after the ordinary method of feparating filver from gold by the nitrous acid.' It fpmi.
y - N-o ByT^urioh. ThL /h-uiu/Vcd -vul. //l://r •'ivr /Tid locer b'/ck; -•sLiHo Inal-Ve., agace; jafe/r, 6/. of different colours.
< Sel metellorum. By folulion arid cryftallizatiori. » '
f Cathariicum Umare, lunar caufiic, or lapis infernalis. By infpiffitatmg the folution to drinefs. .
Co p p e r . A green -soloured folution. By folution. / , -
Iron. A greenilh folntion, if a diluted acid Is employed; if otherwife, it is of a yellowHh colour: evaporated to drinefs, it deliquates in the air,;
C A yellow folution. By diftblving in a diluted acid. If much water is added, the metal is precipitated.
i Saturni fulminans. By infpiflating the folution. This explodes when put upon the fire with greater force than nitre, and has been propbfed. to
be ufed as an ingredient in gun-powder to aitgment its force.
A folution or corroded calx. By a careful fohation witliout heat it remains fufoended; if otherwiffi,, it falls down in form of a calx. This is
commonly fuppofed. to be the compofition ufed in dying fcarlet; but by miuake: for it is a folution of tin in aqua regia that communicates
that fine eolour to cochineal. The fame folution is die bafis of thepowder which tinges glafs of a ruby colour. It is the precipitate of gold
from aqua regia by means of tin.
^ A greenifli folution. By ufing a concentrated acid. This'might be applied in ibme cafes in the art of dying; but is not yet come into ge-
' Bismuth. < neral ufe. -
f Magiflery af bifmnth. By precipitating from the folution by means of water. This has been employed as a cofmetic, but is inefficacious
and unfefe. If mixed with pometum, this ftains hair of a dark colour without injuring it.
C A limpid folution, intenfely corrofive. By folution.
Red precipitate. ■ By evaporating the folution to drinefs, and then calcining till it becomes red."
Marcwius corrafvus fiifus. By pr'ecip’muhig from the nitrous acid by Ext aikali. \ h
k. White precipitate, - By ditto with the volatile alkali.
Zinc. A corroded folution. By the ordinary means.
C A coiourlefs calx. By fimple corrofion. '
WATER.
LCIDS.
ALKALIS.
GILS.
ALCOHO1'*
Silver.
.METALS.
Leap.
A-Tin.
Mercury.-
SEMI-METALS. {
1 a - r I . ) Bszoardic mineral. By diftifling from butter of antimony, after having added the nitrous acid
I Antimony.< jatijHOnium diaphoretia, - ^ '
•im. By adding nhre to crude antimony, and deflagrating.
L Cerufa antimonii. By deflagrating regulus of antimony with nitre,
r A red liquor. By folution either in its calcined or metallic ftate.
Cobalt, j Rofe-coloured cryjlah. By adding muriatic acid, and allowing it to cryftallize.
t- Green fympathetic ink. By diflblving thefe cryftals in water. The folution is red when cold, and green when warm: when wrote with, it
■ tlifappears when dry; but when held to the fire it becomes green, and again dil appears w lien cold.
Nickel. A green-coloured liquor. By folution.
Ddiquefcent cryflals. - By ditto and cryftallization.
EARTHS
WATER,
ACIDS.
ALKjlLIS
DEL:;
ALCtUIOL
- w Galcarious, ^ Baldwin's pkofphorus. By ditto and evaporating to drinefs.
V Earth of Alum, and all other abforbent earths. By folution, The compounds have no nhsues nor any remarkable properties hitherto difeovered-
: C Cry stalli ne Earth s *. By folution after precipitation from the liquor filices.
Acidulated water. By folulion. /
5 Vitriolic, and Nitrous. As in the former part of ibis table.
^Vegetable, and all others yet known. By folution; but as none of thefe mixtures are ^applied to any particular purpofe, we take no notice of them.
. r Vegetable. Itigcfiivs- fait. By folution and cryftallization, ' -
.. < Fossile 5 Common fait. Commonly obtained by evaporating fea-water to drinefs; or artificially made by mixingjhfe acid and alkali, and cryftallizing.
/ £ Sal gem. A native follile fait, found in mines in Poland, Spain, ic. _ of the lame nature as common fait, but more pure.
„ , , Volatile. Common ammoniac. Obtained at large by a particular procefs from foot. Artificially made by mixing the acid and alkali, and cryftallizing,
By lolu; ion. 1 he mnon here is but imperfect, nor have tliey any particular name.
Spiritus falls dulcis. By digefting, and afterwards diftilling. The acid Tiere is never totally dulcified.
j Gold A ysilrnu h-punr. By boiling a'.calx oi gold (in whatever way obtained) in this acid. It dices not aCT upon it in its metallic ftate.
1 qt t.v f a * S ^ fluid folution. By dillblving the ore of filver in this acid. It does not aift upon pure metallic Giver.
By elective attraition from die nitrous acid. r
nmon fait, or many other bodies.
4 rrreen dslFfitefctni innatimOiAe jail.
evioninon ana lu w.
iron is in feme meafure rendered volatile by this operation.
EAR.THY.
WATER.
ACIDS.
$
to
Calcark
VINEGAR,
or VEGE¬
TABLE A-
CID can be
combined
with thefe
bodies, viz.
ALKALIS.
OILS*.
ALCOHOL,
METALS.
SEMI-METALS.
EARTHY.
W fufclirning oor^-7"libtimes, digtfKng for fome time m fpml_^
reciciii/i loiuixuiM By the ordinary means. ie i><rcomes green by* a gentle neat. . _
*. A fluid folution. VVith difficulty- effected, after having been precipitated from aqua regia by alkalis.
A green folution. By the ordinary means.
r Liquid Jbeil. By folution. A fubftance whofe effects in medicine have been greatly extolled.
us.S 01. calcis per deliquium. By evaporating liquid HieII to drinefs. It naturally deliquefees..
Fixt ammoniac. By folution and cryftallizatidn. This fometimes appears luminous in the dark when ftruck with a hammer.
iteocelt.c, Magnesia, and other abforbents. By folution; but the properties orufes of thefe are not known.
Acidulated -water. Generating heat by mixture. • ' ;
ViTRior ic, Nitrous, and Muriatic, as in the above table. It likewife unites with all other acids, generating heat; but the properties or ufes
of thefe are not known. b r T
V E G E T a b i e . Regenerated tartar. By folution and cryllallization.
FosSITE. Pdlychreii of Rochelle. By ditto.
Volatile. Spiriius viendcrari. By iblution. ’ ,
The union here is imperfeft, nor have any of them obtained particular names.
A mixture much ufed for anointing fpfains, £?c.
r Silver *. Lunar cauflic. By diflolving in this acid a precipitate of filver from the vitriolic acid by means of fixt alkali, and evaporating the folution.
, to drinefs. _ ■
j Copper. Vetdegris. By folution and cryflallization; or at large, by ftratifying copper plates with the hulks of the grape.
<| Iron. Sal martis aperiens. By folution ahd cryftallization.
} I _ 5 Cerufe-' By expofing, in certain circumftances, thin plates of lead to the fumes of vinegar,
j lea • ^ Saccharnm Saturni: By folulion and cryftallization.
a Tin *. This is not properly diflblved; but the acid is evidently impregnated. By the ordinary means of folution.
P Zinc. A colourlefs folution of a fweetilh talle. By digelting for fome time.
1 tvic u r tt v * 5 dl fluid folution. By employing a precipitate of mercury from the nitrous acid by alkalis,
j ' . ‘ (_ A red calx. By long digeftion with fluid mercury./
j Antimony *■ Vinum beuedittum. This is not a proper folution of the me.tal, but the acid is impregnated .with an emetic quality.
Arsenic. Vinum arfenicum. By ditto. '
cBisMuth. An aqftere ftiptic liquor. By ftrong codlion. /
Not known in medicine or arts.
By folution. It unites with all the other abforbent earths; but the properties of thefe mixts are unknown.
METALS.
(Iron.
ACID of U-
R-INE. <
ACID of AM¬
BER,
CAi-CARious Earths. Earthy falts
Magnesia. Dr Black's purging fait.
k WATER. Acidulated -water.
ACIDS of all kinds. The nature of thefe pot known.
ALKALI. Volatile. A glafs-hke faline fubftance called microcofmic fait. The acid is always found in this ftate by evaporating urine
OILS. Bald-win’s phofphorus.- By diftilling with fubftances that contain’ oils or inflammable matters.
Lead. An inflammable malleable mafs. By calcining the dry fait with lead.
Tin. A mafs refembling zinc; and inflammable. By ditto,
A true phofphorus. By ditto.
A bluilli folution. By employing a watery folution of the acid.
Copper. A corroded powder, or green folution. By a boiling heat in a watery folution of tlie acid.
’’Mercur y. A iemi-opaque mafs. By fufion with the acid in its folia form.
7 CA corroded powder, foluble in water. By folution in the acid in a watery fituatlon.
£ A true phofphorus By fuflon with the dry acid.
oT-'Krf-T ,t o a C A foils!ion in the ordinary way.
SEMI-METALS. <| ^ A brilliant ftriated mats. By fufion with the dry acid.
Bismuth. A mixture but little changed in appearance from ordinary bifmuth. By fufion.
Arsenic. A whit: !h femi-tranlparent deliquelcent mafs. By fufion.
•■Cobalt. A reftdiilitinftnre. Ry folution.
^ --- , -
C Fined. A neutral laime mafs whi«h-would not eryftallize. By folution.
A neutral arnmoniaeal oleaginous liquor, extremely volatile. By folution with a pure alkali.
Liquor cornu cervi fuccinatus. By folution, ufing fait of hartfhora.
as*
f ALKALI.
j OIL.
i METALS.
t Volatile.
Fossile. Amber, A native produftion; but may be again artificiaUy formed by uniting thefe together by folution.
s Copper. It diftblves very flowly in its metallic ftate; but corrodes it much more readily when calcined.
ACID of
ANTS.
METALS.
k SEMI-METAL.
AOD of BO¬
RAX.
ACID of A-
NIMALS.
is made of tallow and potafli;
The FIXED
ALKALI,
whether Ve¬
getable or
Fossile, can
be united with
the following
Bodies; but
the: vegetable
is bell known.
OILS.
5ULPHUR.
METALS.
I
he VOLA- j
1LE AL-
ALL or!
/ B1RIT of j
> SAL AMMO- {
f NT AC, can ;
' be _
: theie
Mwith
bodies, 1
Iron. DilFolves a part into a cblouflefs liquor, but corrodes a great deal more into a crocus,
kSEMI-METAL. Zinc. A fluid folution.
The effects of this acid upon other bodies are not yet known.
'ACIDS of all kinds. The properties not known.
AT KALIS 5 Fixed. A deliquelcent neutral fait. By folution and cryftallization.
? V01 ath e. A neutral liquor that would not cryftallize. >.
r Silver *. By folution. The calx of filver precipitated from aqua fortis by alkalis; but does not ad upon it in its metallic ftate.
j Copper. Beautiful green cryftals. By diftblving and cryftallizing calcined copper. It acts ftowly upon it in its metallic ftate.
✓ Iron. A metallic fait. It diftoives this metal with great facility.
'-Lead *. A fait refembling Sacchamm Saturni. By diflblving the red calx of lead. But it doesnot ad upon it in its metallic ftate.
Zinc, Elegant cryftals. By the ordinary means.
The effeds of this acid upon other bodies, or the ufes to which thefe combinations might be applied, are not yet fufficiently known,
r ALKALI. FossilEw Borax. A native fubftance, which may be imitated by art. It is of great ufe in promoting the fufion of metals and earths,
i ALCOHOL. A folution with a conlit'erable heat, which burns with a green flame. :
R WATER. A folutioft in a confiderable heat. ’ The other mixtures with this acid not known.
We know as yet but little of the nature of this acid; and its combinations with other bodies have not hitherto been examined.
f ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable; and acid of Urine, of Amber, of Ants, of Borax; as in the former part of this table.
ALKALIS of all forts. The ufes of thefe mixtures are not known.
fExPRESSErf 'Soap. The heft hard foap is made of olive-oil and foible alkali. The ordinary white foap of this count
black foap, with whale.-bil and potalh.
Essential. Saponaceous mafs. Bell made by pouring fpirit of wine upon cauftic alkali and then oil, digefting and lhaking.
Emfyreumatic. This mixture diftblves gold when precipitated from aqua regia; and is the balls of the fine colour called Prufllan blue-, and has va-
i rious other properties, as yet blit little known.
t Fossile. This has no name, nor are the (properties well known; but from fome obfervations that have been made on native foapy waters, it is pro¬
bable that it would keep linen much longer white than any other kind of foap.
C Hepar fulphuris.: By injecting alkalis upon melted fulphur.
C Lac fulphuris. By difiblving fulphur in an alkaline lixivium, and precipitating by an acid,
r Go L D *. After having precipitated it from aq. regia it diftblves it, if the alkali has been calcined with anlmal-fubftances.
j Silver *. After having precipitated it from the nitrous acid, it diflblves it if the alkali has been calcined in contaft with the flame.
Tin. A corroded powder. By the ordinary means of folution.
Copper. By ditto. ■ x
I Lead. , A fluid folution. By ditto. This ftains hair black.
I Iro n *. A blood-coloured folution. By dropping a folution of iron in the nitrous acid, into an alkaline lixivium.
Mercury *. A fluid iolutron. After precipitating it from acids; if the alkali is in too large proportions, it then diflblves it, efpecially if the alkali has
been calcined in contact with the flame.
Zinc *. By folution, after having precipitated it from the nitrous acid.
Bismuth *. By folution, aft eaMiavTrcg-precipitatedit from the nitrous acid.
Ksnnes mineral. By diftolving antimonjrirl an alkaline lixivium, filtering, and allowing it to ftand in a cool place till it precipitates.
Golden fulvhur of antimony . By diffolving a crude antimony in an alkaline lixivium, and precipitating by an acid.
-Hepar antimonU. By deflagrating crude antimony with nitre.
"T's hsS^if wjtfimtiiitt pUrverifoiFand edulcorated with water,
I s@^/zc?’clL ustftfibjL Bv-defiagrating regulus- of antimony with nitre. V ..
i By dilfolvmgtnapiorenrafftlm^tiy te"WaTeT;~^l®,airo\ving if to cryftallize.
i Magiflery of antimony, By precipitating a folution of . diaphoret ic antimony by adding vinegar.
k Regulus aniimmii medieinalis. By fufing crude antimony with alkali. This is not properly a compound of alkali and antimony, but of
another kind. But as it is a term much ufed, it was proper to explain it.
A metallic-arlenical fait. By a particular elective attraction from regulus of antimony and nitre.
C Chrystalune 5Liquor jilicum. By fufion with twice their weight of alkalis.
•< 2. Glafs. By fufion witli a much fmaller proportion of alkali. This is the compofition of cryftal glafs, and all others commonly ufed.
f Absorbents, Argillaceous, ;and all kinds of earths. Glafs. By fufion; differing in quality according to the nature of the ingredients. Glafs. is
likewife produced with it in fu/ion with metals.
Alkaline lixivium, ''hen cauftic, or even the ordinary folution of mild alkali, is a fluid of great power in waffling, blacking, drc.
Fixt. Mild alkali. This is the general ftate in whkh alkalis are found; but if they are rendered cauftic by means of quick-lime or o titer wife, they again
abforb it from the air, or from many other bodies, by eledlive attraction. When perfeftly mild, this alkali may be made to ailume a cryftalline form,
ACIDS : Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable ; bf Urine, of Amber, of Ants. -
ALKALI, as above. ■.
✓"Expressed. Has no name. By folution;
' Essential. Sal volatile ohofum. By ditto with fome difficulty, unlefs the alkali is in a cauftic ftate.
F. m p y r e u m a t i o. A pungent oily fubftance, of great power in medicine. The prmcipal one of this kind in ufe is fpirit of hartfflorn.
Fossii.e, A particular kind of foapy fubftance.
Smoking fpirit of fulphur. By diftilling fal ammoniac, quick-lime, and fulphur.
By diftilling alcohol from vol atile alkalis, it acquires a cauftic fiery tafte; but the union is not complete.
C Aurum fulmindns. A powder obtained by precipitating it from aqua regia by volatile alkalis.
’ ^ A liquid folution. By adding a large proportion of alkali after it has been precipitated'^front aqua regia. This depofites the gold when long
exnoied to the air. The curious vegetation called arbor Diana is formed by adding mercury to this folution.
Silver *• A folutlon. After it has been precipitated from the nitrous acid.
✓" A blue-coloured folution. By the ordinary means. This when evaporated to drinefs, and mixed with tallow, tinges the flame green.
^ £ YSapphire-coloured cryftals. By cryih-tllixing the folution.
i ER' J Venus fulminans. By evaporating the folution to drinefs.
n Aqua cerulea fappharina. By mixing fal anunoniac, quick-lime, and thin plates of copper, with water, and allowing-.them to remain a night.
Iron. By ordinary folution.
I Lead. By ditto.
LTin. The mixts that are produced by thefe metals are little known.
Bismuth *. By folution, after having precipitated it from the nitrous acid.
Antimony.
SEMI-METALS. “(Platin a *. By folution, after having precipitated it from aqua regia.
; ✓ Cobalt. A reddilli.liquor. By folution. ,
I '■-Nickel. A blue liquor. By ditto.
i WATER. This folution might be of ufe in walhing or bleaching: but. tinlefs in particular cafes, would be too expenfive. It coagulates with alcohol.
kAIR. .Fixt, Mild volatile alkali. The ufuai ftate in which it i? found; noiqhas any method yet been dilco/er&d of rendering it ibSd but in this ftate.
SEMI-METALS. \
.Antimony.
Iai
RSENIC
EARTHS.
WATER.
.AIR.
OILS.
SULPHUR.
ALCOHOL"
METALS.
Gold,
i
EXPRES¬
SED OILS.
OILS:
1 SULPHUR.
| ALCOHOL.
METALS.
mixture of this lefs perfect.
,£NTIAL ,
jjLS. ■.
ALCOHOL.
METALS.
%\TIC
OILS.
f ACIDS: Vitriolic, Kitrotis, Muriatic, Vegetable, of Urine, of Amber, as in the foregoing part of tins table.
I ALKALIS : Fixt, and Volatile, as above.
^TT ^ Eliential, EmpjTeurhatic, and Foilile. By mixture; but their ufes are not much known.
Balfam of Sulphur. By fohition in a boiling heat. r " ..
After exprelled oils are freed from foap or plaifters, they are foluble in alcohol; but not in their ordinary ftate.
5 Tin *. A kind of plailter. By folution when the tin is in the ftate of a calx.
I Lead *. Ditto. By boiling the calx of lead in oils. This is tiled for cements in water-works. The common white paint is
SEMI-METALS. Zinc*. Ditto. By ditto.
1 CALCARIOUS EARTHS. Ditto. By mixture when in a cauftic ftate.
I ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, &c. as above.
ALKALIS: Fixt, and Volatile, as above.
OILS of all kinds. By folution or mixture.
SULPHUR. A balfam of i'ulphur. By folution, imperfectly: better by adding eftential oils to the fohition made by exprefted oils or hepar fulphuris.
C Imperfect mixture. By folution.
2. Aromatic waters. By diftillation.
S Copper. By folution.
C Le ap. By ditto. _
b WATER. Diftilied water of the ihops. By diftiHing recent vegetable fubftances with water.
ovcrTT r ACIDS: Vitriolic, and Nitrous, as above.
. ” S ALKALIS: Fixt, and Volatile, as above,
y OILS of all kinds. By mixture.
LALCOHOL. By folution. By repeated diftillations the oils are rendered much more lubtile.
ACIDS: Vitriolic, and Nitrous,: as above.
ALKALIS: Fixt, and Volatile, as above,
wOILS of all kinds. By vuixiure.
r SULPHUR. WT4th fome difficulty, bv folution.
sALCOHOL. " - - ’ By ditto,
fAClD *: Vitriolic ; with the phenomena above deferibed.
j ALKALIS: Fixt, and Volatile, as above.
1 OILS : Expreftedj EiTential, and Foffile, as above. •
f Sn.v.ER. A mafs of a red like colour. By adding fulphur to red-hot filver, and fu/ing; found alfo with it in the ftate of an ore.
j Lead. A fparkling friable mafs, hardly fuuble. By deflagrating fulphur with lead. This in a native ftate forms the'ore of lead called galena.
Copper. A black brittle mafs; ealily filled. By adding fulphur to red-hot copper, or ftxatifying with fulphur and fufing. Naturally in feme yellow pyrites*
I f A ipungy-like drofs, eafily fufible. By putting lulphur to red-hot iron. This is alio found naturally in the common yellow or brown pyrites.
‘ A fulminating compound. By mixing filings of iron with fulphur, moiftening them with water, and prefling them hard, they in a few hours
burft out into flame'. This eompofition has been employed for imitating earthquakes.
Crocar By deflagitlting with iron.   . #
\ €rocas martis dptifienf? By calcining the crocus maftis in the fire till it aflumes u fed appearance*
LCrocus mart!s'ajhingens. By puihing the heat ftill further.
A dark-coloured mafs, refembling antimony. By ftifion.
'r Ethtopf-i^iAeml.heating flowers of fulphur, apd pouring the tnercury upon it, and ftuTing k well. Its natural ore is called cinnaban
'Mercury, j Fa&itiomcinnabar. By applying the mercivry anu f dphur to each other in their pure ftate, andfubliming.
^ Cinnabar f 'snlitiiony. By fubliming ebrrofive iublimate and crude antimony ; or the refiduum, after diftilling butter of antimony.
Bismuth. A faintgreyillimafs; refembling antimony. Byfufion, If in its metalline ftate, the fulphur feparates in the cold; but not ib if the calx
has been employed.
Antimony. Crude antimony. By fufion. ; : ‘ .
OSSILE
OILS.
TALS.
I
Iron. *!
It i
SULPHUR.
GOLD,
LEAD.
TIN.
iMI-MEl ALS.
fulphi
A very brittle, dark-coloured, ihining fubftance. With fome difficulty, by keeping it long in a moderate fire, and covering it feveral times with
ALCOHOL.
and keeping it conftantly ftirred.
f Yellow arfenic. By fufing it with i-ioth its weight of fulphitr,
Arsenic w atfinic. By ditto with i-yth its weight of Mphur.
^ * ' y Ruby af fulphur, or arfenic, or golden fulphur. By fubliming when the proportions are equal.
! Orpiment. A natural produciion; not perfeftly imitable by art; compofed of fulphur and arfenic. Much ufed as a yellow paint.
1. N i c K e t.. A compound; compact and hard as lead; of a bright metallic appearance; internally yellow. Byfufion.
L WATER. Gas fyfocjlree. By receiving the fumes of burning fulphur in water. This ought rather to be called a union of the volatile vitriolic acid with water.
ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous; Muriatic, Vegetable, and of Borax, as above.
ALKALI * : Volatile, as above.
a OILS : Exprefjed, Ellential, Empyreumatic, and Foffile, as above.
METALLIC calces, in fome particular cafes.
WATER. By folution.
ACIDS: Vitriolic *, Nitrous *, and Muriatic *. In the circumftances and with the phenomena above deferibed.
ALKALIS
METALS
Fixt*, and Volatile *, as above.
Silver. By fulion. And the fame is tp be uriderftood of all the combinations of meials, unlefs particularly fpecified.
.Lead. A very brittle mafs. Gold is rendered pale by the leaft admixture with this.
’Tin., Remarkably brittle. The irnalleft particle of tin falling upon a furnace renders all the gold or filver melted in it extremely brittle*
'Copper. Paler and harder than pure gold. This mixture is ufed in all our coins, the copper being called the alloy.
IRON.
Silver-coloured, hard and brittle; very eafily fufed.
By folution; it being in this cafe called amalgamation-, and the fame is to be uhderftood of the folu-
f Mercury. Soft like apafte called anamalgamum.
tion of any other metal in quick-filver.
A bright and whitilh compound, admitting of a fine polifh, and not fubject to tarnifli; for which qualities it has been propofed as proper for analy-
Zim
l SEMI-METALS.
ling (peculi for telefcopes.
, Arsenic, Brittle; and the gold is thus rendered a little volatile.
4 Antimon y. A fine powder for ftaining glafs of a red colour. By calcination.
J Bismuth *. A brittle whitifli regulus; volatile in the fire.
1 Platina. Duftile, and of a dulky colour. This has been employed to debafe gold, as it is of the fame fpecific gravity, and is not difcoverable by the
• ui’ual tefts for difeovering the purity of gold.
| Cobalt.
_ A-Nick EE. White and brittle,
ACIDS: Vitriolic*, Nitrous, Muriatic *, Vegetable*, and Acid of Ants *, as above.
ALKALIS: Fixt *, and Volatile *, as above.
SULPHUR, as above.
/' GbtD,. as kbove. '
SLead. Very brittle. ■
■< Tt m Evtretnelv brittle, as much fo as glafs.
METALS.
1
OP Pi
Iron.
r. Harder than filver alone.
A hard WhTti'frr-cor'pinimk
tRY-^TT-tiVa'n^igarraLioa-witrrFu.vet
tKe fame way aslhe airalgamurn oft"gold.
Ufed in (mail proportions as alloy in coins.
rictrr
'pp.*1:
ufed for filverizing on other metals,
SEMI-METALS. L
other vitreous matters. A fine yellow opaque glafs,
:>£ Urine, of Ants*, as above.
The fineft yellow paint for porcelain is procured from a glafs mixed with fllver.
Zinc. Hard, fomewbat malleable, and of a white colour..
Antimony. A brittle mafs. - ' ' ■ ; ' . *
Bismuth. A wbitilh femi-malleable body;
ArS E nic, Brittle; tlie filver being rendered in part volatile.
Platina. Pretty pure and malleable. Difficult of fufion; and in part feparates when cold.
Cora i t.
CHRYSTALLINE' EARTHS,
ACIDS : Vitifiolic, Nitrous, Muriatic. Vegetable,
ALKALIS: Fixt, and Volatile, as above.
OILS: Exprefled *, and Eflential, as above.
SULPHUR, as above.
Gold and Silver, as above.
Tin. A little harder than either of the metals, and eafily fufed: hence it is ufed as a folder for lead; and it forms the principal ingredients of pewter,
the fire is long continued, the tin floats on the furface.
Copper *. Brittle and grantvlated, like tempered iron or fteel when broke. By throwing pieces of copper into melted lead. The union here is very flight.
- Ta o n *. An opaque brownilh glafs. By a great degree of heat if the iron has been previoufly reduced to the ftate of a calx; but never in its metallic ftate.
METALS.
If
Mercury *.
malgamation. Effected only in a melting heat, unlefs ioftie bifmuth has been previoufly united with the mercury.
Zinc. Hard and brittle. By pouring zinc on melted lead, ifl'the zinc is firft melted, and the lead injected upon it, it then deflagrates.
Antimony
Bismuth.
A gi-ey-coloured femi-malleable body, eafily fufed; and thence ufed as a folder for lead or tin.
A grey-coloured brittle mafs: eafily fufed, and extremely volatile.
SEi II * IETAL 4 Arsen ic. ^ ^ hyacinth-coloured glafs. By fufion in a confiderable heat. This glafs is eafily fufed; and is a much more powerful flux than pure glafs
METALS.
1 ligjipiilpr^ ^ -   ^
j Platina. Of a leafy or fibrous texture, and purpliflior blue colour, when expofed to the air. If a large proportion of platina is ufed, it feparates in the cold.
; Cobalt. The nature of this compound is not known.
I Nickel, A brittle metallic body. -
k CRYSTALLINE EARTHS. A thin glafs. By fufion in a moderate heat,
f ACIDS : Vitriolic *, Nitrous *, Muriatic, Vegetable *, of Urine, as above.
| ALKALIS : Fixt, and Volatile, as above.
I OIL: Exprefled*, asabove, ' ’
| SULPHUR, as above. ' •
| /“Gold, Silver, arid Lead, as above.
) Copper. A brittle mafs. When the copper is in final! proportions, k is firmer and harder than pure tin.
8 • forms bell-metal.
'-Iron. A white brittle compound. By heating filing
of iron, tiri, and a certain proportion of arfonic.
["Mercury. This amalgamum forms foils for mirrors; and forms the yellow pigment called aurum mofaicum.
ammoniac.
| Zinc. Hard and brittle. When the zinc is in final! proportions, it forms a very fine kind of pewter.
Antimony *. Regulm veneris. By eledive attraction from copper and crude antimony.
Bismuth. Bright, hard, and fcnorcus, when a fmall proportion of bilmuth is ufed. This is very eafily fufed; and employed as a folder.
\rsenic. A fupftance In external appearance refembling zinc. ,
(Vatina. A coarfe hard metal which tarnifhes in the air.
■ Bv i'uhck .
A brittle roetallic mafs.
forii’icrvecet*i£wteofXJMn^0p^?le V1*5"8 Y?V*ous mafs, which forms the bafis of white
of iron red-hot, and pouring melted tin upon them.
This in right proportions with a little zinc,
A metal refembling the fineft filver is made
By being fublimed with fulphur and fal
SEMI-METALS.
4
t-NlCK]
h CRY STAI.LLNE. EARTHS,
f ACIDS t Vitriolic, Hitrotis.
* - Y-'iJCt. and Volm
pnamel
'At
IRON,
ZINC.
ANTI¬
MONY.
ARSENIC.
NICKEL.
Iron. Harder and paler
/: Mercury *. A curious :
J
copper. EafJy fuTed.
I f Mercury A curious amalguin. Soft at fir ft, but afterward brittle. By triturating mercu^^th^erd!^s^ornmon fait, v'megar, and water
I l ^ Brafs. Commonly made by cementation with calamine. The larger the proportion of zinc, the paler, harder, and more brittle is the brafs
Prince’s fneiai, pinffsbeck, and other metals refembling gold. By employing zinc in fubftance in final! proportions.' The beit pmihbeck about i -
of zinc.
Spelter. A native fubftance,'found in Cornwall, confifting of zinc and copper, and itfed as a folder.
IsEMI MFTALS j- Antimgny. Bvfufion.
1 ‘ Bismuth. A paliih brittle rnals. Somewhat refembbng filver.
Arsenic, White copper. By pouring arfenic, fufed with nitre, upon copper in fufion.
pound black and apt to tarnilh.
Peat in A; A white and hard compound, which does not tarnifii- fo foon as pure copper,
Cobalt. White and brittle.
Nickel. White and brittle, and apt to famifti.
, Nitrouj. Muriatic, Vegetable^ of Urine, of Amber, of Ants, as above.
ALKALIS : Fixt *, and Volatile, as above.
SULPHUR, as above.
METALS: Gold, Silver Lead *, Tin, and Copper, as above.
'Zinc. A white fubftance refembling ftlver.
Antimony. - The magnetic quality of the iron is totally.deftrbyed in this compound. '
Bismuth. In a ftrong heat, this emitteth flames.
Arsenic. A whitilhj hard, and brittle compound. By fufing with loap or tartar. 'A metal refembling fine fteel is made by fufing caft iron with a little
arfenic and glafs. ° ’
Platina. With caft iron it forms a compound remarkably hard, fomewhat ductile, and lufceptible of a fine poiifli.
Cobalt. A-compound remarkably ductile. By fufion in a moderate heat.
A brittle mafs.
A tranfparent glafs. In general blackifh; but ioihetimes yellow, green, or blue. The colour is influenced by the degree of heat as well as ns-
Zinc - ■
ACIDS
Vitrkdic
If too large a proportion of arfenic is ufed, it makes the cc:
admits of a fine polifli.
SEMI-METALS. 1
MERCURY.
I SEMI-METALS.
By frequently diftilling from this amaigmn, the mercury is rendered much
aporating tile mercury. It has much the appearance of filver.
1 SEMI-METALS
Vi
v.<
SEMI-METALS.
BISMUTH.
PLATINA.
COBALT. i
Nickej..
VITRESCENT earths.
ture of the ingredients.
f ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable*, of Urine, as above.
! ALKALI: Fixt *, as above.
SULPHUR, as above. , ,
METALS: Gold, Silver*, Lead*, Tin, and Copper, as above.
Zinc. An amalgum. Soft or hard, according to the proportions employed.
Antimon y *. By melting the regains, and pouring it upon boiling mercury,
more pure, and is then called animated mercury.
j Bismuth. A filverizing for iron. By putting this amalgum upon iron, and e
I Platina. Tlnj compound refulting from this mixture is not known.
LCobalt. By mixing firft with nickel, and then adding mercury,
r ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, of Urine, of Amber, of Ants, as above. '
■ OIL: Exprefled *, as above,
j SULPHUR *, as abov§.
J METALS: Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above. ' -
) /"Mercury,, as above.
N Antimony. This mixture is applied to no particular ufe.
T Mi?rr 4r c ■< Arsenic. A black and friable mafs.
PlAtina. A hard fubftance.
Cobalt. The particular natute and properties of this mixt is not known.
ACIDS: Vitriolic*, Nitrous, Vegetable *, and Urinous. With the phenomena, and by the means above deferibed,
ALKALIS: Fixed and Volatile, as above.
SULPHUR, as above.
METALS: Gold,* Silver, Lead, Tin*, Copper, and Iron, as above.
rMercury, and Zinc, as above. . ^
i Bismuth, A mafs refembling regUlus of antimony,
j Arsenic. The nature and qualities of this mixt are not known.
Platina. A hard mafs.
Cobalt. Nature unknown.
I Ni ckel. Ditto. a
VITREOUS EARTHS. A thin penetrating glafs; which is a powerful flux of metals,
p ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, Vegetable, and urinous; with the phenomena, &c. above deferibed.
] ALKALIS: Fixed *, and Volatile *, as above.
SULPHUR, as above.
j METALS: Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above.
Mercury and Antimony, as above. - :
Arsenic. Nature not known.
SEMI-METALS. ""(Platina. This mixture changes its colour much oh being expofed to the air.
Cobalt *. By mixing ftrft with nickel or regufus of antimony, and then adding cobalt; but it cannot be united by itfelf.
Nickel. This mixt is not known.
t VITREOUS MATTERS. A yellow glafs. The ore of bifmuth affords with thefe a blue glafs; but this is probably owing to feme mixture of cobalt With: it.
f ACIDS : Vitriolic, Muriatic *, Vegetable *, and Urinous ; with the phenomena, <bc. above mentioned.
ALKALIS: Fixt, and Volatile; with the phenomena, and by the means mentioned above.
SULPHUR, as above.
METALS: Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, andiron, as above.
("Zinc, Antimony, and Bifmuth, as above,
SEMI-METALS. <SI'A1'INA‘
/ Go BALT• '
'-Nickel. The phenomena attending thefe mixtures have not been as yet particularly oblerved.
L VITREOUS MATTERS. A glafs which greatly promotes the fufion of other matters. The arfenic muft firft be prepared by diflblving and precipitating from alkalis,
j" ACIDS: Muriatic*; with the phenomena,! &c\ mentioned above.
; ALKALI: Volatile, as above. _ ’ * t *
<j METALS : Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above.
! Mercury, Zinc, Bifmuth, and Arfenic, as above,
b SEMI -METALS. ] Cobalt.
CN ickel. The phenomena attending thefe mixtures not yet obferved.
f ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrobs, Muriatic, and Urinous; with the phenomena, <&c. as above deferibed.
j ALKALI: Volatile, as above.
METALS: Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron* as above. - .
SEMI METALS S Mercury *, Zinc, Antimony, Bilmuth *, Arfenic, and Platina, as above.
| A ” £ Nickel. The properties of this compound not known.
I ■ratjt'Ptv r. T_- -p $Zaffre. By mixing calcined cobalt with calx of flint, and moiftening them with water, and prelling them clofe in wooden tubs.
UISAK.1MI. . vjALx Oi r lint. By vitrifying thefe with the addition of a little potaih.
f ACIDS: Nitrous,, and Muriatic; with the phenomena, ire. as mentioned above.
ALKALI: Volatile, as above.
{ SULPHUR,, as above.
BENT
EARTHS.
METALS: Gold, Lead, Tin, Copper, and Iron, as above.
I SEMI-METALS: Antimony, Bifmulh, Arfenic, Platina, and Cobalt, as above.
ACIDS: Vitriolic, Nitrous, Muriatic, and Vegetable; with the phenomena, and by the ailiftances above mentioned.
ALKALIS: Fixed, as above.     ;    
Crystal LINE. By this mixture they are both much eafier melted into gfafe.than-by themfclves, but not without the addition of fome alkalr.
C Argili aceous. This mixture ealily runs into a glafs without any addition!
Limc-Tvater. By folution. It is fometimes found flowing out of the earth in fprings; and as it always quits the water when expofed to the air, it is
there depofited on the banks of the fixe aim, forming the ftony incruftations called petrifications: And flit ring through the pores of the earth
- and dropping through the roofs-of fubterraneons caves, it forms' the curious irtcruftations found hanging from the roof of fuch places j fornetimes
a burning forms ftupenduoully magnificent.
Fixt. Limeftotte. It Vs from the quality that quick-lime has of abforbing its air, and again with it refuming its ftony confiftence, that it is fitted fora
cement m building; and the great hardnefs of the cements in old buildings is owing to the air being more perfectly united with theie than in newer works,
r ACIDS: Vitriolic*, and Nitrous*; with the phenomena, ire. as above mentioned.
I ALKALI: Fixed, as above.
! METALS: Lead, Tin, Copper, and iron, as above.
►T'T.r-n/^T^-KT-r. "i SEMI-METALS : Antimonv, Bifmuth, Arfenic, and Cobalt, as above. ^
TRESCENT j ABSORBENT EARTHS: as above.
EARTHS. I ARGILLACEOUS EARTHS. A mafs running into glafs in a moderate heat.
k WATER. Although this is not foluble in water by any operation that we are acquainted with,- yet, from its cryftalline form, it is probable that it has been once fufp’cnded;
and certainly it is fo at this day in thofe petrifying fprings whofe incruftations are of the cryftalline fort.'
ARGILLACEOUS EARTHS, with Abforbent and Cryftalline Earths, as above. Vvrith water it only unites into a pafte of a mechanical nature.
EARTHY.
<! WATER.
AIR.
CRYSTAL¬
LINE or VI
EXPLANATION
It was imagined, that a fyftematic view of the feverai chemical bodies, arranged under diftina claffes,
would be of ufe to convey a clear Idea of this fubjeft to the mind, and ferve to imprefs it better upon the
memory of the reader; and with this view the firft table was compofed, the feverai parts of which are fo
plain as to admit of no explanation.
The fame caufes induced us to think, that a fyftematic view of the feverai compounds refulting from
the mixture ot thefe fimplc bodies would be agreeable to the public; and on that account the fecund table
was compiled; in which we have followed the fame general arrangement as in the firft: Shewing, in the
firtt place, the fevcral bodies with which the vitriolic acid can be combined; then proceeding to the ni¬
trous acid, the muriatic, Xtc. through all the other dalles, in the fame order as in the foregoing table.—
In the firft column, then, on the left hand, is placed a fituple body, which can be united with fome one or
more individuals of each of thofe fpecics which are put in the fecond column, and the particular fubftance
of each fpecies with which it can be united is put in the third column : after which is placed the name and
properties of the compound, the operation by which they are united,- &c. And in the enumeration of
theie bodies with which any one can be combined, they are placed in the fame order as is generally oh-
ferved; beginning with acids, and proceeding to aikaiis, oils, fulphuf, £.-c. through all the claftes." An
example ot the manner of reading the table will make all this plain.
At the top of the firft column,'oh the left hand, is placed the vitriolic Arid, which can be combined
with fome particular kind or each of thofe fnecies of bodies enumerated in the fecend column, included
within the crotchet oppofite to it. By this it appears that it can be combined with acids, alkalis, oiis,
fulphur, alcohol, metals, femi-metals, earths, and water. The particular kinds of each rlafs with which
it can be united are placed in the third column; by which it appears, that of the dais of acids it can be
united with the nitrous acid, and with it form a mixture, the only property of which, that has been' ob¬
ferved, is, that it readily innames oils. It likewife unites with the muriatic and all ether acids, as thcre
mentioned. Under ihe clais ot alkalis, it appears that it can be united with the vegetable, foffile, and;
volatile alkalis. With the firft ol which it forms the fubitancc called •vitr.iolr.icii tArtiir, and the two other
luhtlances there enumerated, by the operations there mentioned. With the foiTdc alkali it forms G!ju-
Ler’s fall; and with the volatile alkali, jeerd/si crdnoui.ic; bv the means there mentioned. All the other
articles throughout the table arc to be read in tifs umr: manner.
In the fame way we proceed through the whole of the table, taking each fimple chemical body in Its
order, and, placing it m the firft column, ihew what others'll can be united with. But it is to be oufer-
*ed, that as we advafeceyia U*e tabic we put down only the n.fitrus of thole uiLftaa:csY. hicit have bccit
O F
THE
T A B L E S.
already examined ; becaufe under each' of thefe the particular mixta formed by this union have been as -
ready delcribed. Tims, looking along the fir It column rill you come to FAt Altai', you find in the fi.-
Cond column, at the top of the crotchet belonging to this article. Acids, and, following it. Vitriolic,
Nitrous, Muriatic, Src. with a reference to the foregoing parts of the table; and if you look back to the
article I'itrio.iic Acid, under ti e article Aiictlis in the fecond column, you find both the vegetable and
fofi'.ie, with the compounds refulting ftom this mixture, fo that it was unnecelfarv to repeat it over a-
gain under the article Alkaii. By the fame means the union of this with the nitrous and other acids are
round under, each particular acid. And the fame method is to be obferved with regard to every refe¬
rence to the end of the table.
We once prdpofed to have omitted mentioning any of thefe articles which had been already deferibed,
from which the references are made; but were induced to place them as in the table, became bv me.in t
of thefe it is cafv to fee, atone view, all the bodies that any one particular body-can be united with;
whereas, without this, if any one liad wanted to know this particular, he behoved to have turned to e-
very article that preceded it. For example, if the article Ftilimith was to be examined with th s yiew ;
turn to it. in the firft column near the end; at once you fee with what particular acids, alkalis, I’uinhur,
and metals, ft can be joined with ; whereas if thefe had been here omitted, it would have been necc'
liny to have con fulled every article preceding it be lore you could have known which it could, and >■. Licl:
it could not be united with.
It ts unncc.eiiary to fay much about the ufes that may be made of this table, as they ;
The principal one is to dip-.*', at one view, what bodies any one can be united with,
juft now given. Again, if it was warned to know if any one particular fubftance co
other particularly fpccified, it Is here at o nce fecn. _ Let it be (e. g.) required to kt
zinc can be unitedturn to the article Cofftr in theSrft column, and learen among tin
itherc find Z/jicy and fee that this compound forms brafs, prinec’s-o.etal, and fpelter.
way any other fubftance may be examined. If, on the ether hand, by. glancing.aio
(which are here printed in italics; you meet with any particular fubftance whofe compt
know, it is at once difeovered., Thus for example, common nitre has calchcd your e
pdfitiott you would wiih to be informed. By looking.to the left hand, you findTegcta'i
the fir It table is shown to be the Cm-.e with rotc/t}', and by looking to the firlr coiumn
find the Nitrous Acid ,or Yy. Fu>C:t , fro in wbieii you -at once are informed that i, :
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Each differen
fpace ; and eac
'inode of this ic.
When thefe ide.
they can in thei
without joining
themfelves the
the utmod boun
one to another,
they pleafe. F
diftance, withot
come by the ide
Another mod
tion of the part
cumfcribed fpac
we call figure.
dies, whole ext
eye takes both f
are within its vi
terminate either
ble angles, or ii
perceived; by c<
ther in all parts
it has that idea
infinite variety.
Another mod
Our idea of pla
"any thing with
and certain poit
or has not chan,
is not altered vt
we have occafio
eafily gather fro
place of the «»/
lay that the wor
it does exifl. T:
that fpace whicl
may be conceive
Of du
There is'an
we get from the
of fucceffion, w
of it are any dii
ftindt ideas; as
nity.
The idea of ;
of ideas which c
as long as we
parts of tbisyW
coptinaation of
elfe, commenfut
minds, is what i
ther thing co-exi
appears from he
ceflion or durat
ceafes, as - in fU
wake, howdifh
ted. And poflil
he fix upon om
fion of others.
METAPHY SICS.
either of which if it fails, the whole bufinefs of num-
bering will be diftutbed; and there will remain only the
confided idea of multitude ; but the ideas necelfary to
diftindt numeration will not be attained to.
Of infinity.
The idea fignified by the name infinity, is bed exa¬
mined, by confidering to <what infinity is by the mind at¬
tributed, and then how it frames it. Finite and infinite,
then, are looked upon as the modes of quantity;4 and at¬
tributed primarily to things that have parts, and are ca¬
pable of increafe or diminution by the addition or fub-
Jitafiion of any the lead part. Such are the ideas of
[pace, duration, and number.
When we apply this idea to the Supreme Being, we do
it primarily, in refpedt of his duration and ubiquity ;
more figuratively, uhen to his nuifdom, power, good-
nefs, and other attributes, which are properly inexhaufi-
ctble and inccrnprehenfibte: For when we call them infi¬
nite, we have no other idea of this infinity, but what
carries with it fome refiedtion on the number or the ex¬
tent of the afts or objetts of God’s power and wifdom,
which can never be iuppofed fo great, or fo many, that
thefe attributes will not always furmount and exceed,
though we multiply them in our thoughts with the infi¬
nity of endlefs number.
The next thing to be confidered, is, How we come by
the idea of infinity. Every one that has any' idea of any
dated lengths of fpace, as a /bet, yard. See. finds that
he can repeat that idea, and join it to another, to a
third, and fo on without ever coming to an end of his
additions. From this power of enlarging his idea of
fpace, he takes the idea of infinite fpace, or immenfty.
By the fame power of repeating the idea of any length of
duration we have in our minds7 with all the endlefs addi¬
tion of number, we come by the idea of eternity.
If our idea of infinity be got by repeating without end
our own ideas •, why do we not attribute it to other /-
deas, as well as thofe of fpace and duration; fince they
may be as eafily and as often repeated in our minds, as
the other: Yet no body ever thinks of \ofin\xt fweetyiefs
or whitenefs, though he can repeat the idea of fweet or
white as frequently as thofe of yard or day. But thofe
% zy,?*/that have parts, and are capable of increafe by the
addition of any parts, afford us, by their repetition, an
idea of infinity; becaufe with the endlefs repetition there
is continued an enlargement, of which there is no end.
But it is not fo in other ideas : For if to the perfeiff idea I
have of white, I add another of equal whitenefs ; it en¬
larges not my idea at all. Thofe ideaslYax confilt not of
parts, cannot be augmented to what proportion men
p]eafe,"br be flretched beyond what they have received
by their fenfes : But fpace, duration, and number, being
capable of increafe by repetition, leave in the mind an
idea of an endlefs'room for more; and fo thofe iaeas a-
lone lead the mind towards the thought of infinity.
Of the modes of thinking.
When the the mind turns its view inwards upon itfelf,
thinking \% the firfl idea that occurs : Wherein it obferves
a great variety of ’modifications; and thereof frames to
Vol. III. N°. 67. 2
i8r
itfelf difiindl ideas. Thus the perception annexed to any
impreffion on the body made by an external objeft, is
called fenfation. When an idea recurs without the pre¬
fence of the object, it is called remembrance: When
fought after by the mind, and brought again in view, it
is recolleftion : When held there long under attentive
confideration, it is contemplation. When ideas float in
the mind without regard or reflection, it is called in French
reverie ; our language ha^ fcarce a name for it: When
the-ideas are taken notice of, and, as it were, regiftered
in the memory, it is attention ; When the mind fixes its
view on any one idea, and confiders it on all fides, it is
intention and Jludy. Sleep, without dreaming, is reft
from ail thefe. And dreaming is the perception of ideas
in the mind, not fuggefted by any external objects, or
known occafions ; nor under any choice or conduct of the
underftanding.
Of the modes of pieafure and pain.
Pleasure axsA pain are Ample ideas, which we re¬
ceive both from fenfation and reflection. There are
thoughts of the mind, as well as fenfations, accompanied
with pleafure or pain. Their caufes are termed good or
evil. Pleafure and pain, and their caufes good and e-
vil, are the hinges upon which our paflions turn ; by re¬
flecting on the various modifications or tempers of mind,
and the internal fenfations which pleafure and pain, good
and evil, produce in us, we may thence form to ourfelves
the tdeas of our paflions. Thus by reflecting upon the
thought we have of the delight which any thing is apt
to produce in us, we have an idea we call love : And on
the contrary, the thought of the pain which any thing
prefent or abfent produces in us, is what we call hatred.
Deftre is that uneafinefs which a man linds in himfelf upon
the abfence of any thing the prefent enjoyment of which
carries the idea of delight with it. Joy is a delight of the
mind arifing from the prefent or affured approaching pof-
felfion of a good. Sorrow is an uneafintfs of the mind,
upon the thought of a good loft, or the fenfe of a preient
evil. Hope is a pleafure In the mind, upon the thought
of a probable future enjoyment of a thing which is apt t®
delight. Fear is an uneafinefs of the mind, upon the
thought of a future evil likely to befall us. singer
is a difeompofure of mind, upon the receipt of injury,
with a prefent purpofe of revenge. Dfipair is the
thought of the unattainablenefs of any good. Envy is an
uneafinefs of mind, caufed by the confideration of a good
we defire, obtained by one we think fliould not have had
it before us.
It is to be confidered, that in reference to the paflions,
the removal or leffening of a pain, is confidered and o-
peiates as a pleafure ; and the lofs or diminifliing of a
pleafure, as a pain. And farther, that the paflions in
moft perfons operate on the body, and caufe various
changes in it ; but thefe being not always fCnfible, do not
make a neceffary part of the idea of each paflion.
Ofpower.
The mind being every day informed by the fenfes of
the alteration of thofe Ample Hess t obferves in things
without, reflecting ado on what pafles within itfelf, and
Z z oblerving
METAPHYSICS.
•182
obferYing a conftant change of its ideas, fometimes by the
impreffions of outward objefts upon the fenfes, and fome-
ttmes by the determination of its own choice; and con¬
cluding. from what it has fo conftantiy obferved to have
been, that the like changes will for the future be made in
the fame things', by the fame agents, and by the like
ways, confiders in one thing the poffibility of having any
of its fimple ideas changed, and in another the poffibility
of making that change, and fo comes by that idea which
which we call power. Thus we fay fire has a power to
melt gold, and make it fluid; and gold has a power to be
melted.
Power thus confidered, is twofold, viz. as able to
make, or able to receive any change : the one may be
called aftive, the other pajfive power. Of pajfivepower
all fenfible things aboundantly furnifli us with ideas, whofe
fenfible qualities and beings we lind to be in a continual
flux. Nor have we of aftivepower fewer inftances ; fince
whatever change is obferved, the mindmuft collect a power
fomewhere able to make that change. But yet, if we
will confider it attentively, bodies by our fenfes do not
afford us fo clear and diftind an idea of aftive power as
we have from reflection on the operations of our minds.
For all power relating to aftion, and there being but two
forts of aftion, viz. thinking and motion, let us confider
whence we have the cleareft ideas of the powers which
produce thefe actions.
Of thinking, body affords us no idea at all: It is on¬
ly from reflection that we have that ; neither have we
from body any idea of the beginning of motion. A body
at reft, affords us no idea of any aftive power to move ;
and when it is fet in motion itfelf, that motion is rather
a paffion than an aCtion in it. The idea of the beginning
of motion, we have only by reflection on what pafles in
ourfclves ; where we find by experience, that barely by
willing it, we can move the parts of our bodies which
Were before at reft.
We find in ourfelves a power to begin or forbear, con¬
tinue or end, feveral aCtions of our minds, and motions of
our bodies, barely by a thought, Or preference of the
mind. This power which the mind has thus to order
the confideration of any idea, or the forbearing to con¬
fider it ; or to prefer the motion of any part of the body
to its reft, and vice verfia, in any particular inftance, is
that we call the willy the aCtual exercife of that power is
that which we call volition, or willing. The forbearance
or performance of that aClion, confequent to fuch order or
command of the mind, As called voluntary; and what-
foever aClion is performed without fuch a thought of the
mind, is called involuntary.
The power of perception is that we call the underjlarid-
ing. Perception, which we make the aCt of the under-
ftanding, is of three forts : ijl. The perception of/Vm/
in our minds. 2dly, The perception of the fignification
of figns. The perception of the agreement or dif-
sgreement of any diftinCt ideas. Thefe powers of the
mind, viz. of perceiving and preferring, are ufually called
by another name ; and the ordinary way of fpeaking is,
that the underftanding and will are two faculties of the
mind.
From the confideration of the extent of the power of
the mind over the a&ions of the man, which every one
finds in himfelf, arife the ideas of liberty and nccefity :
fo far as a man has a power to think or not to think, to
move or not to move, according to the preference, or
direftion of his own mind, fo far is a man free. Wbere-
ever any performance or forbearance are not equally in a
man’s power ; where-ever doing, or not doing, will not
equally follow upon the preference of his mind; there he
is not free, though perhaps the aftion may be voluntary.
So that the idea of liberty, is the idea of a power in any
agent to do or forbear any aftion, according to the deter¬
mination or thought of the mind whereby either of them
is preferred to the other. Where either of them is not
in the power of the agent to be produced by him, ac¬
cording to his volition, there he is not at liberty ; that
agent is under necefiity. So that liberty cannot be where
there is no thought, no volition, no will; but there may
be thought, there may be will, there may be volition,
where there is no liberty. Thus a tennis ball, whether
in motion by the ftroke of a racket, or lying ftill at reft,
is not by any one taken to be a free agent. So a man
ftriking himfelf or his friend by a conviiluve motion of his
arm, which it is not in his power by volition or the di-
reftion of his mind to flop or forbear ; no body thinks be
has in this liberty ; every one pities him, as afting by
necefiity and conjlraint. Again, fuppofe a man be carried
whilft faft afleep into a room, where is a perfon he longs
to fee, and be there looked faft in, beyond his power to
get out; he awakes, and is glad to fee himfelf in fo de¬
finable company; which he ftays willingly in, that is, pre¬
fers his (laying to going away. Is not this (lay voluntary?
no body will doubt it ; and yet being locked faft in, he
is not at liberty to (lay; he has not freedom to be gone.
So that liberty is not an idea belonging to volition or pre¬
ferring, but to the perfon having the power of doing, or for¬
bearing to do, according as the mind (hall chufe or diretft.
As it is in the motions of the body, fo it is in the
thoughts of our minds : where any one is fuch, that we
have power to take it up, or lay it by, according to the
preference of the mind, there we are at liberty. Awa¬
king man is not at liberty to think, or not to think, no
more than he is at liberty whether his body (hall touch
any other or no : But whether he will remove his con¬
templation from one idea to another, is many times in his
choice. And then he is, in refpe<51 of his ideas, as much
at liberty, as he is in refpedt of bodies he refts on. He
can at pleafure remove himfelf from one to another : but
yet fome ideas to the mind, like fome motions to the
body, are fuch, as in certain circumftances it cannot a-
void, nor obtain their abfence by the utmoft effort it can
ufe. Thus a man on the rack is not at liberty to lay by
the idea of pain, and entertain other contemplations.
Where-ever thought is wholly wanting, or the power
to a<ft or forbear according to the direftion of thought,
there neceffity takes place. . This in an agent capable of
volition; when the beginning or continuation of any ac¬
tion is contrary to the preference of his mind, is called
cotnpulfion ; when the hindering or (lopping any aiftioa
is contrary to his volition, it is called reftramt : Agents
that have no thought, no volition at all, are in every thing
neceffary agents.
metaphysics.
Of mixed modes.
Mixed modes are combinations offimple ideas of dif¬
ferent kinds. The mind being once furnifhed with fim¬
ple ideas, can put them together in feveral compofitions,
without examining whether they exilt fo together in na¬
ture. And hence it is, that thefe ideas are called notions,
as if they had their original and confiant exiftence more
in the thoughts of men, than in the reality of things :
and to form fuch ideas, it fulficed that the mind put the
parts of them together, and that they were confident in
the underftanding, without confidering whether they had
any reak being. There are three ways whereby we get
thefe complex ideas of mixed modes.
1Ji, ^experience, and obfervation of things themfelves:
Thus by feeing two men wrtdle, we get the idea of wred-
ling.
idly. By invention, or voluntary putting together of
feveral fimple ideas in our own minds : So he that fird in¬
vented printing, had an idea of it fii d in his mind be¬
fore it ever evided.
yily. By explaining the names of a£tions we never faw,
or nations we cannot fee ; and by.enumerating all thofe
ideas which go to the making them up. Thus the mix¬
ed mode, which the word lie dands for, is made up of
thefe fimple ideas : id, Articulate founds, edly, Cer¬
tain ideas in the mind of the fpeaker. jdly, Thofe words,
the figns of thefe ideas. 4thly, Thofe figr.s put together,
by affirmation or negation, otherwife than the ideas they
{land for are in the mind of the fpeaker. Since languages
are made, complex ideas are ufually got by the explica¬
tion of thofe terms that dand for them: for fince they
confid of fimple ideas combined, they may, bywords
danding f6r thofe fimple ideas, be reprefented to the mind
of one who underdands thofe words, though that combi¬
nation of fimple ideas was never offered to his mind by
the real exidence of things.
Mixed modes have their unity from an ad of the mind,
combining thofe feveral fimple ideas together, and confi-
dering them as one complex one : the mark of this union
is one name given to that combination. Men feldom
reckon any number of ideas to make one complex one :
but fuch colledions as there be names for. Thus the
killing of an old man, is as fit to be united into one com¬
plex idea, as that of a father ; yet there being no name
for it, it is not taken for a particular complex idea, nor
a didind fpecies of adion from that of killing any other
man.
Thofe colledions of ideas have names generally affixed,
which are of frequent ufe in converfation : in which cafes
men endeavour to communicate their thoughts to one a-
nother with all poflible difpatch. Thofe others, which
they have feldom occafion to mention, they tie not toge¬
ther, nor give them names.
This gives the reafon, why there are words in every
language, which cannot be rendered by any one fingie
word of another. For the faffiions and cudoms of one
nation make feveral combinations of ideas familiar in one,
which another had never any occafion to make. Such
were Qc^akksuoc among the Grefcks, proferiptio among
the Romans. This alfo occafions the conftant change of
183
languages ; becaufe the change of cudom and opinions
brings with it new combinations of ideas, which, to a-
void long deferiptions, have new names annexed to thems
and fo they become new fpecies of mixed modes.
Of all our fimple ideas, thofe that have had mod mix¬
ed modes made out of them, are thinking, and motion ;
which comprehend in them all adion ; and power, from
whence thefe adions are conceived to flow. For adions
being the great bufinefs of mankind, it is no wonder, if
the feveral modes of thinking and motion fliould be taken
notice of, the ideas of them obferved and laid up in me¬
mory, and have names affigned them. For without fuch
complex ideas with names to them, men could not eafily
hold any communication about them. Of this kind are
the modes of adions diftinguiffied by their caufes, means,
objefts, ends, inflraments, time, place, and other cir-
cumftances ; as alfo of the powers fitted for thofe adions t
thus loldnefs is the power to do or fpeak what we intend^
without fear or diforder; which power of doing any thing,
when it has been acquired by the frequent doing the fame
thing, is that idea we call habit; when forward, and
ready upon every occafion, to break into adion, we call
it difpojition : thus tejiinefs is a difpafition or aptnefs to-
be angry.
Power being the fource of all adion, the fubftances
wherein thefe powers are, when they exert this power,
are called caufes; and the fubftances thereupon produced,
or the fimple ideas introduced into any fubjed, effetts.
The efficacy whereby the new fubftance or idea is prhdu-
ed, is called, in the fubjed exerting that power, attion',
in the Fubjed, wherein any fimple idea is changed, or
produced, pajfton: Which efficacy, in intelleftualagents,
we can conceive to be nothing elfe but modes of thinking
and willing ; in corporeal agents, nothing elfe but modi¬
fications of motion.
Of our complex ideas of fubjlances.
The mind obferving feveral fimple ideas to go con-
ftantly together, which being prefumed to belong to one
thing, are called, fo united in one fubjed, by one name,
which we are apt afterward to talk of and confider as one
fimple idea, which indeed is a complication of many
ideas together. We imagine not thefe fimple ideas to
fubfift by themfelv.es; but fuppofe fome fubflratum where¬
in they fubfift, which we cal! fubftance. The idea of
pure fubftance is nothing but the fuppofed (but unknown)
fupport of thefe qualities, which are capable of producing
fwnple ideas in us.
The ideas of particular circumftances are compofed
out of this obfeure and general idea of fubftance, together
with fuch combinations of fimple ideas as are obferved
to exift together,, and fupofed to flow from the internal
conftitution and unknown effehce of that fubftance. Thus
we come by the ideas of man, horfe, gold, 8cc. Thus the
fenfible qualities of iron, or a diamond, make- the com¬
plex ideas of thofe fubftances, which'afmith ora jeweller
commonly knows better than a philofopher.
The fame happens concerning the operations of the
mind, viz. thinking, reafoning, &c. which we conclu¬
ding not to fubfift by themfelves, nor apprehending how
they can belong to body, or be produced by it, we think
theia
METAPHYSICS.
184
them the anions of feme other fubftance, which we call
Jpirit; of whole fublfance or nature we have as clear a
notion as of that of body; the one being but the fuppofed
fuhfiratum of thefimple ideas we havefrbm without, as the
other of tho'fe operations which ue experiment inourfelves
within : So that the idea of corporeal fubjlance in matter,
is as remote from our conceptions as that of fpiritualfab-
jlance.
Hence we may conclude, that he has the perfefteft idea
of any particular fubftance, who has colle&td moft of thofe
fimple ideas which do exilf in it p among which we are
to reckon its aftive' powers pajfive capacities, though
not flridly fwiple ideas.
Secondary qualities, for the mofl: part, ferve to diftin-
guilh fubftances. For our fenfes fail us’in the difeovery
of tho bulk, figure, texture, Stc. of the minute parts of
bodies, on which their real conffitutions and differences
depend ; and fecondkry qualities are nothing but powers,
with relation to our fenfes. The ideas that make our
comphx ones of corporeal fubftances, are of three forts :
Firfi, The ideas of primary qualities of things, which
are difeovered by our fenfes ; fuch are bulk, figure, mo¬
tion, See. Secondly, The fenfib-e fecondary qualities ;
which are nothing but powers to produce feveral ideas in
us by our fenfes. Thirdly, The aptnefs we confider in
any fubftance, to caufe or recaive fuch alterations of pri¬
mary qualities, as that the fubftance fo altered fhould
produce in us different ideas from what it did before;
and they are called aftive and pajfive powers. All which,
as far as we have any notice or notion of them, terminate
in firnple ideas.
Had we fenfes acute enough to difeern the minute par¬
ticles of bodies, it is not to be doubted, but they would
produce quite different ideas in us ; as we find in viewing
things with microfcopes. Such bodies as to our naked
eyes are coloured and opaque, will through microfcopes
appear pellucid. Blood to the naked eye appears all red;
but by a good microfcope we fee only fome red globules
fwimming in a tranfparent liquor.
Bcfides thefe complex ideas we have of material fub¬
ftances ; by the fimole ideas taken from the operations of
our own minds, which we experiment in ourfelves, as
thinking, underfianding, willing, knowing. See. co ex-
ifting in the fame fubftance, W'e are able to frame the
complex idea of a jpirit. And this idea of an immate¬
rial fubjlance, is as clear as that we have of a material.
By joining thefe with fubftance, of which we have nodi-
ftinft idea, we have the idea of a fpirit : And by putting
together the ideas of coherent folid parts, and power
of being moved, joined with fubftance, of which likewife'
we have no pofitive idea, we have the idea of matter.
The ope is as clear and diftinft as the other. The fub¬
ftance of fpirit is unknown to us ; and fo is the fubftance
of body equally unknown to us. Tw'O primary qualities
or properties of body, viz. folid coherent parts, and hn-
pu fe, w'e have diftirdl clear ideas of: So likewife have we
of two primary qualit es or properties of fpirit, viz. think¬
ing, and a power of aftion. We have alfo clear and di-
ideas of feveral qualities inherent in bodies, which
are but the. various moditications of the extenfion of co¬
hering folid parts and their motion. We hare likewife
the/Vear of the feverj1 modes of thinking, viz. Believing,
doubting, hoping, fearing, &c. as alio of willing and
moving the body confequent to it.
Of relation.
There is another fet of ideal which the mind gets
from the comparing of one thing with another. When
the mind fo confiders one thing, that it does as it were
bring it to and fet it by another, and carry its view from
one to the other, this is relation or refpeft ; and the de¬
nominations given to things intimating that refpedt, are
what we call relatives, and the things fo brought toge¬
ther related. Thus v-hen I call Cajus, hujband, or
whiter, I intimate fome other perfon, or thing, in both
cafes, with which I compare him. Any of our ideas m-Aj
be the foundation of relation. .
Where languages have failed to give correlativen ames,
there the relation is not fo eafily taken notice of: As in
concubine, which is a relative name as well as wife.
The ideas of relation may be fame in thofe men who
have far different ideas of the things that are related.
Thus thofe who have different ideas of man, may agree
in that of father.
There is no idea of any kind, which is not capable of
an almoft infinite number of confiderations, in reference
to other things; and therefore this makes no Tmall part
of mens words and thoughts. Thus one Angle man may
at once fuftain the relations of father, brother, fan, huf-
band, friend, fuhjeft, general, European, Englifhman,
Iflunder, mafier, fervant, bigger, lefs. See. to an almoft:
infinite number; he being capable of as many relations,
as there may beoccafions of comparing him to other things
in any manner of agreement, difagreement, or refpeft
whatfoever.
Of caufe and ejfeft, and other relations.
The ideas of caufe and effeft we get from our oblerva-
tion of the vicijfitude of things, while we perceive fome
qualities or fubftances begin to exift, and that they re¬
ceive their exiftence from the due application and opera¬
tion of other beings : That which produces, is the casifet,
that which \$ produced, the ejfeft. Thus fiuidityxn wax
is the effeft ot a certain degree of heat, which we obferre
to be conftantly produced by the application of fuch heat.
We diftinguifti .the originals of things into two forts.
Firft, When the thing is wholly made new, fo that no
part thereof did ever exift before, as when a new particle
of matter doth begin to exift which had before no being,
it is ca\\z& creation.
Secondly, When a thing is made up of particles which
did all of them before exift, but the thing fo conftituted
of pre exifting particles, which all together make up fuch
a colleftion of fimple ideas, had not anyexifttnee before,
as this man, this egg, this ro/d’, &c. this, when referred
to a fubftance produced in the ordinary courfe of nature
by an internal principle, but fet on work by fome exter¬
nal agent, and working by infenfihle ways which we per¬
ceive not, is called generation : When the caufe is extnn-
fical, and the effeft produced by a fenfible feparation, or
juxta pofition of difcernible parts, we call it mi king and
fuch are all artificial things. When any fimple idta is pro¬
duced]
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
daced, which was cot in that fubjeft before, we call it al¬
teration.
The denominations of things taken from time, are for
the moft part only relations. Thus when it is faid that
Queen Elizabeth lived fixty-nine, and reigned forty-five
years, no more is meant, than that the duration of her exilt-
ence was equal to lixty nine, and of her government to
forty-liv6 annual revolutions of the fun.
Toung and old, and other words of time, that are
thought to Hand for politive ideas, are indeed relative;
and intimate a relation to a certain length of dpration,
whereof we have the idea in our minds. Thus we call a
nun young or old, that has lived little or much of that
time that men ufually attain to. This is evident from our
application of thefe names to other things ; for a man is
called young at twenty, but a horfe old, <&c. The fun
and Hars we call not old at all, becaufe we know not
what period God.has fet to that fort of beings.
There are other ideas, that are truly relative, wdiich
We fignify by names that are thought fofitive and abfo-
lute ; fuch as great and little, ft rang and weak. The
tilings thus denominated, are referred to fome ftandards,
with which we compare them. Thus we call an apple
great, that is bigger than the ordinary fort of thofe we
have been ufed to ; and a man weak, that has not fo much
llrength of power to move, as men ufuaily have.
Of identity and diverftty.
Another, occalion the mind takes of comparing, is
the very being of things. When confidering a thing aS
exifting at any certain time, or place, and comparing it
with itfelf as exifting at any other time, &c. it forms
the ideas of identity and diverftty. When we fee any
thing in any certain time and place, we are fure it is that
very thing, and can be no other, how like foever it may
be in all other refpe&s.
We conceiving it jmpoffible that two things of the
fame kind fhould exift together in the fame place, we
conclude, that whatever exifls any where at the fame
time, excludes all of the fame kind, and is there itfelf
alone. When therefore we demand whether any thkig
be the fame, or no, it refers always to fomethingithat
exifted fuch a time, in fuch a place, which it was certain
at that inftant was the fame with itfelf and no other.
We have ideas of three forts of fubftances: ift, Of
Cod\ adly. Finite intelligences; gdly, Bodies.
Fir ft, God being eternal, unalterable, and every
where, concerning his there can be no doubt.
Secondly, Finite fpirits having had their determinate
time and place of beginning to exift, the relation to that
time and place will always determine to each its identi¬
ty, as long as it exifts.
Thirdly, The fame will hold of every particle of mat¬
ter to which no addition or fubftra&ion is made. Thefe
three exclude not one another out of the fame place, yet
each exclude thofe of the fame kind out of the fame place.
The identity and diverfity of modes and relations are
determined after the fame manner that fubftances are ; on¬
ly the actions of finite beings, as motion and thought, con-
fifting in fucceflion, they cannot exift in different times
and places as permanent beings: for no motion or thought,
Yol. III. Numb. 76. 2
185
’ confidered as at different titnes, can be the fame, each-
part thereof having a different beginning of exifteftce.
From whence it is plain, that exiftence itfelf is the
principium individuatienis, which determinates a being
to a particular time and place incommunicable to two
beings of the fame kind. Thus, fuppofe an atom exift¬
ing in a determined time and place; it is evident that,
confidered in any inftam, it is the fame with itfelf, and
will be fo as long as its exiftence continues. The fame
may be laid of two, or more, or any number of particles,
whilft they continue together. The mafs will be the
fame, however jumbled : but if one atom be taken away,
it is not the fame mafs.
In vegetables, the identity depends noton the fame
mafs, and is not applied to the fame thing. The reafon
of this, is the difference between an animate body and
mafs of matter ; this being only the cohefion of particles
any how united ; the other, fuch a difpofition, an organi¬
zation of parts, as is fit to receive and diftribute nourilh-
ment, fo as to continue and frame the wood, bark, leaves,
fee. (ofan oak, for inftance) in which confifts the vege¬
table life. That therefore which has fuch an organiza¬
tion of parts partaking of one common life, continues to
be the fame plant, though that life be communicated to
new particles of matter, vitally united to the living plant.
The cafe is not fo much different in brutes, but that any
one may hence fee what makes,an animal, and continues
it the fame.
The identity of the fame man likewife confifts in a
participation of the fame continued life in fucceeding par¬
ticles of matter vitally united to the fame organized body.
To underftand identity aright, we mull confider what
idea the word it is applied to Hands for ; it being one
thing to be the fame fub[lance, another the fame man,
and a third the[ame perfon.
An is a living organized body; and the fame
animal is the fame continued life communicated to diffe*
rent particles of matter, as they happen fuccelfively to be
united to that organized living body ; and our notion of
man is but of a particular fort of animal.
Perfon ftands for an intelligent being, that reafons and
reflefts, and can confider itfelf the fame thing in different
times and places; which it doth by that confcioufnefs xhid.
is infeparable from thinking. By this every one is to
bimfelf what he calls felf, without confidering whether
that felf be continued in the fame or divers fubftances.
In this confifts perfonal identity, or the famenefs of a
rational being; and fiy far as this confcioufnefs extends
backward to any paft a&ion or thought, fo far reaches
the identity of that perfon. It is the fame felf now, it
was then : And it is by the fame felf, with this prefent
one that now refledts on it, that that adtion was done.
Self \% that confcious thinking thing, whatever fubftance
it matters not, which is confcious of pleafure or pain,
capable of happinefs or mifery; and fo is concerned for
itfelf as far as that confcioufnefs extends. That with
which the confcioufnefs of this prefent thinking thing
can join itfelf, makes the fame perfon, and is one felf
with it; and fo attributes to itfelf and owns all the ac¬
tions of that thing as its own, as far as that confciouf¬
nefs teachers.
3 A This
l8<? METAPHYSICS.
This perfoual indmtity is the ubje&of reward and pu-
niflment, being that by which every one is concerned for
himfelf. If the confcioufnsfs went along with the little
^nger, when that was cut off, it would be the fame felf
that was juft before concerned for the whole body.
If the fame Secrates, waking and fleeping, did not par¬
take of the fame confcioufnefs, they would not be the
famt perfon. Socrates waking, could not be in juftice
accountable for what Socrates fleeping did,* no more
than one tvsin for what his brother twin did becaufe
their outfides were fo like that they could pot be diftin-
guifhed.
But fuppofe I wholly lofe the memory of fome parts of
my life, beyond a poflibility of retrieving them, fo that I
fhall never be confcious of them again: Am I not the
Jame perfon that did thofe aftions, though I have now
forgot them ? I anfwer, that we muft here take notice
what the word 1 is applied to, which in this cafe is the
man only : And the fame man being prefumed to be the
fame perfon, / is eafily here fuppofed to (land alfo for the
fame perfom. But if it be poflible for the fame man to
have diftin<5l incommunicable confcioufnefs at different
times, it is part doubt the fame man would, at different
times, make different perfons. Which we fee is the
fenfe of mankind in the folemneft declaration of their o-
pinions, human laws not punifhing the mad man for the
fober man’s adlions, nor the fober man for what , the mad
man did; thereby making them two perfons. Thus we
fay in Engli/h, fuch a one is not himfelf, or is befides
himfelf; in which phrafes it is infinuated, that fdf is
changed, and the felf fame perfon is no longer in that
man.
But is not a man drunk or fober the fame perfon ? Why
elfe.is he punifhed for the fame faff he commits when
drunk, though he be never afterwards confcious. of it ?
Juft as much the fame perfon, as a man that walks and
does other things in his fleep is the fame perfon, and is
as anfwerable for any mifchief he fhall do in it. Human
laws punifh both with a juftice fuitable to their way of
knowledge: Becaufe in thefecafes they cannot diftinguifh
certainly what is real, and what is counterfeit. And fo
the ignorance in drunkennefs or fleep, is not admitted as
a plea : For though punifhment be annexed to perfonali-
ty, and perfonality to confcioufnefs; and the drunkard,
perhaps, is not confcious of what he did ; yet human ju¬
dicatures juftly punifh him, becaufe the fa6t is proved a-
gainft him, but want of confcioufnefs cannot be proved
for him.
To conclude: Whatever fubftance begins to exift, it
muft during its exiftence be the fame. Whatever compofi-
tions of fubftances begin to exift, during the union of thofe
fubftances, the concrete muft be the fame. Whatfoever
mode begins to exift, during its exiftence it is the fame.
And fo if the compofttion be of diftinft fubftances, and
different modes, the fame rule holds.
Of other relations.
All Ample ideas, wherein are parts or degrees, af¬
ford an occafion of comparing the fubjefts wherein they
8,re to one another, in tefpedl of th'ofe Ample ideas. As
whiter, fweeter, more, lefs. See, Thefe depending o»
the equality and excels of the fame fimple ideas, in fe-
veral fubje&s, may be cMed proportional relations.
Another occafion of comparing things is taken from
the circumftances of their origin, as father, fon, brother,
&c. Thefe may be called natural relations.
Sometimes the foundation of confiJering things, is fome
aft whereby any one comes by a moral right, power, or
obligation to do fomething : Such are general, captain*
burgher; thefe are inftituted and voluntary relations,
and may be diftinguilhed from the natural, in that they
are alterable and feparable from the perfons to whom
they fometimes belonged, though neither of the fubftan¬
ces fo related be deftroyed. But natural relations are
not alterable, but are as lafting as their fubjefts.
Another relation is the conformity or difagreement of
mens voluntary aftions to a,rule to which they are refer¬
red, and by which they are judged off: Thefe may be
called moral relations. It is this conformity or difagree¬
ment of our aftions to fome law (whereby good or evil is
drawn on us from the will and power of the law maker,
and is what we call reward or punifbsnent) that renders
our aftions morally good or evil.
.Of thefe moral rules or laws, there feem to be three
forts, with their different enforcements : firft, Tht divine
law, fecondly, Civil law; thirdly, The law of opinion ox
reputation. By thefr relation to the (irft, our aftions are
either f ns or duties; to the fecond, criminal ox innocent y
to the third, virtues or vices,
Firfl, The divine law, is that law which God has fet
to the aftions of men, whether promulgated to them by
the light of nature, or the voice of revelation.
That God has given a law to mankind, feems unde¬
niable ; fince he has, frfl, A right to do it; we are his
creatures. Secondly, Goodnefs and wifdom, todireftour
aftions to what is heft. Thirdly. Power to enforce it by
reward, and punifhment of infinite weight and duration.
This is the only true touch-ftone of moral reftitude; and
by which men judge of the moft confiderable moral good
or evil of their aftions; that is, whether, as duties or
fins, they are like to procure to themhappinefs or mifery
from the hands of the Almighty.
Secondly, The civil law is the rule fet by the com¬
monwealth to the aftions of thofe that belong to it. This
law nobody over-looks; the rewards -and punifhments be¬
ing ready at hand to enforce it, extending to the protec¬
ting or taking away of thelife, liberty, and eftate of thofe
who obferve ordifobey it.
Thirdly, The law of opinion, or reputation. Virtue and.
vice are names fuppofed everywhere to ftand for aftions in
their own nature right and wrong. As far as they are really
fo applied, theyfo far are coincident with the divine law.
But it is vifible that thefe names in the particular inftances
of their application, through the fevcral nations and fo-
cieties of men, are conftantly attributed only to fuch ac¬
tions as in each country and fociety are in reputation or
diferedit. So that the meafure of what is every where
called and efteemed virtue and vice, is the approbation,
or diflike, praife or blame, which by a tacit confeot efta-
blifties hfelf in the focieties and tribes of men in the
world;
M E T A P
t^drld ; whereby feveral aftions come to find credit or
difgrace amongdthem, according to thejudgment, maxims,
or falbioos of the place.
That this is fo, appears hence: That though that
paffes for virtue in one place, which is elfewhere account¬
ed vice, yet every where virtue and praife, vice and
blame, go together : Virtue is every where that which is
thought praife-worthy ; and nothing elfe but that which
has the allowance of public efteem, is called virtue.
Thefe have fo clofe an alliance, that they are often call¬
ed by the fame name.
It is true, virtue and vice do, in a great meafure, e-
very where correfpond with the unchangeable rule of
right and wrong, which the laws of God have eftablifh
ed; becaufe the obfervation of thefe laws vifibly fecures
and advances the general good of mankind, and the ne-
g!e<51 of them breeds mifchiefand confufion : And there¬
fore men, without renouncing all fenfe and reafon, and
their own intereif, 'could not generally miflake in placing
their commendation and blame on that fide that deferred
it not.
They who think commendation and difgrace not fuffi-
cient motives to engage men to accommodate themfelves
to the opinions and rules of thofe with whom they con-
verfe, feem little (killed in the hiftory of mankind ; the
greateft part whereof govern tkemfelves chiefly by this
law of fajhion.
The penalties that attend the breach of God’s laws
are feldom ferioufly reflected on ; and thofe that do re-
fled on them entertain thoughts of future reconciliation ;
and for the punifhment due from the laws of the com¬
monwealth, men flatter themfelves with the hopes of
impunity: But no man efcapes cenfure and diflike, who
offends againft fafnion ; nor is there one qTten thoufand
ftiff and infenfible enough, to bear up under the conftant
diflike and condemnation of his own club.
Morality then is nothing but a relation to thefe laws
or rulesT And thefe rules being nothing but a colledion
of feveral Ample ideas, the conformity thereto is but fo
ordering the adion, that the Ample ideas belonging to it
may correfpond to thofe which the law requires. By
which we fee, how mdral beings and notions are found¬
ed on, and terminated in the fimple ideas of fenfation
and refledion. For example ; let us confider the com¬
plex idea fignified by the word triurder. Firfl, from re¬
fledion, we have the ideas of •willing, confidering, pur-
pofing, malice, &c. alfo of life, perception, and felf-
motion. Secondly, from fenfation, we have the ideas of
man, and of fome adion whereby we put an end to that
perception and motion in the than: All which fimple/Ve#/
are comprehended in the word murder.
This colledion of fimple ideas being found to agree or
d'fagree with the efteem of the country I have been bred
in, and to be held worthy of praife or blame, I call the
adion virtuous or vicious. If I have the will of a fu-
preme invifible Law maker for my rule ; theft as I fup-
pofe the adion commanded or forbidden by God, I call
it good or evil, fn or duty: If a compare it with the ci¬
vil law of my country, I call it lawful or unlawful, a
crime or no crime.
H Y S I C S. i S'/
Moral adlons rmy be confidered two ways:
Firjl, As they are in themfelves a colledion of fimple
ideas ; in which fenfe, they are pofitive abfolute ideas.
Secondly, As good or bad, or indifferent: In this
refped'they are relative, it being their conformity or dif-
agreeement with fome rule that makes them fo. We
ought carefully to dillinguifli between the pofitive ideaoi
the adion, and the reference it has to a rule : Both which-
are commonly comprehended under one name, which of¬
ten occafions confufion, and mifleads the judgment.
Thus the taking from another what is his, without his
confent, is properly called ftealing: But that name being
commprjy underftood to lignify alfo the moral pravity of
the adion, men are apt to condemn whatever they hear
called f ealing as an ill adion difagreeing with the rule
of right. And yet the private taking away his fword
' from a madman, to prevent his doing mifchief, though it
be properly denominated f ealing, as the naffie of fuch a
mixed mode, yet when compared to the law of God, it
is no fin or tranfgreflion, though the name Jlealing ordi¬
narily carries fuch an intimation with it.
Of real and fantafical ideas.
Our ideas,' in reference to things from whence* they
are taken, or which they may be fuppofed to reprefent,
come under ^threefold diftindion ; and are, firft, either
real or fantajlic 'al; fecondly, adequate, or inadequate^
thirdly, true or falfe.
Real ideas, are fuch as have a foundation in nature,
fuchias have a conformity with the real being and exiftence
of things, or with their archetypes.
Fantafical are fuch as have no foundation in nature,
nor any conformity with that reality of being to which
they are referred as to their archetypes. By examining
the feveral forts of ideas we fliall find, that, firfl: ourfm-
ple ideas are all real; not that they are images or repre-
fentations of what does exift, but as they are the certain
efFeds of powers in things without us, ordained by our
Maker to produce in us fuch fenfations: They are veal
ideas in us, whereby, we diflinguifli the qualities that are
really in things themfelves.
Their reality lies in the fteady correfpondence they
have with the diftind conTUtutions of real beings. But
whether theyanfwer to thofe conftitutiojis as to caufes or
patterns, it matters not; it fuiHces, that they are con-
ftantly produced by them.
Complex ideas being arbitrary combinations offimple
ideas put together, and united under one general name,
in forming of which the mind ufes its liberty, we muft
inquire which of thefe are real, and which imaginary
combinations.
Firf, Mixed modes and relations having no other reali¬
ty than what they have in the minds of men, nothing elfe
is required to make them real, but a poflib'ility of exifting
conformable to them. Thefe ideas being themfelves ar-
chytypes, cannot ^ differ from their archytypes, and fo.
cannot be chimerical ; unlefs any one will jumble toge¬
ther in them inconfiftent ideas. Thofe indeed that have
names afligned them in any language, mufl have a con¬
formity to the ordinary fignification of the name that is
188 M E T A P I-
:given them, that they may not be thought fantaftical.
Secondly, Our complex ideas of fublbnces being made,
in reference to things exiting without us, whofe repre-
fentations they are thought are no farther real, than as
they are fuch combinations of Jimple ideas as are really
united, and co-exift in things without us : thofe are fan-
tailical which are made up of feveral ideas that never were
found united, as Centaur, See*
Of ideas adequate or inadequate.
Real ideas mj. either adequate or inadequate. Firft,
adequate-, which perfectly reprefent thofe archetypes
which the mind fuppofes them taken from, and \yhich it
makes them to Hand for. Secondly, Inadequate-, which
are fuch as do but partially or incompleatly reprefent thofe
archetypes to which they are referred. Whence it ap¬
pears,
Fir ft. That'all our ftmple ideas are adequate', for
they being but the ejfedts of certain powers in things fit¬
ted and ordained by God to produce fuch fenfations in
us, they cannot hjn be correspondent and adequate to
fuch powers, and we are fure they agree to the reality
of things.
Secondly, Our complex ideas of modes being voluntary
collections offmple ideas, which the mind puts together
without reference to any real archetypes, cannot but be
adequate ideas. They are referred to no other pattern,
nor made by any original, but the good-liking and will
of him that makes the combination. If indeed one would
conform his ideas to thofe which are formed by another
perfon, they may be wrong or inadequate, becaufe they
agree not to that which the mind defigns to be their ar¬
chetype and pattern; in which refpeCt only any ideas of
modes can be wrong, imperfeCl, or inadequate.
Thirdly, Our ideas of fuhjlances have in the mind a
double reference : Firft, They are fometimes referred to
a fuppofed real eflence, of each fpecies of things ; ft-
condly. They are defigned for representations in the mind,
of things that do exift, by ideas difcoverable in them : In
both which refpe&s they are inadequate.
Firft, If the names of fubftances ftand for things, as
fuppofed to have certain real efiences, whereby they are of
this or that fpecies, of which realeflences men are whol¬
ly ignorant; it follows, that the ideas they have in their
minds, being referred to real efiences as archytypej
which are unknown, they mull befo far from being ade¬
quate, that they cannot be fuppofed to be any reprefeh-
tation of them at all. Our complex ideas of fubftances
are nothing but certain collections of fimple ideas that
have been obferved or fuppofed conftantly to exift toge¬
ther. But fuch a complex idea cannot be the real effence
of any fubftance : For then the properties we difeover in
it would be deducible from it, and their necelfary con¬
nection with it be known ; as all the properties of a
triangle depend on and are deducible from the complex
idea of three lines including a fpace : But, it is certain,
that in our complex ideas of fubftanees are not contained
fuch ideas on which all other qualities that are to be
found in them depend.
Secondly, Thofe that take their ideas of fubftances
from their fenfible qualities, cannot form adequate ideas
I Y S I C S.
of them : Becaufe their qualities and powers are fo va¬
rious, that no man’s complex idea can contain them all,
Moft of our fimple ideas, whereof our complex ones of
fubftances do confift, are powers, which being relations
to other fubftances, w'e cannot be fure we know all the
powers, till we have tried what changes they are fitted
to give and receive from other fubftances in their feverai
ways of application; which being not pollible to be tried
upon one body, much lefs upon all, it is impoflible we
fhould have adequate ideas of any lubftance made of a col¬
lection of all its properties.
Of true'andfalfe ideas.
Truth and falfehood, in propriety of fpeech, belong
only to propofitions-; and when ideas are termed true or
falfe, there is fome fecret or tacit propofitionfwhich is the
foundation of that denomination.’ Out ideas being nothing
hut appearances, or perceptions'll the mind, can, in ftn£tne(s
of fpeech,no more be faid to be true or falfe, than fingle
names of things can be faid to be true or falfe. The idea of
Centaur has no more falfehood in it when it appears in
our minds, than the name Centaur when it is pronounced
or writ on paper. For truth or falfehood lying always in
fome affirmation or negation, our ideas are not capable,
any of them, of being falfe, till the mind paffes fome
judgment on them, that is, affirms or denies fomething
of them. In a metaphyftcdl fenfe they may be faid to be
true, that is, to be really fuch as they exift:; though in
things called true, even in that fenfe, there is perhaps a
fecret reference to our ideas, looked upon as the Itan-
dards of that truth ; which amounts to a mental propo-
fttion.
When the mind refers any of its ideas to any thing ex¬
traneous to it, they are then capable of being true or
falfe : becaufe in fuch a reference, the mind makes a tacit
fuppofition of their conformity to that thing ; which fup-
pofition, as it is true or falfe, fo the ideas themfelves
come to be denominated. This happens in thefe cafes :
ift, When the mind fuppofes its idea conformable to
that in other mens minds, called by the fame name, fuch
as that of juftice, virtue. See.
2dly, When the mind fuppofes any idea conformable'
to fome real exiftence. Thus, that of is true, that
of Centaur faife; the one having a conformity to what has
really exifted, the other not.
idly, When the mind refers any of its ideas to that
real conftitutioh and gfience of any thing whereon all its
properties depend : and thus the greateft part, if not all
our ideas offubftances are falfe.
As to the firft, when we judge of our ideas by their
conformity to thofe of o'ther men, they may be any of
them falfe : but fimple ideas are lead liable to be fo mif-
taken. We feldom miftake green for blue, or bitter for
fweet; much lefs do we confound the names belonging to
different fenfes, and call a colour by the name of a tafte.
Complex ideas are much more liable to fallhood in this
particular ; and tbofe of mixed modes more than fubftan¬
ces ; becaufe in fubftances, their fenfible qualities ferve,
for the moft part, to diftinguiffi them clearly ; but in
mixed modes we are more uncertain, and we may call that
juftice which ought to be called by another name. The
reafon
M E T A P
reafon of ihis is, that the abflraft ideas of mixed modes
being mens voluntary combinations of fuch a precife col¬
lodion of Ample ideas, we hare nothing elfe to refer our
ideas of mixed modes as llandards to, but the ideas of
thofe who are thought to ufe names in their proper figni-
fications: and fo as our ideas conform or differ from them,
they pafs for true or falfe.
As to the fecond. When we refer our ideas to the real
exigence of things, none .can be termed falfe but our
complex ideas of fubflances : for our Ample ideas being
nothing but perceptions in us anfwerable to certain powers
in external objeds, their truth conAfts in nothing but fuch
appearances as are produced in us. fuitable to thofe powers;
neither do they become liable to the imputation of falfe-
hood, whether we judge thefe ideas to be in the things
themfelves, or no : for God having fet them as marks of
diftmguifhing things, that we may be able to difcern one
thing from another, and thereby chufe them as we have
occaAon, it alters not the nature of our Ample ideas,
whether we think the idea of blue (for inflance) to be in
the . violet itfelf, or in the mind only ; and it is* equally
from that appearance to be denominated 5/W, whether it
be that real colour, or only a peculiar texture in it, that
caufes in us that idea s Ance the name blue notes proper-
Jy nothing but that mark of diftindion that is in a violet,
difcernible only by our eyes, whatever it confilts in.~
Neither would our Ample ideas be falfe, if by the dif¬
ferent ftrudure of our organs it were fo ordered, that the
fame objed ftiould produce in feveral mens minds different
ideas : for this could never be known, Ance objeds would
operate conftantly after the fame manner. It is moft pro¬
bable, neverthelefs, that the ideas produced by the fame
objeds in different mens minds, are very near and up-
difcernibly like. Names of Ample ideas may be mifap-
plied ; as a man, ignorant in the Englijh tongue, may
call purple, fcarlet: but this makes no falfehood in the
idea.
Complex ideas of modes cannot be falfe, in reference
to the effence of any thing really exifting ; becaufe they
have no reference to any pattern exifting, or made by
nature.
Our complex ideas of fubftances, being all referred to
patterns in things themfelves, may be falfe. They are
fo, iJi, When looked upon as reprefentations of the un¬
known effences of things : idly. When they put together
Ample ideas which in the real ekiftence of things have no
union ; as in centaur. %dly. When from any colledion
of Ample ideas, that do always exift together, there is
feparated, by a dired negation, any one Ample idea which
is conftantly joined with them. Thus, if from extenfton,
folidity, Axednefs, maileablenefs, fufibility, isc. we re¬
move the colour obferved va gold: If this idea be only
left out of the complex one of gold, it is to be looked on
as an inadequate and imperfed, rather than a falfe one.; .
fince.though it contains not all the Ample ideas that are
united in nature, yet it puts none together but what do
really exift together.
Upon the whole, our ideas, as they are confideted by
the mind, either in reference to the proper AgniAcadon of
their names, or iii reference to the reality of things, may
more properly be called right Qt.’wrong ideas, according
Vol. III. N°. 77. 2
II Y S I C S. iB?
as they agree or difagree to thofe patterns to which they
are referred. The ideas that are in mens minds, Amply
conAdered, cannot be wrong, unlefs complex ideas,
wherein inconAfte'nt parts are jumbled together. All o-
ther ideas are in themfelves right, and the knowledge a-
bout them right and true knowledge. But when we come
to refer them to any patterns, or archetypes, then they
are capable of being wrong, as far as they difagree witk
fuch archetypes.
Of the a foci at ion of ideas.
Some of our ideas have a natural correfpondence and
connedion one with another; It is the office and excel¬
lency of our reafon to trace thefe, and hold them together
in that union and correfpondence which is founded in their
peculiar beings. BeAdes this, there is another connedion
of ideas wholly owing to chance or cuftom : Ideas that
in themfelves are not at all of kin, come to be fo united
in fome mens minds, that it is very hard to feparate them-
they always keep company, and the one no fooner comes
into the underftanding, but its affiociate appears with it •
and if they are more than two, the whole gang always
infeparably ftiew themfelyes together. This ftrong com¬
bination of ideas , not allied by nature, the mind makes
in itfelf either voluntarily, or by chance : And hence it
corses in different men to be very different, according to
their different inclinations, educations, intsrefs, &c.
Cuftom fettles habits of thinking in the underftanding, as
well as of determining in the will, and of motions in the
body ; all which feem to be but trains of mfttion in the
animal fpirits, which, once fet a-going, continue on in the
fame Heps they have been ufed to ; which by oftdi tread¬
ing are worn into a fmooth path, and the motion in it be¬
comes eafy, and, as it were, natural. As far as we can
comprehend thinking, thus ideas feem to be produced in
our minds ; or if they are not, this may ferve to explain
their following one another in an habitual train, when
once they are put into that trad, as well as it does to ex¬
plain fuch motions of the body.
This connedion in our minds of. ideas, in themfelves
loofe and independent one of another, is ©f fo great force
to fet us awry in our adions, as well moral as natural,
paflions, reafonings, and notions themfelves, that perhaps
there is not any one thing that deferves more to be look¬
ed after. Thus the ideas of goblins and fprights have
really no more to do with darknefs than light; yet let but
a fooliffi maid inculcate thefe often on the mind of a child,
and raife them there together, poffibly he ffiall never be
able to feparate them again fo long as he lives, but dark¬
nefs ffiall ever afterwards bring with it thofe frightful i-
deas. A man has fuffered pain or Acknefs in any place;
he faw his friend die in fuch a room ; though thefe have
in nature nothing to do one with another, yet when the
idea of xhtplace oconss to his mind, it brings that of the
pain and difpleafure witjh if; he confopnds him in his
mind, and can as little bear the one as the other.
Intellectual habits and defeds this way contraded, are
not lefs frequent and powerful, though lefs obferved.
Let the ideas of being and matter be ftrongly joitoed ei¬
ther by education or much thought, whilft thefe are ftiil
combined in the mind, what notions, what reafonings will
3 ^ there
METAPHYSICS.
190
there be about feparate fpirits ? Let cuftom from the very
childhood have joined figure and fhape to the idea of God,
and what abfurdities will that mind be liable to about
the Deity? Let the idea of infallibility joined to any
perfon, and thefe two conftantly together poffefs the
mind ; and then one body, in two places at once (hall be
{wallowed for a certain truth, whenever that imagined in¬
fallible perfon dilates, and demands aflent without in-
(juiry.
Some fuch wrong combinations of ideas will be found to
eftablifli the irreconcilable oppofition between different
fe&s of philofophy and religion: for we cannot imagine
'every one of their followers to impofe wilfully on himlelf,
and knowingly refufe truth offered by plain reafon, In-
terefl, though it does a great deal in the cafe, yet cannot
be thought to work whole focieties of men to fo univer-
fal a perverfenefs, as that every one of them fhould know¬
ingly maintain falihood; fome at lead mud be allowed
to do what all pretend to, i e. to purfue truth fincerely.
That therefore which captivates their reafons, and leads
men of fincerity blindfold from common fenfe, will, when
examined, be found to be what we are fpeaking of: fome
independent ideas, are by education, cudom, and the
condant din of their party, fo coupled in their minds,
that they always appear there together; and they can no
more feparate them in their thoughts, than if they were
but one idea; and they operate as if they were fo. This
gives fenfe to jargon, demondration to abfurdities, and
confidency to nonfenfe, and is the foundation of the
greated errors in the world. The confufion of two dif¬
ferent ideas, which a cudomary connexion of them in
their minds hath to them in effedt made but one, cannot
but fill mens heads with falfe views, and their reafonings
with falfe confequences.
Of knowledge in general.
Since the mind, in'all its thoughts and reafonings, has
no other immediate objedl but its own ideas, which alope
it does or can contemplate, it is evident that our know¬
ledge is only converfant about them. Knowledge then
feems to be nothing but the perception of the conne&ion
and agreement, or difagreement and repugnancy of any
of our ideas : where this perception is, there is know¬
ledge ; and where it is not, there, though we fancy,
guefs. or believe, yet we always come (hort of know¬
ledge. When we know that white is not black, what do
we but perceive that thefe two ide(ts do not agree ? Or
that the three angles of a triangle, are equal to two right
ones; what do we more but perceive that equality to two
right ones does neceffarily agree to, and is infeparable
from the three angles of a triangle ? J3ut to underdand a
little more didinftly wherein this agreement or difagree¬
ment confids, we may reduce it all to xhzk four forts:
id. Identity or diverftty-, adly, Relation-, gdly, Co-
exijlence-, 4thly, Real exifence.
1. Identity or diverftty. It is the fird aft of the
tnind, *0 perceive its ideas; and Jo far as it perceives
them, to know each what it is, and thereby to perceive
their difference, that is, the one not to be the other :
by this the mind clearly perceives eacfi idea to a-
gree with itlelf, and to be what it is; and all didinft
ideas to difagree. This it does without any pains or de-
duftion, by its'natural power.of perception and didinftion.
This is what men of art have reduced to thofe general
rules, viz. what is, is-, and, it is impoftule for the fame
thing to be and not to be. But no maxim can make a
man know it clearer, that round is not fqire, than the
bare perception of thofe two ideas, which the rfnnd at
fird fight perceives to difagree.
2. The next fort of agreement or difagreement the
mind perceives in any of its ideas, may be called relative,
and is nothing but the perception of. the relation between
any two ideas of what kind foever; that is, their agree¬
ment or difagreement one with another in feveral ways
the mind takes of comparing them.
3. The third fort of agreement or difagreement to be
found in our ideas, is, coexfence or non-coexifence in
the fame fubjeft; and this belongs particularly to fubdan-
ces. Thus when we pronounce concerning that it
is fixed, it amounts to no more but this, that nxednefs,
or a power to remain in the fire unconfumed, is an idea
that always accompanies that particular fort okyellownefs,
weight, fufsbility, &c. which make our complex idea
fignified by the word gold.
4. The fourth fort, is that of adlual and real exifl-
ence agreeing to any idea. Within thefe four forts
of agreement or difagreement, is contained all the
knowledge we have, or are capable of. For all that we
know or can affirm concerning any idea, is, That it is, or
is not the fame with fome other; as, that blue is not yel¬
low : That it does, or does not coexid with another in
the fame fubjeft; as, that iron is fufceptible of tnagne-
ticalimprefions ; That it has that or this relation to fome
other ideas ; as, That two triangles, upon equal bafes be¬
tween two parallels, are equal; or, that it has a real
exidence without the mind ; as, that Cod is.
There are feveral ways wherein the mind is'poffeffed
of truth, each of which is called knowledge. Firf,
There is attual knowledge, when the mind has a prefent
view of the agreement or difagreement of any of its ideas,
or of the relation they have one with another. Second¬
ly, A man is faid to know any propofition, when having
once evidently perceived the agreement or difagreement
of the ideas whereof it confids, and fo lodged it in his
memory, that whenever it comes to be refleded on again,
the mind affents toil without doubt or hefitation, and is
certain of the truth of it. And this may be called habi¬
tual knowledge. And thus a man may be faid to know
all thofe truths which are lodged in his memory by a fore¬
going, clear, and full perception.
Of habitual knowledge there are two forts : The one
is of fuch truths laid up in the memory, as whenever they
occur to the mind, it aftually perceives the relation that is
between thofe ideas. And this is in all thofe- truths,
where thethemfelves, by an immediate view, dif-
cover their agreement or difagreement one with, another.
The other is of fuch truths, whereof the mind having
been convinced, it retains the memory of the conviction,
without the proofs. Thus a man that remembers cer¬
tainly, that he once perceived the demondration, that the
three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones,
knows it to be true, when that demondration is gone out
M E T A P H
of bis mind, and poffibly cannot be recollefted : But he
knows it in a differtnt way from what he did before,
namely, not by the intervention of thofe intermediate
ideas, whereby the agreement or difagreement of thofe in
the propofition was at firft perceived, but by remembring,
i. e. knowing that he was once certain of the truth of
this propofmom that the three angles of a triangle are e^
qual to two right ones. The immutability of the fame
relations between the fame immutable things, is now the
idea that {hews him, that if the three angles of a triangle
were once equal to two right ones, they will always be
fo. And hence he comes to be certain, that what was
once true, is always true ; what ideas once agreed, will
always agree ; and confequently, what he once knew to
be true, he will always know to be true, as long as he
can remember that he once knew it.
Of the degrees of our knowledge.
All our knowledge confiding in the view the mind has
of its own ideas, which is the utmoft light and greatefl
certainty we are capable of, the different clearnefs of our
knowledge feems to lie in the different way of perception
-the, mind has of the agreement or difagreement of any of
its ideas.
When the mind perceives this agreement or difagree¬
ment of two ideas immediately by themfelves, without
the intervention of any other, we may call it intuitive,
knowledge ; in which cafes the mind perceives truth,
as'the eye does light, only by being dire&ed towards it.
Thus the mind perceives, that white is not black-, that three
are more than two^\ and.equal to one and two. This part
of knowledge is irrefidible, and, lik,e the bright fun-ihine,
forces itfelf immediately to be perceived as foon as ever
the mind turns its view that way. It is on this intuition
that depends ail the certainty and evidence of our other
knowledge j which certainty every one finds to be fo
great, that he cannot imagine, and therefore not require
a greate-r.-
The next degree of knowledge, is, where the mind
perceives not this agreement or difagreement immediate¬
ly, or by the juxta-poftionK as it were, of ideas) be-
caufe thofe ideas concerning whofe agreement or difagree¬
ment the inquiry is made, cannot by the mind be fo put
together, as to {hew it. In this cafe the mind is fond to
difeover the agreement or difagreement which it fearches,
by the intervention of other ideas : And this is that which
~we call reafoning. And thus, if we would know the a-
greement or difagreement in bignefs, between the three
angles of a triangle, and two right angles, we cannot by
an immediate view and comparing them do it ; becaufe
the three angles of a triangle cannot be brought at once,
and be compared with any other one or two angles. And
fo of this the mind has no immediate or intuitive know¬
ledge. But we mud find out fome other angles, to which
the three angles of a triangle have equality ; and finding
thofe equal to two right ones, we come to know the equality
of thefe three angles to two right ones. Thofe intervening
ideas which ferve to {hew the agreement of any two others,
are called proofs ; and where the agreement or difagree-
ment is by this means plainly and clearly perceived, it is
called demonflratiou. A quicknefs in the mind to find
Y S I C S. i9I
thofe proofs, and to apply them right, is that which is
called fagacity.
This knowledge, though it be certain, is not fo clear
and evident as intuitive knowledge. It requires pains
and attention, and iieady application of mind, to difeover
the agreement or drfagreement of the ideas it confiders ;
and there muft be a pcogrefiion by fteps and degrees, be¬
fore the mind can in this way arrive at certainty. Before
demonftratipn there was a doubt, which, in intuitive
knowledge, cannot happen to the mind that-has its facul¬
ty of perception left to a degree capable ofi difiindt ideas,
no more than it can be a doubt to the eye (that can dif-
tinftly fee white and black) whether this ink and paper
be all of a colour.
Now, in every ftep that reafon makes in demonf native
knowledge, there is an intuitive knowledge of that agree¬
ment or difagreement it feeks with the next intermediate
idea, which it ufes as a proof; for if it we.re not fo, that
yet would need a proof; fince without the perception of
fuch agreement or difagreement, there is no knowledge
produced. By which it is evident, that every ftep in rea¬
foning, that produces knowledge, has intuitive certainty i
which when the mind perceives, there is no more requi¬
red but to remember it, to make the agreement or difa¬
greement of the ideas concerning which we inquire vifible
and certain. This intuitive perception of the agreement
or difagreement of the intermediate in each ftep and
progreffion of the demonftration, muft alfo be exaftly
carried in the mind ; and a man muft be fure that no part
is left out; which becaufe in long dedu&ions the me¬
mory cannot eafily retain, this knowledge becomes more
imperfedt than intuitive, and men often embrace falfe-
hoods for demonftrations.
It has been generally taken for granted, that mathema-
ticks alone are capable of demonftrative certainty. But
to have fuch an Agreement or difagreement as may be in¬
tuitively perceived, being'not the privilege of the ideas of
number, extenfton, and figure alone, it may poffibly be
the want of due method and application in us, and not of
fufficient evidence in things, that demonftratidn has been
thought to have fo little to do in other parts of knowledge:
For in whatever ideas the mind can perceive the agree¬
ment or difagreement immediately, there it is capable of
intuitive knowledge : And where it can perceive the a-
^reementor difagreement of any two ideas, by an intui¬
tive perception of the agreement or difagreement they
have with any intermediate ideas, there the min'd is capa¬
ble of demonftration which is-not limited to the ideas of
figure, number, extenfion, or their modes. The rea¬
fon why it has been generally fuppofed to belong to them
only, is, becaufe in comparing their equality or excels
the modes of numbers have.every the leaft difference very
clear.and perceivable : And dn extenfon, though every
the lead excefs is not fo perceptible, yet the mind has
found outways to difeover the juft equality of two angles,
extenfions, or figures ; and both, that is, numbers and
figures, can be fet down by vifible and lading marks.
But in other fimple idea?, whofe modes and differences
are made and counted by degrees, and not quantity, we
have not fo nice and accurate a diftintftion of their differ¬
ences, as to perceive or find ways to meafure their juft
equality,
-I92 M E T A ' P
equality, or the lead'differences : For thofe other fimp.le
ideas being appearances or fenfations produced in us by
the fize, figure, motion, &c. of minute corpufcles fingly
infenfible, their different degrees alfo depend on the vari¬
ation of fome, or all of thofe caufes which fince it can¬
not be obferved by us in particles of matter, whereof each
is too fubtile to be perceived, it is impoffible for us to
have any exaft meafures of the different degrees of thefe
fimple ideas. Thus, for indance, not knowing what
number of particles, nor what motion of them, is fit to
produce any precife degree of whitenefs, we cannot de-
rnonftrate the certain equality of any two degrees of nubite-
tiefs, becaufe we have no certain flandard to meafure them
by, nor means to diftinguifli every'the lead difference ;
the only help we have being from our fenfes, which in
this point fail us.
But where the difference is fo great as to produce in
the mind ideas clearly djdindt, there ideas of colours, as
we fee in different kinds, blue and red, (for indance,)
are as capable of demondraiion as ideas of number and
extenfion. What is here faid of colours, holds true in
all fecondary qualities. Thefe two then, intuition and
demonftration, are the degrees of our knowledge ; what¬
ever corn s fhort of one of thefe, is but faith ox opinion,
tvot-knowledge, at lead, vwnW general truths. There is,
indeed, another perception of the mind employed about
the particular exijlence of finite beings without us ; which
going beyond probability, but not reaching to either of
the foregoing degrees of certainty, paffes under the name
of knowledge.
Nothing can be more certain, than that Hat idea wt
receive from an external objeft is in our minds : This is
intuitive knowledge; but whether we can thence certain*
]y infer the exidence of any thing without us, correfpond-
ing to that idea, is that whereof fome men think there
may be a quedion made, becaufe men may have fuch an
idea in their minds, when no fuch things exid, no fuch
objecd affefts their fenfes. But its evident that we are
invincibly confcious to ourfelves of a different perception,
when we look upon the fun in the day, and think on it
by night ; when we adtually tade wormwood, or fmell a
rofe, or only think on Haul favour ox odour. So that we
may add to the two former forts of knowledge, this alfo
of the exidence of particular external objefts, by that
perception and confcioufnefs we have of the aflual entrance
of ideas from them, and allow thefe three degrees of
knowledge, viz. intuitive, demonfirative, and fenfitive.
But fince our knowledge is founded bn, and employed
about our ideas only, will it follow thence that it mud be
conformable to our ideas ; and that where our ideas are
clear and didintd, obfeure and confufed, there our know¬
ledge will be fo too ? No, For our knowledge confiding
in the perception of the agreement or difagreement of any
two ideas, its clearnefs or obfeurity confids.in the clear-
nefs or obfeurity of that perception, and not in the clear¬
nefs or obfcuiity of the ideas themfelves. A man (for
indance) that has a clear idea of the angles of a triangle,
and of equality to two right ones, may yet have but an
obfeure perception of their agreement; and fo have but
a very obfeure knowledge of it. But obfeure and con-
H Y S I C S.
fufed ideas can never produce any clear or didimd know¬
ledge ; becaufe, as far as any ideas are obfeure or con*
fufed, fo far the mind can never perceive clearly whether
they agree or difagree.
Of the extent of human knowledge.
From what has been faid concerning knowledge, it
follows, Firjl, That, we can have no knowledge farther
than we have ideas.
Secondly, That we have no knowledge farther than we
can have perception of that agreement or difagreement
of our ideas, either by intuition, demonfiration, or Jen-
fatipn. -
Thirdly, We cannot have an intuitive knowledge that
fhall extend itfelf to all our ideas, and all that we would
know about them, becaufe we cannot examine and per¬
ceive all the relations they have one to another, byjuxta-
pofition, or an immediate comparifon one with another.
Thus we cannot intuitively perceive the equality of two
extenfions, the difference of whole figures makes their
parts incapable of an exaft immediate application.
Fourthly, Our rational knowledge cannot reach to the
whole extent of our ideas; becaufe between two different
ideas mt would examine, we cannot always find fuch
pro'ofs as we can connect one to another, with an intui¬
tive knowledgesx\ all the parts of the deduction.
Fifthly, Senjitive knowledge reaching no farther than
the exiftence of things actually prefent to our fenfes, is
yet much narrower than either of the former.
Sixthly, 'From all which it is evident, that the extent
of our knowledge, comes not only fhort of the reality of
things, but even of the extent of our own ideas. We
have the ideas of a fquare, a circle, and equality ; and
yet, perhaps, fhall never be able to find a circle equal to
a fquare.
The affirmations or negations we make concerning the
ideas \vt have, being reduced to "the four forts above
mentioned, viz. identity, coexijlence, relation, and real
exijlence, we fhall examine how far our knowledge extends
in each of thefe.
Firjl, As to identity and diverfity, our intuitive know¬
ledge is as far extended as our themfelves ; and
there can be no idea in the mind, which it does not pre-
fently, by an intuitive knowledge, perceived to be what
it is, and to be different from any other.
Secondly, As to the agreement or difagreement of our
ideas in coexijlence: In this our knowledge is very Ihort;
though in this confifts the greateft and moll material part
of our knowledge, coxicoxx\\x\g fuhfiances. Yoxonx ideas
of fubjlances being nothing but certain collegians ofjim-
ple ideas, coexijling in one fubjecl, (our idea of flame,
for inflance, is a body hot, luminous, and moving up¬
ward ;) when we would know anything famer con¬
cerning this, or any other fort of fubftance, what do we
but inquire what other qualities or powers thefe fubftan-
ces have, of have not ? Which is nothing elfe but to
know what other fi-mple ideas do or do not coexijl with
thofe that make up that complex idea. The reafon of
this is, becaufe the fimple ideas which make up our com¬
plex ideas of fubllances, have no vifible neceffary con-
' neftion .
M E T A P H Y S I C S.
ncdtion or incorififtence with other fimple ideas whofe
coexiftence with them we would inform ourfelves about.
Thefe ideas being likewife, for the moll part, fecondary
qualities, which depend upon the primary qualities
of their minute or infenfible parts, or on fomething yet
more remote from our comprehenfion, it is impoflible we
fhould know which have a neceflary union or inconfiltency
one with another, fince we know not the root from whence
they fpringr'br the fize, figure, and texture of parts on
which they depend, and from which they refult.
Befides this, there is no difcoverableconnettionhzKviztn
any feeondary quality, and thofe primary qualities that it
depends on. We are fo far from knowing what figure,
fize, or motion produces (for inftance) &yellewcofour, or
fweet tajle, or a Jharp found, that we can by no means
conceive how anyJize, figure, or motion can pollibly pro¬
duce in us the idea of any colour, tajle, or found what-
foever ; and there is no conceivable connexion between
the one and the other.
Our kno wledge therefore of coexiftence reaches little
farther than Some few, indeed, of the
mary qualities have a neceffary dependence and vifible con¬
nection one with another; as nectflarily fuppofes
exlenfion, receiving or communicating motion by impulfe
fuppofes folidity. But qualities coexiftent in any fub-
jeCt, without this dependence and connection, cannot cer¬
tainly be known to coexift any farther than experience by
our fenfes informs us. Thus, though upon trial we find
gold yellow, weighty, malleable, fufible, and fixed, yet-
becaufe none of thefe have any evident dependence or ne-
ceflary connection with the other, we cannot certainly
know that where any four of thefe are, the fifth will be
there alfo, how highly probable foever it maybe: But
the higheft degree olprobability amounts not to certain¬
ty ; without which there can be no,true knowledge: For
this coexiftence can be no furtherknown, than it is percei¬
ved; and it cannot be perceived, but either, in particu¬
lar fubjeCts, by the bbfervation of our fenfes, or, in
general, by the necqfiary connection of the ideas thera-
felves.
As to incompatibility, or repugnancy to coexijlence, we
may know that any fubjeCt can have of each fort of pri¬
mary qualities but one particular at once, oneextenfion,
one figure ; and fo of fenfible ideas, peculiar to each
fenfe: for whatever of each kind is prefent in any fub-
jeCt, excludes all other of that fort; for inftance, one
fubjeCt cannot have two fmells or two colours at the fame
time.
As to powers of fubjlances, which make a great part
of our inquiries about them, and are no inconfiderable
branch of our knowledge ; our knowledge as to thefe
reaches little farther than experience; becaufe they con-
fift in a texture and motion of parts which we cannot
by any means come todifcover. Experienced that wlhch
in this part we muft depend on; and it were to be wiflied
that it were more improved.
As to the third fort, the agreement or difagreemcnt of
our ideas in any other relation, this is the largeft field of
knowledge, and it is hard to determinate how far it may
extend. This part depending on our fagacity in finding
intermediate ideas that may (hew the habitudes and re-
Vol. III. Numb. 77. 2
193
lations of ideas, it is an hard matter totell when we are at
the end of fuch difcoveries. They that are ignorant of
algebra, cannot imagine the wonders in this kind that
are to be done by it; and what farther improvements
and helps advantageous to other parts of knowledge the
fagacious mind of man may yet find out, it is not eafy
to determine. The ideas of quantity are not thole alone
that are capable of demonftration and knowledge; other,
and perhaps more ufeful parts of contemplation, would
undoubtedly afford us certainty, if vices, palfions, and do¬
mineering intereft, did not opppfe or menace endeavours of
this kind
The idea of a Supreme Being, infrirtz in power, good-
nefs, and wifdom, whofe workmanfhip we are, and on
whom we depend ; and the idea of ourfelves, as under-
ftanding rational creatures ; would, if duely confidered,
afford fuch foundations of Our duty, and rules of aflion,
as might place morality among .the faiences capable of
demonftration. The relations of other modes may cer¬
tainly be perceived, as well as thofe of number and ex-
tenfion. Where there'is no property, there is no injuf- -
ties, is a propofition as certain as any demonftration in
Euclid: for the idea of property being a right to any
thing; and the idea of injujlice being the invafion or
violation of that right; it is evident, that thefe ideas being
thus eftablifhed, and thefe names annexed to them, we can
as certainly know this propofition to be true, as that a
triangle has three angles equal to two right ones. A-
gain, No government allows abfolute liberty. The idea
of government being the eftablifhment of fociety upon
certain rules or laws which require conformity to them,
and the idea of abfolute liberty being for any one to do
whatever he pleafes, we are as capable of being certain of
the truth of this propofition, as of any in mathematicks.
What has_given the advantage to the ideas of quality,
and made them thought more capable of certainty and de¬
monftration, is,
Firfi, That they can be reprefented by fenfible marks
which have a nearer correfpondence with them than any
words or founds. Diagrams drawn on paper are copies
of the ideas, and not liable to the uncertainty that words
carry in their fignification : But we have no fenfible marks
that referable our moral ideas, and nothing but words to
exprefs them by; which though when written they re¬
main the fame, yet the ideas they ftand for m?y change
in the fame man; and it is very feldom that they are not
different in different perfons.
Secondly, Moral ideas are commonly more complex
than figures. Whence thefe two inconveniences follow :
Firjl, That their names are of more uncertain fignifica¬
tion ; the precife collection of Ample ideas they ftand for
not being fo eafily agreed on, and fo the fign that is ufed
for them in communication always, and in thinking often,
does not fte^dily carry with it the fame idea. Secondly,
The mind cannot eafily retain thofe precife combinations
fo exactly and perfectly as is neceffary ; in the examina¬
tion of the habitudes and correfpondencies, agreements
or difagreements of feveral of them one with another, e-
fpecially where it is to be judged off by long deductions,
and the intervention of feveral other complex ideas, to
Ihew the agreement or difagreement of two remote ones.
3 C Now
194 M E T A P 1
Now one part of'thefe difadvantages in moral iclsas,
which has made them be thought not capable of demon-
ftration, may in a good meafure be remedied by defini¬
tions, fziimg down that colle&ion of fimple ideas which
every term fhaJl hand for, and then ufing the terms Ilea-
dily and conftantly for that precife colledUon.
As to the fourth fort of knowledge, viz. of the real
a final exijlence of things, we have an intuitive know¬
ledge of our own exifence ; a demonjlrative knowledge
of the exijleni'e of God ; and a fenfili've knowledge of the.
objefts that prefent themfelves to our fenfes.
From what has been faid, we may diicover the caufes
of our ignorance-, which are chiefly thefe three : Firft,__
Want of; Secondly, Want of adifcoverable connec¬
tion beween the ideas we have: Thirdly, Waiftof tracing
and examining our ideas..
Firf, There are fome things we are ignorant of for
want of ideas. All the fimple ideas we have are confi¬
ned to the obfervations of our fenfes, and the operations
of our own minds that we are confcious of in ourfelves.
What other ideas it is poffible other creatures may have,
by the afliftance of other fenfes and faculties more or
perfefter than we have, or different from ours, it is not
for us to determine; but to fay or think there are no
fuch, becaufe we conceive nothing of them, is no better an
argument, than if a.blind man fhould be pofitive in it,
that there was no fuch thing as fight and colours, becaufe
he had no manner of idea of any fuch thing. What fa¬
culties therefore other fpecies of creatures have to pene*
trate into the nature and inmoft conftitutions of things,
we know not. This we know, and certainly find, that we
want other views of them, befides thofe we have, to make
difcoveries of them more perfeft. The intellectual and
fenftble world are in this perfectly alike, that the parts
which we fee of either of them, hold no proportion with
that we fee not; and whatfoever w^e can reach with our
eyes or our thoughts of either of them, is but a point ai-
moQ hothing in comparifon of the reft.
Another great caufe of ignorance, is the ‘want of i-
deas that we are capable of This keeps us in igno¬
rance of things we conceive capable of being known.
Bulk, figure, and motion we have ideas of; yet not
knowing what is the particular bulk, motion, and figure
of the greateft part of the bodies of the Univerfe, we are
ignorant of the feveral powers, efficacies, and ways of
operation, whereby the effeAs we daily fee are produced.
Thefe are hid from us in fome things, by being too re
viote ; in otheTs, by being too minute.
When we confider the vaft diftance of the known and
vifible parts of the world,’and the reafons we have to
think that what lies within our ken is but a fmall part
of the immenfe univerfe, we ffialf then difcover an huge
abyfs of ignorance. What are the particular fabricks of
the .great mafles of matter, which make up the whole ftu-
penduous frame of corporeal beings ; bow far they are
extended; and what is their motion, and how continued ;
and what influence they have upon one another; are, con¬
templations, that at firft glimpfe our thoughts lofe them¬
felves in. If we confine our thoughts to this little fy-
ftem of our fun, and the grofler maffes' of matter that vi-
£bly n*)ve about it; what feveral forts of vegetables,
M Y S I C S.
animals, and intelleAual corporeal beings, infinitely dif¬
ferent rrom thofe ot our little fpoc of earth, may-probably
be in other planets, to the knowledge of which, even of
their outward figures and parts, .'we can no .way attain,
whilft we are confined to mis earth, there being no na¬
tural means, either by lenlation or refleAion, to convey
their certain ideas into our minds?
There arc other bodies in the- univerfe, no lefs con*
cealed from us by th;ir inimitenejs. Thefe infenfible
corpufcles being the adive parts of matter, and the great
inttruments of nature on which depend all their fecondury
qualities and operations, our want of precife diftind ideas
of their primary qualities keeps us in incurable igno¬
rance of what we defire to know about them. Did we
know the mechanical affedions of rhubarb and opium, we
might aseahly account for their operations of purging or
caujhig Jleep, as .a watchmaker can for the motions of
his watch. The difiblving oifiUzv \n aqua fortis, or
gold in aqua regia, and not vice verfa, -would be then;
perhaps, no more diflicult to know, than it is to afmith
to underftand why the turning of one key will open a lock,
and not the turning of another. But whilft we aredefti-
tute of fenles acute enough to difcover the minute parti¬
cles of bodies, and to give us ideas of their mechanical af-
fedions, we mult be content to be ignorant of their pro¬
perties and operations: Nor can we be affured about
them any farther than fome few trials we make are able
to reach ; but whether they will fucceed again another
time, we cannot be certain. This hinders our certain
knowledge of univerlal truths concerning natural bodies ;
and our reafon carries us herein very little beyond parti¬
cular matters of fad. And therefore, how far foever hu¬
man induftry may advance ufeful and experimental phi-
lofophy in phyfical things, yet fcier.tifical Will ftill be out of
our reach; becaufe we want perfed and adequate ideas of
thofe very bodies which are neareft to us, andmoft under
our command.
This, at iirft fight, ffiews us how difproportionate bur
knowledge is to the whole extent, even of material be¬
ings ; to which if we add the confideration of that infinite
number offpirits that may be, and probably are, which are
yet more remote from our knowledge, whereof we have
no cognizance ; we ffiall find this caufe of ignorance con¬
ceal from us, in an impenetrable obfcurity, almoft the
whole intellsflual world, a^reater certainly, and a more
beautiful world than the m'tterial: For bating fome very
few ideas of fpirit we get from our own mind by reflec¬
tion, and from thence the heft we cancelled of the Father
of all fpirits, the Author of them and us and all things,
we have no certain information fo much as of the exift-
ence of other, fpirits but by revelation ; much lefs have
we diftind ideas of their different natures, ftates, powers,
and feveral conftitutions, wherein they agree or differ one
from another, and from us : And therefore in what con¬
cerns their different fpecies'and properties, we are undef
an abfolute ignorance.
The fecond caufe of ignorance, is the want of difeo'-
verable connexion between thofe ideas we have : Where
-we want that, we are utterly incapable of univerfal and
certain knowledge: and are, as in the former cafe, left
Only to obfervation and experiment. Thus the mecha¬
nical
M E T A P H
nlca! afFect’iOHS of bodies having no affinity at all with the
ideas they produce in us, we can have no^diltinft know¬
ledge of iuch operation? beyond our experience ; and can
feafon no oth'erwife about them, than as the effects or.
appoin’tnent of an infinitely nvife agent, whiclj perfectly
furpafs our compreheanfions. , '
Toe operation of our minds upon our bodies, is as in¬
conceivable. How Any though fhould produce a motion
in is as remote from the nature of our ideas, as
how any body fhould produce any thought in the mind.
That it is fo, if experience did not convince us, the con-
fideration of the things themfeives would never be able
in the leaf! todifcover to us.
In feme of our ideas there are certain relations, habi¬
tudes, and connexions, fo vifibly included in the nature
of the ideas themfeives, that we cannot conceive them
feparahle from them by any power whatfoever: In thefe
only we are capable of certain and univerfal knowledge.
Thus the idea of a right lined triangle, necdiarily car¬
ries wish it an equality of its angles to two right ones.
But the coherence and continuity of the parts of matter,
the produXion of fenfation in us of colours and founds,
&c. by impulfe and motion, being fuch whereii\vve can
difeever no natural connexion with any ideas We have,
we cannot but aferibe them to the arbitrary will and good
pleafure of the wife ArchiteX.
The things that' we obferve conflantly to proceed re¬
gularly, we may conclude to aX by a law fet them ; but
yet by a law that we know not; whereby, though caufes
work (teadily, and effeXs conflanfly flow from them, yet
their connexions and dependencies being not difcoverable
in bur ideas, we can have but an experimental knowledge
of them.
The third caufe of-ignorance, is our want of tracing
thofe ideas we have or may have, and finding out thofe
intermediate ideas which may {hew us what habitude'of
agreement or difagreement they may have one with ano¬
ther : And thus many are ignorant of mathematical truths,
for want of application in inquiring, examining, and by
due ways comparing thofe ideas.
Hitherto we have examined the extent of our know¬
ledge, in refpeX of the feveral forts of beings that are:
There is another extent of it, in refpeX of univerfality,
which will alio deferve to be confidered ; and in this re¬
gard our knowledge follows the nature of our ideas. If
the ideas are abjlratt, whofe agreement or difagreement
we perceive, cur knowledge is univerfal. For what is
known of fuch'general ideas, will be true of every par* •
ticular thing in which ihn ejfencc, that is, abftratt idea, is
to be found : And what is once known of luch ideas,
will be perpetually, and for ever true. So that, as to all
general knowledge, we muftfearch and find it only in our
own minds : And it is only the examining of our own i-
deas that furnilhes us with that. Truths belonging to
eflences of things, (that is, to abjlratt ideas), are e-
ternal, and are to be found out by the contemplation only
of thofe eflences, . as the exiftence of things is to be known
only from experience.
Of the reality of our knowledge.
Th e reader by ■ this time may be ready to objeX, If
Y S I C S. . ips
it be true, that qjl knowledge lies only in the perception
of the agreement or difagreement of our own ideas, the
vifions of an enthuftaf, and the reafonings 61a fob:rn\iX\t
will be equally ceitain : It is no matter how things are,
fo a man oblei ve but the agreement of his own imagina¬
tions, and talk conformably ; it is all truth, all certainty.
To this it is anfvvered, that if our knowledge, of our
ideas fhould terminate in them, and reach no farther,
where there is fomething farther intended, our mod fe-
ribus thoughts would'be of little more ufe than the re¬
veries nl a crazy brain. But it is evident, that this way
ol certainty, by the knowledge of our own ideas, goes
a little farther than bare imagination : and that all the
certainty of general truths a man has, lies in nothing-elfe
but this knowledge of our ideas.
It is evident, that the mind knows not things immedi¬
ately, but by the intervention of the ideas it has of them.
Our knowledge therefore is real, only fo far as there is a
conformity between-our ideas and the reality of things.
But how fltall we knov/ when our ideas agree with things
themfeives l There are two forts of ideas, that we may
be alfured agree with things: Thefe are,
Firjl, Simple ideas^, which fince the miqd can by no
means make to itfelf, mud be the effect of things ope¬
rating upon the mind in a natural way, and producing
therein thofe perceptions, which, by the will of our
Maker, they are ordained and adapted to. Hence it fol¬
lows, that fimple ideas are not fiXibns of our fancies,
but the natural and regular produAionsf of things without
us, really operating upon us ; which carry with them all
the conformity our date requires, which is to reprefent
things under thofe appearances they are fitted to produce
in us. Thus tjieidea olwhitenejs, as it is in the mind,.
exaXly anfwers that power which is in any body to pro¬
duce it there. And this, conformity between omfmple
ideas, and the exidence of things, is fufficient for real
knowledge.
Secondly, Ail our complex ideas, except thofe of fab¬
idances, being archetypes of the'mind’s own making, and
not referred to the exidence of things as to their ori-
ginafs, cannot want any conformity neceffary to real
know! dge: For that which is not defigned to reprefent
any thing but jtfelf, can never be capable of a wrong re-
prefentation. Here the ideas themfeives are confidered
as archetypes, and things no other-wife regarded than as ‘
they are conformable to them. Thus (ho mathematician
confiders the truth and properties belonging tb Arettangle,
or circle^ only as they are ideas in his own mind, which
poflibly he never found exiding' mathematically, that is,
precifely true ; yet his knowledge is not only certain, but
real\ becaufe real things are no farther concerned, nor
intended to be meant by any fuch propofitions, than as
things really agree to thofe archetypes in his mind. It
is true of the idea of a triangle, that its three angles are
equal to two right ones : It is true alfo of a triangle,
wherever it exifts; What is true of thofe figures, that
have barely ao ideal exidence in his mind, will hold true
of them alfo when they come to have a real exidence in
n alter.
Hence it follows, that wen?/knowledge is as capable
of real certainty as matkanaticks.: For certainty being
nothing
METAPHYSICS.
196
nothing but the perception of the agreement or difagree-
ment of our ideas, and demonftration nothing but the
perception of fuch agreement by the intervention of other
ideas, our moral ideas, as well as mathematical, being
archetypes themfelves, and fo adequate or complete
deas, all the agreement or difagreement we fhall find in
them will produce real knowledge, as well as in mathe¬
matical figures i That which is requifite to make our
knowledge certain, is^the clearhefs of our ideas ; and that
which is required to make it is, that they anfwer
their archetypes.
Thirdly, But the complex ideas, which we refer to
archetypes without us, may differ from them, and fo our
knowledge about them nray come fhort of being real ;
and fuch are oxn ideas of fubjlances. Thefe mult be ta¬
ken from fomething that does or has exited, and not be
madeup df ideas arbitrarily put together, without any real
pattern. Herein, therefore, is founded the reality of
our knowledge concerningthat all our com¬
plex' ideas of them muft be fuch, and fuch only, as are
made up of fuch Gmple ones as have been difeovered to
coexift in nature. And our ideas being thus true, tho’
not perhaps very exadt copies, are the fubjefts of the
real knowledge of them. Whatever ideas we have, the
agreement we find they have with others will be know¬
ledge. If thofe ideas be abftradt, it will be general
knowledge. But to make it real coxsczrarngfubjlances,
the ideas muft be taken from the real exigence of things.
Wherever, therefore, we perceive the agreement or dif¬
agreement of our ideas, there is certain knowledge:
And wherever we are fure thofe ideas agree with the
reality of things, there is certain real knowledge.
Of truth in general.
Truth, in the proper import of the word, fignifies
the joining or feparating of figns, as the things fignified
by them do agree or difagree one with another. The
joining or feparating of figns, is what we call propofi-
tions ; lb that truth properly belongs only to propofuions:
Whereof there are two. forts, rhental and verbal; as
there arg two forts of figns commonly made ufe of, i-
deas and words.
It is difficult to treat of mesital propofitions without
verbal; becaufe, in fpeaking of mental, we muft make
ufe of words, and then they become verbal. Again, men
commonly in their thoughts and reafonings ufe words
inftead of ideas; efpecially if the fubjeft of their medita¬
tion contains in it complex ideas. If we haveoccafion to
form mental propofitions about white, black, circle, See.
we can, and often do, frame in our minds thethem¬
felves, without refle&ing on the names : But when we
would confider, or make propofitions about the more corn-
flex ideas, as of a man, vitriol, fortitude, glory, &c.
we dually put the name for the idea ; becaufe the idea
thefe names Hand for being for the moft part confufed,
imperfedt, and undetenqined, we refledt on the names
themfelves, as being more clear, certain, and diftindt,
and readier to occur to our thoughts, than pure ideas ;
and.fo we make ufe of thefe •u;o/-fl’/4nftead of thf ideas
themfelves, even when we would meditate and reafon
ivithin ourfdves, and make tacit mentalpropefitions.
We muft then obferve two forts 0$propofitions that we
are capable of making : Firft, Mental propofitions, where¬
in the ideas fin our underftandings are put together or
feparated by the mind perceiving or judging of their a-
greement or difagreement. Secondly, Verbal proportions’,
which are words put together or feparated in affirmative
or negative fentehces : So that propefition confifts in join¬
ing or feparatingffigns ; and truth confifts in putting to¬
gether or feparating thefe figns, according as the things
they (land for agree or difagree.
Truth, as well as knowledge, may well come under
the diftindtion of verbal zn&real', that being only verbal
truth, wherein terms are joined according to the. agree¬
ment or difagreement of the ideas they Hand for, without
regarding whether our ideas are fuch as really have or are
capable of having ap exiftence in nature. But then it is
they ,contain real fra//;, when thefe figns are joined as
our ideas agree : and when our ideas are Inch as, we know,
are capable of having an exiftence in nature ; which in fub-
ftances we cannot know, but by knowing that fuch have
exifted. Truth is the marking down in words the a-
greement or difagree-ment of ideas as it is : Falfehood is
the marking down in words the agreement or difagree¬
ment of ideas otherwife than it is; aqd fp for as thefe
ideas, thus marked by founds, agree to their archetypes,
fo far only is the truth real. The knowledge of this
truth confifts in knowing what ideas the words Hand for,
and the perception of the agreement or difagreement of^
thofe ideas, according as it is marked by thofe words.
Befides truth taken in the ftribt fenfe before mentioned,
there are other forts of truths ; As, firft. Moral truth ;
which is fpeaking things according to the perfuafion of our
own minds. Secondly, Metaphyfical truth ; which is
nothing but the real exiftence of things conformable to the
ideas to which we have annexed their names.
Thefe confiderations of truth either having been before
taken notice of, or not being much to our prefent pur-
pofe, it mayfuffice here only to have mentioned them.
Of our knowledge of*exiftence.
Hitherto we have only confidered the e(fences of
things ; which being only abfiratt ideas, and thereby re¬
moved in our thoughts from particular exiftence, give us
no knowledge of exiftence nr. all. We proceed now to in¬
quire concerning our knowledge of the exiftence of things,
and how we come by it.
We have the knowledge of our own exiftence by
intuition ; of the exiftence of God, by demonftration;
and of other things, by fenfation. As for our own
exiftence, we perceive it fo plainly, that it neither
needs, nor is capable of any proof. I think, I reafon,
1 feel plsafure and pain : can any of thefe be more evident
to me than my own exiftence? If I doubt of all other
things, that very doubt makes me perceive my own exift¬
ence, and will not fuffer me to doubt of that. If I know
I doubt, I have as certain a perception of thing doubt¬
ing, as of that thought which I call doubt. Experience
then convinces us, that we have an intuitive knowledge of
our own exiftence-, and an internal infallible perception
that we are. In every a<ft of fenfation,' reaioning, or
thinking, we are confcious to ourfelyes of our own being ;
M E T A P
and in this matter come not (hort of thehigheft degree of
certainty.
Of our knowledge of the exiflence of a God.
Though God has given us no innate ideas of himfeif,
yet having furniihed us with thofe faculties our minds are
endowed with, he hath not left hintfelf without a wit-
nefs, fince we have fenfe, perception, and reafon, and
cannot want a clear proof of him as long as we carry
ourfelves about us. Nor can we juftly complain of our
ignorance in this great point, fince he has fo plentifully
provided us with means to difcover and know him, fo
far as is neceflary to the end of our being, and the great
concernment of our happinefs. But though this be the
mod obvious truth that reafon difcovers, yet it requires
thought and attention ; and the mind mart apply itfelfto
a regular deduction of it, from fome part of our intuitive
knowledge; or elfe we (hall be as ignorant of this, as of
other propofitions which are in themlelves capableof clear
demonllration. To (hew, therefore, that we are capable
of knowing, that is, being certain, ihzx. there is a God,
and how we may come by this certainty, we need go no
farther that ourfelves, and that undoubted knowledge we
have of our own exiflence. It is beyond quedion, that
man has a clear perception of his own being: He knows
certainly that he exids, and that he is fomething. In
the next place, man knows by an intuitive certainty, that
bare nothing can no more produce any real being, than
it can be equal to two right angles. If therefore, we
know there is fome real being, it is an evident demon-
dration, that from eternity there has been fomething;
fince what was not from eternity haa a beginning; and
what had a beginning, mud be produced by fomething
elfe. Next, it is evident, that what has its being from
another, mujl alfo have all that which is in and belongs
to its being from another too : All the powers it has,
mud be owing to, and received from the fame fource.
This eternal fource then of all being mud be alfo the
fource and original of all power ; and fo this eternal Being
mud be alfp the moft powerful.
Again, man finds in himfeif perception and knowledge :
We are certain, then, that there is not only fome being,
but fome knowing intelligent being in the world. There
was a time, then, when there was no knowing being, or
elfe there has been a knowing being from eternity. If
it be faid, there was a time when that eternal being had
no knowledge; the reply is, that then it is impoflible
there fliould have ever been any knowledge; it being as
impoflible that things wholly void of knowledge, and o-
perating blindly, and without any perception, ftiould pro¬
duce a knowing being, as it is that a triangle Ihould make
itfelf three angles bigger than two right ones.
Thus from the confideration of ourfelves, and what we
infallibly find in our oivn conditutions, our reafon leads
us to the knowledge of this certain and evident truth, that
there is ait eternal, mojl powerful, and knowing be¬
ing-, and from this idea duly confidered, will eafily be
deduced all thofe other attributes we ought to aferibe
to this eternal being.
From what has been faid, it is plain, we have a more
certain knowledge of the exiftence of a God, than of any
Vox. III. N°, 77. z
H Y S I C S. i?7
thing our fenfes have not immediately difeovered to us;
nay, that we more certainly know that phere is a God,
than that there is any thing elfe without us.
It being then unavoidable for all rational creatures to
conclude, that fmething has exijledfrom eternity : let us
next fee what kind ofthing that mud be. There are but two
two fjrts of beings in the world, that man knows or con¬
ceives . Firjl, Such as are purely material, without fenfe
or perception, as the clippings of our beards, and parings
of our nails. Secondly, Senfible perceiving beings ; fuch
as we find ourfelves to be. Thefe two forts we lhall
hereafter call cogitative and incogitative beings : Which
to our prefent purpofe are better than material and /V/r-
m aterial.
If then there mud be fomething eternal, it is very ob¬
vious to reafon, that it mud neceflarily be a cogitative
being; becaufe it is as impoflible to conceive that ever
bare incogitative matter fhould produce a thinking in¬
telligent being, as that nothing ihould of itfelf produce
matter. Let us fuppofe any parcel of matter eternal, we
Avail find it in itfelf unable to produce any thing. Let
us fuppole its parts firmly at red together : If there were
no other being in the world, mud it not,eternally remain
fo, a dead unadive lump ? Is it poflibieto conceive it can
add motion to itfelf, or produce any thing ? Matter
then by its own drength cannot produce in itfelf fo much
as motion. The motion it has mud alfo be from eter¬
nity, or elfe added to matter by fome other being more
powerful than matter. But let us fuppofe motion eternal
too; yet matter, incogitative matter and motion, could
never produce thought : Knowledge will dill be as far
beyond the power of motion and matter to produce, as
matter is beyond the power of nothing to produce. Di¬
vide into as minute parts as you will, vary the fi¬
gure and motion of it as much as you pleafe, it will ope¬
rate no otherwife upon other bodies of proportionable
bulk, than it did before this divifion. The minuted
particles of matter knock, impel, and refid one another,
jud as the greater do; and that is all they can do. So
that if we will fuppofe nothing eternal, matter can ne¬
ver begin to be : If we fuppofe bare matter without mo¬
tion eternal, motion can never begin to be : If we fup¬
pofe only matter and' motion eternal, thought can never
h/gin to be: For it is impoflible to conceive t^iat matter,
either with or without motion, could have originally, in
and from itfelf fenfe, perception, and knowledge ; as is
evident from hence, that then fenfe, perception and know¬
ledge, raud be a property eternally infeparable from mat¬
ter and every particle of it. Since therefore whatfoe-
ver is the fird eternal being, mud neceflarily be cogi¬
tative ; and whatfoever is fird of all things, mud necef-
farily contain in it, and actually have, at lead all the
perfedions that can ever after exid, it neceflarily follows,
that the frfl eternal being cannot be matter.
If therefore it be evident that fomething nectflarily •
mud exid from eternity, it is alfo evident, that that
fomething mujl neceffarily be a cogitative being: For it
is as impoflible that incogitative matter fliould produce a
cogitative being, as that nothing, or the negation of all
being, fhould produce a pofitive being or mutter.
This difeovery of the neceffary exidence of an Eternal
3 D Mind,
METAPHYSICS.
198
mind does fufficiently lead us into the knowledge of
God. For it will hence follow, that all other know¬
ing beings that have a beginning muft depend on him,
and have no other ways of knowledge or extent of
power than what he gives them ; and therefore if he
made thofe, he made alfo the lefs excellent pieces of
this univerfe, all inanimate bodies, whereby his omni-
fcience. power, and providence, will be eftablifhed j^nd
from thence all his other attributes neceffarily follow.
Of our knowledge of the cxifcnce of other things.
The knowledge of our own being wc have by intuition:
The exigence of a God, reafon dsarly makes known to
us. The knowledge of the exifence of any other thing,
we can have only by fenfation; for there being no ne-
ceffary connexion of real exiftence with any idea a man
hath in his memory; nor„of any other exiftence, but that
of God, with the exiftence of any particular man ; no
particular man can know the exiftence of any other being,
but o^Jy when, by adtually operating upon him, it makes
itfelf be perceived by him. The having the idea of any
thing in our mind, no more proves the exiftence of that
thing, than the pifture of a man evidences his being in
the world, or the vifions of a dream make thereby a true
hiftory. It is therefore theadtual receiving offrom
without, that gives us notice of the exiftence of other
things, and makes us know that fomething doth exift
at that time without us, which caufes that idea in us,
though perhaps we neither know nor confider how it
does it; for it takes not from the certainty of our
fenfes, and the ideas we receive by them, that we
know not the manner wherein they are produced. This
notice we have by our fenfes of the exifting of things
without us, though it be not altogether fo certain as
intuition and demonftration, deferves the name of know¬
ledge, if we perfuade ourfelves that our faculties adt and
inform us right concerning the exiftence of thofe objedfs
that affedt them. But befides the affurance we have from
our fenfes themfelves, that they do not err in the infor¬
mation they give us of the exiftence of things without us,
we hav^ other concurrent reafons: As, Firfl, It is plain
thofe perceptions are produced in us by exterior caufes af-
fedfing our fenfes, becaufe thofe that want the organs of
any fenfe never can have therideas belonging to that fenfe
produced in their minds. This is too evident to be doubt¬
ed^, and therefore we cannot but be affured, that they
• come in by the organs of that fenfe, and no other way.
Secondly, Becaufe we find fometimes that we cannot
avoid the having thofe ideas produced in our minds.
When my eyes are {hut, I can at pleafure recall to my
mind the ideas of light, or the fun, which former fen¬
fation? had lodged in my memory: But if I turn my eyes
towards the fun, I cannot avoid the ideas which the
light or the fun then produces in me. Which {hews a
manifeft difference between thofe ideas laid up in the
memory, and fuch as force themfelves upon us, and we
cannot avoid having. And therefore it muft needs be
fome exterior caufe, whole efficacy I cannot refift, that
produces thofe ideas \n my mind whether I will or no.
Befides, there is nobody who doth not perceive the
difference in himfelf, between adlually looking upon.the
fun, and contemplating the idea he has of it in his me¬
mory ; and therefore he hath certain knowledge, that
they are not both memory or fancjr, but that adtual feeing
has a caufe without.
Thirdly, Add to this, that many ideas are produced
in us with pain, which we afterwards remember without
the leaft offence. Thus the pain of heat or cold, when
the idea of it is received in our minds, gives us no dif-
turbance, which, when felt, was very troublefome ; and
we remember the pain of hunger, thirjl, head-ach, &c.
without any pain at all, which would either never difturb
ua, or elfe conftantly do it, as often as we thought of it,
were there nothing more but ideas floating in our minds,
and appearances entertaining our fancies, without the real
exiftence of things affedting us from abroad.
Fourthly, Our fenfes in many cafes bear witnefs to the
truth of each other’s report concerning the exiftence of
fenfible things without us : he that doubts when he fees
a fire, whether it be real, may, if he pleafe, feel it too ;
and by the exquifite pain he will be convinced, that it is
not a bare idea or phantom.
If after all this, any one will be fo fceptical, as to
diftruft his fenfes, and to queftion the exiftence of all
things, or our knowledge of any thing, let him confider
that the certainty of things exifting in rerum natura, when
we have the teftimony of our fenfes for it, is not only as
great as our frame can attain to, but as our condition needs.
For our faculties being not fuited to the full extent of
being, nor a clear coraprehenfive knowledge ©f all things,
but to the prefervation of us in whom they are, and ac¬
commodated to the ufe of life ; they ferve our purpofe
well enough, if they will but give us certain notice of
thofe things that are convenient or inconvenient to us :
For he that fees a candle burning, and has experimented
the force of the flame, by putting his finger in it, will
little doubt that this is fomething exifting without him
which does him harm, and puts him to pain ; which is
aflurance enough ; when no man requires greater certain¬
ty to govern his addons by, than what is as certain as his
adtions themfelves : So that this evidence is as great as
we can defire, being as certain to us as our p'eafure or
pain, that is, happinefs or mifery ; beyond which we have
no concernment either of knowing or being.
In fine, when our fenfes doth adtually convey into our
underftandings any idea, .we are aflured that there is
fomething at that time really exifting without us. But
this knowledge extends only as far as the prefent tefti¬
mony of our fenfes, employed about particular objedls,
that do then affedt them, and no farther. My feeing a
man a minute fince, is no certain argument of his prefent
exiftence.
As when our Jenfes are adlually employed about any
objedt, we know that it does exift ; fo by our memory
we may be alfured, that heretofore things that affedt-
ed our fenfes have exifled: And thus u'e have the
knowledge of the part exiftence of feveral things- whereof
our fenfes having informed us, our memories ftill retain
the ideas', and of this we are paft all doubt, fo long as
we remember well.
As to the exiftence of fpirits, our having ideas of
them does net make us knevvthat any fuch things do .exift
without
METAPHYSICS.
without us, or that there are any 'finite fpirits, or any
other fpiritual beings but the eternal God. We have
ground from revelation, and Teveral other reafons, to
believe with affurance, that there are fuch creatures :
But our fenfes not being able to difcover them, we
-want the means of knowing their particular exiften'ce ;
for we can no more know that there at finite fpirits real¬
ly exifting, by the ideas we have of fuch beings, than
by the ideas any one has of fairies,' or centaurs, he can
come to know, that things anfwering thofe ideas do really
cxift.
Hence we may gather, that there are t<wo forts of
propofitions : One concerning the exigence of any thing
anfwerable to fuch an idea, as that of an elephant, phoe¬
nix, motion, or angel, viz. whether fuch a thing does
any where exift: And this knowledge is only of particu¬
lars, and not to be had of any thing without us, but only
of God, any other way than by our fenfes.
Another fort of propofition is, wherein is expreffedthe
agreement or difagreement of our abflratt ideas, and
their dependance one on another And thefe may be
univerfal and certain : fo having the idea of God and my
felf, of fear and obedience, I cannot but be fare that God
is to be feared and obeyed by me: and this propofition will
be certain concerning man in general, if I have made an
abflratt idea of fuch a fpecies, whereof I am one particular.
But fuch propofition, how certain foever, proves not to
me the exigence of men in the world ; but will be true
of all fuch creatures, whenever they do exift : which cer¬
tainty of fuch general propofitions, depends on the agree¬
ment or difagreement difcoverable jn thofe abfiradl ideas.
In the former cafe, our knowledge is the confequence of
the exiftence of things producing ideas in our minds by
our fenfes : in the latter, the confequences of the ideas
that are in our minds, and producing thefe general pro¬
pofitions, many whereof are called eternee veritates :
and all of them indeed are fo ; not from being written all
or any of them in the minds of all men, or that they were
any of them propofitions in any one’s mind, till he, having
got the abftradl ideas, joined or feparated them by affirm¬
ation or negation; but wherefoever we can fuppofe fuch
a creature as man is, endowed with fuch faculties, and
thereby furniffied with ftich ideas as we have, we muft
conclude he mull: needs, when he applies his thoughts to
the confideration of his ideas, know the truth of certain
propofitions that will arife from the agreement or difagree¬
ment he will perceive in his own ideas. Such propofi¬
tions being once made about abflratl ideas, fo as to be
true, they will, whenever they can be fuppofed to be
made again, at any time paft, or to come, by a mind
having thofe ideas, always be true : for names being fup¬
pofed to ftand perpetually for the fame ideas, and the
fame ideas having immutably the fame habitudes one to
another, propofitions concerning any abjlradi ideas that
are once true muft needs be eternal verities.
Ofjudgment.
The underfianding faculties being given to man, not
barely for fpeculation, but alfo for the cohdutf of his life,
a man would be at a great lofs, if he had nothing to di-
red him but what has the certainty of true knowledge.
199
He that will not eat till he has demonftration that it will
nouriffi him, nor Jlir till he is infallibly affured of fuc-
cefs in his bufinefs, will have little elfeto do but fit fiill,
and periflo.
Therefore as God hath fet fome things in broad day¬
light; as he has given us fome certain knowledge, though
limited to a few things, in comparifon, (probably as a tafte
of what intellcttualcreatures are capable of, to excite in us
a defire and endeavour after a better ftate;) fo in the great-
eft part of our concernment, he has afforded us only the
twilight of probability, fuitable to that ftate of medio¬
crity and probationer/hip he has been pleafed to place us
in here.
The faculty which GWhas given man to enlighten him,
next to certain knowledge, is judgment; whereby the
mind takes its' ideas to agree ordifagree, without percei-
ing a demonftrative evidence in the proofs. The mind
exercifes this judgment fometimes out of necejfity, where
demonftrative proofs and certain knowledge are not to be
had ; and fometimes out of lazinefs, unfldlfulnefs, or
hafte, even where they are to be had.
This faculty of the mind, when it is exercifed immedi¬
ately about things, is called judgment-, when about truths
delivered in words, is moft commonly called ajfent or dif-
fent. Thus the mind has two faculties converfant about
truth and falfehood: Firft, Knowledge-, whereby it cer¬
tainly perceives, and is undoubtedly fatisfied of the agree¬
ment or difagreement of any ideas. Secondly, Judg¬
ment, which is the putting ideas together, or feparating
them from one another in the mind, when their certain
agreement or difagreement is not perceived, but prefu¬
med to be be fo. And if it fo unites or feparates them as
in reality things are, it is right judgment.
Of probability.
Probability is nothing but the appearance of the agree¬
ment or difagreement of two ideas, by the intervention of
prpofs, whofe connexion is not conftant and immutable,
or is'not perceived to be fo; but is or appears for the
moft part to be fo ; and is enough to induce the mind to
judge the propofition to be true or falfe, rather than the
contrary.
Of probability there are degrees, from the neighbour¬
hood of certainty and demonfiration, quite down to im*
probability and unlikdinefs, even to the confines of impof-
fibility: And alfo degrees of affent from certain know¬
ledge, and what is next it, full affurance and confidence,
quite down to conjedhire, doubt, diftruft, and dilbeliefi
That propofition then is probable, for which there are
arguments or proofs to make it pafs or be received for
true; The entertainment the mind gives to this fort of
propofitions, is called belief, ajfent, or opinion. Proba¬
bility then being to fuppty the defeft of our knowledge,
is always converfant about propofitions whereof we have
no certainty, but only fome inducements to receive them
for true. The grounds of it are, in ffiort, thefe two foN
lowing.
Firfl, The conformity of anything with our own know¬
ledge, experience, or obfervation.
Secondly, The tefimony of others, vouching their ob¬
fervation and experience. In'the tefimony of others is
20« M E T A P i:
to be confidered, Firfl, The number; Secondly, The in¬
tegrity; Thirdly, Thefldllof the witnefles; Fourthly, The
defign of the author, if it be a teftimony cited out of a
book; Fifthly, The confiftency of the parts and circum-
ttances of the relation; Sixthly, Contrary teftimonies.
The mind, before it rationally or dijjents to any
probable propofition, ought to examine all the grounds
oiprobability, and fee how they make, more or lefs, for or
againrt it; and upon a due balancing of the whole, rejedl
or receive it, with a more or lefs firm aJJ'ent, according
^o the preponderancy of the greater grounds of probabi~
lity on one fide, or the other.
Of the degrees of afent.
The grounds of probability, laid down in the forego
ing fe&ion, as they are the foundations on which our af
fent is built, fo are they alio the meafure whereby its
feveral degrees are (or ought to be) regulated. Only we
are to take notice, that no grounds of probability operate
any farther on the mind, which fearches after truth, and
endeavours to judge right, than they appear, at lead, in
the firft judgment or fearch that the mind makes. It is
indeed in many cafes impoflible, and in molt very hard,
even f<y thofe who have admirable memories, to retain all
the proofs which, upon a due examination, made them em¬
brace that fide of the queftion. It fuffices, that they have
once, with care and fairnefs, fifted the matter as far as
they could; and having once found on which fide the pro
lability appeared to them, they lay up the conclufion in
their memories, as a truth they have difcovered ; and for
the future remain fatisfied with the teftimony of their me¬
mories, that this is the opinion, that, by the proofs they
have once feen of it, deferves fuch a degree of their ajfent
as they afford it.
It is unavoidable then that the memory be relied on in
this cafe, and that men be perfuaded of feveral opinions,
whereof the proofs are not actually in their thoughts, nay,
which perhaps they are not able aftually to recall: With¬
out this the greateft part of men muft be either fceptics,
or change every moment, when any one offers them ar¬
guments which for want of memory, they are not prefent-
ly able to anfwer.
It muft be owned, that mens flicking to paft jugments,
is often the caufe of great objlinacy in error and miftake;
But the fault is not that they rely on their memories for
what they have before well judged, but becaufe they
judged before they had well examined. Who al-
moft is there that hath the leifure, patience, and means,
to colleft together all the proofs concerning moft of
the opinions he has, fo as fafely to cpnclude, that he
has a clear and full view, and that there is no more to
be alledged for his better information ? And yet we are
forced to determine ourfelves on one fide, or other: The
conduft of our lives, and the management of our great
concerns, will not bear delay: For thofe depend, for the
moft part, on the determination of our judgment in points,
wherein we are not capable of certain knowledge, and
wherein it is neceffary for us to embrace one fide or the
ether.
The propofitions we receive upon inducements of pro¬
bability, ate of two forts: Firjl, Concerning fomeparti-
t Y S I C S.
cular exiftence, or matter of fall, which falling under
our obfervation, is capable of human teftimony: Second¬
ly, Concerning things which, being beyond the difeovery
of our fenfes, are not capable of human teftimony.
Concerning the firft of thefe, viz. Particular matter
offad.
Firfl, Where any particular thing, confonaht to the
conftant obfervation of ourfelves, and others, in the like
cafe, comes attefted with the concurrent reports of all
that mention it, we receive it as eafily, and build as firm¬
ly upon it, as if it were certain knowledge. Thus, if all
Engliftomen, who have occafiou to mention it, Ihould re¬
port, that it froze in England laft winter, or the like, a
man would as little doubt of it, as that feven and four
are eleven.
The firft and higheft degree of probability then is, when
the genera! confent of all men, in all ages, as far as can
be known, concurs with a man’s own conftant experience
in the like cafes, to confirm the truth of any particular
matter of fa<ft, attefted by fair witnefies: Such are the ftated
confutations and properties of bodies, and the regular
proceedings of caufes and effetts in the ordinary courfe of
nature. This we call an argument from the nature of
things themfelves: For what we and others always ob-
ferve to be after the fame manner, we conclude with rea-
fon to be the effeits of fteady and regular caufes, though
they come not within the reach of our knowledge ; as that
fire warmed a man, or made leadfluid; that iron funk in
water, fwam in quickfilver. A relation affirming any fuch
thing to have been, or a predication that it will happen
again in the fame manner, is, received without doubt or
hefitation; and our belief thus grounded, rifes x.o ajfu,-
ranee.
Secondly, The next degree of probability, is when by
my own experience, and the agreement of all others that
mention it, a thing is found to be for the moft part fo;
and that the particular inftance of it is attefted by many
and undoubted nuitneffes. Thus hiftory giving us fuch an
account of men in all ages, and my own experience con¬
firming it, that moft men prefer their own private advan¬
tage to the public; if all hiftorians that write of Tibe¬
rius, fay that he did fo, it is extremely probable: And
in this cafe, our ajfent rifes to a degree which we may call
confidence.
Thirdly, In matters happening indifferently, as that a
bird fhould fly this or that way; when any particular mat¬
ter of fa<ft comes attefted by the concurrent teftimony of
unfufpeded •witnejfes, there our ajfent is alfo unavoidable.
Thus, that there is in Italy fuch a city as. Rome; that
about one thoufand and feven hundred years ago there
lived fuch a man in it as Julius Cxfar, &c a man caa
as little doubt of this, and the like, as he does of the be¬
ing and actions of his own acquaintance,, whereof he him-
felf is a witnefs.
Probability, on thefe grounds, carries fo much evidence
with it, that it leaves us as little liberty to believe or dif-
believe, as demonftration does, whether we will know or
be ignorant. But the difficulty is, when teftimonies con-
tradidl: common experience, and the reports of vvitneffes
ckfh with the ordinary courfe of nature, or with one a-
nother; here diligence, attention, and exadnefs,. is re¬
quired
M E T A F H
^-alred to'form a right judgment, and to proportion the
cjjent to the evidence and probability of the thing, which,
rifes and falls according as the two foundations of cre¬
dibility favour or contradict it* THefe are liable to fuch
variety of contrary obfervations, circumltances, reports,
•tempers, defigns, over-fight, ebr. of reporters, that it is
jmpoffible to reduce to precife rules the various degrees
wherein men give their affent. This in ’general rnay be
faid, that as the proofs, upon due examination, fhall to
any one appear in a greater orlefs degree to preponderate
on either fide, fo they are fitted to produce in the mind
fuch different entertainments, as are called belief, con-
jsliure, guefs, doubt, wavering, difrujl, dijbelief, &c»
It is a ra/e ^generally approved, that any teftimohy, the
•farther off it is removed from the original tyuth, the lefs
force it has : And in-, traditional truths, each remove
weakens the force of the proof. There-is 2:rule quite con¬
trary to this, advanced by lome men, who look on opi¬
nions \.a gain force by growing o/r/er. Ujron this ground,
propofitions evidently falfe or doubtfuLin tfieir firlt begin¬
ning, come by an inverted rule oSprobability to pafs for
authentic truths; and thpfe which deferred little credit
•from the mouths of their full relators, are thought togrow
vcnerabhby age, and are urged as undeniable.
But certain it is., that no probability can rife above its
firjl original. What has no other evidence than the Angle
teftimony of one, wilnefs, mult liand or fail-by his only
tedimony, though afterwards cited by hundreds of others;
and is fo far from receiving any ftrength thereby, that it
becomes the weaker ; becaufe paffion, intereft, inadver¬
tency, miftake of his meaning, and a thoufand odd rea-
fons, which capricious mens minds are a£ted by, may make
one than quote another’s words or meaning wrong. This
is certain, that what in one age was affirmed upon flight
grounds, Can never after come to be more valid in future
ages by being often repeated.
The fecond fort of probability, is concerning things not
falling-under the reach of our fenfes, and therefore not
capable of teftimony: And fuch are,
if, The exiftence, nature, and operations of finite
immaterial beings without us,-as fpirits, angels. See, or
the exiftence of material beings, fuch as, for their fmall-
•nefs or remotenefs, our fenfes cannot take notice of; as
whether there be any plants, animals, &c. in the planets,
andjnher manfions of the vaft univerfe.
zdly. Concerning the manner of operation in moft parts
of the works of nature', wherein though we fee the’ fen-
{\\s\e. effeds, yet their caufes are unknown, and we per-
ceive not the ways and manner how they are produced.
We fee animals are generated, nouriffied, and move ; the
loadfone draws iron. See, But the caufes that operate,
and the manner they are produced in, we can only guefs,
and probably conjedure. In thejf matters analogy is the
only help we. have ; and it is from that alone we draw all
our grounds of probability. Thus obferving, that the bare
rubbing of two bodies violently upon one another, pro¬
duces heat, anA very often fire, we have reafon to think/
that what.we zaW heat and fire corlifts in a certain violent
agitation of the imperceptible minute parts of the burning
matter. This fort of probability, which is the beft cen-
Voi. III. N0. 77. 2
V S I C S. • sat
dud of rational experiments, and the rife of by pot heft' i
has alfo its ufe and inftuence,' And a wary reafoning fro111
analogy leads us often into the difeovery of truths and
ufeful dedttdions, which would otherwife lie concealed.
Though the common experience, and the ordinary courfe
of things, have a mighty influence’on the minds of men,
to'make them give or refufe credit to any thing propofed
to their belief; yet there is one cafe wherein theftrange-
nefs of the fad leflcns not the ajjent to a fair teftimony
given of it. For where fuch fapernatural events are fuit-
able to ends aimed at by Him who has the power to change
thecourfeof nature, there, under fuch citcumftances, they
maybe thefitterto procure belief, by how much the more
they arp beyondor contrary to ordinary obfervation. This
is the proper cafe of; which, well attefted, do
not only find credit themfelves/ but give if allb to other
truths.
There are propofitrons that chaJlengd the highe-ft. de¬
gree of our afient upon bare teftimony, whether the thing
propofed agree’or djfagree with common experience and
the ordinary courfe of things or no: The reafon where¬
of is, becaufe the ttffijnony is of fuch an one as cannot
deceive nor be deceived ; and that is God himfelf. This
carries with it certainly beyond doubt, evidence beyond
exception. This is called by a peculiar namp, revelation,
and our afient to it, faith, which has as much certainty
in it as our knowledge itfelf; and we may as well doubt
of our. own being, as we can whether any revelation from
God be true. So that faith is a fettled and fure princi¬
ple of ajfent and ajfurance, and leaves no manner of
room for doubt br hefitation ; only we muft be fure, that
it be a divine revelation, and that we underftand it
right, elfe we ffiall expofe ourfelves tp all the extrava¬
gancy oienthujiafm, and all the error of wrong principles,
if we have faith and affurance in what is not divine re¬
velation.
Of reafon. ' •
The word reafon, in Englifh, has different fignifica-
tions. Sometimes it is taken for true and clear princi¬
ples', fometimes for clear and fair deduftions from thofe
principles ; fometimes for the caufe, and particularly for
the final caufe: But the confideration we ffiall have of it
here, is as it (lands for z faculty whereby man is fuppo-
fed to be diftinguiffied from beafis, and wherein it is evi¬
dent he much furpaffes them.
Reafon is neceffary, both for the enlargement of our
knowledge, and regulating our afl'ent; for it hath to do
both in knowledge and opinion, and .i& neceffary and af-
fifting to all our other intelledlual faculties ; ■ and indeed
contains two of them, viz. ftrOt, Sagacity, whereby ijt
finds intermediate ideas ; fecondly, Illation, whereby
it fo orders and difpofes of them, as to difeover what
connexion there is in each link of the chain, whereby
the extremes are held together, and thereby, as it. were,
to draw into view the truth fought for ; which is that we
call illation, or inference-, and confills in nothing but the
perception of the connexion there is between the ideas in
e.,ch ftep of the dedikftion ; whereby the mind comes to
lee either the certain agreement or difagreeffient of any
3 E two
202 M E T A P
two ideas, as in demonjlration, in which it arrives at
knowledge j or their probable connedion, on which it
gives or with-hoids its ajfent, as in opinion.
Senfe and intuition reach but a little way: The great-
eft part of our knowledge depends upon deduftions and
intermediate ideas. In thofe cafes where we muft take
propofitions for true, without being certain of their being
fo, we have need to find out, examine, and compare the
grounds of \.hz\v probability: In both cafes, the faculty
which finds out the means, and rightly applies them to
difcover certainty in the one, and probability in. the other,
is that which we call reafon': So that in reafon we may
eonftder thefe four degrees; firft, The difcovering and
finding out of proofs; fecondly. The regular and metho¬
dical difpofition of them, and laying them in fuch order
as their cdnne&ion may be plainly perceived ; thirdly, The
perceiving their connexion; fourthly. The making a right
conclufion.
There is one thing more which deferves to be confidered
concerning reafon\ and that is, whether fyllogifm, as is
generally thought, be the proper inftrument of it; and the
ufefulleft way of exerciling this faculty. The caufes to
doubt of it, are thefe:
Firf, Becaufe fyllogifm ferves our reafon but in one
only of the forementioned parts of it; and that is, tofhew
the connexion of the proofs of any one inftance, and no
more: But in this it is of no great ufe, fince the mind
can perceive fuch connexion, where irreallyis, as eafil-y,
nay perhaps better, without it. We may obferve, that
there are many men that reafon exceeding clear and right¬
ly, who know not how to make a fyllogifm: And fcarce
anyone make fyllogifrns in reafoning within himfelf. In¬
deed, fometimes they may ferve to difcover a fallacy, hid
in a rhetorical flourifh ; or by (tripping an abfurdity of the
cover of wit and good language, (hew it in its naked de¬
formity : But the v/eaknefs or fallacy of fuch a loofe dif-
courfe it (hews, by the artificial form it is put into, only
to thofe who have throughly (tudied mode figure, and
have fo examined the many ways that three propofitions
may be put together, as to know which of them does cer¬
tainly conclude right, and which not, and upon what
grounds it is that they do.fo : But they who have not fo
Tar looked into rhofe forms, are not fure, by virtue of
fyllogifn, that the conclufion certainly follows from the
premiffes; the mind is not taught to reafon by thefe rules)
it has a native faculty to perceive the coherence or inco¬
herence of its ideas, and can range them right without
any fuch perplexing repetitions,
/fnd to (hew the weaknefs of an argument, there needs
no more but to ftrip it of the fuperftuous ideas, ..which,
blended and confounded with thofe on which the infe¬
rence depends, feem to (hew a connexion where there is
none, or at lead do hinder the difeovery of the want of
it; and then to lay the naked ideas, on which the force
of the argumentation depends, in their due order; in which
pofition the mind, taking a view of them, fees what eon-
neflion they have, and fo is able to judge of the inference
without any need of fyllogifm at all.
Secondly, Becaufe fyliogifms are not lefs liable to fal¬
lacies than the plainer ways of argumentation. And for
H Y S I C S.
this we appeal to common obfervation, which has always
found thefe artificial methods of reafoning more adapted
to catch and entangle the mind, than to inftrudt and in¬
form the uoderftanding. And if it be certain that fallacy
can be couched in fyliogifms, as it cannot be denied, it
muft be fomething elfe, and not fyllogifm, that muft dif¬
cover them : But if men (killed in and ufed to fyllogifms,
find them aflifting to their reafonin the difeovery of truth,
we think they ought to make ufe of_them. All that we aim
at is,-that theyjhould aot aferibe more to thefe forms than
belongs to them ; and think that men have no ufe, or no*
fo full a ufej of their reafoning faculty without them.
But however it be in knowledge, it is of far iefs, or no
ufe at ail in probabilities : For the ajfent there being to
be determined by the preponderancy, after a due weigh¬
ing of all the proofs on both (ides, nothing is fo unfit to
affift the mind in that as fyllogifm; which running away
with one aflumed probability, purfues that till it has led
the mind quite out of fight of the tiling under confideration.
But let it help us (as perhaps may be (aid) in convincing
men of their errors or miftahs: yet ftill it fails our rea¬
fon in that part, which if not its hugheft p'erfe&ion, is ^et
certainly its hardeft talk, and that which we moft need its
help in ; and that is, the finding out of proofs, and making
new difcovertes. This way pf reafoning diicovers no new
proofs, but is the art of marfhalling and ranging the old
ones we have already. A man knows firft, and then he
is able to prove [yllogiftically; fo that fyllogifm comes af¬
ter knowledge ; and then a man has little or no need of it.
But it is chiefly by the finding out thofe ideas that (hew
the conn'edllon of’diftant ones, that our (lock of know¬
ledge is increafed, and that ufeful arts and fciences are
advanced.
Reafon, though of a very large extent, fails us in fe-
veral inftances; as, firft. Where out ideas fail. Second¬
ly, It is often at a lofs, becaufe of the dbfeurity, confu-
fion, nor imperfeftion of the ideas it is employed about.
Thus having no perfedi idea of the lead extenfion of mat¬
ter, or of infinity, we are at a lofs about the divifibility
of matter. Thirdly, Our reafon is often at a (land, be¬
caufe it perceives not thofe ideas, which would ferve to
(hew the certain or probable agreement or difagreement
of any two other ideas. Fourthly, Our reafon is often
engaged in abfurdities and difficulties, by proceeding up¬
on falfe principles, which being followed, lead mea into
contradidfions to themfelves, and inconfiftency in their
own thoughts. Fifthly, Dubious words, and uncertain'
figns, often puzzle mens reajon, and bring them to a
nonplus.
Though the deducing one propofition from another, be
a great part of reafon, and that which it is ufually em¬
ployed about; yet the principal aA of. ratiocination, is
the finding the agreement or difagreement of two ideas
one with another, by the intervention of a third ; as a
man, by a yard, finds two houfes to be of the fame length,
which could not be brought together to meafure their e-
quality by juxta-pojition : Words have their confequen-:
ces as the figns of fuch ideas', and things agree or dif-
agree, as really they are; but we obferve it only by our
idgas.
In
M E T A P :
la reafonlng, men ordinarily ufc four forts of argu¬
ments.
The firjl is to alledge the opinions of men, whofe
parts, learning, eminency, power, or fome other caufe,
has gained a name, and fettled their reputation in the
common efteem with fome kind of authority: This may
be called argumtnlum ad verecundiam.
Secondly, Another way is, to require the adverfary to
admit what they ailedge as a proof, or to aflign abetter :
This is called argumntum ad ignorant iam.
A third way, is to prefs a man with confequences drawn
from his own priciples or concelftons: This is known un¬
der the name of argumentum ad hominem.
Fourthly, The uling of proofs drawn from any of the
foundations of knowledge or probability : This is called
argumentum ad judicium. This alone, of all the four,
brings true indrufHon with it, and advances us in our
way to knowledge: For, firjl,. It argues not another
man’s opinion to be.'rigiv,. becaufe I, out of refpedt, or
any other confideration but that of convidtion, will not
contradidl him, Secondly., It proves not another man to
be in the right way, nor that I ought to take the fame
with* him, becatiTe I know not a better. Thirdly, Nor
does it follow, that another man is in the right way, be¬
caufe he has fiiewn me that I am in the wrong: This
may difpofe me, perhaps, for the reception of truth, but
helps me not to it : that mud come from proofs and ar¬
guments, and light arifing from the nature of things
themfelves; not from my lhame-facednefs, ignorance, or
error,
MET
METAPLASMUS, in grammar, a tranfnutation or
change made in a word, by adding, retrenching, or
altering a letter or fyOable thereof.
METASTASIS, in medicine, a tranfpofition or fettle-
ment of fome humour or difeafe on fome other part;
and fometimes it fignifies fuch an alteration of a difeafe
as is fucceeded by a folution.
METATARSUS, in anatomy See Anatomy, p. 187.
METATHESIS, in grammar, afp>-cies of the metaplaf-
mus ; being a figure whereby the letters or fyllables-of
a word are tran'pofed, or fhiftedout of their ufual fitu-
ation, as pillris for priltis.
METEMPSYCHOSIS, the dodtrine of tranfrmgration,
which fuppofes that human fouls, upon leaving the body,
become the fouls of fuch kind of brutes as they moll
refemble in their manners.
This was the doctrine of Pythagoras and his follow¬
ers; who, held thidt the fouls of vicious men were im
prifoned in the bodies of mjferable beads there to do
penance for feveral ages, at the expiration where¬
of they returned again to animate' men ; but if they
had lived virtuoufly, fome happier brute, or even a
human creature, was to be t: eir lot. What h 1 Py
thagorns i to this opinion was the perfoafioh l t h ’.1 >at
the foul was not of a perifhable nature; v/L •. be
concluded, that it mud move intofome r th.:; up¬
on its abandoning this. Lucan this.a; u t d
I Y S I C S. 203
By what has beet) faid of reafon, we may be able to
make fome guefs at the diftindtion of tilings into tbofe that
are according to, above, and contrary to reafon. Accord¬
ing to reafon, are fuch propofitions whofe truth we can
dil'cover. by examining and tracing thofe ideas we have
from fenfation zvid. reflection, and by natural dedudfion
find to be true or probable. Above reafon, are fuch pro¬
pofitions, whofeor probability we cannot by reafon
derive from thpfe principles. Contrary to reafon, are
fuch propofitions as are inconfident with, orirreconcileable
to our clear anddidindf ideas. Thus the exifence of on*
God, is according to reafon; the exiflen ~e of more than
one God, contrary to reafon; the refurreClion of the
body after death, above reafon. Above re a Jon, may be
alfo taken in a double fenfe, viz. Above probability, or,
above certainty : In that large fenfe alfo, contrary to rea-
Jon is fometimes taken.
There is another ufe of the word reajan, wherein it is
oppofed to faith; which, though authorifed by common
ufe, yet is it in itfelf a very improper way. of fpeaking ;
for faith is nothing but a firm ejfent of the mind ; which,,
if it be regulated as is our duty, cannot be afforded to
any thing but upon good reafon, and fo cannot be oppo-
fite to it: He -that believes without having any reafon for
believing, maybe in love with-his own fancies ; but nei¬
ther feeks truth as heought, nor pays the obedience due
to his Maker, who would have him ufe thofe difeerning
faculties he has given him, to keep him out of raillake
and error.
MET
contrived to mitigate the apprehenfibn of death, by per-
fuading men that they only changed their lodgings, and.,
ceafed to live only to begin a new life.
METEMTOSIS, a term in chronology, exprefling the
folar equation, neceffary to prevent the new moon from
happening a day too late; by which it is oppofed to
proemptofis, which fignifies the lunar equation neceffary
to prevent the new moonfrom happening a day too foon.
METEOR, in phyfiology, .m imperfebf, changeable, and
mixt body, or the refemblance of a body appearing in
the atmofphere, and formed by the a&ion of the hea¬
venly bodies, out of -the common elements.
Meteors are of three kinds ; fiery, airy, and watery.
Fiery meteors confiil of a fat fulphureous fmoke fet on
fire; fuch as falling flars, draco volans, the ignis fatu-
us, and other phasoomena, appearing in the air. Airy
meteors confift o<- flatulent and fpirituous exhalations,
fuch as winds, <bc. Watery meteors are compofed of
vapours, or watery particles, varibufly'modified by heat
and cold, fiich as clouds, rain, hail, foow and dew.
METHEGLIN, a drink prepared pf honey, one of the
moft pleafant and general drinks the northern parts of
Europe afford It is, according to Bliley, made as fol¬
lows : Pur as much new honey naturally running from
the comb, into fpring water, as that, when the honey
is throughly diffolved, an egg will not fir.k to the hot-
u but be jult fufpended in it. Then boil the liquor
MET ( 204 y M E Z
. For an hour'or more, till Rich time as the egg fwim a- METOPOSCOPY, the pretended art §£knowing* a pet"
bove the liquor; then take it offthehre, and let it cool.
When very cool, next morning, it may be barrelled up;
and adding to it half an eunce of ginger, as much of
cloyes, as much of-mace, and a quarter of an dunce of
cinnamon, all grofly pounded, a fpoonful of yeaft may
be added alfo at the bung to increafejts fermentation.
When it has dofie working, it may be clofely (topped
up ; and after it hasltocd a month, it may be drawn off
into bottles.
METHOD, the arrangement of our ideas in Rich a re¬
gular order, that their mutual conpe<5lion and depend¬
ence may be readily comprehended.
METHODISTS, q name at firft given to a fociety of re-
ligioys young men at Oxford, and now applied to all
thnfe who adhere to the doiftrine of the church of Eng¬
land as taught by Whitefield, Wefley, <&c. They are
faid to be, in general, plain well-meaning people, who
do rot diffent front the eftablidied church; but profefs
to live with great purity, according to her articles. At
their firft appearance their teachers were charged, in
the heat of their zeal, with feveral irregularities, and
many expreffionslmtheir preaching which were not al¬
together unexceptionable; but as'the civil government,
with a moderation and u'ifdom peculiar to the prefent
time, thought fit ttrtrverlook their behaviour, they have
finte bondtly acknowledged wherein they-were milta-
ken; and, in cenfequence of the perfect liberty of con-
fcience they enjoy, have fufided into a more regular
and peaceable condudi, agreeable to the genuine fpirit
of Chriftianity.
'Methodists, Methodici, is alfo an appellation given
to a fed of ancient phyficians, who reduced the whole
healing art to a few commo'n principles or apearances.
METONYMY, in rhetoric, is a trope in which one name
is put for anotner, on account of the near relation there
is between them. - By this trope any of the mod figni-
ficant circumflances of a thing are put for the thing it-
•felf. The metonymy is ufed with mod advantage in
the foilowing cafes. 1. When thenarration'ftands for
the aciion, and what the poet or hidorian defcribes he
is faid to do ; which rs a lively manner of exprellion,
exceeding the common, as much as adion goes beyond
defcription, ar life excels painting, 2. When the name
of any relation is put for the duty it requires, and the
benevolence and tendernefs that may be expeded from
it, Thus Anacreon fays, that through money there
is no longer any Rich thing as brethren or parents in
the wrorld. 3. When the word- v^hich is ufed,for a
proper name, is either taken from the perfon’s coun¬
try, family, profeffion, perfonal circumdance, or re-
feroblance to fome other : thus, as Sardanapalus was
a monder of debauchery, and Nero of cruelty, to call
, a,very debauched perfon a Sardalapalus, and a cruel
one Nero, brands them much deeper than to call one
debauched, and the other cruel. •
METOPE, in architedure, is the interval, or fquare
fpace between the triglypps of the doric frieze, which
among the ancients ufed to be painted or adorned with
carved wotk, reprefenting the heads of oxen, or uten-
iiis ufed i n facnfices.
fon's difpoiition and manners, by viewing the traces and
lines in the face.
METRE, in poetry, a fyftem' of feet of a jud length.
The different metres in poetry, are the different
manners of ordering and combining the quantities, or
the long and dvort iyliables ; thus-hexameter, penta¬
meter, iambic, fapphic verfes, <bc. confid of different
metres, or meafures.
In Englifli verfes, the metres are extremely various
and arbitrary, every poet being at liberty to introduce
-any new form that he pleafes. The molt ufual are the
heroic, generally confiding df five long and five (liort-
fyilables, and verfes of four feet, and of three feet
and a epefura or Angle fyllable.
METRETES, an ancient meafure of capacity, contain¬
ing a little more than nine gallons.
METROPOEIS, the capital or principal city of a country
or province.
The term metropolis is alfo applied to archiepifcopal
churches, and fometimes to the principal or mother
church of a city.
METZ, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Ldrrain,
capital of the biftioprick of Metz, fituated thirty miles
north of Nancy.
MEXICO, the metropolis of New Spain at prefent, and
formerly of the empire of Mexico, fituafed in W. long.
-log0, N. lat. 200.
This province of New Spain in America is now
divided into Old and New Mexico.
Old]Me 5c 1 c o, fituated between S3 and 116 degrees of W.
long and between 8 and 28 degrees N. lat. is bounded
by New Mexico, or Granada, -on the north ; by the
gulph of Mexico, on the north-ead; by Terra-firma, on
the fouth-ead; and by the Pacific Ocean, on the fouth-
wed.
New Mexico, including California, fituated between
100 and 140 degrees of W. long, and between the
Tropic of Cancer and 48 degrees of N. lat. is bounded
by unknown lands on the north, by Florida on the ead,
by Old Mexico on the fouth, and by the Pacific Ocean
on the Wed.
MEZZOTINTO, a particular manner of reprefenting
figures on copper, fo as to fornKprints in imitation of
painting in Indian ink.
The manner of making mizzotintos is very different
from all other kinds of engraving and etching, fmee in-
Read of forming the figures with lines and fcratches
made with the point of a graver, or by means of aqua¬
fortis, they are wholly formed by-feraping and burnifh-
ing. Mezzotintos are,madein the following manner:
take a well-poli(hed copper-plate, and beginning at the
corner, rake or furrow the furface all over with a knife
or indrument made for the purpofe, .fird one way,-and
then the other, till the whole is of a regular rough-
nefs, without the lad fmooth part to be feen ; in which
date, if a paper was to be worked off from it at the
copper-plate prefs, it would be all over black. When
this is done, the plate is rubbed over with charcoal,
black chalk, or black lead, and then thedefign is drawn
with white chalk; after which the out-lines are traced
MIC ( 2
out, and the plate finilhed by fcraping off the rough-
nefs, fo as to leave the figure on the plate. The out¬
lines and deepeft fhades are not.fcraped at all, the next
fhades are fcraped but little, the next more, and fo
on, till the (hades gradually falling off, leave the paper
white, in which the places the plate is neatly burnifhed.
By an artful difpofition of the fhades, and different
parts of a figure on different plates, mezzotintos have
been printed in colours, fo as nearly to reprefent very
beautiful paintings.
MIASMA, among phyficians, denotes the contagious
effluvia of pfftilential difeafes, whereby they are com¬
municated to people at adiflance.
MICA, glimmer, in natural hiftory, a genus of talcs.
The bright appearance of the gold and fdvej glim¬
mers, has led fome to imagine they were gold and
frlver ores ; but the truth is, they contain not the
leaf! grain of either of thefe metals, being mere talc,
accidentally coloured. See Talc.
MICAH, or ihz book c/'Micah, a canonical book of
the Old Teftament, written by. the prophet Micah,
who is the.feventh of the twelve leffer prophets. He
is cited by Jeremiah, and prophefied in the days of
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He cenlures the
reigning vices of Jerufalemand Samaria, and denounces
the judgments of God againft both kingdoms. He
likewife foretells the confufion of the enemies of the
Jews, the coming of the Meffiah, and the glorious fuc-
cefs of his church.
MICHAELMAS, or feajl of 57 Michael and all an-
gtls, a feftival of the Chriftian church, obferved on the
29th of September.
MICHELIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria po-
lygynia clafs. Th,e ealix confilts of eight fegments, and
the corrolla of eight petals ; and the berries contain
many feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of In¬
dia.
MICROCOS, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mo-
M I D W 1
M IDWIFERY is the art of affifting nature in bringing
forth a perfeft foetus, or child, from the womb of.
the mother.
The knowledge of this art depends greatly-on an inti¬
mate acquaintance with the apatomy of the parts of ge¬
neration in women, both internal and external. But,
as thofe have already been fully defcribed under the article
Anatomy, we mull: refer to the different parts of that
fcience upon which the knowledge of midwifery depends.
For the Bones of the Pelvis, fee Anatomy,, p.
17 i,6<r.
For the Parts of Generation in Females, both,
external and internal, fee Anatomy, p. 274, &c.
For the different theories of Conception, fee Ge¬
neration. -
Of tbs increafe of the Uterus after conception.
If is fuppofed, that the ovum fwims in a fluid, which
Vol, IIL N°, 77; 2
>5 ) MID
nogynia clafs. The calix confifls of five leaves, and
the corolla of five petals. There afetyvo fpecies, both
natives of India.
MICROCOSM, a Greek term, fignifyingthe little world;
ufed by fome for man, as being fuppofed an epitome of
the univerfe or great-world.
MICROGRAPHY, the defcription of objects too mi¬
nute to be viewed without the afflftance of amicrcfcope.
See Microscope. ,
MICROMETER, a machine, which, by means of a
fcrew, ferves to meafure extremely fmall diftances to
a great degree of accuracy.
MICROPUS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia fegregata clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ;
it has no pappus ; and the corrolla have no radii.
Thera are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
MICROSCOPE, an optical inflrument, by means where¬
of very minute objects are reprefented. See Optics.
MIDAS-ear-shell, the fmooth ovato-oblong bucci-
num, with an oblong and very narrow mouth. It con-
fifts of fix volutions, but the lower one alone makes up
almqft the whole fhell.
MID-HEAVEN, the point of the ecliptic that culminates.
Or in which it cuts the meridian,
MIDDLEBURG, the capital city of Zealand, one of
the United Provinces, fituated in the ifland of Wel-
cherin, twenty-fix miles north-eafl of Bruges.
MIDDLESEX, a county of England, in which London,
the metropolis, (lands. It is twenty four miles long,
and only fourteen broad ; and is bounded by Hertford-
fhire, on the north ; by the river Lea, which divides
it from Effex, on the eafl; by the river Thames,
which feparates it from Surry, on the fouth ; and by
the brook Coin, which divides it from Buckinghamfhire,
on the weft.
MIDHURST, a borough-town of Suffex, ten miles
north of Cbichefler; which fends two members to par¬
liament.
F E R Y.
it abforbs fo as to incteafe gradually in magnitude, till it
comes in contact with all the inner furface of the fundus
uteri; and this being diflended in proportion to the aug¬
mentation of its contents, the upper part of the neck be¬
gins alfo to be flretched. .
About the third month of geflation, the ovum in big-
nefs equals a goofe egg ; and then nea ly one fourth of
the neck, at its upper part, is. diflsnded equal with the
fundus. At the fifth month, the fundus is increafed to
a much greater magnitude^ and riles upwards to the mid¬
dle fpace betwixt the upper part of the pubes and the
navel ; and at that period, one half of the neck is ex¬
tended. At the feventh month, the fundus reaches as
high as the navel ; at the eighth month, it fs advanced
midway between the navel and fcrobiculus cordis ; and
in the ninth month, is raifed quite up to this lafl men¬
tioned part, the neck of the womb being then’altogethec
diflended. See Plate CXI. fig, 1, 2, 3.
3 F
Fig, t
MIDWIFERY.
206
Fig. x. Gives ja front-view of the uterus in fitu fuf-
pended in the vagina ; the anterior parts of offk if-
chium, with the ofia pubis, pudenda, perinreum,
and anus, being removed in order to {hew the internal
parts.
A, The lad vertebra of the loins.
BB, The offa ilium.
CC, The acetabula.
DD, The inferior and pofterior parts of the offa if-
chfum.
E, The part covering the extremity of the coccyx.
F, The inferior part of the reflum.
GG, The vagina cut open longitudinally, andftretch-
ed on each fide of the collum uteri, to fiievv in what
manner the uterus is fufpended in the fame.
HH, Part of the vefica urinaria ftretched on each fide
of the vagina, and inferior part of the fundus uteri.
I, The collum uteri.
K, The fundus uteri.,
LL, The tubi Fallopiani and fimbriae.
MM, The ovaria.
FIN, The ligamenta lata and rotunda.
00, The fuperior part of the reftum.
Fig. 2. Gives a front-view of the uterus in the be¬
ginning of the firft month of pregnancy ; the an¬
terior part being removed that the'embryo might
appear through the amnios, the chorion being dif¬
fered off.
A, The fundus uteri.
B, The collum uteri, with a view of the rugous canal
that leads to the cavity of the fundus.
C, The os uteri.
Fig. 3. In the fame view and feffion of the parts as in
fig. 1. fiiews the uterus as it appears in the fecond or
third month of pregnancy.
F, The anus.
G, The vagina, with its plicae.
HH, The pofterior and inferior part of the urinary
bladder extended on each fide ; the anterior and fu¬
perior part being removed.
II, /The mouth and neck of the womb, as raifed up
when examining the fame by the touch, with one of
the fingers in the vagina.
KK, The uterus as ftretched in the fecond or third
month, containing the embryo, with the placenta
adhering to the fundus.
Now that the whole fubftance of the uterus is ftretch¬
ed, the neck and os internum, which were at firft the
ftrongeft, become the weakeft part of the womb, and the
ftretching force being ftiilcontinued by the increafe of the
foetus and fecundines, which are extended by the inclo-
fed waters in a globular form, the os uteri begins gradu¬
ally to give way. In the beginning of its dilatation, the
nervous'fibres in this place, being more fenfible than any
other part of the uterus, are irritated, and yield an un-
eafy fenfation ; to alleviate which, the woman fqueezes
her uterus, by eontradting the abdominal mufcles, and at
the fame time filling the lungs with air, by which the
diaphragm is kept down ; the pain being rather increafed
than abated by this flraining, is communicated to all the
SEsighbidutring parts, to which the ligaments and veffels are
attached, fuch as the back, loins, and infide of the tlffghs;
and by this corapreffion of the uterus, the waters and
membranes are fqueezed againfl-the os uteri', which is, of
confequence, a little more opened. See fig. 4, c 6. of
Plate-CXI.
Fig. 4. In the f.rbd view and fedlion of the parts
with the former figures, reprefents the uterus in the -
eighth or ninti| month of pregnancy.
A, The uterus; as ftretched to near its full extent,
with the waters, aKd containing the foetus entangled
in the funis, the head prefenting at the upper part of
the pelvis. fi- -
BB, The fuperior part of the offa ilium.
CC, The acetabula.
DD, The remaining poflerior parts of the offa if- ,
chium.
E, The coccyx.
F, The inferior part of the reftum.
GGG, The vagina ftretched on each fide.
. H, The os uteri, the neck being ftretched to its full
extent or entirely obliterated.
II, Part of the vefica urinaria.
KK, The placenta, at the fuperior and pofterior part
of the uterus.
LL, The membranes.
M, The funis umbilicalis.
Fig. 5. Gives a front view of twins in utero in the
beginning of labour. C
A, The uterus as ftretched, with the membranes and
waters.
BB, The fuperior parts of the offa ilium.
CC, The acetabula.
DD, The offa ifchium.
E, The coccyx.
F, The lower part of the reftum.
GG, The vagina.
H, The os internum ftretched open about a fingcr-
- breadth, with the membranes and waters in time of
labour-pains.
II, The inferior part of the uterus, ftretched with
the waters, which are below the head of the.child
that prefents.
. KK, The two placentas adhering to the pofterior part
of the uterus, the two foetus’s lying before them,
one with its head in a proper pofition at the inferior
part of the uterus, and the other fituated preterna-
turally with the head to the fundus : the bodies of
each arc here entangled in their proper funis, which
frequently happens in, the natural as well as preter¬
natural pofitions.
LLL, The membranes belonging to each placenta.
Fig. 6. Shews, in a lateral view and longitudinal divi-
fion of the parts, the gravid uterus when labour is
fomewhat advanced.
A, The loweft vertebra of the back ; the diftance from
which to the laft mentioned vertebra is here fhewn by
dotted lines.
CC, The ufual thicknefs and figure of the uterus
when extended by the v/aters at the latter end of
pregnancy. -
D, The
Plate CXI
X
m i n w
D, The fame contra&ed and grown thicker after the
waters are evacuated.
EE, 1 he figure of the uterus when pendulous.
FF, Thefigurpof the uterus when Ih etched higher than
ufual; which genet ally occafions vomitings and dif¬
ficulty of breathing.
G, The os pubis of the left fide.
HH, The os internum.
I, The vagina.
K, The left nympha.
L, The labium pudendi of the fame fide.
M, The remaining portion of the bladder.
N, The anus.
OP, The left hip and thigh.
The wotpan being unable to continue this effort, for
any length of time, from the violence of the pain it oc¬
cafions, and the ftrength of the tnufcles being thereby a
littleexhaufted and impaired, the contracting force abates;
the tenfionoftheostinc.se being taken off, it becomes
more foft, and contracts a little ; fo that the nervous fi-,
b’res are relaxed. This remiffion of pain the patient en¬
joys for fome time, until the fame increafing force renews
the ftretching pains, irritation, and fomething like a te-
nefmus at the os ut^ri; the compreffion of the womb a-
gain takes place, and the internal mouth is a little more
dilated, either by the preffure of the waters and mem¬
branes, or when the fluid is in fmall quantity, by the
child’s bead forced down by the contraCHon of the uterus,
which in that cafe is in contaCl with the body of the foetus.
See Plate CXI. where
Fig. 7. Shews the forehead of the foetus turned back¬
wards to the os facrum, and the occiput below the
pubes, by which means the narrow part-of the head
is to the narrow part of the pelvis, that is, be¬
tween the inferior parts of the ofla ifchium.
A, The uterus contraCled clofely to the foetus after the
* waters are evacuated.
BCD, The vertebrae of the loins, os facrum, and
coccyx.
E, The anus.
F, The left hip.
G, The perinaeum.
- H, The cs externum beginning to dilate.
I, The os pubis of the left fide.
K, The remaining portion of the bladder.
T, The pofterior part of the os uteri.
I'h this manner the labour pains begin, and continue to
return periodically, growing Wronger and more frequent,
until the os uteri is fully dilated, and the membranes are
deprefied and broke,; fo that the Waters are. difcharged,
the uterus contracts, and, with the afliltance of the muf-
cles, the child is forced along and delivered.
Of Abortions.
A miscarriage that happens before the tenth day,
was formerly called an efflux, becaufe the embryo and
fecundines are not then formed, and nothing but the li¬
quid conception, or genitura, is difcharged. From the
tenth day to the third month it was known by the term
cxpulfion, the embryo and fecundines being ft ill fo fmall.
I F E R Y. 2or
that the woman is in no great danger from violent flood-
ing.
If (he parted with her burden betwixt that period and
the. feventh month, flie was faid to buffer an abortion ; in
which cafe (he underwent greater danger, and was deli¬
vered with more difficulty than before; becaufe the uterus
and veffels being more diltended, a larger quantity of blood
was loft in a ffiorter time, the foetus was increafed in bulk,,
and the neck of tlie Womb is not yet fully ftretched : be*
fides, ffiouljd the child be born alive, it will be fo fmall
and tender that it will not fuck, and fcarce receive any
fort of nourifhment.
When delivery'happens between the feventh month and
full time, the woman is faid to be m labour : but, in-
ffead of thefe diftinCtions, if (lie lofes her burden at any
time from conception to the feventh or eighth, or even in
the ninth month, we -now fay indiferiminately, (he has
mifearried.
The common term of pregnancy is limited to nine folar
months, reckoning from the laft difcharge 'of the catame¬
nia : yet in fgme, though very few, uterine gefiation ex¬
ceeds that period.
Conceptions and Moles.
It was formerly fuppofed, that if the parts of the em¬
bryo and fecundines were not feparated and diftin&ly
formed from the mixture of the male and female femen,
they formed a mafs, which, when difcharged before the
fourth month, was called a falfe conception ; if it con¬
tinued longer in the uterus, fo as to increafe in magnitude,
it went under the denomination of a mola. But thefe
things are now to be accounted for in a more, probable
and certain mariner. Should the embryo die (fuppofe in
the firft or-fecond month,) fome days before it is .difchar¬
ged, it will fometimes be entirely diffolved ; fo that, when
the (ecundines are delivered, there is nothing elfe to be
feen. In the firft month, the embryo is fo fniall and
tender, that this diffolution will be performed in twelve
hours; in the fccond month, two, three, or four days
will fuftice for this purpofe ; and even in the third month,
it will be diflblved iu fourteen .or fifteen : befides the
blood frequently forms thick laminae round the ovum, to
the furface of which they adhere fo ftrongiy, that it is
very difficult to diftinguiih what part is placenta, and
what membrane. Even after the embryo and placenta are
difcharged, in the fecond or third month, the mouth and
neck of the womb are often fo clofely contrafted, that the
fibrous part of the blood is retained in the fundus, fome¬
times to the fifth or (eventh day ; and when it comelTofly
exhibits the appearance of an ovun^, the external furface,
by the ftrong preffure of the uterus, refembling a mem¬
brane ; fo that the whole is rui(taken for a falfe concep¬
tion.
This fubftance, in bignefs, commonly equals a pigeon
or hen egg ; or if it exceeds that (ize, and is longer re¬
tained, is diftinguifflejd by the appellation of mol a : but
this laft generally happens in women betwixt the age of
forty-five and fifty, or later, when their menfts begin to
difappear ; fometimes from internal or external accidents
that may .produce continued floodings. If the catamenia
2oS M I D W I
have ceafed to flow for fome time in elderly women, and
return with pain,- fuch a fymptom is frequently the fore¬
runner of a cancer ; before or after this happens, fome-
times a large flefh-like fubftance will be difcharged with
great pain, refembling that of labour ; fend upon exami-
na ion, appears to'be no more than the fibrous part of
the blood, which.alfumes that form by being long preffed
in the uterus or vagina.
In this place, it will not be amifs to obferve, that the
glands of the uterus and vagi
i will fometimes increafe,
F E R Y.
perforates at the navel; from thence palling into the liver,
where it communicates with the vena portarum and cava.
It is furniflaed with two arteries, which arife from the
internal iliacs of the child, and running up on each fide
of the bladder, perforates the belly where the umbilical
vein entered ; then they proceed to the placenta, in a ipi-
ral line, twining round the vein, in conjunction with
which they form the funiculus umbihcaiis, which is com¬
monly four or five hand-breadths in length, lometimes
only tVfb or three, and fometimes it extends to the
Ld”dknd .he adjacent par.^o a q.prir.»g_d.g.e« ; if tag-h of eight o. ^ ^““a? “ do
(for example) one of the glands of the uterus be fo ob-
ftrufted as that there is a preffure on the returning vein
and excretory du£t, the arterial blood will gradually llretch
the fmaller veffels, and confequently increafe the fize of
the gland, which will grow larger and larger, as long as
the force of the impelled fluid is greater than the refiflance
of the veffek that contain it; by which means, a very
fmall gland will be enlarged to a great bulk, and the
uterus gradually ftretched as in uterine geftation, though
the progrefs may be fo flow as to be protrafted for years
inftead of months. Nevenhelefs, the os internum will
be dilated, and the gland (if not too large to pafs) will
be fqueezed into the vagina, provided it adheres to the
uterus, by a fmall neck ; nay, it will lengthen more and
arrival at the inner furface of the placenta, are divi¬
ded and fubdivided into minute branches, which at laft
end in fmall capillaries that inofculate with the veins
of the fame order. Thefe arteries, together with
the umbilical veinr are fuppofed to do the fame office in
the placenta which is afterwards performed in the lungs
by the pulmonary artery and vein, until the child is deli¬
vered and begins to breathe: and this opinion feems to
be confirmed by the following experiments. If the child
and placenta are both delivered fuddenly, or the laft im¬
mediately after the firft; and if the child, though alive,
does not-yet breathe; the blood may be felt circulating,
fometimes flowly, at other times with great force, through
the arteries of the funis to the placenta, and from thence
back again to the child, along the umbilical vein. When
fo as to appear on the outfide of the os externum;
eland take its rife in  j  
womb, it will ffiew itfelf ftill fooner, and a ligature may bafon, among warm wate . .
be eafily introduced, provided the tumour is not fo large breathe, the circulation^ though »
As the child begins i
s to fill up the cavity
ovided the tumour is not to large   ° p f
and hinder the neck of it from mediately grows (tronge, and “ " **»
being commodioufly felt. Though the greateft difficulty
occurs, when the gland is confined to the uterus, being
too much enlarged to pafs through the os internum.
Sometimes all, or mofl: of the glands in the uterus, are
thus affefted, and augment the womb to fuch a degree,
that it will weigh a great many pounds, and the woman
is deftroyed by its preflure upon the furrounding parts :
but; ffiould this indolent ftate of the tumour be altered by
any accident that will produce irritation and inflammation,
the parts will grow fchirrous, and a cancer enfue.
This misfortune, for the mod part, happens to women,
when their rtienflrual evacuations leave them ; and fome¬
times (though feldom) to child bearing Women, in confe-
quence of fevere labour.
Of the Placenta.
The ovum is formed of the placenta with the chorion
and amnion, which are globularly diftended by the inclo-
fed waters that furreund the child. The placenta is com¬
monly of a round figure, fomewhat refembling an oat¬
cake, about fix inches in diameter, and one inch thick in
the middle, growing a little thinner towards the circum¬
ference : it is compofed of veins and arte/ies, which are
divided into an infinite number of fmall branches, the
venous parts of which unite in one large tube, called the
umbilical vein, which brings back the blood, and is fup
pofed to carry along the nutritive fluid from the veffels of
the chorion and placenta, to the child, xhofe belly it
minutes the pulfation in the navel-firing becomes more
languid, and at lafl entirely flops. If, after the child is
delivered, and the navel firing cut, provided the placen¬
ta adheres firmly to the uterus, which is thereby kept ex¬
tended ; or, if the womb is flilldiflended by another child;
no more blood flows from the umbilical veffels, than what
feemed to be contained in them at the inflant of cutting ;
and this, in common cafes,, does not exceed the quantity
of two or three ounces; and finally, when, in confe-
quence of violent floodings, the mother expires, either in
time of delivery, or foon after it, the child is fometimes
found alive and vigorous, efpecially if the placenta is
found ; but if tore, then the child will lofe blood as well
as the mother. r
■ The external furface of the placenta is divided into le-
veral lobes, that it may yield and conform itfelf more
commodioufly to the inner furface of the uterus, to which
it adheres, fo as to prevent its being feparated by any
ffiock or blows upon the abdomen, unlefs when violent.
Thofe groupes of veins and arteries which enter into
the compofition of the placenta receive external coats
from the chorion, which is the outward membrane ot the
ovum, thick and ftrong, and forms thiee. fourths of the
external globe that contains the waters and the child ; the
remaining part being covered by the placenta; lo that
thefe two in ccnjuntticn conlhtute the whole external
furface of the ovum. Some indeed alledge that thefc
are inveloped with a cribriform or cellular fubllance,^ by
M I D W
wL'c’h they Teem to adhere by contadl oply, to the titerus;
and that the inner membrane of the womb is full of little
gland's, whofe excretory dufts opening into the fundus
and neck, fecrete a foft thin mucus, to lubricate the
whole cavity of the uterus, which beginning to ft retch
in time of geftatiou, the veifels that ccmpofe thefe glands
-are alfo difiended ; confequently, a greater quantity of
this mucus is feparated and retained in this cribriform
■and cellular fubftance, the abforbing veffels of which
take it in, and convey it along the veins, for thenourifh-
■ment of the child The womb.being therefore diftended
•in proportion to the increafe nf the child., thofe glands
are alfo proportionably enlarged ; by which means, a lar¬
ger quantity of the fluid is feparated, becaufe the nutri¬
ment of the child muff be augmented in proportion to the
progrefs of its growth ; and this liquor undergoes an al¬
teration in quality as well as in quantity, being changed
from a clear thin fluid into the more vifcbus eonfiftence of
milk. In feme cafes this piotus hath been difcharged
from the uterus in time of pregnancy, and both mother
and child weakened by the evacuation, which may be oc-
cafioned by the chorion’s adhering too loofely,' or being
in one part afhtally feparated from the womb.
Formerly, it was taken for granted by many, that the
placenta always adhered to the fundus uteri; but this no¬
tion is refuted by certain obfervations, in confeqnence of
which we find it as often flicking to the fides, back and
fore parts, and fometimes as far down as the infide of the
os uteri. See Plate CXI.
When the placenta is delivered,. and no other part of
the membrane tore except that through which the child
p.afled, the opening is near the edge or fide of the placen¬
ta, and feldom in the middle of the membranes; and a
hog’s bladder being introduced at this opening, and in-
flated, when lying in water, will fhew the fhape and fize
of the inner furface of the womb, and plainly difcover
the part to which the placenta adhered.
The chorion is, on the infide, lined with the amnion,
which is a thin tranfparent membrane, without any vef¬
fels fo large as to admit the red globules of blood ; it
adheres to the chorion by contaft, and feems to form the
external coat of the funis umbilicalis.
This membrane contains the ferum, in which the child
fwims : which fluid is fuppofed to be furnifhed by lympha¬
tic veflels that open into the inner furface of the amnion.
If this liquid is neither abforbed into the body of the foe¬
tus, nor taken into the ftomach by fuQion at the mouth,
there mufl be abforbing veflels in this membrane, in the
fame manner as in-the abdomen and other cavities of the
body, where there is a conftant renovation of humidity.
The quantity of this fluid, in proportion to the weight
of the fcetus, is much greater in the firfl than in the laft
month of geftation, being in the one perhaps ten times
the weight of the embryo'; whereas, in the other, it is
commonly in the proportion of one to two-: for, fix
pounds of water furrounding a fetus that weighs twelve
pounds, is rec koned a large proportion, the quantity being
often much lefs ; nay, fometimes there is very little'or
cone at all.
In moft animals of the brute fpecies, there is a third
membrane called allantois, which refembles a long and
Vol, III. NV77. 2
I F E R Y. 209
wide blind-gut, and contains the urine of the fcetus: it
is fituated between the chorion and amnion, and com¬
municates with the urachus that riles. from the fundus of
the bladder, and runs along with the umbilical ve/Te!?,
depofiting the urine in this refer voir, which is attached
to its other extremity. This bag hath not yet been cer¬
tainly difcovered in the human fetus, the urachus of
which, though pkioiy perceivable, feems hitherto to be
quite imperforated.
From the foregoing dbfervations upon nutrition-, it
feems probable, that the fetus is rather nouriflied by the
abfofption of the nutritive fluid into the veflels of the pla¬
centa and chorion, chan from the red blood circulated ia
full ftream from the arteries -of the uterus to the veins
of the placenta, and returned by the arteries of the laft
' to. the veins of the firft, in brd2r to be renewed, refined,
and made arterial Wood in the lungs of the mother.
Of the Child’/ fituaiion in the Uterus.
The embryo or fetus, as it lies in the uterus, Is near¬
ly of a circular or rather oval figure, which is calculated
to take up as little fpace as pqffible : die chin refts upon
the breafts, the thighs are prefled along the belly, the
heels applied to the breech, the face being placed be¬
tween the knees, while the arms crofs each other round
the legs. The head, for the nioft part, is down to the
lower part of the uterus; and the child being contracted
into an oval form, the greateft length is from head to
breech : but the diflance from one fide to the other is
much lefs than that from the fore to the back part; be¬
caufe the thighs and legs are doubled along the belly and
ftomach, and the head bended forwards on the breaft.
The uterus being confined by the vertebra; of the' loins,
the diflance from the back to the fore-part of it muft be
lefs than from fide to fide; fo that, in all probability,
one fide of the fetus is turned towards the back, and
the other to the fore-part of the womb : but, as the back
part of the uterus forms a little longilh cavity on each
fide of the vertebras, the fore-parts of the fetus may
therefore for the moft part tilt more backwards than
forwards.
It has been generally fuppofed, that the head is turn¬
ed up tmthe fundus, and the breech to the os uteri, with
the fore parts towards the mother’s belly ^ and that it
remains in this fituation till labour begins, when the head
comes downwards, and the face is turned to the back of
the mother. Some alledge, that the head preci pitates about
the end of the eighth or beginning of the ninth month,
. by becoming fpecifically heavier than the reft of the bo ;
dy. Others affirm, that as the child increafes in bulk,
efpecially during the two Jaft months, fhe proportion of
furrounding water mult be diminiffied, fo as that it is con¬
fined in its motion, and, in struggling to alter its pofition,
the head is moved to the os tinicae, where it remains till
delivery. The particulars of this and other theories
may be found in Mauriccau, Le Matte, 'Simpfon, and
Old, But, from the following obfervations, it feems
more probable, that.the head is, for thenioft part, turn
ed down to the lower part of the uterus from conception
to delivery.
In the firft month, according to ferae writers, the em-
3 G ,bry«
2 16 M I D W I
bryo exhibites the figure of a tadpole, with a large head
and fmall body or tail, which gradually increafes in
magnitude, till the arms and thighs begin to bud or firut
out, like fmall nipples, from the fhoulders and breeph : .
two black fpecks appear on each fide of the head, with
a little hole or opening between them, which in the fe-
cond month are eafily diftinguiihed to bp the eyes and
mouth. See Plate CXI- fig- 2. The legs and arms
are gradually formed, while the body turns larger; but
the fingers are not feparated or diftinft, till the latter end
of the fecond or beginning of the third month. See
Plate CXI. fig. 3. This is commonly the cafe ; butfome-
times the bulk and appearance differconfiderably indiffe¬
rent embryos of the fame age. The younger thei embryo,
the larger andheavieris the head in proportion to the reft
of the body; and this is the cafe in all the different gra- -
dations of the foetus; fo that when dropt or fufpended
by the navel ftring in water, the head muft fink lower-
raoft of courfe. Befides, when women mifcarry in the
fourth, fifth, fixth, and feventh months, the head for
the moft part prefents itfelf, and is firft delivered.! See
Plate CXI. fig. 3. By the touch in the vagina, the
head is frequently felt in the feventh, fometimes in the
fixth, but more frequently in the eighth month; and if
the fame women are thus examined, from time to time,
till the labour begins, the head will always be felt of a
round firm fubftance at the fore-part of the brim of the
pelvis, betwixt the os internum and pubes, through the
fubftance of the vagina and uterus. See I’lateCXI. fig.
4. But all thofe opinions are liable to obje&ions. If
the defcent of the head proceeded from its fpecific gra¬
vity, we would always find it at the os internum, becaufe
this reafon would always prevail; ff it were owing to a
diminifhed proportion of water, why fhould we often find
the breech prefented, even when there is a quantity of
that fluid large enough to give the head free liberty to
rife again towards the fundus, or (according to the other
opinion) to fink down by its fpecific gravity to the os inter-.
Bum? Some, indeed, fuppofe, that the head'always pre¬
fents itfelf, except when it is hindered by the funis um-
hilicalis twifting round the neck and body, fo as to im¬
pede the natural progrefs: but, were this fuppofition juft,
when we turn and deliver by the feet thofe children that
prefented in a preternatural way, we fhould always find
them more or lefs circumvoluted by the navel-ftring :
the funis is as often found'twifted round the neck and bo¬
dy when the head prefents as in any other cafe. That
the head is downwards all the time of gfeftation, feems,
on the whole, to be the moft reafonable opinion, though
it be liable to the obje&ion already mentioned, and feems
Contradiftory to the obfervation of fome authors, who aF-
ledge, that in opening women that died in the fifth, fixth,
or feventh month, they have found the child’s head to¬
wards the fundus uteri. But as it lies as eafy in one po-
fture as in another, till the birth, this difpute is of lefs
confequence inthe pradfice of midwifery. It may be ufe-
ful to fuggeft; that the wrong pofture of the child in the
"uterus may proceed,
1. From circumvolutions in the funis‘-umbilicalis.
See Plate CXIII. fig. 1. which reprefents, in a front view
of the pelvis, the breech of the foetus prefenting, and dila-
F E R
ting the os internum, the membranes being too foon broke.
The fore-parts of the child are to the pofterior part of
the uterus; and the funis, with a knot upon it, fiirrounds
the neck, arms, and body.
Or, 2. When there is little or no water furrounding
the child, it may move into a wrong pofitiob, and be
confined there by the ftridlure of the .uterus. See Plate
CXIII. fig. 2, 3, 4.
Fig. 2. is the reverfe of fig. 1. the fore-parts of the
child being to the fore-part of the uterus.
Fig. 3. reprefents, in a front view of the pelvis, the
fcetus comprefled, by tfie contraction of the uterus,
into a round form, the fore-parts of the former being
towards the inferior part of the latter, and one foot
and hand fallen dow-n into the vagina.' In this fi¬
gure, the anterior part of the pelvis is removed, by
at longitudinal fe&ion through the middle of the fo¬
ramen magnum.
AA, The fuperior parts of the olfa ilium.
BB, The uterus.
C, The mouth of the . womb ftretchedand appearing in
OOOO, The vagina.
D, The inferior and pofterior part of the os externum.
EEEE, The remaining parts of the dfla pubis and if-
chium.
FFFF, The membrana adipofa.
Fig. 4. reprefents, in the fame viaw with fig. 3. the
fcetus in the contrary pofition ; the breech and fore¬
parts being towards the fundus uteri, the left arm
in- the vagina, and the fore arm without the os ex¬
ternum, the fliQulder being likewife forced into the
os uteri.
Or, laftly, The wrong pofition of the child may be the
effeA of a pendulous belly or narrow pelvis, when the
head lies forward over the pubis. See Plate CXI. fig.
6. See alfo Plate CXII. fig. 6. and 7.
Fig. 6. gives a lateral internal view of a.diftorted
pelvis, divided longitudinally, with the head of a foe¬
tus of the feventh month pafling the fame.
ABC, The os facrum and coccyx.
D, The os pubis of the left fide.
E, The tuberofity of the os ifichium of the fame fide.
Fig. 7. gives a fide view of a diftorted pelvis, divided
longitudinally, with the head of a full grown, foetus
fqueezed into the brim, the parietal bones decuffa-
ting each other, and compreffed into a conical form,
ABC, The os facrum and coccyx.
D, The os pubis of the left fide.
E, The tuberofity of theosifchium.
F, The proceffus acutus.
G, The foramen magnum.
C/Touching.
Touchjng is performed by introducing the fore-fin¬
ger lubricated with pomatum into the vagina, in order to
feel the os internum and neck of the uterus ; and fome¬
times into the re&um, to difcover the ftretehing of the
fundus. By fome, ,we are advifed to touch with the
middle finger, as being the longeft; and by others, to
employ both that and the firft: but the middle is too much
encumbered by that on each fide, to anfwer the purpofe
2i r
M I D W I F E II Y.
fu'ly ; and when tw'O are introduced together, the patient
never fails to complain. The defign of touching is to be
informed whether, the woman is, or is not with child; to
know how far (lie is advanced in her pregnancy; if flieis
in danger of a mifcarriage; if die os uteri be dilated ;
and in time of labour to form a right judgment of the
cafe, from the opening of the os internum, and the prefs-
ing down of the membranes with their waters; and laft-
ly, to diftinguifh what part of the child is prefented.
It is generally imprafticable to difcover, by a touch in
the vagina, whether or not the uterus is impregnated, till
after the fourth month : then the beft time for examina¬
tion is the morning, when the woman is faffing, after the
contents of the bladder and redtum have been difcbarged ;
and (he ought, if neceffary, to fubmit to the inquiry in
a (fanding polfure ; becaufe, in that cafe, the,uterus hangs
lower down in the vagina, and the weight is more fenfi-
ble to the touch than when (he lies reclined. One prin¬
cipal reafon of our uncertainty is, when we try to feel the
neck, the womb rifes up on our preffing-againlf the vagina,
at the fide-of the os internum, (fee Plate CXI. fig. 3.)
and in fome, the vagina feels very tenfe ; but, when the
fundus uteri is advanced near the navel, the preflure from
above keeps down the os internum fo much, that you can
generally feel both the neck, and, above that, the firetch¬
ing of the under part of the uterus. See Plate. CXI.
fig- 3- ,
There is no confiderable variation to be felt in the fi¬
gure of the os internum, except in the latter end of preg¬
nancy, when it fometimes grows larger and fofter, (fee
Plate CXI. fig. 4.) nor do the lips feern to be more clo-
fed in a woman with child than in another, efpecially in
the beginning of pregnancy : but, in both cafes the os
uteri is felt like'the mouth of a young puppy or tench.
In fbme. the lips are very final 1 ; in others, large; and
fometimes, though feldom, fmoothed over or pointed.
In many woman, who have formerly had children and
difficult labours, the lips are large, and fo much feparat-
ed, as to admit the tip of an ordinary finger; but a litle
higher up, the neck feems to be quite clofed.
In the firft four months, the neck of the womb may
be felt hanging down in the vagina, by pufhing up the
finger by the fide of the os internum; but the firetching
of the uterus and upper part of the neck cannot be per¬
ceived till the fifth, and fometimes the fixth month ; and
even then, the uterus muff be kept down by a flroiig
p.-efTure upon the belly.
The firetching of the fundus is fometimes felt by the
finger introduced into the re&uro, before.it can be per¬
ceived in the vagina; becaufe, in this lafl method, the
Mterus recedes from the touch, and rifes too high to be
accurately diftinguifhed; whereas the finger being intro¬
duced into the redlum, paffes along the back of the womb
almoll to the upper part of the fundus, which, in an uh-
impregnated flate, is felt fiat on the back part and jetting
out at the fides ; but the impregnated uterus is percei¬
ved like a large round tumour.
About the fifth or fixth month, the upper part of the
uterus is fo much flfetched, as to rife three or four inch¬
es above the os pubis, or to the .middle fpace between
that and the navel; fo that, by preffing the hand on the
belly, efpecially of lean women, it is frequently percei-’
ved ; and if, at the fame time, the index of the other,
hand be introduced in the vagina, the neck will feem
fhortened, particular/ at the fore-part and fides, and
the weight will be feniibly felt; but, if the parietes of
the abdomen are llretched after eating, one may be de^
ceived by the prfefiure of the llomach, becaufe weight
and prelfure are the fame. But all thefe figns are more
perceptible towards the latter end of pregnancy; and in
fome women the os internum is felt a little open fome
weeks before the full time, though generally it is not
opened till a few days before labour begins.
. From the fifth to the ninth month, the neck of the u-
terus becomes fiiorter and ftiorter, and the flrerching of
the womb grows more and more perceptible. - In the fe-
venth month., the fund.'s rifes as high as the navel; in
the eight month, to the middle fpace betwixt the navel
and fcrobiculus cordis; and in the ninth, even to the
fcrobiculus, except in pendulous bellies : See Plate CXI
fig 4. But all thefe marks may vary in different women :
for when the belly is pendulous, the parts below the na¬
vel are much more ftretched than thofe above, and hang,
over the os pubis ; the fundus will then be only equal to,
or a little higher than the navel ; at other times, the ic¬
terus will rife in the latter end of the feventh or eighth
month to the fcrobiculus cordis. The neck of the womb
will, in fome, be felt as long in the eighth, as in others in
the fixth or feventh month. This variation fometimes
makes the examination of the abdomen more certain than
the touch of the vagina; and fo vice verfa. At other
times we mull judge by both. See Plate CXI. fig. 6.
Of the figns ^/Conception, and the equivocal fgns of
pregnant and obfrucied ’women.
The figns of pregnancy are to be diftinguiflied from
thofe that belong to obftru&ions, by the touch in the va¬
gina and motion of the child, in the fifth or fixth month ;
fometimes, by the touch in the redtum, before and after
the fifth month, when the tumour of the abdomen is
plainly perceived.
Moll women, a day or two before the irruption- off
the catamenia, labour under complaints proceeding from
a plethora ; fuch as llretching pains in the back and loins,
iniidc of t!.<c thighs, bread and head ; a ficknefs and op-
preflioir at the llomach, and a fulnefs of all the vifeera of
the abdomen ; and all thefe fymptoms abate, and gradual¬
ly vanilh, when the difeharge begins and continues to
flow. But, if the woman be obllrufted by any accident
or error in the non-naturals, all thofe complaints, conti¬
nue and increafe, and are hardly diftinguilhable from the
fymptoms of pregnancy, till the end of the fourth month ;
at which period, women with child grow better, and ail
the complaints of fullnefs gradually wear off; whereas^
thofe who are ody obftrufred, grow worfe and wdrfe.
The fundus uteri, in the obllrufled patient, is notllretch-
ed ; the diforder in the llomach is not fo violent as in a
pregnant woman, and feldom accompanied with rea^hinos-
whiif the women with child is afflidled with a reaching
every morning, and Fubjedt to longings befides. The
lull labours under a fullnefs of the veffels; the lafl, over
and above this complaint, fuffsrs an additional one from
, “ the
2 12
M I D W I
•the difteniion of th$ uterus by the impregnated ovurri.
•Obdru&ions and pregnancy are both accompanied by a
ftretching furJnefs in the breads; but in the lad only,
may be perceived the-areola, or brown ring, round the
nipples, from which, in the lad months, a thin fe;rum di-
dtils , but this circle is not,always fo dilcernible as in the
iird pregnancy, and even then is uncertain as well as the
others.
^ About the fifth or fixth month, the circumfc ribed tu¬
mour or dretching of the uterus is felt above the os
.pu-is ; and, by this circumfcription and confidence, eafily
didmguidredfrom the afcites, or dropfy of the abdomen:
it is allb rounder and firmer than thofe dwellings that
accompany obdrudtionsi which proceed from a general
■fullnefs of the ve.flels belonging to the ligaments and
neighbouring vifcera.
On the whole, the difficulty of didinguidaing between
-obdrudions and pregnancy in the fird months, is fo great,
that we ought to be cautious in giving our opinion ; and
never prefcribe fuch remedies as may endanger the fruit
•of the womb ■ but rather endeavour to palliate the com
plaints, until time diall difcover the nature of the cafe ;
and always judge on the charitable fide, when life or re¬
putation is at dake.
In the fifth or fixth month of uterine gedation, by the
■touch in the vagina, we perceive the neck of the womb
,confiderably diortened, and the dretching of the lower
part of the uterus is then fenfibly felt between the mouth
of the womb and the pubes, and on each fide of the neck.
£ee Plate CXI. fig. 3.
In the feventh month, the head of the child is fre¬
quently felt reding againd the lower part of the uterus,
tetween the pubes and os internum; and being pufhed
upwards towards the fundus, finks down again by its
own gravity. All thefe diagnodics are more plain and
.certain, the nearer the patient approaches to the time of
delivery.
Sometimes, the head is not felt till the eighth or
ninth month ; and in fome few cafes, not till after the
membranes are broke, when it is forced down by the
contraction of the uterus, and drong labour-pains. This
•circumdance may be owing to the head’s reding above
the bafin, efpecially in a narrow pelvis; or to the diden-
fion of its belly with air after death, by which thefoetus
'being rendered fpecifically lighter than the furrounding
waters, the body floats up to the fundus, if there is a
large quantity of fluid in the membranes ; nor is the bo-
^dy always felt when the child lies acrofs the uterus.
ffo<w to dijiinguifh ike faife~LhV,o\JK from the true, and
the means to be ufed on that occafion.
If the os uteri remains clofe (hut, it may be taken for
granted that the woman is not yet in labour, notwith-
ftanding the pains {he may fuflFer : with regard to which,
an accurate inquiry is to be made ; and if her complaints
proceed from an over dretching fullnefs of the uterus or
vedels belonging to the neighbouring parts, blooding in
the arm or ancle, to the quantity of fix or eight ounces,
ought to be prefcribed, and repeated occafionally. If the
pains are occafioned by a loofenefs or diarrhoea, it muft
be immediately redrained with opiates. Cholic pains are
F E R Y.
didinguiflied -from thofe of labour, by-being chiefly con¬
fined to the belly, without going offi and retufning by dif-
tincl intervals : they are for the-mod part produced by
faeces too long retained in thg colon, or by fuch ingeda as
•occafion a rarefaftion or expanfion of air in the intedines;
by which they are violently dretched and vellicated.
This complaint mud be removed by opening glyders, to
empty the guts of their noxious contents: and this eva-
cuatidin being performed^ opiates may be adminidered to
affuage the pains ; either to be injefted by the anus, ta¬
ken by the mouth, or applied externally in form of e-
pithem or embrocation.
Sometimes, the os internam may be a little dilated,
and yet it may be difficult to judge whether o-r not the
patient be in labour ; the cafe, however, may be afcer-
tained, after forne attendance, by thefe confiderations : if
the woman is not arrived at her full time ; if no foft or
glary mucus, hath been difcharged from the vagina ; if
the pains are limited to the region of the belly, without
extending to the back and infide of the thighs; if they
are flight, and continue without rntermiffion or increafe;
nay, if they have long intervals, and recur without force
Efficient to pufh down the waters and membranes, or
child’s head, to open the os internum; if this part be
felt thick and rigid, indead of being foft, thin, and yield¬
ing ; we mayfafely pronounce, that labour is not yet be¬
gun ; and thofe alarms are to be removed as we have di-
re&ed in the cafe of falfe or cholic poins. Befides, if
the pulfe be quick and drong, and the patient attacked
by flitches in the fides, back, or head, blooding will be
likewife neceflary. See Plate CXI, fig. 4.
The dtvijion of Labours.
A- natural labour is when the head prefents, and
the woman is delivered by her pains and the affidance
commonly given : but, fliould the cafe be fo tedious and
lingering, that we are obliged to ufe extraordinary force,
in dretching the parts, extrading with the forcepts, or
(to fave the mother’s life) in opening the head and deli¬
vering with the crotchet, it is didinguiflied by the appella¬
tion of laborious : and thg preternatural comprehends all
thofe cafds in which the child is brought by the feet, or
the body delivered before the head. Neither do we
mind how the child prefeots, fo much as the way in which
it is delivered: for there are cafes in which the head
prefents, and for feveral hours we exped the child will
be delivered in the natural way ; but if the woman has
not flrength enough to force down the child’s head into
the pelvis, or in floodings, we are at length obliged to
turn and bring it by the feet, becaufe it is fp high that
the forceps cannot be applied; and if the child is not
large, nor the pelvis narrow, it were pity to deflroy the
hopes of the parents, by opening thelkull and extrading
with the crotchet. In this cafe, therefore, although the
child prefents in a natural way, we are obliged to turn
and deliver it in the fame manner as if thefhoulder, bread,
or back, had prefented ; and generally, this operation is
more difficult than in either of thofe cales, becaufe, if the
waters are all difcharged, and theuteius clofe contraded
round the foetus, it is more difficult to raife the head to
the fundus. When the breech jirefents, we are frequent-
M 1 D W I
1y oH^geci. to piVTh-'it op, -and fearch for the legs 5 Vbich
btbg found, we proceed to deliver the body, and laftly
the head. If the head is large, or the pelvic narrow, and
the. waters not difcharged, we ought, if poffible, to turn
the child into the natural pofition.
Fob a further illullrattod, and, to inform young prac*
titioners that difficult cafes do not frequently opcur, lup- '
pofe, of three tho'Jand women in one town or village,
One thoufand /hall be delivered in the fpace of one year,
and in nine hundred arid ninety of thefe births, the child
lhall be born without any other than common ajQiftance:
fifty children of this number lhall offer with the fore¬
head turned to one fide, at the lower part of the pelvis,
where it will flop for fome time ; ten lhall come with
the forehead towards the groin, or middle of the pubes;
five lhali-prefent with the breech, two or three with the
face, and one or two with the- ear; yet, all thefe lhall ,
be fafely delivered, and thecafe be more or lefs lingering
and laborious, according to the fizgof the pelvis and child,
or ftrength of the woman : of live remaining ten that
snake up the thoufand^ fix lhall prefent with the head
differently turned, -and two with the breech ; and thefe
;cannot be faved without ftretcbing the parts, ufing the
forceps or crotchet, or pnfhing up the ok!Id in order to
bring it by the feetthis necefllty proceeding either from
the weaknefs of the woman, the rigidity of the parts, a
narrow pelvis, or a large child, the other tvyo (hould
lie acrofs, and neither head nor breech, but Tome other
part of the body, prefent, fo that the child fnuft be turn¬
ed and delivered by the feet. Next year,, let us fuppoTe
another thoufand wpmen delivered in the fame place ; not
above three, fix, or eight, lhall want extraordinary af-
fiftance; nay, fometimes, though feldont, when the child
is young, or unufualiy fmall, and the mother has ftrong
pains and a large pelvis, it lhall be delivered even in the
very worft pofition, without any other help than that of
the labour-pains.
As the head, therefore, prefents right in nine hundred
and twenty bf a thoufand labours, all fuch are to be ac¬
counted natural; thofe of the other feventy, that require
affiftance, may be deemed laborious; and- the other ten
to be denominated laborious or preternatural, as they are
delivered by the head or feet.
In order-therefore to render this t reatife as diftimft as
poflible, for the fake of the reader’s memory, as well as
of the dependance and connedlion of the different labours,
they are divided in the following manner : that is ac¬
counted natural, in which the head, prefents, and the
woman is delivered without extraordinary help;”thofe
births are called laborious or nonnatural, when the head
comes'along with difficulty, and muft be affifted either
with the hand in opening the parts, or with the fillet or
forceps, or eve,n when there is a neceffity for opening and
extracting it with the crotchet; and thofe in which the
child is brought by the Breech or feet, are denominated
preternatural, becaufethe delivery is performed in a pre¬
ternatural way..
Of the different pofttions of 'women in labour.
In almoft a!! countries, the woman is allowed either
to fit, walk about, dr reft upon a bed, until the os uteri
Voa.. III. N°. 78. 2
F E ¥. . 21 ^
is pretty much dilated by the gr .v'tation of the waters,
or (when they are in frnall quantity) by the head of the
foetus, fo that delivery is feon expedled ; when ffie is put
in fuch pofition as is judged more fafe, eafy, and conve-;
nient for that purpofebut the patient may be put upon
labour too prematurely, and bad confequences. will attend
' fuch miftakes’.
Among the Egyptians, Grecians, and Romans, the
woman was placed upon an high ftool ; in Germany and
H(?%ndthey ufe the chair which is defcribed by Deventer
and Heifter; and for hot climates the ftool is perfectly
well adapted; butin northern countries,"andcold weather,
fuch a pofition muft endanger the patient’s health.
In the Weft Indies, and fome parts of Britain, the
woman is feated on a ftool made in form of a femicitrle;
in other places ■ftie is placed on a woman’s lap ; and fome,
, kneeling on a large, cuffiion, are delivered backwards.
In France the pofition is chieflly, that of half fitting and
half lying, on the fide or end'of a bed ; or the woman
being in naked bed, is faifed up'with pillows or a bed-
chair.
The London method is^very Convenient in natural and
eafy labours ; the patient lies in bed upon 6ne fide, the
knees being-contracted to the belly, and a pillow put be¬
tween them to keep them afunder. But the molt com¬
modious methdd is to prepare a bed and a couch irf the
fame room; a piece of oiled.cloth or dreffed fheep ftcin is
laid acrofs the middle of each ; over the under-ffieet, and
above this, are fpread feveral folds of linen, pinned or tied
with tape to each fide of the bed and couch ; thefe are de-
figned to fpunge up the moifture in time of labour and af¬
ter delivery, while the oiled cloths or ffieep fkins below
preferve the feather bed from being wetted or fpoilede
for this purpofe, fome people lay befides upon the bed
feveral urider-ffieets over one another, fo that by Aiding
out the uppermoft every day, they can'keep the bed dry
and comfortable.
The couch muft be no more thah three feet wide, and
provided with caftors; and the tvOman without any other
drefs than that of a ffiort or half ffiift, a linen Ikirtor pet¬
ticoat open before, and a bed-gown, ought to lie down
upon it, and be covered with deaths according tathe fea-
fon of the year. She is commonly laid on the left fide,
bat in that particular fhe is to confult her own eafe; and
a larg'te ffieet being doubled four times -or more, -one end
muft be Dipt in below her breech, while the other hangs
over the tide <Sf the couch, to be fpread upon the knee of
of the.accoucheur or midwife, who fits behind her on a
low feat. As foon as ffie is delivered, this-ftieet muft here-
moved, a foft warm cloth applied to the os externum,
and the pillow .taken from betwixt her knees : ffie theft
muft be fliifted'with a clean/warm, half ffiift, linen fleirt,
and bed-gown, and her belly kept firm with the broad
head-band of the Ikirt, the ends of which are to be pin¬
ned acrofs each other. Thefe meafures being taken, the
couch muft be run clofe to the bed-fide, and the patient
gently moved from one to another ; but, if there is no
couch, the bed muft be furniffied with the fame apparatus.
Some, again, are laid acrofs. the foot of the bed, to the
head of which the cloaths are previoufly turned up till after
delivery, when the woman’s pofture is adapted, and then
a-H 'they
2 14 M I D W I
they are rolled down again to cover and keep her warm :
bythis expedient, the place of a couch is fupp!ied,-and
the upper part of the bed preferred foft and clean ; where¬
as thofe who are laid above the cloaths mud be taken
wp and fhifted while the bed is pUt to rights ; in which
Jeafe, they are fubjeft to faintingand to fuch as'a re very
much enfeebled, this fatigue is often fatal.
Women are mod eafily touched, lead fatigued, and
kept warmed, when they lie on one fide : but if the la¬
bour fhould prove tedious, the Parifian method feems
mod eligible; becaufe when the patient half (its, half lies,
the brim of the pelvis is horizontal, a perpendicular line
falling from the middle fpace between the fcrobiculus cor¬
dis and navel, would pals exadtly through the middle of
the bafin. fn this pofition, therefore, the weight of the
waters, and, after the membranes are broke, that of the
child’s head, will gravitate downwards, and affid in o-
pening the parts; while the contracting force of the abdo¬
minal mufcles and uterus, is more free, drong, and equal
in this than in any other attitude. Wherefore, in all na¬
tural cafes, when the labour is lingering or tedious, this
or any other pofition, fuch as danding or kneeling, ought
to be tried, which by an additional force, may help to
pulh along the head, and alter its direction when it does
not advance in the right way. Neverthelefs, the patient
mud by no means be too much fatigued!
When the woman lies on the the left fide, the right
hand mud be ufedin touching, and viceverfa; unlefsfhe
is laid acrofs the bed ; in which cafe, either hand will
equally anfwer the fame purpofe : but, if fl>e lies athwart,
with the breech towards the bed’s foot, it will be mod
convenient to touch with the left hand when die is upon
the left fide, and with the right when in the oppofite po¬
fition. And here it will not be amifs to obferve, that in
the defcription of all the laborious and preternatural deli¬
veries treated of in this.perfornian.ee, the reader mud fup-
pofe the woman lying on her back, except when another
podure is preferibed ; and that in natural and laborious
labours, whether die be upon her fide or back, the head
and ihoulders are a little raifed into a reclining podure, fo
that die may breathe eafiiy, and aiSd the pains.
But in preternatural labours, when there is a neceflity
for ufing great force in turning the child, the head and
fhoulders mud lie lower than the Breech, which being
dofe to the fide or foot of the bed, ought to be raifed
higher than either, becaufe when the pelvis is in this (i-
tuation, the hand and arm are eafily pufhed up in a right
line, along the back part of the uterus, even to its fun¬
dus. Sometimes, however, when the feet of the child
are towards the belly of the mother, they are more eafily
felt and managed when die lies on her fide. At other
times, placing the woman on her knees and elbows bn a
low couch, according to Daventer’s method, will fucceed
better, by diminifhing in part the drong refidance from
the preffnre and weight of the uterus and child, by which
the feet will fometimes' be eafier found and delivered : but
then it is fafer fpr the child, and eafier to the operator
and mother, to turn her to her back before you deliver
the body and head.
Of the management of ‘women in a Natural Labour..
Inj a woman come to full time, labour commonly be¬
gins and proceeds in the following manner*
F E R Y.
The osyueri is felt foft, and a little opened ; the circum¬
ference being fometimes thick, but chiefly thin : from this
aperture is difeharged a thick mucus, which lubricates
the parts, and prepares them for dretching. _ This dif-
charge ufually begins fome days before* and is accounted
the forerunner of real labour: at the fame time, the wo¬
man is feized at intervals with flight pains that gradually
dretch the os uteri, fitting it for a larger dilatation ; and
when labour aflually begins, the pains become more fre¬
quent, drong, and Jading.
At every pain, the uterus is drongly comprefled by the
fame effort which expels the contents of the reftum at
dool, namely the inflation of the lungs, and the contrac¬
tion of the abdominal mufcles.
If the child be lurrounded with a large quantity of
waters, (fee Plate CXI. fig. 4. and 6.) the uterus can¬
not come in coatabi with the body of it, but at every pain
the membranes are pufhed down by the fluid they contain,
and the mouth of the womio being fufficiently opened by
this gradual and repeated didenfion, they are forced into
the middle of the vagina ; then the uterus cor.traffs and
comes in contabl with the body of the child, and, if it
be fmall, the head is propelled with the waters. Here
the membranes C.ually break; bin, if that is not the cafe,
they are pufhed along towards the os externum, which
they alfp gradually ppen, and appear on the outfide, in
the form of a large round bag. Mean while, the Tread
advances, and the os externum being by this time fully
dilated, is alfo protrudedwhen, if the membranes, k>
dead ef hip-ding in the middle of the protuberance,' are
tore all round at the os externum, the child’s head is co¬
vered with fome part of them, which goes under the name
of the caul, or king’s hood. If the placenta is, at the
fame time, feparated from the uterus, and the membranes
remain unbroken, the %undines, waters, and child, are
delivered together; bur, if the placenta adheres, they
mud of courle give way : and fhould they be tore all a-
round from the placenta, the greated part of the body as
well-as the-head of the child will be inveloped by them,
from which it mud be immediately difengaged, that the
air may have a free paflage into the lungs.
When the head is large, fo that it does not defeend.
immediately into the pelvis, the membranes are forced
down by themfelves ; and being dretebed thinner and
thinner, give way; when all the waters which are farther
advanced than the head, run out; then the uterus co¬
ming in contadt with the body of the child, the head is
fqueezed down into the mouth of the womb, which it
plugs up fo as to detain the red of the waters'. See
Plate CXI. fig. 6.
Sometimes, when the quantity of waters is very finalJ,
and the uterus embraces thebody of the child, the head,
covered with the membranes, is forced downwards, and
gradually opens the os internum ; buj, at its arrival hi
the middle of the pelvis and vagina, part of the watery
will be pulhed down before it, fometimes in'a large, and
fometimes in a fmall proportion, towards the back part
of the pelvis. At other times, when the waters are in
fmalLquantity, no part of them are to be didinguilhed
farther than the head, which defeending lower and lower,
-the attenuated membranes are fplit upon it ; while, at
the fame time, it fills up the mouth pf the womb and up-
Tlafe rxir
M I D W
p€t part'of the vagina, in fuch a manner as hinders the
few remaining waters from being difcharged at once ;
though in every pain, a final! quantity diftils on each fide
of'the head, for lubricating the parts, fo as that the child
may flip along the more eafily.
The uterus comrafts, v the pains become quicker and
flronger,. the crown of the head is pufhed down to the
lower part of the pelvis, againft one of the ifchia, at its
lower extremity ; the forehead, being at the upper part
of the oppofite ifchium, is forced into the hollow of the
under part of the facrum, while the vertex and hindhead
is prefled below the os pubis, (fee Plate, CXI. fig. 7.)
from whence it rifes in a quarter turn; gradutdly opening
the os externum : the frtenam labiorum, or fourchette,
perinaeum, fundament, and the parts-that intervene be¬
twixt that and the extremity of the facrum, are all fti etch¬
ed outwards in form of a large tumour. The pe(in£eum,
which is commonly but one inch from the os externum to
the anuj, is now ilretched to three, the anus to two, and
the parts between that and the coccyx are ftretehed from
two inches to about three or.more. The broad facrofciatic
ligaments reaching from each fide of the lower part of the
facrum, to the under part of each ifchium, are alfo out¬
wardly extended, and the coccyx is forced backward ;
while the crown of the head, where the lambdoidal crofles
the end of the fagittal future, continues to be puflied along,
and dilates the os externum more and more. See
Plate CXII. fig. 1. which is intended principally to fliew
in what manner the perinseum and external parts are
ftretched by the head of the foetus, in a firlt preg¬
nancy, towards the end of labour.
A, The.abdomen.
B, The labia pudendi,
C, The clitpris apd its prsepmium.
D, The hairy fcalp of the foetus fwelled at the vertex,
inalaborious cafe, and pj-otrudedto-the os externum.
EF, The perirasum and anus pnfhed out by the
bead of the fpetus in form of a large tumour.
GG, The parts that cover the tuberofities of hte ofla
ifchium. .
H, The part that covers the os coccygis.
When the. head i-s fo far advanced, that the back part
pf the neck is come below the under part-of the os pubis,
the forehead forces the coccyx, fundament, and perinasum,
backwards and downwards; then the hindhead rifes a-
bout two or three inches from under the pubes, making
$ half round turn in its afcent, by which the forehead is
equally railed fronrthe parts upon which it preflkd, and
the perinseum efcapes without .beingpCplit or torn: at the
fame time, the Ihoulders advance into the (ides of the
pelvis at its brim, where it is wide!!,and, with the bo¬
dy, are forced along and delivered : mean while, by the
eontra&ion of the pterus, the placenta and chorion are
loofed«£rom the inner furface to which they adhered, and
forced through the vagina, out at the cs externum.
When the head refls at firft above the brim of the
pelvis,. and is not far advanced, the fontanelfe may be
plainly felt with the finger, commonly towards the fide
of the peiyis : this is the place where the coronal crofles
ihe fagittal future, and. the bones are a little fcparated
I F E K Y. 2fS
from each other, yielding a foftnefs to the touch, by
which may be diftinguilhed four futures, or rather one
crofltng another. Thefe may be plainly perceived, even
before tl\e jtaembranes are broke; yet the examination
mull not be made during a pain, when the membranes
are flretched down and filled with waters ; but-only when
the pain begins to remit, and the membranes to be re¬
laxed ; otherwife they may be broke too foon, before the
os internum be fufficiently dilated, and the head properly
advanced.
, When the vertex is come lower down, the fagittal
future only is to be felt ; becaufe, as the-hindhead de¬
fends in the pelvis, the fontanelle is turned more back*
wards, to the fide, or towards the concavity of the fa¬
crum : but, after it has arrived below the under part of
the ofla pubis, the lambdoidal may be felt croffing the end,
of the fagittal future, the occiput making a more obtuf$
angle than that of the parietal bones, at the place where
the three are joined together. But all thefe ctrcum-
ftances are more ealily diilinguilhed after the membranes
are broke, or when the head is fo comprefled that the
bones ride over one another, provided the hairy fcalp be
not exceffively fweljed. See JPlate CXI. fig. 7. See
alfo • *
Plate CXII. fig. 2. which fliews in what manner the
head of the loetus is helped along with the forceps,
as artificial hands, when it is neceflary for the fafety
of either mother or child.
AABC, *The vertebras of the loins, os facrum, and.
coccyx.
D, The os pubis of thtjeft. fide.
E, The remaining part of the bladder.
FF, The inteflinum redtum.
GGG, The uterus.
H, The mons veneris,'
I, The clitoris, with the left nympha. -
H, The corpus, cavernofum clitoridis,
V, The meatus urinarius.
K, The left labium pudendi.
L, The anus.
N, The perinaeum.
QP, The left hip and thigh.
R, The Iktn and mufcular parts of the loins.
J/ovv and when to break the Membranes.
If the child be furrounded with a large quantity of
waters, the uterus cannot come in contadl with the body
lo as to prefs down (he head, until the membranes are
puflied k confide'rable way before it into-the vagina ; nor
even then, until they are broke, and the fluid diminifhed
in fucfl a manner as will allow the womb to con uadi, and,
v i<h the aliiftance of the pains, force along the child.
When the membranes therefore are flrong or unadvanced,
and continue fo long unbrok-e that the delivery is retard¬
ed, provided the os internum be fuificiently dilated, they
ought to.be broke without further delay; efpecially if the
woman hath been much fatigued or exhaufled with la¬
bour, or is leized with a violent flooding : in which cafe,
thp rupture of the membranes hafieos delivery, and the
hssmonhage is diminiflied by the contraction of the uterus,
which
216 M I;- B W I
which leffens the mouths of-the veflels that are alfo com-
preffed by the body of the child.
The common method bf breaking the membranes is> by
thrufting the finger againll them tvhen they are protruded
with the waters-during the pain, or by pinching them with,
the finger and thumb ; but if, they are detained too high
to be managed in either of thefe methods, thejrandfmay
he introduced into the vagina, if the os externum is fo
lax as to admit it eafily -j and if this cannot be done with¬
out giving much pain, the fore and middle fingers being
pufhed into the vagina with the other hand, let a probe-
of pair of pointed fciffars be direfkd along and between
them, and thruft through the membranes, when they are
pufiied with the waters below the head. This operation
rnuif be cautioufly performed, left the head fhould be
wounded in the attempt ; and as for the membj'anesj let
the opening be never lb fmali, the waters are difeharged
with force fulhcient to tear them afunder.
If the vertex, inftead of rerting at the fide of the brim,
cf the pelvis, or at the os pubis, is forced further down
to the os internum^ and the waters happen to be in fmali
quantity, the head is pulhed forwards, and gradually o-
pens the mouth of the womb without any fenfible inter-
polition of the waters : then it advances by degrees into .
the vagina, and the membranes being fplit or tore", little
or no’hing is difeharged until the body of the child be
delivered : and in this cafe, the hair of the head being
plainly felt, will be a fufficient indication that the mem¬
branes are broke. If no hair is to be felt, but a fmooth
body prefents itfelf to the touch; and the woman has un¬
dergone many ftrong pains, even after the mouth of the
womb hath been largely dilated, and the bead forced in- ,
to the middle'of.the pelvis; you may conclude, that de¬
livery is reltarded by the rigidity of the membranes ; that
there is but a fmali quantity of waters; and that, if the
-containing facs were broke, the head y/ould come along
without further hefitation.
Sometimes, no waters can be felt while the head is no
fafther advanced than the upper part of the pelvis, be-
caufe ft plugs up the pafiage and keeps them from defeend-
ing ; but, as it advances downwards, the uterus contra<fts,
and they are forced down in a fmali quantity towards the
back part: from thence, as the head defeends, or even
though it fliould ftick in that fituation, they are pulhed
farther down, and the membranes may be eafily broke ;
but the talk is more difficult when no waters come down,
and the membranes are contiguous to the head. In this
cafe, they mnft be fcratched a little during every pain,
with the nail of a linger, which, though ffiort and frnooth,
will, by degrees, wear them, thinner and thinner, until
they fplit, upon the head by the force of labour. Yet this
expedient ought never to be ufed until you are certain
that delivery is retarded by their rigidity ; for, if that be
not the hindrance, the difficulty muft proceed from the
weaknefs of the woman, a large head, or narrow pelvis.;
in which cafe, the delivery is a work of time, ,and will
be obftrudted by the premature difeharge of the.waters,
which by gradually palling by the head, ought to keep
the parts moift and flippery, in order to facilitate the
birth : for when the membranes are not broke until the
bead is forded into the middle of the pelvis, the largeft
F ' E E Y. '
part of k being then paft the upper part of the fa era ms
is commonly fqueezed along, opeos-the os externum, and
is delivered before all the waters arc difeharged from the
uterus ; fo that what remains, by moiftening and lubri¬
cating the parts, help the (boulders and body to pafs with
more eafe. When the membranes are too fooo broke,
the under part of the uterus- contradfs fometimes fo
ftrongly before the ffioulders,-that it makes the refiltance
'ffiill greater.
In molt natural labours, the' fpace betwixt the fore and
back fontanelles, viz. the vertex, prefents to the os in¬
ternum, and the forehead is turned to the fide of the pel¬
vis ; becaufc the bafin at tHe brim is wideft from fide to
fide; and frequently, befoie the head is pulhed in and
faft wedged among the bones, the child (after a pain) is
felt to move add turn it to that fide or fttuation in which
it is leaft preffed and hurt, if it was not prefenting in that
pofition before: but this pofition of the head may alter,
viz. in thofe where it is as wide, or wider, from the
. back- part to the fore part of the brim, than from fide to
fide, the forehead may be turned backwards or forwards.
But this form of the pelvis feldom happens.
This pofture is always obferved in a narrow pelvis,
when the upper part of the ftcrum jets forward to the
pubes ; -but, as the child is forced lower down, the fore¬
head turns into the hollow at the inferior part of the fa-
crum, becaufe the vertex and occiput find lefs refiftance
at the lower part of the ofla pubis tham at the ifehium,
to which it was before turned; the. pelvis being at the
ptobes, as formerly deferibed, no more than two inches
in depth, whereas at the ifehium it amounts to four. If,
.therefore, the forehead fticks in its former fituation,
without turning into the hollow, it may be affifted by in¬
troducing fomejingers, or the whol^hand, into the vagi¬
na, during a pku, and moving it in the right pofition.
When the head of the feetus prefents, and is forced
along in any of thofe pofitions, the labour is accounted
natural; and little elfe is to be done, but to encourage
the woman to bear down with all her ftrength in every
pain, and to reft quietly during eadi interval: if the
parts are rigid, dry, or inflamed, they oufht to be lu¬
bricated with pomatum, hog’s lard, butter, or ung. al-
thea : the two firft are moft proper for the external parts;
and the the two laft (as being harder and not fo eafily
melted) ought to be put up into the vagina, to lubricate
that and the os internum;
The mouth of the womb and os externum, for the
moft part, open with greater difficulty in the firft than in
the fucceeding labours, more efpeciallyin women turned
of thirty. In thefe cafes, the os externum muft he gra¬
dually dilated in every pain, by introducing the fingers in
form of a cone, and turning them round, fo as to ftretch
the parts by gentle degrees; and the whole, hand being
admitted into the vagina, it will be fometimes found ne-
ceffiiry to mfinuate the fingers with the flat of the hand
between the head and os internum : for, when this pre-
' caution is not taken in time, the os uteri is frequently
puffied before the head (efpecially that part of it next the
pubes) even through the os externum ; or if the head
palfes the mouth of the womb, it will protrude the parts
at the os externum, and will endanger a laceration in the
.perinseum.
I
M I D W
perinseum. This dilatation, however, ought to be cau-
tioufly performed, and never attempted except when it is
abfoiutely neceffary ; even then it mu(t be effeded (lowly,
and in time of a pain, when the woman is lead fenfible of
the dilating force.
When the labSur happens to be lingering, though eve
ry thing be in a right pollute, if the affiftants are clamo¬
rous, and the woman herfelf too anxious and impatient
to wait the reqiufite time without complaining, the labour
will, be adually retarded by her uneafinefs, which-we
mull endeavour to furmount by arguments and gentle
perfuafion; but if (he is not to be fatisfied, and (Itongly
imprefied with an opiniop that certain medicines might
be adminiflered to haften delivery, it will be convenient
to prefcribe fome innocent medicine, that (he may take
between whiles, to beguile.the time and pleafe her ima¬
gination : but, if (he is adually weak and exhauded, it
will be neceflary to order fomething that will quicken the
circulating fluids, (uch as preparations of antber, caflor,
mytrh, volatile fpirits, ’homyrrh, comfmftt. of the
London, or pulv. adpartum of the Edinburgh Pharma-
copxia, with every thing in point of diet and drink that nou-
rifhes and drengtherts the body. If the patient is of a
plethoric habit, with a quick drong'pulfe, the contrary
method is to be ufed, fuch as vensefedtion, antiphlogidic
medicines, and plentiful draughts of weak diluting fluids.
Honu to behave ’when the birth is obfirutted by the navel-
Jlring or Jhoulders of the child, or a narrows pelvis.
Although the head is pu(hed doNvn into the pelvis,
and the vertex employed in Opening the os externum, the
forehead being lodged in the concavity formed by the
coccyx and lower part of the facrum; yet frequently af¬
ter the labour-pain is abated, the head ag-»: is withdrawn
by the navel-Aring happening to be twilled round the
neck; or when the (boulders, indead of advancing, are
retarded at the brim of the pelvis, one reding over the
offa pubis, while the other is fixed at the facrurn; or
when (the waters having been long evacuated) the under¬
part of the uterus contradls round the neck and before the
(boulders, keeping up the body of the child.
When the head is therefore drawn back by any of thefe
obdacles, and the delivery hath been retarded during fe-
veral pains, one or two fingers being introduced into the
re&um before tlje pain goes o(F, ought to prefs upon the
forehead of the child at the root of the nofe, great care
being taken to avoid the eyes: this preffure detains the
head till the return of another pain, which will fqueeze
it farther down, while the fingers pufhing (lowly and gra¬
dually, turn the forehead half round outwards and half
round upwards. By this aflidance, and the help of drong
pains, the child will be forced along, although the neck
be entangled in the navel-dring; for, a.s the child advan¬
ces, the uterus contra&s, and confequently the placenta
is moved lower: the funis umbilicalis will alfo dretch a
little, without obdrufting the circulation.
The head being thus kept down, the (boulders too are
preffed in every fucceeding pain until they are forced in¬
to the pelvis, when the whole comes along without fur¬
ther difficulty. And this expedient will, moreover, an-
Vol. III. N°. 77. 2
I F E R Y. 217
fwer the purpofe, when .the under-part of the uterus or
os internum is contradled round the neck of the child,
and before the (boulders ; aifq, when the head is very
low, preffing a finger on each fide of the coccyx exter¬
nally will frequently affid. in the fame m inner; alfo in
lingering cafes, when the woman is weak, the head large,
or the pelvis nanow, you may aflid the delivery by gen¬
tly dretching both the os externum and internum with
your fingers, in time of the pains, which will increafe the
fame, as well as dilate; but this is only to be done when
abfoiutely neceffary, and with caution, and at intervals,
for fear of inflaming or lacerating the parts.
Over and above thefe obdacles, the head may be ac¬
tually delivered and the body retained by the contrac¬
tion of the os externum round the neck, even after the
face appears externally. In this cafe it was generally al-
ledged that the neck was clofe embraced by the os inter¬
num ; but this feldom happens when the head is deliver¬
ed, becaufe then the os internum is kept dilated on the
back-part and fides by the bread and arms of the foetus,
unlefs it be forced low down with or before the head.
When the head is delivered and the red of the body
retained from the largenefs or wrong prefenting of the
(boulders, or by the navel ((ring’s being twided round
the body or neck of the child, the head mud be grafped
on each fide, the thumbs being applied to the occiput,
the fore and middle fingers extended along each fide of
the neck, while the third and fourth of each hand fup-
fupport each fide of the upper jaw : thus embraced, the
head mud be pulled dreight forwards ; and if it will not
move eafily along, the force mud be increafed, and the
directions varied from fide to fide, or rather from (boul¬
der to (boulder, not by fudden jerks, but with a (low,
firm, and equal motion. If the body cannot be moved
in this manner, though you have exerted as much force
as poffible without running the rifle of over-draining the
neck, you mud endeavour to (lip the turns of the navel-
dring over the head : but (houlcj this be found impracti¬
cable, -you ought not to trifle in tying the dripg at two
places, and cutting betwixt the ligatures, as fome people
have advifed : fuch an operation would engrofs too much
time; befides, the child is in no danger of fuffocating
from the (IriCture of the funis, becaufe it feldom or never
breaths before the bread is delivered.
The better method is, immediately to Aide along one
or two' fingers, either above or below, to one of the arm-
pits ; by which you try to bring along the body, \vhile,
with the other hand, you pull the neck at the fame time:
if it dill continues unmoved, ffiift hands, and let the other
arm-pit fudain the force ; but, if this fail, cut the navel-
dring, and tie it afterwards. If the (boulders lie fo high
that the fingers cannot reach far enough to cut or take fuffi-
cient hold, let the flat of the hand be run along the back of
the child: or (Itould the os externum be (Irongly con¬
tracted round the neck, pufh up your hand along the
bread, and pull as before : and fliould this method fail,
you mud have recourfe to thebluut hook introduced and
fixed m the arm pit ; but this expedient mud be ufed
with caution, led the child ffiould be injured, or the parts
lacerated.
'3 I The
218 M I D W I
Ths child being born, the funis umbilicalis muff be
divided, and the placenta delivered, according to the di-
redtions that will occur in the fequel.
Hov) to nunage the Child after Delivery.
The child being delivered, ought to be kept warm be¬
neath the bsd-cloaths, or immediate!}' covered . with a
warmed flanel or linen cloth : if it cries and breathes,
the umbilical cord may be tied and cut, and the child
delivered to th@ nurfe without delay ; but, if the air does
not immediately ruih into the langs, and the circulation
continues between it and the placenta, the operation of
tying and cutting mull be delayed, and every thing tried
to ftimulate, and fometimes to give pain. If the circu¬
lation is languid, respiration begins with difficulty, and
proceeds with long intervals ; andifit be entirely (lopped
in the funis; the child, if alive, is noteafily recovered ;
fometimes, a great many minutes are elapfed before it
begins to breathe. Whatever augments the circulating
force, promotes refpiration ; and as this increafes, the
circulation grows ilronger, fo that they miKuilly affi(l
each other. In order to promote the one and the other,
the child is kept warm, moved, (kaken, whipt; the head,
temples, and bread rubbed with fpirits, garlick, onion,
or mudard applied to the mouth and nofe .; and the child
has been fometimes recovered by blowing into the mouth
with a diver canula, fo as to expand the lungs.
When the placenta is itfelf delivered, immediately or
foon after the child, by the continuance of the labour-
pains, or hath been extradled by the , operator, that the
uterus may contrafl, fo as to redrain too great a flooding ;
in this cafe, if the child has not yet breathed, and a
pulfation is felt in the veflels, fome people (with good
reafon) order the placenta, and as much as poflibleof the
navel-Aring, to be thrown into a bafon of warm wine or
water, in order to promote the circulation between them
and the child; others advife us to lay the placenta on
the child’s belly, covered with a warm cloth ; and a
third fet order it to be thrown upon hot affies: but, of
thefe, the warm water feems the mod innocent and effec¬
tual expedient. Neverthelefs, if the plaeenta is dill
retained in the uterus, and no dangerous flooding enfues,
it cannot be in a place of more equal warmth, while the
operator endeavours, by the methods above deferibed, to
bring the child to life.
In lingering labours, when the head of the child hath
been long lodged iu the pelvis, fo that the bones ride o-
• ver one another, and the ffiape is preternaturally length¬
ened, the brain is frequently fo much comprefled, that
violent convulfions enfue. before or foon after the delivery,
to the danger and oft-times the dedruffion of the child.
This diforder is frequently relieved and carried off, and
the bad confequences of the long compreffion prevented,
by cutting the navel-dringbefore the ligature is made, or
tying it fo flighty'as to allow two, three, or four large
fpoonfuls to be difeharged.
If the child has-been dead one or two days before de¬
livery, the lips and genitals (efpecially the fcr<$:um in
boys) are of a livid hue ; if it hath lain dead in the u-
terus two or three days longer, the (kin may be eafily
{jript; frosa every part of the Body, and the navel dring
F E R V.
appears of the fame colour with the lips and genital:' : in
ten or fourteen days, the body is mich more livid and
mortified, and the hairy feiip maybe fepirated witheafe ;
and indeed, any pirt of the child which hath been Arang-
ly preffed into the pelvis, and retained in that fituation
for any length of time, will adopt the feme mortified ap¬
pearance.
How /s r/VFunis Umbilicalis.
Different praditioners have ufed different methods
of performing this operation : fome propofing to tie and
feparate the fanis before the placenta is delivered; to
apply one ligature clofe to the belly of the child, .with a
view to prevent a rupture of the navel; and making ano¬
ther two inches above the former, to divide the rope be¬
tween the two tyings : by the fecond ligature, they mean
to prevent a dangerous hsemorrhage from the woman,
provided the placenta adheres to the uterus. But all thefe
precautions are founded upon midaken notions, and the
following feems to he that whiijh is eafieA and bed : If
the placenta is not immediareiy delivered by the pains,
and no flooding obliges youuo haden the extrafilon, the
woman may be allowed to red a little, and the child to
recover ; if it does not breathe, or the refpiration is weak,
let the methods above preferihed be put in pradtice, with
a view to dimulate the circulation ; but if the child is
lively, and cries with vigour, the funis may be immedi¬
ately tied in this manner: having provided a ligature or
two, compofed of fundry fhreads waxed together, fo as
to equal the diameter of a pack-thread, being feven inches
in length, and knotted at each end, tie the naval-dring
about two fingers breadth from the belly of the child, by
making at fird one turn, if the funis be fmall, and fecu-
riug it with two knots ; but if the cord be thick, make
two more turns, and another double knot; then cut the
funis with a pair of (harp feiffars one finger’s breath from
the ligature towards the placenta; and in cutting run the
feiffars as near as poffible to the root of the blades, elfe
the funis will be apt to dip from the edge, and you will
be obliged to make feveral fnips before you can effect a
^eparauon : at the fame time, guard the points of the fcif-
fars with your other hand. The child being waffied, a
linen rag is wrapped round the tied funis; which being dou¬
bled up along the belly, a fquare comprefs is laid over ir,
and kept firm or moderately tight with what the nurfes
call a belly-band, or roller round the body.
This portion of the funis foon (brinks, turns fird livid,
then black, and about the fifth day falls off clofe to the
belly; and let the navel dring be tied in any part, or at
any didance whatfoever from the belly, it will always
drqp off at the fame place : fo that ruptures in the navel
feldom or never depend upon the tying of the funis, but
may happen when the compreTs and belly band are not
kept fufficfently firm, and continued fome time after the
feparation of the withered portion, efpecially in thole
children that cry much : the bandage ought always to be
applied fo flight as not to affeft refpiration.
The ligature upon the funis jmult always be drawn fo
tight as to (hut up the mouths of the veffels : therefore,
if they continue to pour out their contents, another liga¬
ture mud be applied below the former; for if this pre¬
caution
M I D W
yet, if the navel-firing is cat or tore afunder at two or
three ;hand-breadths from the belly, and expofed to the
cold without any ligature, the arteries w'il contrad them-
felves, fo as that little or no blood fhall be loft; nay,
fometimes, if the funis hath been tied and cut at the dif-
tance of three finger-breadths from the child’s 'belly, fo
as that it hath been kept from blooding for an hour or
two, althoughahe ligature be then untied, and the navel-
flring and-belly chafed, and foaked in warm water, na
mo.e blood will be difcharged.
Of delivering the Vi.ACE.tiTk.
The funis being feparated, and the child committed
to the nurfe, the next care is to deliver the placenta and
membranes, if they are not already forced down by the
labour-pains. We have already obferved, that if there
is no danger from a flooding, the woman may be allowed
to reft a little, in order to recover from the fatigue file
has undergone ; and that the uterus may, in contrading,
have time to fqueeze and feparate the placenta from its
inner furface : during which pau-fe alfo, about one, two
or three tea-clips full of blood is difch.irged through the
funis, from the .veflels of the placenta, which is thus di-
mlnifhed in bulk, fo that the womb may be the more con-
trided ; and this is the reafon for applying one'ligature
only upon the cord. In order to deliver the placenta,
take hold of the navel-firing with the left hand, turning
it round the fore and middle fingers, or wrapping it in a
cloth, that it may not flip from your grafp ; then pull
gentlyirom fide to fide, and defire the woman to affift
your endeavour, by {training as if ftie werd*at ftool, blow¬
ing forcibly into her hand, or provoking herfelf to reach
by thrufting her finger into her throat. If by thele me¬
thods the placenta cannot be brought away, introduce
your hand flowly into the vagina, and feel for the .edge of
the cake; which when you have found, pull it gradually
along^; as it comes out at the os externum, take hold of
it with both hands and deliver it, bringing away, at the
fame time, all the membranes, which, if they adhere,-
muft be pulled along with leifure and caution.
When the funis takes its origin towards the edge of the
placenta, which is frequently the cafe, the cake comes
eafier off by pulling, than when the navel-firing is inferr¬
ed in the middle, unlefs it be uncommonly retained by
its adhefion to the womb, or by the ftrong contraction of
the os internum. If the funis is attached to the middle
of the placenta, and that part prefents to the os internum
or externum, the whole mafs will be too bulky tp come
along in that pofition : in this cafe you mu ft introduce two
fingers within the os externum, and bring it down with it?
edge foremoft.
When the placenta is feparat.ed by the contradlion of
the uterus, in confequence of its weight and bulk, it is
pufned down before the membranes, and both are brought
away inverted.
When part of the placenta hath palled the os internum,
and the reft of it cannot be brought.along by eafy pulling,
becaufe the os uteri is clofe ccntradted round the middle
©f it, or part of it ftill adheres to the womb, Aide the flat
I F E II Y. 2i9'
of your hand below the placentaahrotigh the os •internum;
and having dilated the uterus, flip down your hand to
the edge of.the cake, and bring it along : but, if it ad¬
heres to the uterus, pufh up ybur hand agebo, and ha¬
ving feparated it cautioufly, deliver it as before.
If. inftead of finding the edge or'middle of the placenta.
prefenting to the os externum or internum, you feel the
mouth of the womb clofeljt coniradted, you muft take
hold of the navel-ftring as above diredted, and Aide your
other hand along the funis into the vagina ; then flowly
pufti your fingers and thumb, joined in form of a cone,
through the os uteri, along the fame cord, to the place
of its infertion in the placenta: here let your hand reft,
and feel with your fingers to what part of the uterus the
cake adheres : if it be Isofe at the lower edge, try to
bring it along; but if it adheres, begin and feparate it
flowly, the back of your hand being turned to the uterus,:
and the fore-part of your fingers towards the placenta:
and for this-operation the nails ought to be cut fhort and
fmooth. In feparating, prefs the ends of your fm^eis
more againft the placenta than the uterus; and if you can¬
not diftinguifh which is which, becaufe both feel foft
(though the uterus is firmer than the placenta, and this
lift more folid than coagulated blood ;) in this cafe,
Aide down your fingers to its edge, and conduft them by
the feparated part, prefling it gently from the uterus,
until the whole is difengaged. Sometimes, when part
of it is feparated, the reft will loofen and come along,,
if you pull gently at the detached portion; but,, if this
is not effected with eafe, let the whole of it be fepa¬
rated in the moft cautious manner: fometirtes, alfo, by
. grafping the infide of the placenta with your hand, the
whole will be loofened without further trouble. . As the
placenta comes along, Hide down your hand and take hold
S>( the lower edge, by which it muft be eXtiadled, beckufe
it is too bulky to be brought away altogether in a heap;
and let it be delivered as whole as poffible, keeping your
thumb or fingers fixed, upon the navel-ftring, by, which
means laceration is often prevented.
When the woman lies on her back, and the placenta-
adheres to the left fide of th? uterus, it will be fnoft com¬
modious to feparate the cake with the right hand; where¬
as the left hand is moft conveniently tiled when the pla¬
centa adheres to the right fide of the womb ; but when it
is attached to the forepart, back, or fundus, either hand
will anfwer the purpofe.
That part of the uterus to which the placenta adheres,
.is kept {fill diftended, while all the reft of it is contracted.
The nearer the adhefion is to the os internum, the
eafier is the placenta feparated, and vice^verfa; becaufe
it is difficult to reach tip to the fundus, on account of tile
contraction of the os internum, and lower part of the
-womb, which are not ftretched again without great force
after they have been contracted for any length of time.
When therefore the placenta adheres to-'the fundus,
and ail the lower part of the womb is ftrongl.y contracted,
the hand muft be forced up in form of a cone into the va¬
gina, and then gradually dilate the os internum and infe¬
rior part of the uterus. If great force is required, exert
it flowly, refting between whiles, that the jiand may not
be
220
M I D W I
be cramped, nor the vagina in danger of being tore from
the womb ; for in this cafe, the vagina will lengthen con-
fiderably upwards.
While you are thus employed, let an aiTiilant prefs \Vith
both hands on the woman’s belly; or while you pufh with
one hand, prefs with the other, in order to keep down the
uterus, elfe it will rife high up, and roll about like a
large bail, below the lax parietes of the abdomen, fo as
to hinder you from effecting the neceffary dilatation.
When you have overcome this contraction, and intro¬
duced your hand into the fundus, feparate and bring the
placenta along, as above direded; and Ihould the uterus
be contracted in the middle like-an hour-giafs, a circum-
ftance that fometimes, though rarely happens, the fame
method mufl be pratifed.
In every cafe, and efpecially when the placenta hath
been delivered with dif&culty, introduce your yOuf hand
after its extraction, in order to examine if any part of the
uterus be pulled down and inverted ; and if that be the
cafe, pufh it up and reduce it without lofs of time, then
clear it of the coagulated blood, which otherwife may
occafion violent after-pains.
For the rnofl: part, in ten, fifteen, or twenty minutes,
more or lefs, the placenta will come away of itfelf; and
though fome portion of it, or of the membranes, be left
in the uterus, provided no great flooding enfues, it is com¬
monly difeharged in a day or two, without any detriment
to the woman : but at any rate, if poffic le, all the fe-
cundines ought to be extracted at once, and before you
leave your patient, in order to avoid reflections.
Of LABORIOUS LABOURS.
How Laborious Labours are occajioned.
All thofecafes in which the head prefents, and cannot
be delivered in the natural way, are accounted more or
lefs laborious, according to the different circumflances
from which the difficulty arifes : and thefe commonly are,
firft, Great weaknefs, proceeding from lofs of appetite
and bad digefribn ; frequent vomitings, diarrhoeas, or dy-
fenteries, floodings, or any other difeafe that may exhauft
the patient; as alfo the fatigue fhe may have undergone
by unfkilful treatment in the beginning of labour.
Secondly, From exceflive grief and anxiety of mind,
occafioned by the unfeafonable news of fudden misfortune
in time of labour; which often affeefl her fo, as to carry
off the pains, andendanger her finking under the fhock.
Thirdly, From the rigidity of the os uteri, vagina,
and external parts, which commonly happens to women
in the firft birth, efpecially to thofe who are about the
age of forty: though it may be alfo owing to large cal-
lofities, produced from laceration or ulceration of the
parts; or to glands and fchirrous tumours that block up
the vagina.
Fourthly, When the under-part of the uterus is con¬
tracted before the fhoulders, or the body entangled in the
navel-firing.
Fifthly, From the wrong prefentation of the child’s
head ; that is, when the forehead is towards the groin or
middle of the os pubis; when the face prefents with the
P E R Y.
chin to the os pubis, rfehium, or facrum; when the crown
of the head reffs above the os pubis, and the forehead or
face is prefled into the hollow of the facrum; and laftly,
when one of the ears prefents.
Sixthly, From the extraordinary offificationof the child’s
head; by which the bones of the fltull are hindered from
yielding, as they are forced into the pelvis; and form a hy¬
drocephalus or drOpfy, dillending the head to fuch a de¬
gree, that ft cannot pafs along until the water is dif-.
charged.
Seventhly, From atoofmall or diflorted pelvis, which
often occurs in very little women, or fuch as have been ric-
ketty in their childhood. See Plate CXII. fig. 6. 7.
In all thefe cafes, except when the pelvis is too narrow
and the head too large, provided the head lies at the up¬
per-part of the brim, or (though prefled into the pelvis)
can be eafily pulhed back into the uterus, the bed me¬
thod is, to turn the child and deliver by the feet; but, if
the head is prefled into the middle or lower part of the
pelvis, and the uterus ffrongly contracted round the child,
delivery ought to be performed with the forceps ; and in
all the feven cafes, if the woman is in-danger, and if you
can neither turn, nor deliver with the forceps, the head
mufl be opened and delivered with crotchets. Laborious
cafes, from fome of the above recited caufes, happen
much oftener than thofe we call preternatural ; but, thofe
which proceed from.a narrow pelvis, or a large head, are
of the worft confequence. Thefe cafes demand greater
judgment in the operator than thofe in which the child’s
head does not prefent; becaufe in thefe lafl we know,
that the heft anclfafeft method is to deliver by the feet;
whereas in laborious births, we muft maturely confider
the caufe that retards the head from coming along, toge¬
ther with the necefiary affiftance required ; we muft de¬
termine when we ought to wait patiently for the efforts
of nature, and when it is abfolutely neceffary to come to
her aid. If we attempt to fuccour her too foon, and ufe
much force in the operation, fo that the child and mo¬
ther, or one of the two, are loft, we will be apt to re¬
proach ourfelves for having ailed prematurely; upon the
fuppofition, that if we had wafted a little longer, the pains
might have, by degrees, delivered the child ; or at leaft,
forced the head fo low, as that we might have extrailed
it with more fafety, by the affiftance of the forceps. On
the other hand, when we leave it to nature, perhaps by
the ftrong preffure upon the head and brain, the child is
dead when delivered, and the woman fo exhaufted with
tedious labour, that her life is in imminent danger : in
this cafe, we blame ourfelves for delaying our help fo
long, reflecting that had we delivered the patient fooner,
without paying fuch fcrupulous regard to the life of the
child, the woman might have recovered without having
run fuch a dangerous rifle. Doubtlefs it is our duty to
fave both mother and child, if poffible ; but, if that is
impracticable, to pay our chief regard to the parent ; and
in all dubious cafes, to aCt cautioufly and circumfpeCtly,
to the beft of our judgment and /kill.
If the head is advanced into the pelvis, and the uterus
ftrongly contracted round the child, great force is required
to puffi it back into the womb, becaufe the effort muft be
fufficient
Hate CXIli.
M I D W 1 F , E . R Y.
ftlFident to Rretch tloe uterus, fo as to re-admit the head,
together with your hand and arm; and even then the
child will be turned with great difficulty.
Should you turn when theiiead is too large, you may
bring down the body of the child, but the head will ftiek
fall: above, and cannot be extra&ed witho'ut the help of
forceps or crotchets ; (fee explanation of Plate CXIII.
fig. 5. belowt) yet the cafe is Rill worfe in a narrow pel¬
vis, even though the head be of an ordinary fize. When
things are fo fituated, you ffiould not attempt to turn,
becaufe in fo doing you may give the woman a great deal
■of pain, and yourfelf much unnecelTary fatigue: you ought
•therefore to try the forceps, and if they do not fucceed,
diminiffi the fize of the-head, and extract it, as ffiald be
afterwards ffiewn.
Plate CXIII. fig. 5. reprefen-ts, in a lateral view of the '
pelvis, the method of extrafling, with the affiftance
of a curved crotchet, the head of thy feetus, when
left in the uterus, after the body is delivered and
feparated from it ; either by its being too large, ©r
the pelvis too narrow.
ABC, The ©s facrum and coccyx.
ID, The os pelvis of the left fide,
EE, The uterus.
F, The locking part of the crotchet.
g,h,i. The point of the crotchet on the infide of the
cranium.
Fillets'*#*?*/Forceps.
We have already obferved, that the greateft number
-of difficult and lingering labours proceed frojn thediead’s
flickingfaft in the pelvis, which fituation is occafioned by
one of the feven caufes recited above : when formerly this
was the cafe, tbe child was generally loll, unlefs it could
be turned and delivered by the feet; or if it could be ex-
trafled alive, either died foon a(ter delivery, or recover¬
ed with great difficulty from the long and fevere compref-
fion of the head, while the life of the mother wat endan¬
gered from the fame caufe as above deferibed : for, the
preffure being reciprocal, the fibres and veflels of thefoft
parts contained in the pelvis are bruifed by the child*s head,
-end the circulation of the fluids obftrufted ; fothat a vio¬
lent inflammation, and fometimes a fudden mortification,
enfues. If the child could^mrt be turned, the method
pradlifed in t-befe cafes, was to open the head and extraft
with the crotchet; and this expedient produced a general
clamour among‘the women, who obferved, that when
recourfe was had to the afliftanceof a man-midwife, either
■the mother or child, or both, were loft. This neafpre,
which Could not fail of being a great difeouragement to
male praffitioners, ftimulated the ingenuity of feveral gen¬
tlemen of the profeffion, in order to,contrive feme gentler
method of bringing along the head, fo as to fare the child,
without any prejudice to the mother.
Their endeavours have not been without fuccefs: a
mbre fafe and certain expedient for this purpofe hath been
invented, and of late brought to greater perfedion in
shis than in any other kingdom : fo that if we are called
in before the child is dead, or the parts of the woman in
danger of a.mortification, both the foetus and mother may
.frequently be happily faved. This fortunate contrivance
Vol. III. N°. 78. 2
221
is no other than the forceps, which was, as is alledged.
firft ufed here.by the Gbantberixins, by whom it was kept
as a noftrum, and after their deceafe fo imperfeftiy known,
as to be feldom applied with fuccefs: fo that different
praditioners had recourfe to different kinds of fillets or,
lacks. Blunt hooks alfo of various make were invented
ih England, France,, and other parts. The'forceps, fince
the time of Dr Chamberlain, have hndergone feveral al¬
terations, particularly in the joining, handles, form, and
compofition.
The common way of ufing them formerly, was by in¬
troducing each blade at random, taking hold of the head
any how, pulling it ftraight along, and delivering with
downright force and violence ; by which-means, both os
internum and externum were often tore, and the child’s
headmuch bruiled. On account of thefe bad confequences,
they had been altogether difufed by many praditipners ;
fomeof whom endeavoured, in lieu of them, to introduce
divers kinds of fillets over the child’s head; but none of
them can be fo eaftly ufed, or have -near fo many advan¬
tages, as the forceps, when rightly applied and conduded.
■For my,own part, fays Dr Sniellie, Ending in pradice
that, by the diredions ofGiffard, zo& Gre-
goire at Paris, I frequently could not move the head a-
long without Contufing it, and fearing the parts of the
woman; for they dired us to introduce the blades pf tbe
forceps where they will eafieft pafs, and taking hold of
the head in any part of it, to extrad with more or lefs
force, according to the refiftance ; I began to confider
the whole in a mechanical view, and reduce the extrac¬
tion of the child to the rules of moving bodies in different
diredions : in confequence of this plan, I more accurate¬
ly furveyed the dlmenfions and form of the pelvis, toge¬
ther with the figure of the child’s head, and the manner
in which it paffed along in natural labours : and from the
knowledge of thefe things, I not only delivered with
greater eafe and fafety rhan before, but alfo had the fa-
tisfadion to find in teaching, that I could convey a more
diftind idea of the art in this mechanical light than in any
other; and particularly, give more fure and folid direc¬
tions for applying the forceps? even to the^convidion of
many old praditioners, when they refteded on the uncer- "
tainty attending the old method of application. From
this knowledge, too, joined'with experience, and hints
which have occurred and been communicated to me, I
have been led to after the form and dimenfions. of the
forceps, fo as to avoid the inconveniencies that attended
the ufe of the former kinds See -Plate CXIII. fig, 6.'
A, The (freight forceps, in. the exad proportion as t©
the width'between the blades, and length from the ■
points to the locking part; the firft being two and .
the fecondfix inches - which, with three inches and a
half, (the length of the handles), make in ail eleven
inches and a half.
B reprefeuts the pofterior part of a fingle blade,
in order to ffiew the width and length of the open
part of the fame, and the form and dimenfions of
the whole.
C, The blunt hook, which is ufed foi three purpofes:
I. To affift the extraftjon of the bead, after the
cranium is opened with the feiffars, by introducing
3 K t he
222
M I D W I
the fraall end along the ear on the outfide of the.
head to above the under-jaw, where the point is to
be fixed ; the other extremity of the hook being
held with one hand, wbilit two fingers of the other
are to be introduced into the forefaid opening, by ,
which holds the head is to be.gradually extracted.
2. The fmall end is ufefui in abortions, in any of
-the firft four or five months, to hook down the fe-
cundines, when lying loofe in the uterus, when they
cannot be extra&ed by the fingers, or labour-pains,
and when the patient is-much weakened by floodings.
3. The large hook at-the other end is ufeful to allift
the extraction of the body, when the breech pre-
fents ; but fliould be ufed with great caution, to a-
void the diflocation or frafture of the thigh.
The lacks or fillets are of different kinds, of which
the moft fimpTe is a nocfe made on the end of a fillet or
limber garter : but this can only .be applied, before the
head is faft jammed in the pelvis, or when it can be pufli-
ed up and raifed above the brim. The os externum and
internum having been gradually dilated, this noofe mult
be conveyed on the ends of the fingers, and flipped over
the fore and hind head. There are alfo other kinds dif¬
ferently introduced upon various blunt inftruments, too
tedious either to defcribe or ufe : but the moft ufeful of
all thefe contrivances, is a fillet made in form of a (heath,
mounted upon a piece of flender whale-bone, about two
feet in length, which is eafier applied than any other ex¬
pedient of the fame kind. See Plate CXIII. fig. 7.
A reprefents the whale-bo„ne fillet, which may be
fometimes ufeful in laborious cafes, when the ope¬
rator is not provided with the forceps, in fudden and
unexpected exigencies,
BB, Two views of a peflary for the prolapfus uteri.
After the uterus is reduced, the . large end of the
peffary is to be introduced into the vagina, and the
os uteri retained in the concave part, where there
are three holes to prevent the ftagastion of any
moifture. The fmall end without the os externum
has two tapes drawn through the two holes, which
are tied to four other tapes, that.hang down from a
belt that furrounds the woman’s btfdy, and by this
rne^ns keep up the peffary. This peffary may be
taken out by the patient .when jhe goes to bed, and
introduced again in the morning ; but as this fome¬
times. rubs the os externum, fo as to make fits ufe
uneafy, the round kind, marked C,_ are of more
general ufe. They are made of wood, ivory, or
cork, (the laft covered with cloth and dipt in wax:)
The peffary is to be lubricated with pomatum, the
edge forced through the paffage into the vagina, and
a finger introduced in the hole in the middle lays it
a-crofs within the os externum. They ought to be
larger or fmaller, according to the widenefs or nar-
rownefs of the paffage, to prevent their being forced
out by any extraordinary (training.
DD gives two views of a female, catheter, to (hew
its degree of curvature and different parts.
When the head is high up in the pelvis, if the woman
has been long in labour, and the waters difcharged for a
confider&ble time, the uterus being ftrongly contracted,
F E R Y.
fo as that the head and (boulders cannot be raifed, or the
child turned to be delivered by the feet, while the mother
is enfeebled, and the pains fo weak, that, unlefs aflifted, (he
is in danger of her life; alfo, when the os internum, vagi-
. na, and labia pudendi, are inflamed, and tumefied ; or when
there is a violent difchargeof blood from the uterus, pro¬
vided the pelvis is not too narrow, nor the head too large,
this fillet may be fuccefsfully ufed ; in which cafe, if the
os externum and internum are not already fufficiently o-
pen, they muft be gradually dilated as much as pofiible,
by the hand, which at the fame time muft be introduced
and paffed along the fide of the head, in order to afcer-
tain the pofition thereof. This being known., let the o-
ther hand introduce the double of the whale-bone and fil¬
let over the face and~chin, where you can have the beff
purchafe, and where it will be lead .apt to flip and lofe its
Fold. This application being effeCled, let the hand be
brought down, and the whale-bone drawn from the (heath
of the fillet, which (after the ends of it are tied together)
muft be pulled during every pain, prefling at the fame
time with the other hand, upon the oppofite p'art .of the
head, and ufing more or lefs force acccording to the re-
liftance.
The difadvantage attending all fillets, is the difficulty
in introducing and fixing them: and though this laft is
eafier applied than the others; yet when the vertex pre-
fents, the child’s chin is fo preffed to the bread, that it
is often impracticable to infinuate the fillet between them;
and if it is fixed upon the face or hind head, it frequent¬
ly (lips off, in pulling: but, granting it commodioufly
fixed, when'the head is large, or the pelvis narrow; fo
that we are obliged to pull with great force, the fillet
will gall, and even cut the foft parts to the very bone;
and if the child comes out of a fudden, in confequence
of violent pulling, the external parts of the woman are
in great danger of fadden laceration: but, if the head is
fmall, and comes along with a moderate force, the child
may be delivered by this contrivance, without any bad
confequence: though in this cafe, we find by experience,
that unlefs the woman has feme very dangerous fymptom,
the head will in time Aide gradually down into the pelvis,
even when it is too large to be extracted with the fillet or
forceps, and the child be fafely delivered by thelabour-
pains, although (low and fingering, and the mother feems
weak and exhaufted, provided (lie be fepported with nou-
rifliing and ftrengthening cordials.
As the head in the 6th andv 7th cafes is forced along
the pelvis, commonly in thefe laborious cafes, the bones
of the cranium are fo compreffed, that they ride over one
another, fe that the bulk of the whole is diminiffied, and
the head, as it is puftied forward, is, from a round, alter¬
ed into an oblong figure: when therefore it is advanced
into the pelvis, where it flicks faft for a confiderable time,
and cannot be delivered by the labour-pains, the forceps
may be introduced with great eafe and fafety, like a pair
of artificial hands, by which the head is very little (if at
all) marked,- and the woman very feldorn tore. But if
the head is detained above the brim of the pelvis, ,jor V-
fmall portion of it only farther advanced, and it appears,
that the one bemg too narrow, or the other too large, the
woman cannot be delivered by the ftrongeft labour-pains ;
M I D W
in that cafe, the -Child cannot be faved either by turning
and bringing it by the feet, dr delivered by the applica¬
tion of fillet or forceps ; but the operator mull'unavoid¬
ably ufe the difagreeable method of extradting with the
crotchet. Neverthelefs, in all thefe cafes, the forceps
ought firft to be tried ; and fometimes they will fueceed
beyond'£xpe<ftation, provided the birth is retarded by the
weaknefs of the woman, and the fecond, third, fourth,
or fifth obltruitions : but they cannot be depended upon
even when the vertex prefents, With the forehead to the
fide or back- part of the pelvis, and (though the woman has
had ftrong pains for many hours after the membranes are
broke) the head is not forced down into the pelvis, or at
leaft, but an inconfiderable part of it, refembling the
fmail end of a fugir-loaf. For, from thefe circumftan-
ces, you may conclude, that the largeft part of it is Hill
above -the brim, and that either the head is, too large, or
the pelvis too narrow. Even in thefe cafes, indeed, the
Jaft fillet or a long pair of forceps may take fuch firm
hold, that, with great force and the firong purchafe, the
head will be delivered: but fuch violence is commonly
fatal to the woman, by caufingfuch an-inflammation, and"
perhaps laceration of the parts, as is attended with morti¬
fication.
When the bead is high, the forceps may be locked in
the middle of the pelvis; but in that cafe, great care rnufl:
be taken in feeling with the fingers all round, that rio part
of the vagina be included in the locking. Sometimes,
when the head refts, or is prefled too much on the fore¬
part or fide of the pelvis, either at the brim or lower
dawn, by introducing one blade, it may be moved farther
down, provided the labour-pains are llrong, and the o-
peration afiifted by the fingers of the other hand applied
to the opjjofite fide of the head; but if the fingers cannot
reach high enough,; the heft method is to turn or move
the blade towards theear'of the child, and introduce the
ether along the oppofite fide.
General rules for ujing the Yo9.s:zv*$.
The farther the head-is advanced in the pelfis, theea-
fier it is delivered with the forceps ; becaufe then, if in
the 6th or yth cafe, it is changed from a round to an .ob¬
long figure, by beinguforced along by the labour-pains :
on the contrary, when the head remains high up, rcfting
upon the brim of the pelvis, the forceps are ufed with
greater difficulty and uncertainty.
The os externum muft be gradually opened by intro¬
ducing the fingers one after another, in form of a cone,
after they have been lubricated with pomatum, moving
and turning them in a femicircular motion, as they are
pufhed up. If the head is fo low down that the hand
cannot be introduced high up in this form, let the parts
be dilated by the fingers turned in the direction of the
coccyx, the back of thehand being upwards,, next to-the
child’s head : the external parts being fufficieatly open¬
ed to admit all the fingers, let the back of the hand be
turned to the perinseum, while the fingers and thumb
being flattened, will Aide along betwixt the head and
the os facrum. If the right hand be ufed, let it be turn¬
ed a little to the left fide of the pelvis, becaufe the broad
ligament and membrane that fill up the (pace between the
I F E R Y. 22?
factum and ifebia, will yield and allow more room for
the fingers to advance; for the fame reafon, when the
left hand is introduced, it mull be turned a little to the
right fide. Having gained your point fo far,, continue to
puflimp, until your fingers pafs the os internum ; at the
fame time, with the palm of your hand, raife or fcoop
up the head ;,by which means, you will be more at li¬
berty to reach higher, dilate the internal parts, and dif>
tinguifti the fituation and fize of the head, together with
the dimenfions of the pelvis: from which invefligatipn,
you will be able to judge, whether the child ought to be
turned and brought by the feet, or delivered with the
forceps; or, if the labour-pains are flrong, and the head
prefents tolerably fair, without being jammed in the pel¬
vis, you will refolveto wait fome time, in hope of feeing,
the child delivered by the labour-pains,. efpecially vvheR
the woman is in no immediate danger, and the chief ob-
ftacle is the rigidity of the parts.
The pofition of the head is diftinguiflied by feeling for
one of the ears, the fore or fmooth part of which is to¬
wards the face of the child; if it cannot be afeertained by
this mark, -the hand and fingers muft he puffied farther
up, to feel for the face or back part of the neck; but, if
the.head cannot be traced, the obfervation muft be taken
from the fontaneile, or that part of the cranium where
the lambdoidal crofles the end of the fagittal future.
When the ears of the child are towards the fides of (he
pelvis, or diagonal, the forehead being either to the fa¬
crum or pubes, the patient muft lie on her back, with
her breech a little over the bed. If one ear is to the fa¬
crum, and the other to the pubes, fhe muft be laid on
one fide, \?ith her breech oyer the bed, as before, her
knees being pulled up to her belly, and a pillow placed
between them ; except when the upper part of the facrum
jets too much forward; in which cafe, ftie muft lie up-,
on her back, as above deferibed.
The blades of the forceps ought always, if poffible, to
be introduced along the ears; t>y which means, they ap¬
proach nearer toeach other, gain a firmer hold, and hurt
the head lefs than in any other dire&ion : frequently, in¬
deed, not the leaft mark of their application is to be per-
ceived; whereas, if the blades are applied along the
forehead and occiput, they are at a greater diftance from-
each other, require more room, frequently at their points
prefs in the bones of the IkulL, and endanger a laceration
in the os externum of the woman. See Plate CXII.
fig. 2.
The woman being laid in a right pofition for the ap¬
plication of the. forceps, the blades ought to be privately
conveyed between the feather-bed and the cloaths, at a
fmall diftance from one another, or gn each fide of the
patient: that this-conveyance may be the more eafily ef-
fefhed, the legs of the inftfument ought to be kept in the
operator’s fide-pockets. Thus provided, when he fits
down- to-deliver, let him fp:ead the ffieet that hangs over
the bed, upon his lap, and under that cover, take out
and difpofe the blades on each fide of the patient; by
which means, he will often be able to deliver with’ the
forceps, without their being .perceived by the woman her-
lelf, or any other of the affiftants. Some people pin a
ftaeey-to each llioulder, and throw the other end over the
bed,
-1
'2-2.4 M I D .W I
'bed, that tbey may'be the more efTcdually conceriled
from the view of th-ofe who are prefent; but this method
« apt to confine and embarrafs the operator. At any'
Tate, as women are commonly frightened at the very
name of an inflrament, it is advifeable to conceal thtr-m as
Tnuch as poffible, utitil the chara^er of the operator is
■folly eltabliihed,
"The different •wqyt'of-vjirig the Forcevs.
When the Head is donun\to the Os Externum.
When the head prefents fair, with, the forehead to
the facrum, the occiput to the pubes, and the ears to
the hides of the pelvis, or a little diagonal; in this cafe,
the head is commonly pretty well advanced in the bafon,
end the operator feldoro mifcarries in the ufe of the for¬
ceps. Things being thus fituated, let the patient be laid
on her back, her head and fhoulders being fomewhat rai-
fed, and the breech advanced a little over the fide orfcrdt
of the bed ; while the afiiflants fitting on each fide fup-
port her legs, at the fame time keeping her knees duly
Separated and raifed up to the belly, and her lower parts
always covered with the bed cloaths, that fhe may not be.
apt to catch cold. In order to avoid this inconvenience,
if the bed is at a gfeat didance from the fire, the wea¬
ther cold, and the woman of a delicate conftitution, a
chafing-difh with charcoal, or a vedei with warm water,
fhould be placed near, or under the bed. Thefe precau¬
tions being taken, let the operator place hfmfelf upon a
low chair, and having lubricated with pomatum the
blades of the forceps, and alfo his right hand and fingers.
Hide firtt the hand gently into the vagina, pufhing it a-
long in aflattened form, between that and the child’shead,
until the fingers have paded the os internum ; then, with
bis other hand, let him take one of the blades of the for¬
ceps from the place where it was depofited, and introduce
it betwixt his right hand and the head; if the point
or extremity of it flibuld dick at the ear, let it be dipt
backward a little, and then guided forwards with a dow
and delicate motion: when it fltall have paded the os u-
teri, let it be advanced dill farther upt until the reft at
which the blades lock into each other be crlofe to the
lower part of the head, or at leaft within an inch thereof.
Having in this manner introduced one blade, let him
withdraw his right hand, and infinuate his left in the
fame direction, along the other fide of the head, until his
fingers (hall have paded the os internum ; then taking out
the other blade from the place of concealment, with the
hand that is difengaged, let it be applied to the other fide
of the child’s head, by the fame means employed in intro¬
ducing the firft; thentbe left hand muft be withdrawn,
and the head being embraced between the blades, let them
be locked in each other. Having thus fecured them, he
^iuft take a firm hold with both hands, and, when the
'pain comes on, begin to pull the head along from fide to
fide, continuing this operation during every pain until
the vertex appears through the os externum, and the neck
of the child can be felt with the finger below the os pu¬
bis ; at which time, the forehead pufhes out the perinae-
tam like a large tumour: then let him (land up, and rai-
fing the handles of the forceps,- pull the head upwards
F E R T.
alfo, that the forehead being turned half round upwards,
the perinseum apd lower parts of the os externum may
not be tore.
In ftretching the'os externum or internum, we ought to
imitate nature : for in pra<3dee we find, that when they are
opened (lowly, and at intervals, by the membranes with
the waters, or the child’s head, the parts are feldom in-
fLunedbr lacerated: but in all natural labours, when thefe
parts are fuddeoly opened, and the child delivered by
ftrong and violent pains, without much intermifiion, this
misfortune fometimes happens, and the woman is after¬
wards in greait pain and danger.
We ought therefore, when obliged to dilate thofe
parts, to proceed in that (low, deliberate manner; and
though upon the firft trial, they feel fa rigid, that one
would imagine they could never yield or extend ; yet,
by ftretching with the hand, and refting by interval^, iwe
can frequently overcome the greateft refiftance. We muft
alfo, in fuch cafes, be very cautious, pulling (lowly, with
intermiffions, in order to-prevent the fame laceration:
for which purpofe too, we ought to lubricate tiie perinaeum
with pomatum, during thofe Ihort intervals, and keep
the palm of one hand clofe prefted to it and die neigh¬
bouring parts, while with the other we pull at the ex¬
tremity of the handles of the forceps; by which meads,
we preferve the parts, and know how much we may ven¬
ture to pull at a time. When the head is almoft deliver¬
ed, the parts, thus llretched, muft be (lipped over the
forehead and Face of the child, while the operator pulls
upwards with the"other hand, turning the handles of the
forceps to the abdomen of the woman.
This method of pulling upwards, raifes the child’s
head from the perinasum, and the half-round turn to the
abdomen of the mother brings out the forehead and face
from below ; For, when that part of the hind-head which
is joined to the neck, refts at the under-part of the os
pubis, the head turns upon it, as upon an axis. In pre¬
ternatural cafes alfo, the body being delivered, muft ia
the fame manner be raifed up over the belly of the mo¬
ther, and at the fame time the perinaeum dipt over the
face and forehead of the child.
In the introduftion of the forceps, let each blade be
puftied up in an imaginary line from the os externuth, to
the middle fpace betwixt the navel and fcrobiculus cordis
of the woman; or, in other words, the handles of the
forceps are to be held as far back as the perinaeum will
allow. The introdwfHon of the other hand to the op-
pofite fide, will, by preffing the child’s head againft the
firft blade, detain it in its proper place till the other can
be applied ; or, if this preflure fhould not feem fufficient,
it may be fupported by the operator’s knee.
When the bead is come low down, and cannot be
brought farther, becaufe one of th^ (hpulders refts above
the os pubis, and the other upon the upper-part of the
facrum, let the head be"ftrongly grafped with, the forceps,
and pufhed up as far as poffible, moving from blade to
. blade as you pufh up, that the fhoulders may be the more
eafily moved to the hides of the pelvis, by turning the
face or forehead a little towards one of them ; then, the
forehead muft be brought back again into the hollow of
the facrum, and another effort made to deliver : but,
ihould
I
F E R Y.
M l D W
{hocId the difficulty remain,- let the head be pufhed i^p a-
gain, and turned to the other fide ; becaufe it is uncer¬
tain which of the fhoulders reds on the os pubis, or fa-
crum. Suppofe, for example, the right fhoulder of the
child (ticks above thev os pubis, the forehead being in the
hollow of the factum ; in this cafe, if the -forehead be
turned to the right-hand fide of the woman, the (boulder
will not move ; whereas, if it be turned, to tiie left, and
the head at the fame time pufhed a little upwards, fo as
to raife and difengage the parts that were fixed, the right
(houlder being towards the right hand fide, and the other
to the left fide of the brim of the pelvis, when the fore¬
head is turned back again into the hollow of the facrum,
the obftacle will be removed, and the head be more eafily
delivered. This being performed, let tire forceps be un¬
locked, and' the blades difpofed camioufly under the
deaths fo as not to be difeovered ; then proceed to the
delivery of the child, which, when the navel-ftring is
cut and tied, may be committed to the nurfe. The next
care is to wipe the blades of ;he forceps, fingly, under
the cloaths, Aide them warily into your pockets, and de¬
liver the placenta.
IVhen the forehead is to the Os Pubis.
.When the forehead, inftead of being towards the fa¬
crum, is turned forwards to the os pubis, the woman
tnuft be laid in the fame pofition as in the former cafe ;
becaufe here alfo, ’the ears of the child are towards the
fides of the pelvis, or a little diagonally1 fituated, provi¬
ded the forehead is towards qne of the groins. The blades
•of the forceps being introduced along the ears, or as near
them as poffible, according to the foregoing diredlions,
the-head mud b‘e pufhed up* a little, and the forehead
turned to one fide of the pelvis ; thus let it be brought
along, until the hindhead arrives at the lower part of the
ifctiium : ‘then the forehead mud be turned backward,
into the hqllow of the facrum, and even a quarter or
more, to'the contrary fide, in order to prevent the (boul¬
ders from hitching oirthe upper part of the os pubis, or
facrum, fo that they may be dill towards the fides of the
pelvis : then let the quarter turn be reveifed, and the
forehead being replaced in the hollow of the facrum, the
head may be extradled as above. In performing thefe
different turns, let the head be pufhed up or pulled down
occafionaliy, as it meets with lead refidanee. In this
cafe,, when the. head is (mall, it will come along as it
prefents ; but if large, the chin will be fo much prefied
againd the bread, that it cannot be brought up with, the
half-round turn, and the woman will be tore if it comes
along. See Plate CXII. where
Fig. 3*. (hews the head of'the foetus, by drong la.
bour-pains, fqueezed into a lougiflt form, with a
. tumour, on the vertex, from a long compreflion of the
head in the pelvis.
K, The tumour on the vertex.
L, The forceps.
M, The vefica urinaria much didended^with a large
quantity of urine from the long prefiureof the head
againd the urethra.
N, The under part of the uterus.
00. The os uteri.
Vol. IH. N°. 78.
225
When it prefents fair at the brim of the Pelvis.
WnEN.the forehead and face of the child are turned to
the fide of the pelvis, (in which cafe it is higher than in
tbe'fird fituation), it will be difficult, if the woman lies
on her back, to int/oduce the forceps fo -as to grafp the
head with a blade over each ear ; becaufe the head is of¬
ten preffed fo hard againd the bones, in .this pofition,
that there is ho room to infinuate the .fingers between the
ear and the os pubis, fo at. to introduce the blades fafely,
oh the infide of the os internum, or puffi one of them up
. between the fingers and the child’s head. , When things
are fo fduated, the belt podure for the woman is that oF
lying on one fide, as formerly dircfled, becaufe the bones,
wiil yield a little, and the forceps (of confequence) may
be the more eafily introduced.
Suppofe her'lying on her left fide, and the forehead of
the child,turned to the fame fide of the pelvis ; let the
fingers of the operator’s right hand be introduced along
the ear, between the head and the os pubis, unril they
pafs the os internum : if the head is fo immoveably fixed
in the'pelvis, that there is no paffage between them, let
his left hand be puffied up between the facrum and the
child’s head, which being raifed as high as poffible, above
the brim of the pelvis, he will have room fufficient for
his fingers aqd forceps ; then let him Hide up one of the
blades, with the right hand, remembering to. prefs the
handle backwards to the perinaeum, tha,t the point may
humour the turn of the facrum and child’s head t.this
being effected, let him withdraw his left hand, with which
he may hold the handle of tffie blade, already introduced,
while he infinuates the fingers of his right hand r.t the os
pubis, as before direfled, and pufiies up the other blade,
(lowly and gently, that he may run no ri(k of hurting the
os internum or bladder; and here alfo keep^the handle
of it as far backwards as the perinseum will allow :
whetr the point has palled the os internum, let him Aide
it up farther, and join the legs by locking them together,
keeping them (till in a, line with the middle fpace betwixt
the navel and fcrobiculus cordis. Then let him pull along
the head, moving it from fide to fide, or from one ear
of the child to the other ; when it is fufficiently advanced,
let film move the forehead into the hollow of the facrum,
and a q'uarter-turn farther, then bring it. back into the
fame cavity.; but, if the head w(ll not eafi’y come along,
let the woman be turned on her^ack a(ter the forceps
have been fixed, and the handles firmly tied with a gar¬
ter or fillet,; let the hindhead be pulled half round out¬
wards, from below the os pubis, and the inflrument and
child managed as before.
In all thofe cafes, that require the forceps, if the head
cannot be raifed above the brim of the pelvis, or the fin¬
gers introduced within the os internum, to guide the
points of the forceps along the ears, eipeciaily at the efia
pubis, ifehia, or (acarm ; let the fingers and hand he
puffied up as far as they will go, along the open .fpace
betwixt the facrum ahd ifehiura ; then one of the blades
may be introduced, moved to, and fixed over the ear, the
fituation of which is already.known : the other hand may
be introduced, and the other blade condutfled in the fame
manner, on the oppofite fide of the pelvis j but, before
3 L ' they
2
226 M I D W ]
-they are locked together, care muft be taken that they
are exactly oppofne to each other, and both fufficientiy
introduced. In this cafe, if the operator finds the up¬
per part of the facrum jetting, in fo much that the point
of the forceps cannot pafs it, let him try with his hand
to turn the forehead a little backwards, fo that one ear
will be towards the groin, and the other towards the fide
of that prominence ; cotjfiquently, there will be more
room from the blades to pals along the ears : but if thS
-forehead ihould remain immoveable, or though moved
return to’ its former place, let one blade be-introduced
behind one ear, and its fellow before the other, in which
cafe the introdudion is iometimes more eafily performed
when the woman lies on her back, than Avhen die is laid
-on one fide. See Plate CXII. fig. 2.
When the Face prefents.
When the face prefents, refting on the upper part of
the pelvis, the head ought to be pufhed up to the fundus
uteri, the child turned and brought by the feet, becaufe
the hind head is turned back on the (boulders, and, unlefs
very final!, cannot be pulled along with the forceps ; but
fhould it advance pretty faft in the pelvis, it will be fome-
times delivered alive, without any refiftance. But, if it
defcends (lowly, or, after it is low down, (ticks for a con-
diderable time, the long prefiure on the brain frequently
-deftroys the child, if not relieved in time, by turning or
■extrafting with the forceps.
When the head is detained very high up, and no figns
•of its defcending appear, and the operator having ftretch-
ed the parts with a view tonurn, difcovers that the pel¬
vis is' narrow, and the head large, he muft not proceed
with turning, becaufe after this hath been performed,
perhaps-with great difficulty, the head cannot be deli¬
vered without the affiftance of the crotchet. No doubt
it would be a great advantage in all cafes where the face
or forehead .prefents, if we could raife the head fo as to
alter the bad pofitton, and move it fo, with our hand, as
to bring the crown of the head to prefent : and indeed
this (hould always be tried, and more efpecially, when
the pelvis is too narrow, or the head too large ; and when
we are dubious of faving the child by turning : but fre¬
quently this is impoffible to be done, when the waters
are evacuated, the uterus ftronglycontraded on the child,
and the upper part, of the head fo flippery as to elude our
•hold ; infomuch that, even when the preffbre is not great,
we feldom fucceed, unlefs the head is fmall, and then we
can fave the child by turning. If you fucceed, and the
woman is ftrong, goon as in natural labour; but, if this
fails, then it will be more advifeable to wait with patience
For the defcent of the head, fo as that it may be deliver¬
ed with the forceps; and confeq.uehtly the child may be
fayed; but, if it ftill remains in its high fituation, and
the woman is weak and exhaufted, the forceps may be
-tried; and, (hould they fail, recourfe muft be had to the
•crotchet; becaufe the mother’s life is always to be more
regarded than the fafety of the child.
When the face of the child is come down, and flicks
at the os externum, the greateft part of the head is then
Squeezed down into the pelvis, and if not fpeeedily de¬
livered, the child is frequently loft by the violent com-
[ F E R F.
preffion of the brain : befides, when it is fo low down, it
feldom can be returned, on account of the great contrac¬
tion of theuterus. In this cafe, when the chin is turned
towards the os pubis, at the lower part of that bone,
the woman muft be laid on her back, the forceps intro¬
duced, as formerly directed in the firit cafe, and when the
chin is brought out from under the os pubis, the head
mult be pulled half round upwards ; by which means the
fore and hind head will beraifed from the perinseum, and
the under part of the os externum prevented from being
If the chin points to either fide of the pelvis, the wo¬
man muft be laid on her fide, the blades of the forceps
introduced along the ears, one at the os' pubis, and the
other at the factum ; and the chin, when brought lower
down, turned to the pubis, and delivered: for the pel¬
vis being only two inches in depth at this place, the chin
is eafily brought from under it, and then the head is at
liberty to be turned half round upwards; becaufe the
chin being difengaged from this bone, can be pulled up
over it externally ; by which means, two inches of room,
at lead, will be gained, for the more eafy delivery of the
fore and hind head, which are now prefled againft the
perinscum. When the chin is towards the facrum, the
hind head preffed back betwixt the (boulders, fo that the
face is kept from rifing up below the os pubis, the head
muft be puffied up with the hand, to the upper part of
the pelvis, and the forceps introduced and fixed on the
ears ; the hindhead muft be turned to one fide of the pel¬
vis, while the chin is moved to the other fide, and, if
poffible, to the lower part of the ifchium ; then the
hind head tnuft be brought into the hollow of the facrum,
with the chin below the os pubis, and delivered as above
directed. If this- cannot be done, let the operator try,
with the forceps, to pull down the hind-head below the
os pubis, and at the fame time, with the fingers of the
other hand, puffi the face and forehead backwards and
upwards into the hollow of the facrum.
For when the chin points to the back part of the pel¬
vis, the forehead is fqueezed againft the os pubis, while
the hind-head is prefled upon the back, betwixt the (boul¬
ders ; fo that the head cannot be delivered unlefs, the
occiput can be brought out from below the os pubis, as
formerly defcribed. See Plate CXII. fig. 4, and 5.
Fig. 4. (hews, in the lateral view the face of the
child prefenting and forced down into the lower
part of the pelvis, the chin being below the pubes,
and the vertex in the concavity of the os facrum:
The water being likewife all difcharged, the uterus
appears clofely joined to the body of the child.
Fig. 5. (hews, in a lateral view, the head of the child
in the fame pofition as in the former figure.
AB, The vertebras of the loins, osfacrura, and coccyx.
C, The os pubis of the left fide.
D, The inferior part of rhe redtum.
E, The perinaeum.
F, The left labium pudendi.
GGG, Theuterus.
The fum of all that has been faid on this head, may
be comprehended in the following general maxims.
. Young pradhtioners are often at a lofs to know and
judge
M I D W I
jsdge by the touch in the vagina, when the head is far
enough down in the bafon for ufing the forceps. If we
were to take our obfervations from what we feel of the
head at the os pubis, we fhould be frequently deceived ;
becaufe in that place the pelvis is only two inches in depth,
and the head will feem lower down than it really is : but
if, in examining backwards, we find little or no part of
it towards the facrum, we may be certain that all the
head is above the brim : if we find it down as far as the
middle of the facrum, one third of it is advanced ;
if as far down as the lower part, one half; and in
this cafe, thelargeft part is equal with the brim. When
it is in this fituation, we may be almoll: certain of fuc-
ceeding with the forceps; and when the head is fo
low as to protrude the external p^rts, they never fail.
But thefe things will differ according to different circum-
ftances, that may occafion a tedious delivery.
Let the operator acquire an accurate knowledge of
the figure, fhape, and dimenfions of the pelvis, together
with the fhape, fize, and pofition of the child’s head.
Let the breech of the woman be always brought for¬
wards, a little over the bed, and her thighs pulled up
to her belly, whether fhe lies on her fide or back, to give
room to apply, and to move the forceps up or down, or
from fide to fide.
Let the parts be opened and the fingers pafs the os
internum; in order to which, if it cannot be otherwife
accomplifhed, let the head be raifedtwoor three inches, that
the fingers may have more room ; if the head-can be raifed
above the brim, your hand is not confined by the bones ; for,
as we have already obferved, the pelvis is wider from
fide to fide, at the brim, than at the lower part ; if the
fingers are not pad the os uteri, it is in danger of being
included betwixt the forceps and the child’s head.
The forceps, if poffible, fhould pafs along the ears,
becaufe, in that cafe, they feldom or never hurt or mark
the head.
They ought to be pufhed up in an imaginary line,
towards the middle fpace between the navel and fcrobiculus
cordis, otherwife the ends will run againft the facrum.
The forehead ought always; to be turned into the, hol¬
low of the facrum, when it is not already in that fitua¬
tion. When the face prefents, the chin mud be turned
to below the os pubis, and the hind-head into the hol¬
low of the facrum.
When the fhoulders red at the pubes, where they are
detained, the head mud be turned a large quarter to the
oppofite fide, fo as that they may lie towards the fides of
the pelvis.
The head mud always be brought out with an half
round turn, over the'outfide of the os pubis, for the pre-
fervation of the perinteum, which mud at the fame time
be fupported with the flat of the other hand, and Aide
gently backwards over the head.
When the head is fo low as to protrude the parts, in
form of a large tumour, and the vertex hath begun to
dilate the os externum, but, icflead of advancing, is long
detained in that fituation, from any of the forementioned
caufes of laborious cafes, and the operator cannot exaftly
diftifiguifh the pofition of the head, let him introduce a
finger between the os pubis and the head, and he will
F E R Y. 227
frequently find the back part of the neck, or one ear, at
the forepart, or towards the fide of the, pelvis: when the
fituation is known, he needs not dretch the os externum,
and raife the head, as formerly dire£led ; but he may in¬
troduce the forceps, and they being properly joined, and
their handles tied, pull gently during every pain; or if
the pains are gone, at the interval of four or five minutes,
that the parts may be flowly dilated, as they are in the
natural labour: but, when the fituation cannot be known,
the head ought to be raifed. The fame method may alfo
be taken when the face prefents, and is low in the pelvis,
except when the dhinis toward the back part: and in this
cafe, the head ought to be raifed likewife.
Almod all thefe dire&ions are to be followed, except
when the head is frnall, in which cafe it may be brought
along by the force of pulling : but this only happens when
the woman is reduced, and the labour-pains are not fuf-
ficient to deliver the child; for, the lower part of the
uterus may be ftrongly contra&ed before the fhoulders,
and fo clofe to the neck of the child, as to prevent its
advancing, even when the head is fo loofe in the pelvis,
that we can fometimes pufli our fingers all round it: and
this is ofteneft the occafioo of preventing the head’s being
delivered when low in the pelvis. The difficulty, when
high up, is from the reftraint at the brim; and when it
pafles that, the head is feldom retained in the lower part,
unlefs the patient is weak. In this cafe, w'e need not wait,
becaufe we are commonly certain of relieving the u’oman
immediately with the forceps, by which you prevent the
danger that may happen both to the mother and child, by
the head’s continuing to lodge there too long. This cafe
ffiould be a caution againft breaking the membranes too
foon, becaufe the uterus may contradl too forcibly and
too long before the ffioulders ; when the head in this cafe
is advanced one third or half way on the omfide of the
os externum, if the pains are ftrong, this laft inconveni¬
ence is frequently remedied by introducing your two fin¬
gers into the fedtum, as formerly direfted : by thefe
rules, delivery may (for the moft part) be performed
with eale and fafety : neverthelefs, the head is fome¬
times fo fqueezed and locked in the pelvis, and the hairy
fcalp fo muchfwelled, that it is impracticable to raife np
the head fo as to come at the ears or os internum; or
to diflinguiffi the futures of the fkull, fo as to know how
the he^ads prefents. In this cafe, the' forceps muft be
introduced at random, and the uncertainty of the pofition
generally removed by remembering, that in thofe cafes,
where the head is fqueezed down with great difficulty, the
ears are for the moft part towards the os pubis and fa¬
crum ; and that the forehead feldom turns into the hol¬
low of the facrum, before the oeciput is come down to
the lower part of the ifchium ; and then rifes gradually
towards the under part of the os pubis, ahd the peri-
nteum and anus are forced down before it, in form of a
large tumour.
On fuch occafions, the Woman being laid on her fide,
if one ear is to the facrum and the other to the os pubis,
the blades of the forceps are to be introduced: and if
they meet with any refiftance at the points, they mufl'pot
be forcibly thruft up, left they pafs on the outfide of the
os uteri, and tear the vagina, which, together with the
womb-
228 M I D W I
womb, would bs- iricluded in the inflrument, and pulled
.along with the head: for this reafon, if the blade does
not eafily pafs,Jet it be withdrawn a little downwards,
as before diredted, and pufhed up again, moving the point
. clofe' to the head; if the ear obftrudts its paffage, let the
point be brought a little outwards: and by thefe cautious
eflays, it will at length pafs without further refiflance,
ani ought to be advanced a confiderable.way, in order to
certify the operator that he is not on the outiide of the os
internum.
When the forceps are fixed, and the operator uncer¬
tain which way the forehead lies, let him pull flowly,
and move the head with a.quarter turn, firfl: to one fide
and then to the other, N Until he (hall have found the di-
redtion in which it comes moft eafily along.
If at any time we find the forceps begin to flip, we
mud rdl, and pulh. them up again gently: but, if they
are like to Aide off at a fide, untie the handles, and
move them fo as to take, a firmer hold, fix as before, and
deliver. If we are obliged to Hold with both hands, the
parts may be fupported by the firm application of an af-
fiftant’s hand ; for, without fuch cautious management,
they will run a great rifle of being lacerated ; a misfortune
which rarely happens, when the perinseum is properly
preffed back, and the head leifurely delivered. Some¬
times, when the head is brought low down, you may take
off the forceps, and help along with your fingers on each
fide of the coccyx, or in the redium, as diredted in the ,
natural labour.
If the head is low down, the ears are commonly dia¬
gonal, or to the fides; and when the head is brought
down one third, or one half, -through the os_ externum,
.the operator can then certify himfelf, whether the fore¬
head is turned to the coccyx or os pubis, by feeling with
his finger for the back-part of the neck or ear, betwixt
the os pubis and the head ; and then move the head as a-
bove diredkd.
Let him tryno alter with his hand every bad pefition
of the head ; and if it be detained high up in the pelvis,
in confequence of the woman’s weaknefs, the rigidity of
the parts, the circumvolutions or fliortnefs of the funis,
pr the contradfion of the uterus over the flioulders of the
child, the forceps will frequently fucceed when the foetus
cannot be turned: but, if the head is large, or the pelvis
narrow, the child is feldom faved either by turning or u-
fing the forceps, until the head (hall be farther advanced.
And here it will not be amifs to obferve, that the blades
of the forceps ought to be new covered with rtripes of
walhed leather after they (hall have been ufed, efpeeially
in delivering a woman fufpeded of having an infectious
diflemper.
The figns of a Bead Child.
When the head prefents, and cannot be delivered by
the labour-pains; when all the common methods have
been bfed v/ithout fuccefs, the woman being exhaufted,
and all her efforts vain ; and when the Child cannot be
•delivered without fuch force as will endanger the life of
the mother, becaufe the head is too large or the pelvis
too narrow ; it then becomes abfolutely neceflary to open
the head, and extract with the hand, forceps, or crotchet.
F E R Y.
Indeed this laft method formerly was the common prac¬
tice when the child could not be eafily turned, and is ftill
in ufe with thofe who do not know how to fave the child
by delivering with the forceps: for this reafon, their
chief care and ftudy was to diltinguifh whether the foetus
was dead or alive ; and as the figns were uncertain, the
operation was often delayed until the woman was in the
molt imminent danger ; or when it was performed foon-
er, the operator ^as frequently accufed of ralhnefs, on
the'fuppofition that the child miglit in time have been
delivered alive by the labouc-pains : perhaps he was forne-
times confcious to himfelf of the jufliceof this imputation,
although what he had done was with an upright intention.
The figns of a dead foetus were, firfi, the child’s cea^
fingtomove andftir in the uterus. Secondly, The evacu¬
ation of meconibm, though the breech is Hot prefled into
the pelvis. Thirdly,, No perceivable pulfation at the
fontanelle and temporal arteries. Fourthly, A large
fwelling or tumour of the hairy fealp. Fifthly, An un¬
common laxity of the bonps of the cranium. S ithly.
The difeharge of a foetid ichor from the vagina, the ef¬
fluvia of which furround the woman and gave rife to the
opinion that her breath conveyed a mortified fmell.
Seventhly, Want of motion in the tongue, when the face
prefents. Rightly, No perceivable pulfation in the ar¬
teries of the funis umbilicalis, when it fells dqwn below
the head ; nor at the wrifl when the arm prefents - and
no motion of the fingers. Ninthly, The pale and livid
countenance of the woman. Tenthly, A collapfing and
flaccidity of the bread. Eleventhly, A coldnefs felt in
the abdomen, and weight, from the child’s falling like a,
heavy ball to the fide on which flie lies. Twelfthly, A
reparation of the hairy fcalp on the flighted touch, and a
didiixd perception of the bare bones., '
All or mod of thefe figns are dubious and uncertain,
except the lad, which can only be obferved after the fee*'
tus hath been dead feveral days. One may alfovccrtain-
ly pronopnee the child’s death, if no pulfation hath been
felt in the navel dring for the fpace of twenty or thirty
minutes; but the fame certainty is not to be acquired
from the arm, unlefs the fkin can be dripped off with
eafe.
When the Ckotchet is to he ufed.
Midwifery is now fo much improved, that the ne-
ceflity of dedroying the child does, not occur fo often as
formerly : indeed it never Ihould be done, except whe&
it is impoffible to turn, or to deliver with the forceps ;
and this is feldom the cafe but when the pelvis is too
narrow, or the head too large, to pafs, and therefore
reds above thedmim : for this reafon, it is.not fo necef-
fary for the operator to puzzle himfelf about dubious
figns ; becaufe in thefe two cafes," there is no room for
hefitation : for if the woman cannot poffibly be delivered
in any other way, and is in imminent danger of her life,
the bed practice is undoubtedly to have recourfe to that
method which alone carl be ufi.-d for her prefervation,
namely, to diminilh the bulk of the head.
In this cafe, indead of dedroying, yotf are really fa-
ving a life ; for, if the operation be delayed, both mother
and child are lod.
The
M I D W I
The method of ufng the Scifars, blunt Hook, and
Crotchet.
When the head prefects, and fuch is the cafe that
the child can'neither be delivered by turning, nor extrac¬
ted with the forceps, and it is abfolutely neceflary to de¬
liver the woman to fave her life, this operation mnft then
be performed in the following manner.
The operator mud: be provided with a pair of curved
crotchets', made according to the improvements upon thofe
propofed by Mefnard, together with a pair of fciffars a-
bout nine inches long, with reds near the middle of the
blades, and-the blunt hook.
Of the Woman's Pofure.
The patient ought to be laid on her back or^de in the
fame pofnion direfted in the ufe of the forceps f! the ope¬
rator mud be feated on a low chair, and the inllruments
concealed and difpofed in the fame manner, and for the
fame.reafon mentioned in treating of the forceps. The
parts of the woman have already, in all likelihood, been
fufficiently dilated by his endeavours to turn or deliver
with the forceps ; or if po efforts of that kind have been
ufed, becaufe by the touch he had learned that no fuch
endeavours would fucceed, as in the cafe of a large hy¬
drocephalus, when the bones of the cranium are often fe-
parated at a great diftance from each other ; or upon per¬
ceiving that the pelvis was extremely narrow : if, upon
thefe confiderations, he hath made no trials in which the
parts were opened, let him gradually dilate the os exter¬
num and internum, as formerly dire&ed.
The head is commonly kept down pretty firm, by the
ftrong contraflion of the uterus round the child ; but
fhould it yield to one fide, letjt be kept fteady by the
hand of an alliftant, prefling upon the belly of the woman;
let him introduce his hand, and prefs two fingers againft
one of the futures of the cranium ; then take out his
fciffars from the placein which they were depofited, and
guiding them by the hand and fingers till they reach the
hairy fcalp, pulh them gradually into it, until their pro-
grefs is flopped by the refls.
If the head flips afide, in fuch a manner, as that they
cannot be puftied into the fkul! at the future, they will
make their way through the folid bones, if they are moved
in a femicircular turn, like the motion of baring, and this
method continued till you find the point firmly fixed ; for,
if this is not-obferved, the points Aide along the bones.
The fciflars ought to be fo fharp at the points, as to
penetrate the integuments and bones when pufhed with a
moderate force ; but not fo keen as to cut the operator’s
fingers, or the vagina in introducing them.
The fciflars being thus forced into the brain, as far as
the refls at the middle of the blades, let them be kept
firm in that fituatiou ; and the hand that was in the va¬
gina being withdrawn, the operator muft take hold of
the handles with each hand, and pull them afunder, that-
the blades may dilate and make a large opening in the
Ikull ; then they mufl be flrut, turned, and again pulled
afunder, fo as to make the incifion crucial ; by which
means the opening will be enlarged, and fufficient room
made for the introdu&ion of the fingers : let them be af-
Vol. HI. N°. 78. 2
F E R Y. - 229
terwards clofed, and introduced even beyond the refls ;
when they mufl again be opened, and turned half round
from fide to fide, until the ftrutfure of the brain is fo ef¬
fectually deftroyed, that'it can be evacuated with eafe.
This operation being performed, let the fciflars be (hut
and withdrawn ; but, if this inftrument will not anfwer
the laft purpofe, the bufinefs may be done by introducing
the crotchet within the opening of the flcull. The brain
being thus deftroyed, and the inflrument withdrawn, let
him introduce his right hand into- the vagina, and two
fingers into the opening which hath been made, that if
any ftiarp fplInters of the bones remain, -they may be
broken off and taken out; left they fhould injure the
woman’s vagina, or the operator’s own fingers.
If the cafe be an hydrocephalus, let him fix his fingers
on the infide and his thumb on the outfide of the opening,
and endeavour to puli along the fkull in time of a pain ;
but, if labour is weak, he muft defire the woman to aflift
his endeavours by forcing down.; and thus the child is
frequently delivered ; becaufe, the water being evacua¬
ted, the head collapfes pf courfe.
But when the pelvis is narrow, the head requires much
greater force.to bebrought along ; unlefs the labour-pains
are ftrong enough to prefs it down and diminifh it, by
fqueezing out the cerebrum : in this cafe, let the opera¬
tor withdraw his fingers from the opening, and. Aiding
them along the head, pafs the os uteri; then, with his
left hand, taking one of the crotchets from the place of
its concealment, introduce it along his right hand, with
the point towards the child’s head, and fix it above the
chin in the mouth, back part of the neck, or above the
ears,, or in any place where it will take firm hold: ha¬
ving fixed the inflrument, let him withdraw his right
hand, and with it take hold on the end or handle of the
crotchet; then introduce his left to feize the bones at the
opening of the flcull (as above direded) that the head may
be kept fteady,. and pull along with both hands.
. If the head is flill-detained by the uncommon narrow-
nefs of the pelvis, let him introduce his left hand along
the oppofite fide, in order to guide the other crotchet;
which being alfo applied and locked or joined with its fel¬
low, in the manner of the forceps, he muft pull with fuf¬
ficient force, moving from fide to fide, and as it advances,
turn the fore head into the hollow of thefacrum, and ex-
trad as with the forceps, humouring the ftiape of the
head and pelvis during the operation, which ought to be
performed ftowly, with^reat judgment and'ca.ution ; and
from hence it appears abfoluteiy neceflary to know how
the head prefents, in order to judge how the crotchet
muft be fixed, and the head brought along to the beft ad¬
vantage.
If, when the head is delivered in tliis manner, the bo¬
dy cannot be extxaded, on account of its being much
fwelled, of a monftrous fize, or (which is moft common¬
ly the cafe) the narrownefs of the pelvis; let him defift
from pulling, left the head fhculd be feparated from the
body, and introducing one hand fo as to reach with h:s
fingers to the fhoulder-blades or breaft, condud along it
one of the crotchets, with the point towards the foe'us,
and fix it with a firm application; then withdrawing his
hand, employ it in pulling the crotchet, while the o;her
3 M k
230 M I D W I
is exerted in the fame manner upon the head and neck of
the child : if the inftrument begins to lofe its hold, he
mull pufh it farther up, and fixing it again, repeat his
efforts, applying it dill higher and higher, until the body
is extrafted.
C?/ Preternatural Labours,
Preternatural labourhappens, when, inftead ofthe
head, fome other part of the body prefents to the os uteri.
Preternatural labours are more or lefs" difficult according
to the» prefentation of the child, and the contraction of
the uterus round its. body. The nearer the head and
fhoulders are the os internum or lower part of the ute¬
rus, the more difficult is the cafe; whereas, when the
head is towards the fundus, and the feet or breedh near
the os internum, it is more eafy to turn and deliver.
To begin with the eafieft of thefe firff, it may be pro¬
per to divide them into three claffes. Fird, how to ma¬
nage when the feet, breech, or lower parts prefent.
Secondly, how to behave in violent floodings; and, when
the child prefents wrong before the hiembranes are broke,
how to fave the waters in the uterus, that the foetus may
be the more eafily turned : and what method to follow
even after the membranes are broke, when all the waters
are not evacuated. Thirdly, howto deliver when the ute¬
rus is ftrongly contracted", the child prefenting either with
the fore or back parts ; and lying in a circular form, or
with the fhoulders," breaft, neck, ftice, ear, or vertex,
and lying in a longiffi form, with the feet and breech to¬
wards the fundus ofs the womb, which is contracted like
a long (heath, clofe to the body of the foetus ; and when
the fore-parts of the child lie towards the fide, fundus,
fore or back part of the uterus.
The firfi chefs PaEtERNATURL Labours. When
the feet, breech, or h’wer parts of the foetus prefent,
and the head, fheuldcrs, and upper parts are towards
the fundus.
These, for the mod part, are accounted the eafieft,
even although the uterus ffiould be ftrongly contracted
round the body of the child, and all the waters dif-
charged.
If the knees or feet of the child prefent to the os in¬
ternum, which is not yet fufficiently dilated to allow them
and the body to come farther down ; or, if the woman
is Veak, wore out with long labour, or endangered by a
flooding; let the operator introduce his hand into the va¬
gina, pulh up and ftretch the os uteri, and bring along
the feet; which being extracted, let him wrap a linen
cloth round them, and pull until the breech appears on
the outfide of the os externum : if the face or fore-part
of the foetus is already towards the back of the uterus,
let him perfift in pulling in the fame direction; but, if
they are towards the os pubis, or to one fide, they muftbe
turned to the back-part of the merits ; and as the head
does not move round equal with the body, he muft make
allowance for the difference in turning, by bringing the
laft one quarter farther than the place at which the head
is to be placed; fo that the face or forehead which was
towards' one of the groins will be forced to the fide of
the facrum, where it joins with the ifchium. Thisquar-
F E R Y. ~
ter turn of the body muft be again undone, without affec¬
ting the pofition of the head ; a cloth may be wrapped
round the breech, for the convenience of holding it more
firmly; then, placing a thumb along each fide- ofthe
fpine, and with his fingers grafping the belly, let him
pull along the body from fide to fide, with more or lefs
force, according to the refiftance: when the (ffilld is de¬
livered as far as the (boulders, let him Aide his hand flat¬
tened (fuppofe the right, if (he lies on her back) be¬
tween its breaft and the perinasum, coccyx, and fecruni
of the woman, and introduce the fore or middle finger
(or both, if neceffary) into the mouth of the foetus; by
which means, the chin will be pulled to the breaft, and
the forehead into the hollow of the facrum. And this
expedient will alfo faift upwards the hindhead, which
refts at the os pubis.
When the forehead is Come fo low as to protrude the
perinaeum, if the woman lies on her back, let the ope¬
rator ftapd up, and pull the body and head of the child
upwards, bringing the forehead with an half-round turn
from the under part of the os externum, which will thus
be defended from laceration. The application of the
fingers in the child’s mouth will contribute to bring the
head out in this manner, prevent the os externum from
hitching on the chin, help along the head, and guard the
neck from being overftrained ; a misfortune which would
infallibly happen, if the forehead (hould be detained at
the upper part of the facrum: nor is there any great force
required to obviate this inconvenience, or the leaft dan¬
ger of hurting the mouth, if the head is not large: for,
if the.head cannot be brought along with moderate forbei
and the operator is afraid ofinjuripg or over-ftraining the
lower jaw, let hint puffi his fingers farther up, and prefs
on each fide of the nofe, or on the inferior edges of the
fockets of the eyes. If the legs are come out, and the
breech pulled into the vagina, there is no occafion for
pufhing up to open, but only to pull along and manage as
above direAed; ftill remembring to raife the forehead
(lowly from the perinaeum, which may be preffed back
with the fingers of his other hand.
In the cafe of a narrow pelvis, or large head, which
cannot be brought along without the rifle of over-ftraining
the neck, let him Aide up his fingers and hand into the
vagina, and bring down one of the child's arms, at the
fame time pulling the body to the contrary fide, by which
means the (boulder will be hrought lower-down : let him
rur^his fingers along the arm, until they reach the elbow,
which muft be pulled downwards with an half round turn
to the other fide, below the breaft. This muft not be.
dohe with a jesk, but Aowly and cantioufty, in prder to
prevent the diAocation, bending, or breaking of the child’s
arm.
Let him again guide his fingers into the child’s mouth,
and try if the head will come along: if this will not
fucceed, let the body be pulled to the other fide, fo as to
bring down the other (boulder ; then Aide up his left
hand, and.extrafting the other arm, endeavour to deliver
the head. If one finger of his right hand be fixed in the
child’s mouth, let the body reft on that arm: let him
place the left hand above the Atoulders, and put a finger
on each fide of the neck: if the forehead is towards one
fids.
M I D W
fide at the upper part of the pelvis, let him pull it lower
down, and gradually turn it into the hbllow of the fa-
c'rup ; then Hand up, and, in pulling, raife the body, fo
as to bring but the head in an half-round turn, as above
di refted.
Whenjthe forehead is hindered from coming down in¬
to the lower part of the facrum by an uncommon (hape of
the head or pelvis, and we cannot extrad it by bringing
it out with an half-round turn at the os pubis, we muft
try to ‘make this turn in the contrary direction; and in-
Itead of introducing our fingers into the child’s mouth,
let the bread of it reft on the palm of your left hand,
(the woman being on her back,) and placing the right on
its fhoulders, with the fingers on each fide of the neck,
prefs it downwards to the perinseum. In confequ^nce of
this preffure, the face aird chin being within the perineum,
will move more upwards, and the head come out with an
half-round turn from below th® os \pubis: for the centre
of motion is now where the fore-part of the neck prefles
at the perinaeum ; whereas, in the other method, the back
part of the neck is againft the lower part of the os pubis,
on which the head turns.
If the forehead is not turned to one fide, but fticks at
the upper part of the facrum, efpecialiy when the pelvis
is narrow; let him endeavour, with his finger in the
mouth, to turn it to one fide of the jetting in of the fa¬
crum, becaufe the pelvis is-wider at the fides of the brim,
and bring it along as before.
If one of the child’s arms, inftead of being placed a
long the fides of the head, is turned in between the face
and facrum, or between the hindhead and 6s pubis, the
fame difficulty of extrasfjing opcurs as' in a large head or
narrow pelvis ; and this pofition frequently enfues, when
the fore-parts of the child’s body afe turned from the os
pubis down to the facrum: if they arb turned to the left
fide of the woman, the left hand and arm are commonly
brought in before the face, and vice verfa ; but, in thefe
cafes, -the elbow is, for the moft part, eafily come at,
becaufe it is low down in the vagina, and then there is a
neceffity for bringing down one or both arms, before the
bead can be delivered : from'whence rye may conclude,
that thofe authors are fometimes in the wrong, who ex-
prefsly forbid us to pull down the arms. Indeed, if the
pelvis is not narrow, nor the head very large, and the arms
lie along the fides of the head, there is feldom occafion
to pull them down; becaufe, the pelvis is wideft at the
fides, and the membranes- and ligamerus that fill up the
fpace betwixt the fa'crum and ifchia yield, to the pref¬
fure, and make room for the pafiage of the' head : but
when they are fqneezed between the head and the facrum,
ifchia, or offa pubis, and the head fticks in the pelvis,
they certainly ought to be brought down, or even when
the head comes along with difficulty. Neither Is the al-
ledged contra<fHon of the os internum round the neck of
the child fo frequent as hath been imagined; beeaufe,
for the moft part, the contraflioti embraces the head-and
not the neck: but, fhould the neck alone fuffer, that in¬
convenience may be removed by introducing the hand in¬
to the vagina, and a finger or two into the child’s mouth,
or on eaeh fide of the nofe: by which means alfo a fuf-
ficient dilatation will be preferred in the os externum,.
I F E R Y. 23*
which frequently contrails on the neck, as foon as the
arms are brought out.
The diameter, -from the face or forehead to the ver¬
tex, being greater than that from the fjorehead to the
back part of the hindhead or neck, when the hindhead
refts at the os pubis, and the forehead at the upper part
of the facrbm, the head can feidom be brought down,
until the operatorr by introducing a finger into the mouth,
moves the fame to the fide, brings the chin to the breafl,
and the forehead into the hollow of the facrum ; bywhich
means, the hindhead is raifed, and allowed to come along
with greater eafe : and in pulling, half the force only is
applied to the neck, the other half beingexerted upon the
head, by the finger which is fixed in the mouth ; fo that
the forehead is more eafily brought out, by pulling up¬
wards, with the half-round turn from the perinasum.
When the operator/with his fingers in the child’s mouth,
cannot pull down the forehead into the hollow of the fa¬
crum, let him- pufh the fore-finger of his left hand betwixt
the neck and os pubis, in order to raife the hindhead up¬
wards ; which being done, the forehead will come down
with lefs difficulty, efpecialiy if he puffies up and pulls
down at the fame time, or alternately.
If it be difeovered by the touch, that the breech pre-‘
fents, that the memb'ranes are not yet broke, the womafi
in no danger, the os internum not yet fufficiently dilated,
and the labour-pains ftrong ; the midwife ought to wait
' until the membranes, with the waters, are pulhed far¬
ther down, as in the natural labour : for, as they come
down through the os uteri into the vagina, they ftretch
open the parts contained in the pelvis ; and the bulk within
the uterus being diminiffied, it contracts and comes in
contaft with the body of the child,; fo that the breech is
puffied along by the mechanical force of the abdominal
mufcles operating upon the womb.
The fame confequence will follow even although the
membranes are broke ; for the waters lubricate the parts
as they flow off; and the breech, not too large, or the
pelvis narrow, is puffied clown. . Irt this cafe, when the
nates prefent equal and fair to the ps uteri,' fo it is alfa
reafonable to. conclude, that when th(e breech prefents, it
lies in the fame manner, but that tfe fore-parts of the
child are rather'turned backwards tolone fide of the vef-
tebras'of the loins : in this pofition, ^ne hip will prefent,
and the other reft on the os pubis ; bur, when forced along
with pains, the laft will be graduaisy moved more and
more to the groin of that fide, and ffem thence flip down
at the fide of the bafin : 'the lower at the fame time will
be forced to the other, and the hollow iWtwixt the thighs
will reft upon the jetting in of the os fficruni, and come
down in that manner; the thighs on each fide, arid the
back and round part of the breech paffibg in below the .
arch of the os pubis, which is the beft pofition : but if the
back of the child is tilted backwards, then! it will be for¬
ced down in the contrary direftiom and come along with,
more difficulty, viz. the thighs to the os pubis, and back,
to the facrum ; when it is come down to the middle or
lower part of the pelvis, let the operator ilitreduce, the
fore-finger of each hand, along the outfide, t^the groins,
and, taking hold, pull gently along during a fVong pain.
If the os externum is fo contracted, that lie ca'nnot
take
■2 g 2 M I D W I
take fufficlent hold, let it be opened flowly, fo as to al¬
low his hands to be pnfhed up with' eafe; when he has
infinuated a finger or two in each groin, let him place his
thumbs on the thighs, if they are towards the offa pubis,
fo as to obtain a tifm hold; then pull along from fide to
fide, and, if the back of the child is to the os pubis, con¬
tinue to afTiil in this manner, until the body and head are
delivered: the legs being commonly ftretched up along
the belly and bread, when the child is extracted as far as
the fhoulders, they comp out of themfelves, or are eafily
brought down-; - but, if the belly of the child is turned to
one fide, or to the os pubis, in that cafe, when the breech
is delivered, he ought to turn the belly down to the fa-
•crum, and the back to the os pubis ; and that the face
-may be alfo turned to the back of the mother, let him re¬
member the quarter extraordinary, which muft be again
reverfed, and then he may pull along and deliver.
If the body cannot be turned until the thighs and legs
are brought down, either on account of the bulk, or be-
caufe the hold on the breech is not fufficient, let him con¬
tinue to pull along, until the hams appear on the outfide
of the os externum ; then feize one of the knees with his
finger and thumb, and extra# that leg; and let the other
be brought down in the fame manner. If he attempts to
■pullout the legs, before the hams arrive at this place,
the thighs are always in danger of being bent or broke.
When the legs are delivered, let him wrap a cloth round
the breech of the child, and as the body was pulled down
-almoft as far as the bread, before the legs could be brought
out, it muft be puftred up again to the navel, or abpve it;
becaufe, without this precaution, the fhoulders would be
fo much engaged in the pelvis, that it would be imprac¬
ticable to make the motions formerly dire#ed, fo as to
turn the face to the back of the mother: whereas, when
the body is pufhed up, thofe turns can be effefted with
■greater eafe, becaufe the belly being in the pelvis, it
yields eafier to the form of the bafin. When the face
is turned properly down, let him proceed to deliver, as
above diredted.
If the breech is detained above the pelvis, either by
Its uncommon magnitude, or the narrownefs of the bafin;
or if one of the nates-is pufhedjn, while the other refts
above the os pubis, facrum, or to either fide; if the wo¬
man is low and weak, the pains lingering and infufficient
to force the child along ; or if fhe is in danger from a vio¬
lent flooding: in auy of thefe cafea, let him (during e-
very pain) gradually open firrt the os externum, and then
the os internum,' with his fingers and hand. Having thus
gained admiflion, let him ptsfh up the breech to the fore
or back part, or to one fide of the uterus, that his hand
and arm may have room to Aide along the fore-parts or
belly of the child, fo as to feci the thighs, that will di¬
re# him to the legs, which muft be brought down with
his fingers, while, at the fame time, he pufhes up the
hams with his thumb, that in cafe the legs lie ftraight
up, they may be extra#ed with more eafe by the fleftion
of the knee, and run the lefs rifle of being bent, broke,
or overftrabed : for, if they are folded downward, thty
are the more eafily brought out.
If the breech be ftrongly prefied into the upper part of
the pelvis, let him alfo pufh it upwards and to one fide,
F E R Y.
that his hand and arm may have free pafiage ; for the
higher the. breech is- raifed out of his way, he will be at
more freedom to extra# the legs.
If both legs cannot be eafily brought down, he may
fafely deliver with- one, of which taking hdld with a linen
cloth wrapped round it, let him fiide up Ifis other hand
into the vagina, and a finger or two into the outfide of
the groin which is bent : by thefe means, the hip will
come down the eafier, and the leg, which is already ex-
tra#ed, will not be over-ftrained by fuftaining the whole
force of pulling the body along.
If the legs lie towards the left fide of the woman, who
is laid on her back,_ the right hand muft be introduced
into the uterus ;• if they lie to her right fide, the left
han^ will better anfwer the purpofe ; and if they are to¬
wards her baok'or belly, either hand maybe indifferent¬
ly u fed. .
In cafes where the breech prefects, the fafeft prac¬
tice is always to pufti up and bring down the legs, pro¬
vided the os uteri is fufficiently dilated, and the waters
not wholly difeharged. If the waters are evacuated, the
uterus ftrongly contra#ed around the child, the breech
low', fo as that it cannot be returned, or fo fmall as to
come eafily along, we ought then to deliver it according¬
ly ; but, if fo large as neither to be pufhed up-or brought
along with the afliftance of the fingers, let the operator
introduce the curved handle of the blunt crotchet into
one of the groins, his fingers into the other, and pull
very cautioufly, in order t6 prevent a fra#ure or diflo-
cation of the thigh bone, which might otherwife happen
from the ufe of this inftrument, the blunt point of which
muft be fufficiently part the groin. A fillet-may alfo be
ufed-for the fame purpofe.
In the foregoing cafes the woman was fuppofed to be
laid on her back, her legs fupported, and breech to the
bed-fide; this being generally the beft pofition for deli¬
vering the body and head: indeed, when the child is
fmall, fhe may lie on her dide, and the-fatne methods be
ufed in delivering, provided the operator ftill remembers
that in this pofition the ilium and ifehium of one fide
are down, and the others up. Befides, when the breech
is pufhed up, in order to bring down the legs, if they
lie fore wards towards the fore part of the uterus, and the
belly is pendulous, he can reach them with the greateft
eafe when (he lies on ohe fide, or, if the refiftance is
vejy great, turn her to her knees and elbows; but, when
the legs are delivered, if the child is large; or the pelvis
narrow, fhe ought to be tamed upon her back, becaufe
the body and heael can be better and fafer delivered by
pulling up and down ; and in that pofture fhe is alfo kept
more linn, and her thighs iefsin the operator’s way, than
whenflielies upon her fide. See Plate CXIII. fig. i. and 2.
The fecond clafs of Preternatural Labours.
When the membranes are broke, but the face, fhoul-
der, or fome other part of the child, being pufhed into
the pelvis, locks up the os internum, fo as that a fmall
quantity of the waters hath been difeharged, the uterus
is kept from conira#ing ftrongly rdund the child, which
is therefore more eafily turned than it poflibly can be when
they are all gone :
When
M I D W
’'When, before tbe membranes are broke, the child is felt
through them, prefenting wrong, and at the fame time
the pains pufh them down fo as to dilate the os internum
moreorlefs:
When the woman, at any time in the four laft months,
is feized with a violent flooding that cannot be reftrained,
and unlefsfpeeddy delivered tnufl: lofe her life ; if labour-
pains cannot be brought on by ftretching the parts, deli¬
very mud be forced ; but, if flieis in labour, and the mem¬
branes have been puflred down with the waters, they may
be broke; by which means, the flooding is frequently di-
rainilhed, and the child delivered by the labour-pains.
In thefe three different cafes, if tve can prevent the
firong contradtion of the uterus by keeping up the waters,
we can alfo for the mod part turn the child with great
cafe, even in the very word pofitions.
In the fird cafe,' let the operator flowly introduce his
hand into the vagina, and his fingers between that part
of the child which is pufhed down, and the os internum :
if in fo doing he perceives fome of the waters coming a-
dong, he mud run up his hand as quick as poflible into
•the uterus, betwixt the infide of the membranes and the
child’s body . the lower part of his arm will then fill up
the os externum like a plug, fo that no more of the wa¬
ters can pafs; let him turn the child with its head and
■fhoulders ;jp to the fundus, the breech down to the low¬
er part of the uterus, and the fore parts towards the
mother’s back ; let the hand be pufhed no farther up
thanxhe middle of the child’s body, becaufe, if it is ad¬
vanced as high as the fundus, it mud be withdrawn low¬
er, before the child can be turned; and by thefe means
the waters will be difeharged,. and the uterus of confe-
quence contract fb as to render the turning more difficult.
In the fecond cafe, when the membranes are not broke,
and we are certain that the child does not prefent fair ; if
the os' internum is not fufficiently dilated, and the woman
is in no danger, we may let the labour go on, until the
parts are more dretched; lubricating and extending the
os externum, by degrees, during every pain. Then in¬
troducing one hand into the vagina, we infinuate it in a
flattened form, within the osi nternum, and pufh upbe-
‘tween the membranes and the uterus, as faras the middle
•of the womb: having thus obtained admiffion, we break
the membranes by grafping and fqueezing them with
our fingers,' Aide our hand within them, without moving
the-arm lower down, then turn and deliver as formerly
direifled; but if, in any of thefe cafes, you find the head
is large or the pelvis narrow, bring down the head into
the natural pofition, and affift as directed in lingering
or laborious cafes. ■
If the woman (in the third cafe) is attacked with a
violent flooding, occafioned by a feparation of all or any
part of the placenta from the uterus, during the lafl four
months of pregnancy, and every method has in vain been
tried to lefien and reftrain the difeharge, the operator
ought to pronounce the cafe dangerous, and prudently
declare to the relations of the patient, that unlefs fhe is
fpeedily delivered, both fhe and the child mud perifh,
obferving at the fame time, that by immediate delivery
they may both be faved ; let him'alfo defire the affidance
and advice of fome perfon eminent in the profeffion, for
Vox.. III. N°. 78. 2
I F E II Y. 233
the fatisfaflion of her friends, and the ffipport of his own
reputation. Where there are no labour pains, and the
mouth of the womb is not dilated, it is i'ometimes very
difficult to deliver, more' efpeciaiiy if the os internum is
not a little lax, but feels rigid.
If the os uteri is fo much contra&ed, that the finger
cannot be introduced, fome authors have recommended
a dilator, by which it may be gradually opened fo as to
admit a finger or two. Doubtlefs, fome cafes may hap¬
pen, in which this may be neceflary. If in dretching the
os internum, labour-pains are brought onp let the opera¬
tor dowly proceed and encourage them : when the mouth
of the womb is opened, if the head prefents and the
pains are drong, by breaking the membranes the flooding
will be diminifned; but, if ffie floods to fuch a degree
as to be in danger of her life, and the di’atation does not
bring on labour, at lead not enough for the oecafion, die
mud be immediately delivered in the following manner:
but in the fird place let her friends be apprized of the
danger, and the operator "beware of promiling to fave ei¬
ther mother -or child.
The operator having performed his duty in making th«
friends acquainted with the fixation of the cafe, mud
gently open the os externum, by introducing h.is fingers
gradually, turning them half round and pu'ffiing upward ;
then forming them, with the thumb, into the figure of
a wedge or cone, continue to dilate doyly and by inter¬
vals, until his hand is admitted into the vagina: having
thus far gained his point, let him infinunte, in the fame
flow cautious manner, fird one, then two fingers, into
the os internum, which may be dilated fo as to admit the
other two and the thumb in the fame conical form, which
will gradually make way for Aiding the hand along be¬
tween the outfide of the membranes and infide of the u-
terus; then he mud manage as .directed in the fecond
cafe : If, upon Aiding up his hand upon the outfide of
the membranes; he feels the placenta adhering to that
fide of the womb, he mud either withdraw that hand,
and introduce the other on the oppofite fide, or break
through the membranes at the lower edge of the placenta.
The greated danger in this cafe frequently proceeds
from the fudden emptying of the uterus and belly; for
when labour comes on of itfelf, or is brought on in a
regular manner, and the membranes are broke, the flood¬
ing is gradually ditninilhed, and fird the child, then the
placenta, is delivered by the pains ; fo that the preffbre
or refidance is not all at once removed from the belly and
uterus of the woman, winch have time to contraft by
degrees; confequeotly, thofe fainting fits and convul-
fions are prevented which often proceed from a fudden
removal of that compreffion under which the circulation
was performed.
The younger the woman is with child, the greater is
the difficulty in opening the os internum ; .and more fo ia
the fird child, efpeciaiiy if file is pad the age of thirty-
five.
We ffiould never refufe to deliver in thefe dangerous
cafes, even although the patient feems expiring: for,
immediately after delivery, the uterus contraifls ; the
mouths of the vpflels are Ihut up, fo that the flooding
ceafes; and ffie may recover, if ffie lives five or fix hours
3 N ’ after
234 M I D W I
after the operation, and'can be fnpported by frequent
draughts of broth, jelly, caudle, weak cordial, and ano¬
dyne medicines, which maintain the circulation, and gra¬
dually fill the empty veffels.
If, in time of flooding, dhe is feized with labour-pains,
or if, by every now and then ftret.ching with your fingers
the os internum, you bring on labour, by which either
the membranes or head of the child is pulhed down; and
opens the os internum,' the membranes ought to be
broke ; fo that fome of the waters being difcharged, the
uterus may contraft and fqueezeidown the fetus. This
may be done fooner-in thofe wom&n who have had chil¬
dren formerly. If, notwithftanding this expedient, the
flooding (fill continues, and the child is hot-like to be
foon delivered, it mud be turned immediately; or, if the
head is in the pelvis, delivered with the forceps: but, if
neither of thefe two methods will fucceed, bn account of the
natrownefs of the pelvis, or the bignefs of the head, this
lad mud oe opened and delivered with the crotchet. In
all thefe cafes, let the parts be dilated flowly and by in¬
tervals, in order to prevent laceration. See Plate CXI.
fig. 4. 5. 6.
Thethird clafs <j/'Preternatural Labours.
We have already obferved, that the principal difficul¬
ties in turning children and bringing them by the feet,
proceeded from the contraidion of the utfrus and bad
pofition of the fetus. If the child lies in a round form,
whether the fore-parts are towards the os internum, or
up to the fundus uteri, we can, for the mod part, move
it with the hand, fo as to turn the head and (boulders to
the upper part, and the breech and legs downwards; but
if the child lies lengthways, the womb being contraffed
around it, like a long (heath, the tafle is more difficult;
efpecially, if the head and (boulders of the child are
down at the'lowed part of the uterus, with the breech
and feet turned up to the fundus.
The hand of the operator being introduced into the u-
terus, if he finds the breach below the head and (boul¬
ders, lethimfearch for the legs, and bring them down: but
if the breech be higher than the upper parts of the child,
or equal with them, he mud try to turn the head and
(boulders to the fundus, and the breech downwards, by
- p.idling up the fird, and pulling down the lad ; then pro¬
ceed with delivery as before diredted. This is commonly
executed with eale, provided fome part of the waters dill
remain in the uterus; but, if the woman has been long
in labour, and the waters difebarged, the contradfion of
the womb is fo drong, that the child cannot be turned
without the exertion of great force frequently repeated,
la this cafe, the called method both for the patient and
operator, is to pufli up the hand gradually on that fide to
which the legs and thighs are.turned; and even after he
has reached them, if they are not very high up, let him
advance his hand as far as the fundus uteri; he will thus
■ remove the greated obftacle, by enlarging the cavity of the
'■womb, fo as more eafily to feel and bring down the legs:
then he may puffi up and pull down, as we have pre-
feribed above: but, if the head and (boulders dill continue
to hinder the breech and body from coming along, and
the feet cannot be brought fo low, as the cutfide of the
F E R V.
03 externum, while they are yet in the vagina he may
apply a noofe upon one or both ; for unlefs the child is fo
final! that he can turn it round by grafping the body when
the head and (boulders are puuied up, and he endeavours
to bring down the other part, they will again return to the
fame place, and retard delivery: whereas, if he gains a firm
hold of the feet, either without the os externum, or in the
vagina, by means of the noofe fixed upon the ancles, he can
with the other hand pu(h up the head and (boulder, and be
able in that manner to bringdown the breech. He mud.con-
tinue this method.of puffiing up and pulling down, until
the head and (boulder are railed to the fundus uteri; for
ffiould he leave off too foon, and withdraw his hand, al¬
though, the child is Extracted as far as the breech, the
head is fometimes fo preffed down and engaged with the
body in the paffage, that it cannot be brought farther
down without being tore along with the crotchet; for the
breech and part of the body may block up the paffage in
fuch a manner, as that the hand cannot be introduced to
raife the head. ‘
Thofe cafes are commonly the eafiefl: in which the fore¬
parts prefent, and the child lies in a round or oval form,
acrofs the uterus, or diagonally, when the head or breech
is above and over the os pubis, with the legs, arms, and
navel-ftring, or one or all of them, at the upper or lower
part of the vagina, or on the outfideof the os externum.
Thofe are more difficult in which, though the child lies
in the fame round or contrafted form, the back, (boul¬
ders, belly, or bread, are over the os internum ; becaufe i(
we cannot move the child round, fo as to place the head
to the fundus, the legs are brought down with much more
difficulty than in the other cale : but if the (boulder,
bread, neck, ear, face, or crown of the bead prefents, and
the legs and breech are up to the fundus uteri, the cafe
is dill more difficult ; becaufe, in the other two, the u-
terus is contrafed in a round form, fo that the wrong
pofition of the child is more eafily altered than in this,
when the womb is contracted in a long ffiape, and fome¬
times requires vad force to dretch it, fo as that the head
may be raifed to the fundus, and the legs and breech
brought down;
The crown of the head is the word part that can pre¬
fent, becaufe in that cafe the feet and breech are higher,
and the uterus of a longer form than in any other. The
prefentation of the face is, next to this, attended with the
greeted difficulty : but when the neck, (boulder, back, or
bread prefent, the head is turned upwards, and kqeps tfye
lower part of the womb didended: fo that, upon dretch¬
ing the upper part, the child’s head is more eafily raifed
to the fundus.
When the fore-parts of the child prefent, if the feet,
hands, and navel-dring are not detained;above the os u-
teri, fome or all of them defeend into the vagina, or ap¬
pear on the outfide of the os externum. If one or more
of them come down, and the child at the fame time lies
in a round form acrofs the uterus, let the accoucheur in¬
troduce his hand between them and the facrum. When it
is pad the os internum, Jet it red a little, while he feels
with his fingers the pofition of the fetus: if the head
and (boulders lie higher than the breech he mud take
hold of the legs and bring them down withoutfide the os
internum:
M I D W I
Internum : if the breech is detained above the brim of the
pelvis, let him Aide up the flat of his hand along the but
tocks, and pull down the legs with the other hand; by
which method the breech is difengaged and forced into
the middle of the pelvis. See Plate CXIII. ilg. 3.
In moft of thofe cafes where the child is prefled in an
oval form, if neither the'head ofbreech prefent, the head
is to one fide of the uterus, and the breech to the other;
becaufe it is wider from fide to fide, than from the back
to the fore part; and if either the head or breech is over
the os pubis, the other is turned off to the fide : in mo¬
ving the head or flioulders to the fundus, they are raifed
with greater eafe along the fide, than at the back or fore
parts, for the fame reafons.
If the head and {boulders lie lower down, fo as to hin¬
der the breech from coming along, and the legs from be¬
ing extracted, let him pufli up the head and (boulders to
the fundus, and pull out the legs; then-try toisring in
the br. ech; and if it ftill {ticks above, becaufe the head
and flioulders are again forced down by the contraction
of the uterus, he mull with one hand take hold of the
legs that are now without the os externum, and. Hiding
the other into the uterus, pufli the head and (boulders a-
gain up to the fundus, while, at the fame time, he pulls
the legs and breech along with the feet. If the legs can¬
not be brought farther down than the vagina, becaufe the
breech is high up, let him flip a noofeover the feet round
the andes, as before obferved ; by which he may pull
down the lower parts with one hand, while the other is
employed in pufliing up, -as before. - By this double pur-
chafe, the child may be turned even in the mod difficult
cafes: but'the operator, in pulling, muft beware of over-
{fraining the ligaments of the joints.
If the legs can be extracted through the os externum,
let a fingle cloth, warmed, be wrapped-round them, in
order to yield a firmer hold to the accoucheur ; but when
they can be brought no lower than the neck of the uterus
and vagina, he may ufe one of thefe following noofes.
Let him take a ftrong limber fillet, or foft garter half-
worn, about one yard and an. half in length, and mode¬
rately broad and thick ; if thick, an eye may be made at
one end of it, by doubling about two inches and fevving
it ftrongly ; and the other end palled through this dou¬
bling, in order to make the noofe; which being mounted
upon the thumb and fingers of his hand, muft be introdu¬
ced, and gently flipped over the toes and feet of the child
lb as to embrace the ancles, and thus applied it muft be
drawn tight with his other hand.
If the foot or feet (hould be fo flippery, that his fingers
cannot hold them, and work over the noofe at the fame
time, it muft be withdrawn and mounted round his hand
or wrift ; with which hand, when introduced, he may
take firm hold on both feet, if they are as far down as
the vagina; then with the fingers of his other hand, he
can Aide the noofe along the hand and fingers that hold
the feet, and fix it round the ancle: but if one foot re¬
mains within the uterus, the fingers of his other hand
cannot pufh up the noofe far enough to Aide it over the
ancle ; fo that he muft have recouife to a director-, like
that for polypufes, mounted with the noofe, which will
pufli it along the hand and fingers that hold the foot. The
F E 11 Y. 235
noofe being thus flipped over the fingers upon the ancle.,
he muft pull the extremity of the fillet which hath pafled
the eye at the - upper end of the director, and after it is
ciofe drawn, bring down the inftrument.
If the fillet or garter is too narrow or thin, let it be
doubled in the middle, and the noofe made by pafling the
two ends through the doubling.
When the belly prefents, and the head, flioulders,
breech, thighs, and legs, are turned up over the back to
the fundus uteri; when the back prefents, and all thefe
parts are upwards; wBen the fide prefents, with the head,
{boulders, breech, thighs and legs turned to the fide,,
back, or fore part of the uterus: In all thefe cafes, when
the child is prefled into a round, or (more properly) an
oval figure, it may be, for the moft part, moved round,
with one hand introduced into the uterus, the head and
{boulders pulhed to the fundus, and the legs and breech
to the os internum; which being effected, the legs are
eafily brought down. See Plate -CXIII. fig. 4. But
thefe cafes are more or lefs difficult as the feet are farther
up, or lower down, becaufe the bufinefs is to bring them
downwards.
When the breaft, {boulders, neck, ear, or face pre-
fent to the os internum, the Breech, thighs, and legs
being towards the fupdus, with the fore parts of the foe¬
tus turned either to the fide, back, or fore-part of the
woman’s belly ; and the whole lying in a longifti form,
the uterus being clofely contracted around its body like
a (heath ; let the accoucheur introduce his hand into the
vagina, and open the os internum by puftiing up the fin¬
gers and hand flattened between the parts that prefent
and the infide of the membranes ; and reft his hand in
that fituation, until he can diftinguifli how the child lies,
and form a right judgment how to turn and deliver ; for,
if thefe circumftances are not maturely confidered, he will
begin to work in a confufed manner, fatigue himfelf and-
the patient, and find great difficulty in turning and ex¬
tracting the child.
If the feet and legs of the foetus lie towards the bade,
fides, or fundus uteri, the woman ought to be laid on her
back, with her breech raifed and brought a little over
the bed, as formerly obferved; becaufe, in that pofition
he can more eafily reach the feet than in any other.
If they lie towards the fore part of the uterus, efpe-
ciaily when the belly is pendulous, fhe ought to lie upon
her fide; becaufe in the other p.ofture, it is often difficult
to turn the harjd.up to the fore-part of the womb;
whereas, if (he is laid, on the left fide, the right hand
may be introduced at the upper part and left fide of the
brim of the pelvis, where it is wideftp and then along
the fore-part of the uterus, by which means the feet are
more eafily come at. If it is more convenient for the
accoucheur to ufe his left hand, the patient may be turn¬
ed on her right- fide. The only inconvenience attending
thefe pofuions, isL that the woman cannot be kept fo
firm and fteady, but will be apt to tofs about and {brink
from the operator: and befides, there may be a neceflity
for turning her upon her back, after the body is deliver¬
ed, before he can extract the head, efpecially if it be
large, or the pelvis narrow.’
The fituation of the child being known, and the pofuion
of
236 M I D W I
of ths mother adjufted, let the proper hand be introdu¬
ced, and the firft effort always made in pufhing the pre-
fenting part up towards the fundus, either along the
fides, back, or fore part of the uters, as is rnoft conve¬
nient. If this endeavour fucceeds, and the breech,
thighs, or legs come down, the body may be delivered
with eafe : but if the' head, fhoulder, breaft, or neck
prefent, the other parts of the body being (Iretched up
lengthways, and the uterus fo ft.rongly contratted around
the child, that the prefenting part cannot be raifed up,
or, though puihed upwards, immediately returns before
the legs can be properly feized or brought down; the o-
perator ought, in that cafe, to force up his hand {lowly
and gradually between the uterus and the child : if the
refiftance is great, let him reft a little, between whiles,
in order to fave the ftrength of his hand and arm, and
then proceed with his efforts until he fhall advance his
hand as far as the feet ; for the higher his hand is pufh-
cd, the more will the uterus be ftretched, and the more
room granted for bringing the legs along : and if, in pufii-
ing up his hand, the fingers fhould be entangled in the
navel ftring or one of the arms, let him bring it a little
lower, and pafs it up again on the outfide ofduch incum¬
brance.
Thehand being advanced as high as the fundus, let him,
after fame paufe, feel, for the breech. Hide his fingers a-
long the thighs in fearch of the legs and feet; of which,
taking hold with his whole hand, if poflible, let him bring
them down either in a (freight line or with a half turn :
or fhould the contradHon of the uterus be fo ftrong, that
he cannot take bold of them in that manner, let himfeize
one or both ancles between his fingers, and pull them a-
long; but if he cannot bring them down to the lower part
of the uterus, fo as to apply the noofe, he muft try again
to pufh up the body, in order itill more to ftretch the u-
terus, and obtain freer fcope^ta bring them down lower:
then he may apply the noofe, and turn the child as above
direfted, until the head and fhoulders are raifed up to
the fundus, and the feet and breech dslivered.
If one leg bnly can be brought down, the child being
turned, and that member extradfed through the os ex¬
ternum, Idt the accoucher Aide his hand up to fetch the
other; but, if this cannot be done, he muft fix a finger
on the outfide of the groin of that thigh which is folded
up along the belly, and bring along that buttock, as in the
breech cafe, while he pulls with his other hand at the
other leg; and the body being thus advanced, deliver as
"before diredfed.
When the fhoulder prefents, and the arm lies double
in the vagina, let him pufh them both up; but, if this
cannot be done, and the hand is prevented from paffing
along, he muft bring down the arm, and hold it with
one hand, while the other is introduced ; then let go and
pufh up the fhoulder, and as the child is turned, and the
feet brought down, the arm will for the moft part return
into the uterus : but if the arm that is come down, befo
much fwelled, that it is impradficable to introduce the
hand, fo as to turn and deliver the child, he muft fepa-
rate it at the joint of the fhoulder, if it be fo low down;
or at the elbow, if he cannot reach the fhoulder. If the
limb be much mortified, it may be twifted off; otherwife,
it may bednipt and feparated with the feifiars.
F E R Y.
If the (boulder, by the imprudence and ignorance of
the unfkilful, who pull-in expedlation of delivering in
that way, is forced into the vagina, and part of it appears
on the outfide of the os externum, a vail Force is requi¬
red to return it into the uterus ; becaufe, in this cafe, the
fhoulder, part of the ribs, breaft, and fide, are already
pulled out of the uterus, which mufl: be extended fo as
not only to receive them again, but alfo to admit thehand
and arm of the accoucheur. If this.diftenfion cannot pof*
fibly be effeefted, he muft fix a crotchet above the fternum,
and turn the child by pufhing up the fhoulder and pulling
down with the crotchet ; or Aide his fingers to the neck
of the child, and with the feiffars divide the head from
the body; then deliver firft the feparated head, or bring
along the body by pulling at the arm, or, if need be,
with the affirtance of the crotchet.
When the forehead, face, or ear prefents, and cannot
be altered with the hand into the natural pofition ; or is
not advanced to the os externum, fo as that we can affift
with the forceps; the head muft be returned, and the
child delivered by the feet : but if this cannot be done,
and the woman is in imminent danger, recourfe muft be
had to the crotchet.
If the navel ftring comes down by the child’s head,
and the pulfation is felt in the arteries, there is a necefli-
ty for turning without lofs of time; for unlefs the head
advances faft, and the delivery is quick, the circulation
in" the veffels will be entirely obftrufted, and the child
confequemly perifh. If the head is low in the pelvis, the
forceps may be fuccefsfully ufed.
No doubt, if the pelvis is very narrow, or the head
too large, it would be wrong to turn : in that cafe, we
ought to try if we can poffibly raife the head. To as to
reduce the funis above it, and after that let the labour
go on : but, if the waters are all gone, and a large por¬
tion of the funis falls down, it is impoflible to raife it, fo
as to keep it up, even although we could eafily raife the
head; becaufe, as one part of the funis is pufhed up with
the fingers, another part falls down, and evades the re-
dudion ; and to raife it up to the fide, and not above the
head, will be to no purpofe ; when a little only jets down
at the fide of the head, our endeavours will, for the moft
part, be fuccefsful.
The ancients, as well as fome of the moderns, advife,
in all cafes when the upper parts, fuch as the fhoulders,
breaft, neck, face, or ear of the child prefent, to pufh
them upwards, and bring in the head as in the natural
way; obferving, that the foetus ought never to be deli¬
vered by the feet, except in the prefentation of the lower
parts, fuch as the fmall of the back, belly, fide, breech,
or legs. Were it pradicable at all times to bring the
head into the right pofition, a great deal of fatigue would
be faved to the operator, much pain to the woman, and
imminent danger to the child: he therefore ought to at¬
tempt this method, and may fucceed when he is called
before the membranes are broke, and feels, by the touch,
that the face, ear, or any of the upper parts, prefents ;
in that cafe, let him open the os externum (lowly during
every pain, and when the os internum is fufficiently di¬
lated by the defeent of the waters and membranes, let
him introduce his hand into the uterus, as before directed,
betwixt the womb and the membranes, which muft be
broke;
M I D W
broke ; and if he finds the head fo large, or the pelvis fo
narrow, that it will be difficult to fave the child ; pro¬
vided the woman is vigorous and has dlrong pains, he
may with little difficulty bring in the crown of the head,
then withdraw his hand ; and.if the pains return and con¬
tinue, the child .has a good chance to be delivered alive.
Even after,the membranes are broke, if the prefenting
part hath fo locked up the os intprnum, as to detain fome
portion of the waters (a circumflance eafily known in pulh-
ing up the part that prefents,) he may run up his hand
fpeedily to keep them from Being difcharged, and adt in
the fame manner : but if the child is not large, nor the
pelvis narrow, it were -pity, while his hand is in ;he
uterus, to defift from turning the child and bringing it
by the feet ; becaufe, in that cafe, he may be pretty cer¬
tain of faving it. Bdides, after the head is brought into
the right pofition, ffiould the pains go off entirely, (and
this frequently happens,) or a flooding come one, in con-
fequence of the force which hath been exerted, he will
find great difficulty in turning after the waters have been
difcharged ; for, it is harder to turn when the vertex
prefents, than in any other pofition ; whereas, in the cafe
of a large head or narrow pelvis, when the head is forced
down by the labour-pains, and will not farther advance,
the child may be faved by the forceps ; nay, though the
pains do not aft fo as to force it down, to be delivered
either by the forceps or in the natural way,, the head may
be opened and extrafted with the crotchet, which is the
lafl: refource.
But this neceffity feldom occurs, becaule the cafes in
which we are moll commonly called, are after the mem¬
branes have been long broke, the waters difcharged, and
the uterus flronglycontrafted around the body of the child,
which it confines, as it-were, in a mould : fo that it is
next to impoffible to bring the head into the natural
pofition for this cannot be effe&ed without firft pulhing
up the part that prefents, for which purpofe great force
is required ; and as one hand only can be introduced,
when the operator endeavours to bring in the head, the
pnlhing force is abated, to allow the pulling force to aft;
and the parts that hindered the head from prefenting are
again forced down : befides, the head is fo large and
flippery, that he can obtain no firm hold. He might,
indeed, by introducing a finger into the mouth, lay hold
of the under jaw, and bring in the face, provided the
fhoulder prefents ; but, inftead of amending, this would
make the cafe worfe, unlefs the child be very fmall: yet,
granting the head could be brought into the natural pofi¬
tion, the force neceffarily exerted for this purpofe would
produce' a flooding, which commonly weakens the patient,
and carries off the pains ; and after all, he mud turn
with lefs advantage : and if that cannot be performed
when the head is brought in, he mull have recourfe to the
laid and mod difagreeabk method ; whereas when any o-
ther part prefehts, we can always turn the child, and de¬
liver it by the feet. This we cannot promife after the
head is brought in ; and once the operator’s hand is in
the uterus, he ought not to run fuch rilks.
The child is often in danger, and fometimes lod, when
the breech prefents, and is low down in the pelvis, pro¬
vided the thighs are fo drongly preffed againft the funis
V«l. III. N°, 79. 2
I F E R Y. - 237
and belly, as,to dop the circulation in the rope ; as alfo
when the child is detained by th head, after the body is
, delivered : in both cafes, the danger mud be obviated by
an expeditious delivery; and if the body is entangled in
the navel-dring, it mud'be difengaged as well as polfible,
efpecially when the funis happens to be between the thighs.
The legs and breech of the child being brought down,
and the body properly turned with the fore- parts to the
mother’s back, let the accoucheur endeavour to bring it
along ; but, if it is detailed by the fize of the belly, dif-
tended with air or water, (a cafe that frequently happens
when the child has been dead for feveral days,) let the
belly be opened, by forcing into it the points of hr? feiffars;
or, he may tear it o'peq with the ffiarp crotchet.
The body of the child being delivered, the arms brought
down, and every method hitherto direfted unfuccefsfully
ufed for the extraftion of the head, which is detained by
.being naturally too large, over offified, or dropfical, or
from the narrownefs and diftortion of the pelvis ; if the
belly was not opened, and the child is found to be alive
by the motion of the heart, or pulfation of the arteries
in the funis, the forceps ought to be tried ; but, if he
finds it impracticable to deliver the head, fo as'to fave
the life of the childr he mull, according; to fome, force
the points of the feiffars through the lower part of the
occipital bone, or through the foramen magnum ; then
dilate the blades, fo as to enlarge the opening, and in¬
troduce a blunt or lharp hook. This operation rarely
fucceeds when the head is over-offified ; but may anfwer
. the purpofe when the bones are foft and yielding ; or ia
the cafe of an hydrocephalus : becaufe, in the firll, the
aperture may fometimes be enlarged, and in the other
the water will be evacuated fo as to diminilh the bulk of
the head, which will, of confequence, come along with
more eafe.
If, notwithflanding thefe endeavours, the head cannot
be extrafted, let the operator introduce his hand along
the head, and his fingers through the os uteri; then Hide
up one of the curved crotchets along the ear, betwixt his
hand and the child’s head, upon the upper part of which
it mull be fixed : this being done, let him withdraw his
hand, take hold of the inftrument with one hand, turning
the curve of it over the forehead, and with the other grafp
the neck and Ihoulders, then pull along. The crotchet
being thus fixed on the upper part, where the bones are
thin and yielding, makes a large opening, through which
the contents of the fltull are emptied, the head collapfing
is with more certainty extrafted, and the inftrument hath
a firm hold to the laft, at the forehead, os petrofum, and
bafis of the Ikull.
The excellency of Mefnard'% contrivance is more con-
fpicuous here than when the head prefents ; becaufe the
curvature of the crotchet allows the point to be fixed on
the upper part of the Ikull, which is to be tore open ;
and in pulling, the contents are evacuated, and the head
is leflened : by thefe means, the principal obftruftion is
removed. See Plate CXIII. fig. 8.
a, Reprefents a pair of curved crot^iets locked together
in the fame manner as the forceps. The dotted
lines along the infide of one of the blades reprefent a
fheath contrived to guard the point till it is intro-
3 0 duced
23 § MI D W 1
duced lirgh enough ; the ligature at the handles
marked with the two dotted lines is then to be un¬
tied, the (heath withdrawn, and the point, being
uncovered, is fixed as in Plate CXIII. fig. y.
b, Gives a view of the back part of oneuf the ciotchets,
which is 12 inches long.
e, A front view of the point, to (hew its proportional
length and brea.dth.
d, The fciflars for perforating the cranium in very-
narrow and diftorted pelvis’s. They ought to be
made very ftrong, and at leaf! nine inches in length,
with flops or reds in the middle of the blades, by
which a large dilatation is more eafily made.
If oi^e crotchet be found infufficient, let him introduce
the other in the fame manner, along the oppofite fide,
lock and join them together, and pull along, moving and
turning the head, fo as to humour the fhape of the pelvis.
This method feldom fails to accomplifh his aim, though
fometimes very great force is required ; in which cafe,
he mud pull with ieifure and caution.
But if all thefe expedients fhould fail, by reafon of the
extraordinary oflification or fize of the head, or the nar-
rownefs and diflortion of the pelvis, after having ufed the
crotchets without fuccefs, he mud feparate the body from
the head with a bidory or pair of fciflars ; then pufhing
up the head into the uterns, turn the face to the fundus,
and the vertex down to the os internum and brim of the
pelvis : let him direft an affidant to prefs upon the wo¬
man’s belly with both hand's, in order to keep the uterus
and head firm in that pofition ; then open the fkull with
the fciflars, dedroy the drudlure of the brain, and ex*
traft with the crotchets.
The head is fometimes left in the uterus by thofb
pradfitioners, who not knqwing how to turn the fore-parts
and face of the child towards the back part of the uterus,
or how to bring it along, although it prefented in that
pofition, pull at random with-all their drength ; fo that
the neck is dretched and feparated, and the head left be¬
hind. This may alfo happen to an expert accoucheur,
when the child hath been dead for many days, and the
body is much mortified, even though he hath ufed all the
neceflary precautions.
In fuch a cafe, provided the head is not very large,
nor the pelvis narrow, and the forehead is towards the
facrum, let him dide up his hand along the back-part of
the pelvis, and introducing two fingers into the mouth,
with the thumb below the chin, try to pull the forehead
into the hollow of the facrum : if it dicks at the jetting-
in of that bone, he mud endeavour to move it, fird to one
fide, and then to the other. If the head is fmall, it will
come along ; if any fragment of the neck remains, or any
part of the loofe fkin, he may lay hold on it, and/aflid
delivery, by pulling 4t it with his other hand; if the head
is low down, it may be extrafted with the forceps.
Should all thefe methods fail, let him pufh up his hand
along the fide of the head, until it (hall have paffed the
os internum ; with the other hand, let him introduce one
of the curved crotchets, and fix it upon the upper part
of the head ; then withdrawing the hand which was in¬
troduced, take hold on the indrument, and Hiding the
fingers of the other hand into the mouth, he mud pull
[ F E R Y.
down with both, as above diredled. If the head is not
over*ofiified, the crotchet ^ill tear open the fkuii ; and
the bulk being of confequence diminidied; "the y/hole may
be brought along, even in a narrow pelvis : but if it can¬
not be moved, even by this expedient, he mud introduce
the other crotchet along the other'fide of the head, and
fixing it upon the fkull, lock them together ; then in
pulling, turn the fore-head down into the hollow of the
facrum, and extraft with an half round turn upwards, as
when delivering with the forceps.
If the forehead is towards the os pubis, and cannot be
brought into the right pofition, let him with his hand
pufh up the head into the uterus, turn the forehead from
the anterior to the fide or back part of it,'and try tqex-
tradl as before. If the child hath been dead fome time,
and is much mortified, he mud pull cautioufly at the un¬
der jaw, becaufe, fliould that give way, he will have no
other hold for palling, or keeping the head Heady when
he attempts tq extrad with one crotchet.
When the head h fo large, or the pelvis fo narrow,
that none of thefe methods will fucceed, fi t him pufh up,
and turning the upper parts downwards, dired an aflidant
to prefs the patient’s belly with both hands, moving them
from fide to fide, and fqueezing in fueh a diredjon as
will force the head towards the os internum, and retain
it firmly in that pofition ; then it mud be'opened and ex-
traded.
Although, by thefe means, you may fucceed in a few
cafes of this kind, yet as great difficulties may occur from
inflammations of the pudenda, contradion of the uterus,
flipperinefs or largenefs of the head, and the narrownefs
of the pelvis, it will not be improper to inform the reader
of other methods that appear to be^ufeful. Let the
hand be introduced into the vagina, and if it cannot be
admitted within the uterus, the fingers being infinuated,
may move the head fo as to raife the face and chin to the
fundus, the vertex being turned to tfie os internum, and
the forehead towards the fide of the facrum. This being
effe&ed, let the operator Aide up along one ear aLlade
of the long forceps, which are curved to the fide; then
change hands, and fend up the other blade along the op¬
pofite ear: when they are locked, and die handles fecu-
red by a fillet, he mud pull the head as low as it will
come; then putting them into the-hands>of an aflidant,
who will keep them in that pofition, let him make a
large opening with the feiffars, fqueeze the head with
great force, and extrad dpwly and by degrees.
Having turned down the vertex, as above direded, let
Leverot’s tire-t£te, with the three fides joined together,
be introduced along the accoucheur’s hand to the upper
part of the head ; then let the fides or blades be opened
with the other hand, fo as to inclofe the head, moving
them circularly and lengthwife in a light and eafy man¬
ner, that they may pafs over the inaqualities of the fcalp,
and avoid the refidance of the head and uterus: when
they are exadly placed at equal didances from one ano¬
ther, let him join the handles, withdraw his hand, and
tying them together with a fillet, pull down, open, and
extradl, as above directed; and let it be remembered,
that the farther the hand can be introduced into the ute¬
rus, the more eafily will both inftrumeats be managed.
When
M I D W
When the pelvis is large, or the head fraall, (in which’
cafes this misfortune feldom happens,) without doubt we
might fucceed with Maurieeau % broad fillet or fling,
provided it could be properly applied.
When, the head is fmall, or the pelvis large, dilating
the foramen magnum with the fcilfars, and introducing
the blunt hook, may be of ufe either to pull the heada-
long, or keep it down until we can fix the forceps, curve
crotchet, or Leveret's tire-tete. .
Of Twin*.
Twin s are fuppofed to be the effedl of a double con¬
ception in one coition, when two or more ova are impreg¬
nated with as many animatcula-; which defcending from
the ovarium, through the Fallopian tube, into the fundus
uteri, as they increafe, come in contadf with that part,
and with one another, and are fo prefled as to form one
globular figure, and ftretch the womb.into the fame form
which it asTumes .when dtflended by one ovum only ; and
that during the whole term of uterine geflation, it is
impoflible to diflinguilh' twins, either by the figure
and magnitude of the uterus, or by the motion of the
dilterent fcetufles ; for one child, when it is large, and
fb ."rounded with .a great quantity'of waters, will fome-
times produce as large a prominence (or oven larger) in
the woman’s belly, than is commonly obferved when flie
is big with twins. One child will alfo, by moving its
legs, arms, and other parts of its body, againft different
parts of the uterus, at the fame inflant, or by intervals,
yield the fame fenfation to the mother, as may be obferve4
in two or more children ; for part of the motion in twins
is employed on each other, as well as upon the uterus.
There is therefore no certain method of diflinguifhing
in thefe cafes, until the firft child is delivered, and the
accoucheur has examined if the placenta is coming along.
If this comes of itfelf, and after its extradion the mouth
of the womb be felt contracted, and the operator is un¬
willing to give unneceflary pain by introducing his hand
into the uterus; let him lay-his hand upon the woman’s
abdomen, and if nothing is left in the womb, he will ge¬
nerally feel it juft above the os pubis, contracted into a
firm round ball of the fize of a child’s head, or lefs :
whereas, if there is anothef child left, the fize will be
found much larger. If the placenta does not come down
before the fecond child(, which is frequently the cafe,
upon examining, he will commonly feel the membranes
with the waters puftied down through the os uteri; or, if
they are broke, the head or fome part of the body will
be felt. If, therefore, the woman has ftrong pains, and
is in no danger from floodings or weaknefs, provided the
head prefents fair, and feems to come along, lire will be
delivered'of this alfo in the natural way.
If thS membranes are not broke, if the head does not
immediately follow, or if the child prefents wrong, he
ought to turn and bring it immediately by the feet ; in
order to fave the patient the fatigue of a fecond labour,
that may prove tedibus, and even ctangerons, by enfeebling ’
her too much. Befides, as the parts are fully opened by
the firft delivery, he can introduce his hand with cafe; and
as the membranes are, for the moft part, whole, the wa-
I F E R Y. 239
ters may be kept up, and the foetus eafily tilrned p but,
if the pelvis is narrow, the woman ftrong, and the head
prefents, he ought to leave it to the efforts of nature.
If the child-prefents wrong, and, in turning that, he
feels another, he muff beware of breaking the membranes
of one, while he is at work upon the other : but, fliould
they chance to be broke, and the legs of both entangled
together, (though this is feldom the cafe, becaufe they
are commonly divided by two fets of membranes,) let the
operator, when he has got hold on two legs, run up his
fingers.to the breech, and feel if they belong to the fame
body ; and one child being delivered, let the other be
turned and brought out in the fame manner. If there are
more than two, the fame method muft take place, ia ex¬
tracting one after another.
In cafe of .twins, the placenta of thefirfl: feldom comes
along, until the fecond child is delivered; but, as this
does not always happen, he ought, as formerly directed,
to certify himfelf that there is nothing left in the uterus,
when the cake comes of itfelf. Both children deing de¬
livered, let him extract both placentas, if they come not
of themfelves; .and if they form diftinCt cakes, feparate
ijrft one, then the other; but if they are joined together,
forming but one mafs, they may be delivered at once.
When there are three or four children, (a cafe that
'"rarely happens,) the placentas are fometimes diftinCt, and
fometimes Sll together form but one round cake; but,
when this is macerated in water for fome days, they, with
their feveral membranes, may be eafiiy feparated from one
another; for they only adhere in confequence of their long
preffore in the uterus, and feldomJiave any communicatioa
of veffels.
Twins for the moft part lie diagonally in the uterus,
one below the other ; fo that they feldotn obftruCt one
another at the os internum. See Plate CXI. fig. 5.
C/'Monsters.
Two children joined together by their bellies, (which
is the moft common cafe of monftrous births,) or by the
Tides, or when the belly of the one adheres to the back
of the other, having commonly but one funis, are compre¬
hended in this clafs, and fuppofed to be.the effeCl of two
animalcula impregnating the fame ovum, in which they
grow together, and are noUriftied by one navel-ftring, o-
riginally belonging to the fecundines; becaufe, the vef¬
fels pertaining to the coats of the vein and arteries, do not
anaftomofe with the veffels belonging to the foetus.
In fuch'a cafe, where the children were fmall, the ad-
hefion hath been known to ftretch in pulling at the feet
of one, fo-as to be delivered ; and the other hath been
afterwards brought Along, in the fame manner, without
the neceflity of a feparation.
When the accoucheur is called to a cafe of this kind,
if the children are large, andthe woman come to her full
time, let him firft attempt to deliver them by that me¬
thod : but if, after the legs and part of the body of the
' firft are brought down, the reft will not follow, let him
Aide up his hand, and with his fingers examine the adhe-
fion ; then introducing the feiffars between his hand and
the body qf the foetus, endeavour to feparate them by
fopping,
2^# M I D W
fnipping through the juncture. Should this attempt .fail,
lie mud diminifti the bulk in the bed manner he can think
and bring the body of the fird, in different pieces,
by pulling or cutting them afundetj as he extracts with
the help of the crotchet.
No certain rules can be laid down in thefe cafes, which
feldom happen ; and therefore a great deal mud be left to
the judgment and fagacity of the operator, who mud re¬
gulate his conduct according to the circumdances of the.
cafe, and according to the directions given for delivering,
when the pelvis is narrow and the children extraordina¬
ry large.
Of the Cesarian Operation.
When a woman cannot be delivered by any of the
^methods hitherto defcribed and recommended in laborious
and preternatural labours, on account of the narrownefs
or didortion of the pelvis, into which it is fometimes
impollible to introduce the hand ; of from large excre-
fcences and glandular fweliings, that fill up the vagina,
and cannot be removed ; or from large cicatrices and ad
heftons in that part, and at the os uteri, which cannot be
feparated ; in fuch emergencies, if the woman is drong,
and of a good habit of body, the Csfarian operation is
certainly advifeable, and ought to be performed ; becaufe
the mother and child have no other chance to be faved,
and it is better to have recourfe to an oper-ation which
hath fometimes fucceeded, than leave them both to inevi¬
table death. Neverthelefs, if the woman is weak, ex-
hauded with fruitlefs labour, violent floodings, or any o-
ther evacuation, which renders her recoverjr doubtful, e-
ven if fhe were delivered in the natural way: in thefe cir¬
cumdances it would be ralhnefs and prefumption to at¬
tempt an operation of this kind, which ought to be delay¬
ed until the woman expires, and then immediately per¬
formed, with a view to fare the child.
The operation hath been performed both in this and
the lad century, and fometimes with fuch fuccefs, that
the mother has recovered, and the child furvived. The
previous deps to be taken, are to drengthen the patient,
if weak, with nourifhing broths and cordials; to evacuate
the indurated faeces with repeated'glyders; and, if the
bladder is didended with urine, to draw it off with a ca¬
theter. Thefe precautions being taken, fhe mud be laid
on her back, on a couch or bed, her fide on which the
incifion is to be made being raifed up by pillows placed
below the oppofite fide : the opefation may be performed
on either fide, though the left is commonly preferred to
the right; becaufe, in this lad, the liver extends lower.
The apparatus confids of a bidory, probe-fcidars, large
needles threaded, fpunges, warm water, pledgets, a large
tent or doflil, compreffes, and a bandage for the belly.
If the weather is cold, the patient mud be kept warm,
and no part of the belly uncovered, except that on which
the incifion is to be made: if the operator be a young
praiflitioner, the place may be marked by drawing a line
along the middle fpace between the navel and the os
ilium, about fix or feven inches in length, danting for¬
wards towards the left groin, and beginning as high as
the navel.
According to this direftion, let him hold*the fkin of
I F E R Y.
the abdomen tenfe between the finger and thumb of one
hand, and, with the bidory in the other, make a longi-.
tudinal incifiqn through the cutis, to the membrana adt-
pofa, which, with the mufcles, mud be flowiy differed
and feparated, until he reaches the peritonseum, which
mud be divided very cautioudy, for fear of woundipg the
intedines that frequently dart up at the fides, efpecially if
the membranes are broke, the waters difcharged, and the
uterus contrafted.
The peritonaeum being laid bare, it may either be
pinched up by the lingers, or flowly difle&ed with the
bidory, until an opening is made fufficient to admit the
fore-linger, which mud be introduced as a dire&or for
the bidory or fciflars in making an efFe&ual dilatation.
If the intedines-pudi out, let them be prefled downwards,
fo as that the uterus may come in contadt with the open¬
ing. If the womb is dill didended with the waters, and
at fome didance from the.child, the operator may make
upon it a longitudinal incifion at once; but if it is con-
tradled clofe round the body of the foetus, he mud pinch
it up, and dilate in the fame cautious manner pradtifed
upon the peritonseurp, takingcare to avoid wounding the
Fallopian tubes, ligaments, and bladder : then introdu-
ing his hand, he may take out the child and fecundines.
If the woman is drong, the uterus immediately contradls,
fo as that the opening, which at fird extended to about
fix or feven inches, is reduced to two, or lefs; and in
confequence of this contradtion, the vedels being flirunk
up, a great efFufion of blood is prevented,
-The coagulated blood being removed, and what is dill
fluid fpunged up, the incifion in the abdomen mud be
ditched with the interrupted future, and fufficient room
left between the lad ditch and the lower end of the open-*
ing, for the difcharge of the moidure and extravafated
fluid. The wound may be drefled with dry pledgits or
doflils dipped in fome liquid balfam warnied, covered
with comprefles moidened with wine, and a bandage to
keep on the dreflings andfudain the belly. Some authors
obferve, that the cutis and mufcles only fhould be taken
up in the future, led bad fymptoms fhould arifc from
ditching the peritonseum.
The woman mud be kept in bed, as quiet as pollible,
and every thing admiftidered to promote the lochia, per-
fpiration, ancl deep: which will prevent a fever and o-
ther dangerous fymptonas. If fhe hath lod a great quan¬
tity of blood from tlie wounds in the uterus and abdo¬
men, fo as tobe in danger from inanition, broths, caudles,
and wine, ought to be given in fmall quantities, and fre¬
quently repeated; and the Peruvian bark adminidered in
powder, decoftion, or ext,raft, may be of great fervicein
this cafe.
Of the management of women from the time of their
delivery to the end of the month, with the feveral dif
eafes to which they are fubjeft during that period.
Of the External Application.
The woman being delivered of the child and placenta,
let a Toft linen cloth, warmed, be applied to the exter¬
nal parts; and if die complains much of a fmarting fore-
nefs, fooie pomatum may be fpread upon it. The linen
that
M I D W I
that Was laid bdow her, to fpunge up the difcharges,
muft be removed, fnd replaced withothers that are clean,
dry, and u arm. Let hSr lie on her back, with her legs
extended cioi'e to each other; or upon her fide, if flie
thinks fire can lie eafie-r in that pofition, until (lie recovers .
from the fatigue: if <he is fpent and exhaulted, let her
take a little warm wine or caudle, or, according to th.e
common cuflom, fome nutmeg and fugar grated together
in afpoon : the principal deftgn of adminiftring this pow¬
der, which among the good women is feldom neg.lefted,
is to fupply the want of home cordial draught, when the
patient is too weak- ttTbe raifed, _or fiippofed to be in
clanger of reaching* from her llemach’s being overload¬
ed. When Hie hath in fome meafure recovered her
flrength and fpirits, let- the cloths b,e removed from the
parts, and others applied in their room and, if thereis a
large difeharge from the uterus, let the wet linen below
her be ajlo drifted, that fire may not run the rifijue of
catching cold. .
When the patient is either weak or fatmifb, fire ought
pot to be taken out of bed, or even raifed up to have her
head and body drifted, until die is a little recruited; o-
Ithervvife die will be in danger of repeated fainting?, at¬
tended with convulfions, which fometimes end in death.
To prevent thefe bad Confequences, her Ikirt and petti-
coavs ought to be loofened and pulled down over the legs,
and replaced by another well warmed, with a broad head-
band to be dipt in below, and brought up over her thighs
and hips : a warm double cloth mud be laid on the belly,
which is to be furrounded by the head band of the Ikirt
pinned moderetely tight over the cloth, in order to com-
prefs the vifeera and the relaxed parietes of the abdomen,
more or lefs, as the woman can eafily bear it ; by whiclr
means the uterus is kept firm in the lower part of the ab¬
domen, and prevented from rolltng from fide to fide
when the patient is tinned : but the principal end of this
compreffion, is to hinder, too great a quantity of blood
from rulhing into the relaxed vedels of the abdominal con¬
tents ; efpecially when the uterus is emptied all of a hid¬
den, by a quick delivery. The predure being thus fud
denly removed, the head iv all at once robbed of its pro¬
portion of blood, and the immediate revullion precipitates
the patient into dangerous lypothymia.
For this reafon the belly ought to be firmly compreded
by the hands of an afliftant, until the bandage is applied ;
or, in lieu of it, a long towel, (heet., or roller, to make
a datable comprefiion : but, for this purpofe, different
methods are ufed in different countries, or according to
the different circumdances of the patients. The head-
cloatbs and fliift ought alfo to be changed, becaufe with
fweating in time of labour they are rendered wet and
difagreeable, Several other applications, are necedary,
when the external or internal parts are rent or inflamed,
misfortunes that fometimes happen in laborious and pre-
ternajtural cafes. See Medicine, p. 165, 166.
Of Air, Diet, Sleeping and Watching, Motion and Rejl,
Retention and Excretion,, and the Pajjions of the
Mind.
Although we cannot remove the patient immediate¬
ly after delivery into another climate, we can qualify the
Vol. III. N°. 79. 2
F ft II Y. - -2-41
air, fo as to keep it in a moderate ahd falutafy temper,
by rendering it warm or cold, mbilf or dry, according to
the circumdances of-the occafion. With regard to die,
women in time of labour, ani even till the ninth day af¬
ter delivery, ought to eat little folid food, and none at
all during the firft five or feven.; let them drink plenti¬
fully-of warm, diluting fluids, fuch as barley water,
gruel, chicken-Water, and teas.; caudles are alfo com¬
monly ufed, compofed of water gruel boiled up. with ;
mace and cinnamon, 'to which, when drained, is added a.
third or fourth part of white wine, or lefs, if the patient
drinks plentifully,- fweetened with fugaf to their tafte :
this compofition is termed white caudle ; whereas, if ale
is ufed indead of wine, it goes under the name of brown
caudle. In fome countries, eggs are added to both kinds ;
but, in that cafe, the woman is not permitted to eat meat
or-brqths till afee/ the fifth or feventh'day : in this
country, however, as eggs are no part of the ingredients
the patient is indulged with weak broth fooner, and fome¬
times allowed to eat a little boiled chicken. But alHheie
different preparations are. to be preferibed weaker or* ,
dronger, with regard to the fpices, wine, or ale, ac¬
cording to the different conditutions and fituations of dif¬
ferent patients : for example, if die is low and weak, in
confequence of an extraordinary difeharge of any kind,
either before or after delivery, or if the weather is cold,
the caudles and .broths may be made the dronger; but
if die is of a full habit of body, and has the lead tenden¬
cy to a fever, or if the feafon is excefiBely hot, thefe '
drinks ought to be of a very weak confidence, or the
patient redrided to gruel, tea, barley and chicken water,
and thefe var.ied according to the emergency of the cafe.
Her food mud be light and eafy of digedion, fuch as
panada, bifeuit, and fago ; about the fifth or feventh day
die may eat a little boiled chicken, or -the lighted kind
of young meat: but, thefe lad may be given fooner or
later, according to the circumdances of the cafe, and the-
appetite of the patient. In the regimen as to eating and
drinking, we diould rather err on the abdemious fide,
than indulge the woman with meat and drong fermented
liquors, even if thefe lad Ihould be mod agreeable to her
palate: for we find by experience, that they are apt to
increafe or bring dn fevers, and that the mod nourifhing
and fakitary diet is that which we have above preferibed.
Every thing that is difficult of digedion, or quickens the
circulating fluids, mud of neceflity promete a fever ; by
which, the neceflary difeharges are obdrmded, and the
patient’s life endangered.
As to the article of deeping and watching, the. patient
mud be kept as free from noife as poffible, by covering
the floors and dairs with carpets and cloths, oiling the
hinges of the doors, filencing the 'bells, tying up the
knockers, and in noify dreets drowing the pavement with
draw; if, notwithdanding thefe precautions, fte is didurb-
ed,. her ears mud be.duffed with cotton, and opiates ad-
minidred to procure deep; becaufe watching makes her
reftlefs, prevents perfpiration, and promotes a fever.
Motion and fed are another part of the nonnaturals to
which we ought to pay particular regard. By toffing a-
bciu, getting outrofibed, or fitting up too long, the per¬
fpiration is difeouraged and interrupted ; and in this lad
3 1* attitude
242 - M I D w :
attitude the uterus, not yet fully cantrafled, hangs down,
ftretching the ligaments, occaflioning pain, cold Ihiverin'gs,
and a fever: for theprevention of thefe bad fymptoms, the
padent muft be kept quiet in_bsd till after the fourth or
fifth day, and then be gently lifted up in the bed-cloaths,
in a lying pollure, until the bed can be adjulted, into which
file miift be immediately re-conveyed, there to continue
for the mod part, till the ninth day, after which period
women are not fo fubjeft to fevers, as immediately after
delivery.. Some there are, who, from the nature of their
conllitutions, or other accidents, recover more flowly;
and fuch are to be treated with the fame caution after,
as before, the ninth day, as the cafe feems to indicate:
others get up, walk about, and recover, in a much fliorter
time ; hut thefe may fome time or other pay dearly for
their foolhardinefs, by encouraging dangerous fevers : fo
that we ought , rather to err on the fafe fide, than run
any rifque what foe ver.
What next comes under conlideration, is the circum-
flance of retention and excretion. We have formerly ob-
ferved, that in time of labour, before the head of the
child is locked into the pelvis, if the woman has not had
eafy paffage in her belly that fame day, the'redtum and
colon ought to be emptied by a glyller, which will affifl
the labour, prevent the difagreeable excretion of the fae¬
ces before the child’s head, and enable the patient to re¬
main t vo or three days after, without the neceffity of
going to ftool. However, fliould this precaution be ne-
glefted, and the patient very collive after delivery, we
mufl. beware of throwing up llimulating glyffers, or ad-
minillring ftrong cathartics, left they ftiould bring on too
many loofe (tools, which, if they cannot be ftopt, fo.me-
times produce fatal confequences, by bbftrufting the per-
fpiration and lochia, and exhaufting the woman, fo as
that (he will die all of a fudden ; a cataftrophe whh bhath
frequently happened from this practice. Wherefore, if
it be neceflary to empty the inteftines, we ought to pre-
fcribe nothing but emollient glyft'ers, or fome very gentle
opener, fuch as manna, or Elett '. Lsnitivum. But no
excretion is of more cSnfequence to the patient’s1 reco¬
very, than a free perfpiration ; which is fo abfolutelyne-
ceffary, that unlefs (he has a moifture continually on the
furface of her body, for forae days after the birth, (he
feldom recovers to advantage: her health, therefore, in
a great meafure depehds upon her enjoying undifturbed
repofe, and a conftant breathing fweat, which prevents a
fever, by carrying off the tendon, and affifts the equal
-difcharge of the lochia: and when thefe are obftrudled,
and a fever enfues with pain and reftleffnefs, nothing re¬
lieves the patient fo effedlually as reft and profufe fweat-
ing,' procured by opiates and fudorifics at the beginning
of the complaints ; yet thefe laft muft be more cautiouf-
iy prefcribed in exceftive hot than in-cool weather.
The laft of the nonnaturals to be confidered are the
padions of the mind, which alfo require particular atten¬
tion. The patient’s imagination muft not be difturbed by
the news of any extraordinary accident which may have
happened to'her family or friends: for fu£h information
hath been known to carry off the labonr-pairis entirely^
after they were begun, and the woman has funk under her
dej e&ioa, of fpirits: and even after delivery, thefe un-
F E R
feafonable. communications have produced fuch anxiety as
obftrufted all the neceffary excretions, and brought on a
violent fever and convulfions," that ended in death.
Of violent Flooding s.
All women, when the placenta feparates, and after
it is delivered, lofe more or lefs red blood, from the
quantity of half a pound, to that of one pound, or even
two ; but fhoold it exceed this proportion, and continue
to flow without diminution, the patient is-in great danger
of her life : this hazardous haemorrhage is known by the
violence of the difcharge, wetting frefh cloths, as faft as
they can be applied ; from the puife becoming low and
weak, and the countenance turning pale ; then the ex¬
tremities grow cold, the (inks into faintings, and, if the
difcharge is not. fpeedily ftopt, or diminiihed, is feized
with convulfions, which often terminate in death.
This dangerous efflux is occafioned by every thing that
hinders the emptied uterus from contrafling, fuch as great
weaknefs and laflltude, in confequence of repeated flood¬
ings before delivery; the fudden evacuation of the ute¬
rus; fometimes, though feldom, it proceeds from part
of the placenta’s being left in the womb; it may happen
when there is another child, or more, ftill undelivered;
when the womb is kept diftended with a large quantity
of coagulated blood ; or when it is inverted, by pulling
too forcibly at the placenta.
In this cafe, as there is no time to be loft, a^d inter¬
na! medicines cannot ad fo fuddenly as toanfwgr the pur-
pofe, we muft have immediate recourfeto external appli¬
cation. If the difordef be owing to weakoefs, by which
the uterus is difabled from contrading i tie If,' fo that the
mouths of the veffels are left open ; or, though contraded
a little, yet not enough to reftrain the hcemorrhage of the
thin blood; or if, in feparating the placenta, the ac¬
coucheur has fcratched or tore the inner furface or mem¬
brane of the womb ; in thefe cafes, fuch things muft be
ufed as will affift the contradile power of the uterus, and
hinder the blood from flowing fo faft into it and the neigh¬
bouring veflels; for this purpofe, cloths dipped in any
cold aftringent fluid, fuch as oxycrate, or red tart wine,
may be applied to the back and belly. Some prefcribe
venasfedion in the arm, to the amount of five or fix ounces,
with a view of making revuifion : if the puife is ftrong,
this, may be proper ; orherwife, it will do more harm
than good. Others order ligatures, for comprefiing the
returning veins at the hams, arms, and„neck, to retain as
much blood as polfible in the extremities and head. Befides
thefe applications, the vagina may be filled with tow of
linen rags, dipped in the above-mentioned liquids, in
which a little allum, or fachar-faturni hath been drffoived:
nay, fome praditioners injed proof-fpirits warmed, or,
foaking them up in a rag or fpunge, introduce and fqueeze
them into the uterus, in order to conftringe the veffels.
If the flooding proieeds from another child, the reten¬
tion of the placenta, or coagulated blood, , thefe ought
immediately to be extraded; and if there is an inverfion’
of the uterus, it muft be fpeediiy reduced. Should the
haemorrhage, by thefe methods, abate a little, but ftill
continue to flow, though not in fuch a quantity as to
bring on fuddea death, fome red wine.and jelly ought to
M I D W
be prefcribed for the patient, whothould take it frequent¬
ly, and a little at a time ; but above all things, chicken
or mutton broths, adminiflered in tire fame manner, for
fear of overloading the weakened ftomach, and occafion-
ing Teachings : thefe repeated in fmall quantities, will
gradually fill the exhausted veflels, ^nd keep up the cir¬
culation. If the pulfe continues ftrong. it will be proper
to order repeated draughts of barley-water, acidulated
with elixir vitriol: but if the circulation be weak and
languid, extraft of the bark, dilfolved in aq. cinnamo-
7fti tenuis^ and given in fniall draughts, or exhibited in
any other form, will be ferviceable ; at the .fame time,
lulling the patient to reft with opiates. 'Thefe, indeed,
when the firft violence of the flood is abated, if properly
and cautioufly ufed, are generally more effe&ual than any
other medicine.
Of the After-pains.
After pains commonly happen when the fibrous part
of the blood is retained in the uterus or vagina, and
formed into large clots, which are detained by the fudden
contraction of the os internum and, externum, after the
pla.centa is delivered: or,-if thefe fhould be extradted,
others will fometimes be formed, though not fo large as
the firft, becaufe the cavity of the womb is continually
diminifhing after the birth. The uterus, in contradting,
preffes down thefe coagulum? to the os internum j which
being again gradually ftretched, produces a degree of la¬
bour pains, owing to the irritation of its nerves: in con-
fequence of this uneafinefs, the woman fqueezes the womb
as in real labour ; the force being increafed, the clots are
pufhed along, and when they' are delivered, fhe grows
eafy. The larger the quantity is of the coagulated blood,
the feverer are the pains, and the longer they continue.
Women in the firft child feldom have after-pains; be¬
caufe, after delivery, the womb is fuppofed to contradf,
and pufh off the clots with greater force in die firft than
in the following labours: after-pains may alfo proceed
frorti obftrudlions in the veffels., and irritations at the os
internum. In order to prevent or remove thefe pains, as
foon as the pLcenta is feparated dnd delivered, the hand
being introduced into, the uterus, may clear it df all the
coagula. When the womb is felt through the parietes of
the abdomen larger than ufual, it may be taken for grant¬
ed, that there is either another child, or a large quantity
of this clotted blood ; and, which'foever it may be, there
is a neceflity for its being extrafled. If the placenta
comes away of itfelf, and the after-pains are violent,
they may be alleviated and carried off by an opiate : - for,
by fleeping and fweating plentifully, the irritation is re¬
moved, the'evacuations are increafed, the os uteri is in-
fenfibly relaxed, and the coagula Aide eafily along. When
the difeharge of the lochia is fmall, the after pains, if
moderate, ought not to' be reftrained ; becaufe the fqueez-
ing which they occafion. promotes the other evacuation,
which is neceffafy for the recovery of the patient. Af¬
ter pains may alfo proceed from an obftrwftion in fome of
the veflels', occafioning a fmall inflammation of the os in¬
ternum and ligaments; and the fqueezing thereby occafion-
ejj, may not only help to propel the oblh acting fluid, But al¬
fo (if not too violent) contribute to the natural difeharges*
Of the ‘Lochia.
We have alfeady obferved, that the delivery of the '
child and placenta is followed by an efflux of more or
"lefs blood, difeharged from the uterus, which, by'the
immediate evacuation of the large veflels, is allowed to
contrast itfelf the more freely, without, the danger of an
inflammation, which would probably happen in the con-
traStion, if the great veffels were not emptied at the fame
time: but, ax the fluids in the fmaller veflels cannot be
fo foon evacuated, or returned into the vena cava, it is.
neceflary, that, after the great difeharge is abated, a flow
and gradual evacuatioti flrould continue, until the.womb
flrall be contrasted to near the fame fize which it had be¬
fore pregnancy; and to this it attains about the eighteenth
or twentieth day after delivery, though the period is dif¬
ferent in different women.
When the large veffels are emptied immediately after
delivery, the difeharge frequently ceafes for fevera! hours*
until the fluids in the fmaller veflels are propelled-iato tlrs '
larger, and then begins to flow again, of a paler colour.
The red colour of the lochia commonly continues till
the fifth day, though it is always turning more and more
ferous from the beginning ; but, about the fifth day, it
flows off a clear, or fometimes (though.feldom) of a green-
iftt tint; for, the mouths of the veffels growing gradually
narrower, by the contraSHon of the uterus, at laft al¬
low theferous' part only to pafs : as for the greenilh hue,
it is fuppofed to proceed from a diffoludon of the cellular
or cribriform membrane or mucus, that furrounded the
furface of the placenta and chorion ; part of which, being
left in the uterus* becomes livid, decays, and, diflblving,
mixes with and tinSfures the difeharge as it paffes along.
Though the lochia, as we have already obfierved, com¬
monly continue to the eighteenth or twentieth day, they
are every day diminifliing in quantity, and fooneft ceafe
in thofe women who -fuckle their children, or have had an
extraordinary difeharge at firft; but the colour, quantity,
and duration, differ in different women : in fome patients,
the red colotfr difappears on the firft, or fecond day;
and in others, though rarely, it continues more or lefs to
the end of the month : the evacuation in fome is very
fmall, in others exceflrye: in one woman it ceafes very
foon, in another flows during the whole month : yet, all
of thefe patients fnall do well.-
Sqrrie alledge, that this difeharge from the uterus is
the fame with that from a wound of a Lrge furface: but
it is more reafonable tofuppofe, that the change of colour
and diminution of quantity proceed from'the flow, con-
tratftion of the veflels; becaufe,-previous to pus, there
muft have been lacerations or impofthumes, and in wo¬
men who have fuddenly died after delivery no wound or
excoriation hath appeared upon the inner furface of the
womb, which is fometimes found altogether fmooth, and
at other times rough and unequal on that part to which
the placenta adhered. The fpace, that is occupied before
delivery, from being fiji inches in diameter,, or eighteen
inchespn circumference, will, foon after the birth, becon-
traQed to.one third, or fourth of thefe dimenfions.
Of
•2 44
M I
D W I
Of ihj Milk- Fever,
About the Fourth day, the breafts generally begin'to
grow turgid and painful. We have formerly obferved,
that, during the tune of uterine geftation, the breafts in
mod women gradually inereafe till the delivery, growing
foftet as they are enla ged by the vefTds being more and(
more filled with fluids ; and by this gradual diflention
they are prepared bar fecreting the milk from the blood,
after delivery. During the tuo or three fiift days after
parturition,' efpecially when the woman has undergone a
large difcharge, the breafts have been fometimes obferved
to fublidfe and grow flaccid; and about the third or
fourth day, when the lochia begin to decreafe, the breafts
fwell again to their former lize, and ftretch more,and
more, until the m lk, being fecreted, is either fucked by,
the child, or frequently of itfelf runs out at the nipples.
Moft of the complaints incident to women after delive¬
ry, proceed either from the obftrucbon of the lochia rn
tire uterus, or of the milk in the breafts, occafioned by
any thing that will produce a fever ; fuch as catching
cold, long and fevere labour, eating food that is hard of
digeftion, and drinking fluids that quicken the circulation
of the blood in .the large veflels ; by which means the
fmaller, with alf the lecretoryand excretory dudlfs, are
obftrufied.
The difcharge of the lochia being fo different in wo¬
men of different conftitutions, and befides in fome mea-
fure depending upon the method of management, and the
way of life peculiar to the patient, we are-not to judge
of her fituation from the colour, quantity, and. duration
of them, but from the other fymptoms that attend the
-difcbarge ; and if the woman feems hearty, ?,nd in a fair
\vay of recovery, nothing ought to be done with a view
to augment or diminiflr the. evacuation. If the difcharge
be greater than fhe can bear, it will be attended with all.
the -fymptoms of inanition ; but as the lochia feldom flow
lb violently as to deftroy the patient of a fudden, ihe
may be fupported by a proper nou; hiring diet, affifted
with cordial and reftorative medicines. Let her, for.ex-
ampje, ufe broths, jellies, and affes milk ; if the pulfe
is languid and funk, Are may take repeated dofes of the
cofifctt. cardiac, with mixtures compofed of the cordial
waters and volatile fpirits : fubaftringents and opiates fre¬
quently adminiftered, with the ccrt. Peruvian, in dif¬
ferent forms, and auftere wines, are of great fervice.
-On the other hanid, when the difcharge is too fmall, or
hath ceafed altogether, the fymptoms are more dangerous,
and require the contrary method of cure : for now the
bufioefs is to remove a too great plenitude of the veffels
in and abourthe uterus, occafiooing tenfion, pain, and
labour, in the circulating fluids ; from whence proceed
great heat in the’part, Teftiefsnefs, fever, a full, hard,
quick pulfe, pains in the head and back, naufea, and
-difficulty in-breathing. Thefe complaints, if not at firft
prevented, or removed by reft and plentiful fv/eating,
muft be treated with venaefe&ion and the antiphlogiftic
-method.
When the cbftrudtion is recent, let the patient lie
quiet, and encourage a plentiful- diapherefis, by drinking
F E R Y.
frequently,of warm, weak, diluting fluids,-fuch as wa-
ter-gr.iel,:bailey-water, tea, or weak chickerr-broth.
.Should tbefe methods be ufed without fue'efs, and the
patient,- far from being relieved by reft, plentifuhfweat-
ingi or a fufficient difcharge of the obftrufted lochia, lar
hour under an hot dry flan, anxiety, and a quick, hard,
and full pulfe, the warm diaphoretics mull be laid afide-
becaufe, if they, fail of having the defiredeffetft, they inuft
neceffarily increafe the fever andobftfuffion, and fscourfe
be had to bleeding at the anri or ancle to more or Id's
quantity, according-to the degree of fever and obftroc-
tion; and this evacuation-muft-be repeated as there is
occafion. When the obftrudtion is not total,-it is fup-
pofed more proper to bleed at the ancle than at the arm-
an.rat this iaft,'when the dffeharge is altogether flopped.
Her ordinary drink ought to beimpregnated with nitre.
If (lie is coftive, emollient and gently opening glyfters
may be occafionally injected ; and her-breafts mult be fod
mented and lucked, either by the mouth or pipe-glaffes.
If, by thefe means, the fever is abated, and the necefr
fary difeharges return, the patient commonly recovers •
but, if the complaints continue/the antiphlogiftic method
muft ftill be purfued. IF, notwithftanding thefe efforts,
the fever is not diminifhed or-removed by a plentiful dis¬
charge sf the lochia from the uterus, the milk from the
breafts, or by a critical evacuation .by fweat, urine, or
ftool, and the woman is every now and then attacked with
cold fhiverings ; an abfeefs or abfeeffes will probably be
formed in the uteruS or neighbouxing parts, or in the
breafts ; and fomedmes, the matter will be tranfl-ated to
other fituations, and the feat of it foretold from the part’s
being affebred with violent pains: thefe abfeeffes are more
or lefs dangerous, according to the place in which they
happeg, the largenefs of, the fuppuration, and the good
or bad conftitutiomof the patient. ,
If when the pains in the epigaftric region are violent,
and the fever increafed to a’veryffiigh degree, the patient
Ihouid all of a fudden enjoy a ceffation from pain, with¬
out any preyious difcharge of critical emption, the phy-
fician may pronounce that a mortification is begum; ef¬
pecially if, at the fame time, the pulfe becomes low,
quick, wavering, and intermitting : if the woman’s coun¬
tenance, from being florid, turns duflty and pale, while
Ihe herfelf, and all the attendants, conceive her much
mended; in that*cafe, Ihe will grow delirious, and die in
a very fliort time. -
What we have faid on this fubjedft, regards that fever
which proceeds from the obffrutfted lochia, and in which
the breafts may like wife be affefted: but the milk fever
is that in which the breafts-.are originally concerned, and
which may happen though the lochia continue to flow in
fufficient quantity f neverthelefs, they mutually promote
each other, and both are to be treated'in-the manner al¬
ready explained; namely, by opiates, diluents, and di¬
aphoretics, in the beginning ; and, thefe preferiptions fail¬
ing, the obftnJ&ions muft be refolved by the antiphlogi¬
ftic method deferibed above. The milk-fever alone, when
the uterus is not concerned, is not fo dangerous, and
much more eafily relieved. Women of an healthy con-
ftitution, who fuckle their own children, have good ni^-
M I D W
and wliofc milk comes freely, are feldom or nerer
iubje<5t to this diforder, which is more incident to thofe
who do not give fuck, and neg!eft to prevent the fecre-
tion in time ; or, when the milk is fecreted, take no mea-
fures for emptying their breads. This fever likewife hap¬
pens to women who try too fobn to fuckle, and continue
their efforts top lorfjf at one time ; by which means, the
nipples, and confcquently the breads, are-eften inflamed,
f'.velied, and obdrufted.
In order to prevent .too great a turgencyin the veffels
of the breafls, and the fecretion of milk, in thofe women
who do not chufe to fuckle, it will be proper to make
external application of thofe things which by their pref-
fure and tepercuflive force will hinder the blood from
flowing in too gre^t quantity to this part, which is how
more yielding than at any other time : for this purpofe,'
let the breads be covered with emp. de m'rnio, diapalma,
ox.emp. ftmp. fpread upon linen, or cloths dipped in cam¬
phorated fpirits, be frequently applied to thefe parts and
the armpits; while the patient’s diet and drink is of the
lighted kind, and given in fmall quantities. Notwith-
ftanding thefe precautions, a turgency commonly begins
•about the third day ; bnt by red, moderate fweating, and
the ufe of .thefe applications, the tenfion and pain will fub-
fide about the fifth or lixth day, efpecially if the milk
runs out at the nipples : but if the woman catches cold,
or is of a full habit of body, and not very abdemious,
the tendon and pain increafmg, will bring on a cold'Ha¬
vering fucceeded by a fever; which may obdruft the o-
ther excretions, as well as thofe of the bread.
In this cafe, the fudorilics above recommended mud
be” preferibed ; and if a plentiful fweat enfues. the patient
will be relieved ; at the fame time the milk mud be ex-
tradfed from her breads, by fucking with the mouth or
glaffesa ihould thefe methods fail, and the fever increafe,
jhe ought to be blooded in the arm ; and indead of the
external applications hitherto ufed, emollient liniments
and cataplafms mud be fubdituted, in order to foften and
relax. If, in fpite of thefe endeavours, the fever pro¬
ceeds forfome days; the patient is frequently relieved by
critical fweats, a large difeharge from the uterus, miliary
eruptions, or loofe dools mixed with milk, which is
curdled in the intedines; but, Ihould none of thefe eva-
M I L
MIGRATION, the paffage or removal of a thing out
of one place or date into another.
MILAN, the capital of the Milanefe, or dutchy of Mi¬
lan, in Italy : E. long. 90 3c/, N. lat. 450 25'.
MILBORN-'port, a borough-town of Somerfetlhire,
twenty-five miles fouth of Bath. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
MILDEW, a difeafe happening to plants, caufed by a
dewy moidure fuppofed by fome ,to be a fpecies of
blight.
MILE, millspaffus, a meafure of length or didance, con¬
taining eight furlongs, &c.'
The Englilh datute mile is fourfeore chains, or
1760 yards; that is, 5280 feet.
Vo*. III. N°. 79. 2
I F E II Y. 2^5
cuations happen, and the inflammation continue with in-
creafing violence, there is danger of an impofihume,
which is to he brought to maturity, and managed like
other inflammatory turnouts ; and no. adringents ought
to be applied, led they Ihould produce fchirrhous fwdi-
ings in the glands.
As the crifis of this fever, as well as of that lad de-
feribed, often confidsin miliary eruptions over the whole
furface of the body, but particularly on the neck and
bread, by which the fever is carried off, nothing ought
to' be given, which will either greatly increafe or dimi-
nilh the circulating force, but fitch only as will keep
out the eruptions. But if, notwithdanding thefe erup¬
tions, the fever, indead of abating, is augmented,, it
will be neceffary to diminiflr its force, and prevent its in¬
creafe, by thofe evacuations we have mentioned above.
On the contrary, fltould the pulfe fink, the eruptions be¬
gin to retreat inwardly, and the morbific matter' be in
danger of falling upon the.vifcera, we mud. endeavour to
keep them out, by opiates and fudorific medicines ; and
here bldlcrs may be applied with fuccels.
Of~the. Evacuations neceffary at the end of the Month
after Delivery.
Those who have had a fufficient difeharge of the lo¬
chia, plenty of milk, and fuckle their own children, com¬
monly recover with eafe ; and as the fuperfluous fluids
of the body are drained off at the nipples, feldom require
evacuations at the end of .theGnonth : but if there are
any complaint* from- fullnefs, fuch as pains and ditches,
after the twentieth day, fome blood ought to be taken
from the arm, and the belly gently opened by frequent
glyders, or repeated dofes cf laxative medicines.
If "the patient has tolerably recovered, the rpUk ha¬
ving been at fird fucked or difeharged from the nipples,
and afterwards difeuffed, no evacuations are neceffary
before the third or fourth week ; and fometimes not till
after the fird flowing of the menfes, which commonly
happens about the fifth week; if they do not appear
within that time, gentle evacuations mud be preferibed,
to carry off the plethora, and bring down the cata¬
menia.
M I L
We fliall here give a table of the miles in ufe among
the principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces,
60,000 of which make a degree of the equator.
Geometrical pace?.
Mile of Ruffu , 750
- of Italy 1000
of Emgland 1250
of Scotland and Ireland ' 1500
Old league of France 1500
The fmall league, ibid, . -2000
The mean league, ibid. 2500
The great league of France 3000
Mile of Poland 3000
of Spain 2248
3 Q_ Mile
M I I
(
Geometrical paces.
Mile of Germany 4000
of Denmark 5000
of Hungary 6000
MILFORD HAVEN, the moft commodious harbour in
G eat Britain, fituated in the fouth well part of Pern-
brokefhire in Wales, at the north entrance of theBri-
ftol channel.
MILIARY, in general, fomething refembling millet-
feeds.
Miliary fever. See Medicine, p. 73.
MILITANT, or Church militant, denotes the
body of Chriftians while here on earth.
MILITARY, fomething belonging to the foldiery or
militia.
MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of foldiers, or
thole who make profeflion of arms.
In a inore reftrainedfenfe, militia denotes the trained
bands of a town or country, who arm themfelves, up¬
on a fhort warning, for their own defence. So that,
in this fenfe, militia is oppofed to regular or Rated
troops.
For the direction and command of the militia, the
king conftitutes lords-lieutenants of each county.
MILIUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The corolla confifts of two valves including one
flower. There are five fpecies, only one of which,
viz. theeffufum, crmiilet-grafs, is a native of Britain.
MILK, a well known animal fluid, which nature pre¬
pares in the breafts of women, and the udders of other
animals, for the nourilhment of their yonng. Milk is
a liquor prepared from the aliment chewed in the
mouth, digefted in the llomach, perfefled by the force
and juices of the inteftines, and elaborated by means
of the mefentery and its gland and juices, and the jui¬
ces of the thoracic duft. It has undergone feme ac¬
tions of the veins, arteries, heart, lungS, and juices,
and began to be affimilated; yet may ftiil be had fepa-
rate and difeharged out of the body. And thus by
their own milk, prepared from the proper matter of
the chyle, all the known ladliferouS animals are nou-
rifhed, both male and female. For milk is- always
prepared from chyle as well in men as in women, in
virgins and barren women, in mothers and nurfes.
Milk approaches nearer' to an animal nature than
chyle.
IF milk be good, and fuffered to reft in a clean vef-
fel, it firft'appears uniformly white ; then throws up
a white, thick, uoftuous cream to its ffirface, and re¬
mains fomewhat bluifh below. The milks of all the
known animals have thefe properties alike. The hu¬
man milk is very fweet and thin, the next is that of
affes, then that of mares, then of goats, and laftly of
cov/s : whence it is preferibed in this order to con-
fumptive perfons of weak vifeera. The rennet pre¬
pared of the juices of fuch creatures as chew the cud
being mixed with milk, coagulates it into an uniform
mafs, which may be cut with a knife, and it thus
- fpontaneoufly feparates into whey and curds ; if long
boiled over the fire, it lofes its more fluid parts, and
condecfes into a butyraceous and cheefy mafs.
;46 ) MI L
Milk is an efficacious remedy in diforders of the
breaft. But it is to be obferved, that all milks are not
of the fame kind, and of the fame efficacy for all pur-
pofes ; fince, according to the diverfity of animals and
their refpedtive" foods, they are poffciled of different
and peculiar qualities which are to be confidered apart.
Firft, then, affes milk, contains a great deal of fweet
ferum, but a very fmall quantity of earthy, cafeous,
and pinguious fubftance ; for which reafon it is not ea-
fily coagulated, and, confequently, but very unfit for
butter and cheefe. Its whey is aftringent, laxative,
moiftening, and proper for correfting the acrimony of
the humours. Goats milk does not contain fo large a
quantity of whey as that of affes, nor is it of fo laxa¬
tive and afbringent a nature, but of a thicker confiftence;
and, as goats eat the leaves of trees which cqntaia
fomething of a refinous quality, their milk is very ef¬
ficacious for the confolidation of fuppurated parts.
Cows-milk is more pinguious, contains a large quanti¬
ty of earth, but lefs whey, for which reafon it gene¬
rally yields a great deal of batter and cheefe. This
fpecies of milk is of a temperating, nutritive and con-
fdlidating virtue. Womens milk, for medicinal purpofes,
is preferable to all others; for it is the fwetteft of them
all, and its nutritive quality is fufficiently obfervable in
infants. The virtues of milk are alfo different, accord¬
ing to the diverfity of herbs and pafturage which ani¬
mals eat. Hence milk in the fpring is highly falutary,
becaufe at that time 'the vegetables abound with tem¬
perate juices; whereas milk in the winter is accounted
lefs .falutary, becaufe the anima s feed on hay and
ftraw.
Dr. Cheyne recommends a milk and feed diet, with
water for drink, as the fureft prefervative againft dil-
difeafes, and cure of them.
Milk fever. See Midwifery, p. 244.
MILL, a machine or engine for grinding corn, fee. of
which there are feveral kinds, according to the various
methods of applying the moving power,; as water¬
mills, wind-mills, mills worked by horfes, fee. See
Mechanics.
MILLENARIANS, or Chiliasts, a name given to
thofe, who, in the primitive ages, believed that ,the
faints will one day reign on earth with Jdus Chrift a
thoufand years.
MILLEPES. See Oniscus.
MILLERIA, a genus of the fypgenefia polygamia ne-
ceffaria clafs. It has neither receptacle nor pappus;
the calix confifts of three valves; and.the radius of the
corolla is dimidiated. There are two fpecies, both
natives of America.
MILLET, in botany. See Milium*
MILLING of cloth. SeeFuLLiNG.
MILLION, in arithmetick, the number of ten hundred
thoufand, or a thoufand times a thoufand. See A-
rithmetick.
MILLREE, a Portuguefe gold coin, value 5 / 74-
MILO, or Melo, one of the iflands of the Archipela¬
go, fixty miles north of Candia.
MILT, or Melt, is a denomination by which fome call
the rows of fillies.
MILTON,
MIN (
MILTON, the name cf feveral market-towns, as one
twelve miles north-eaft of Dorchefter, and another
twelve miles north-eaft of Maidflone.
MILVUS, in ornithology. ' See Fanco.
MIME, in the ancient comedy, a perfon who a&ed any
charE&er by_ mere gefturcs, and hence" denominated
pantomime. See Pantomime.
MIMESIS, in rhetoric, the imitating the voice and gef-
tures of another perfon.
MIMOSA, the sensitive PLANT, in botany, a genus
of the polygamia moncecia clafs. The calix of the
hermaphrodite confifts of five teeth, and the corolla of
five fegments; it hat five or more ftamina, one piftil-
lum, and the fruit is a pod ; the calix, corolla, and
(lamina of the male are the lame with thofe of the
female. There are 43 fpecies, all natives of the In¬
dies.—The mimofa is called the fenfitive plant from
its remarkable property of (hrinking its leaves and
branches upon being touched by the hand or ^ny thing
elfe. This motion it performs by means of three diftinft
articulations, viz, ofafingle leaf with its pedicl?, of the
pedicle to its branch, and of the branch to the trunk or
. main (tern: the primary motion of all which is the clofing
of the two halves of the leaf on its rib; then the rib
or pedicle itfelf clofes ; and if the motion wherewith
the plant is moved be very ftrong, the very branches
have the fepfation propagated to them, and apply
themfelves to the main (tern, as the fimple leaves did
before to their ribs, and thefe ribs to their branches ;
fo that th^ whole plant, in this (late, forms itfelf,
from a very complexly branched figure, into a fort of
llraight cylindrical one.
Many attempts have been made to account for the mo¬
tion of this plant upon mechanical principles ; hut all
thefe attempts have hitherto proved unfatisfaflory.
MIMULUS, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs.. The calix is prifmat'ical, and confifls
cf four teeth ; the corolla is ringent, having the.edges"
of the upperdip bent downwards; and the capfule has
two cellsr containing many feeds, There are .two
fpecies, both natives of America.
MIMUSOFS, in botany, a genus of the oAandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix confifis of eight leaves, and
the corolla, of eight petals ; and the drupa is pointed.
There are two fpecies, both natives of India.
MINA, in Grecian antiquity, a money of account, equal
to an hundred drachms.
MIND, a thinking intelligent being, otherwife called
fpirit, in oppofition to matter or body.
, The culture of thehuman mindis more immediatefy
taugln in the fciences of logic and morals. See Logic
and Morals.
MINDANAO, the larged of the Philippine iflands, ex¬
cept Luconia, is fituated between 120° and 12.6° cad
longitude, and between 5° and 30° N. lat.
MINDELHEIM, a city of Germany, thirty-three miles
feuth ead of Ulm. It is the capital of the principality
of Mindelhcim, conferred on the duke of Morlborough,
by the emperor in 1704.
MIHDEN, a city of Germany, the capital of a duchy
247 ) M I N
of the fame name, fituated forty miles wed of Ha-
MINDORA, one of the Philippine ifiands, lies fouth-
weft of Luconia, from which it is fepai ated by a narrow
channel. '
MINE, in natural hidory, a place under ground, where
metals, minerals, or even precious 'fton-es are dug up.
As, .therefore, the matter dug out of mines is va¬
rious, the mines themfelves acquire various denomina-
tion|, as gold mines, ,filv?r mines, copper mines, iron-
mines, diamond mines, fait mines, mines of antimony,
of alum, ere.
Mines, then, in general, are veins or cavities within
the earth, whofe fides receding from, or approaching
nearer to each other, make them of unequal breadths
in different places, fometimes forming larger fpaces
which are called, holes : they are filled with fubdances,
which, whether metallic or of any other nature, are
called the loads; when the fubdances forming thefe
loads, are reducible to metal, the loads are by the
miners faid to be alive, otherwife they are called dead
loajis. In Cornwal and Devon, the loads always hold
their courfc from eadward to wedward ; though in
other parts of England, they frequently run from
north to fouth. The miners report, that the fides of
the load never bear in a perpendicular, but condantly
under-lay either to the north or to the fouth. The
load is frequently intercepted by the eroding of a vein
of earth, or done, orfome different metallic liibftance;
in which cafe it generally happens that one part of the
load is moved a confidcrable difiance to the one fide.
This tranfient load is by the miners called flooking ;
and the part of the lead which is 10 be moved, is faid
to be heaved.
According to Dr Nicois’s obfervations upon mines,,
they feem to be, or to have-been,, the channels thro*'
which the waters pafs within tfie egrth, and, like ri¬
vers, have their fmall branches opening into them, in
all dire&ions. Mod mines have dreams of water running
through them ; and when they are found dry, it feems
to beowing to the waters having changed their courfie,
as being.obliged to it, either becaufe the load has (lop¬
ped up the ancient paffages, ofthat feme hew and more,
eafy on.s are made.
Mines, fays Dr Shaw, are liable to many contin¬
gencies ; being fometimes poor, (bmetimes foon ex-
hauftible, fometimes fubje(5Fto be drowned, efpecially
when deep, and fometimes hard to trace; yet there are
many indances of mines proving highly advantageous
for hundreds of years : the mines of Potofi are to this
day worked with nearly the fame fuccefs as at firft ;
the gold mines of Cremnitz. have been worked almod
thefe thoufand years ; and our Cornifh tin mines are
extremely ancient. The neat profit of the (ilver alone,
dug in the Mifnian filver mines in Saxony, is (till, in
the fpace of eight years, computed at a thoufand fix
hundred and forty-four millions, befides feventyt-hree
tons of gold. Many mines have been difeovered by
accident: a torrent firft laid open a rich vein of the
filver mine at Fxiburg in Germany; fometimes. a
violent.
M IN ( M3 ) M I N
violent %’md, by blowing up trees, or overturning the
parts of rocks, has difcovered a mine; the fame has
happened by -violent fhowe'rs, earthquakes, thunder,
the tiring of woods, or even the ftroke of a plough-
ftiare or horfe’s hoof.
But the art of mining does not wait for thefe favour¬
able accidents, but direftly goes upon the fearch and
difcovery of fuch mineral veins, ores, or fands, as
may be worth the working for metal. The principal
inveftigation and difcovery of mines depend upon a par
ticnlar fagacity, or acquired habit of judging from par¬
ticular figns, that metallic matters are contained in
certain parts of the earth, not far below its furface.
The principal figns of a latent metallic vein, feem re¬
ducible to general heads; fuch as, i. The difcovery
of certain mineral waters. 2. The decolouration of
the trees or grafs of a place. 3. The finding of pie¬
ces of ore on the furface of the ground. 4. The rife
of warm exhalations. 5. The finding of metallic
fands, and the. like. All which are fo many encou¬
ragements for making a ftri&er fearch.near the places
-where any thing of this kind appears; whence rules
of practice might be formed for reducing this art to a
greater certainty. But when ho evident marks of a
mine appears, the fkilful mineralift ufually bores into
the earth, in fuch places as from fome analogy of know-
ledge, gained by experience, or by obferving the 11-
tuation, courfe, or nature of other mines, he judges
may contain metdl.
After the mine is found, the next thing to be confi-
dered, is whethe; it may be dug to advantage. In
order to determine this, we are duly to weigh the na¬
ture of the place, and its fituation, as to wood, wa¬
ter, carriage, healthinefs, and the like; and compare
the refult with the richnefs of the ore, the charge of
digging, ftamping, walhing, and fmelting.
Particularly the form and fituation of the fpot Ihould
be well confidered. A mine mull: either happen, 1.
In a mountain. 2. In a hill. 3. In a valley. Or,
4. In a fiat. But mountains and hills are dug with
much greater eafo and convenience, chiefly becaufe
the drains and burrows, that is, the adits or avenues,
may be here readily cut, both to drain the water and
to form gang-ways for bringing out the lead, In
all the four cafes we are to look out for the veins which
the rains, or other accidental thing, may have laid
bare; and if fuch a vein be found, it may often be
proper to open the mine at that place, efpecially if the
vein prove tolerably large and rich : otherwife the mod
commodious place for fituation-is to be chofe for the
purpofe, vizr neither bn a flat, nor on the tops of
mountains, but on the fides. The heft fituation fora
mine, is a mountainous, woody, wholefome fpot; of
a fafe eafy afeent, and bordering on a navigable river.
The places abounding with mines are generally heal¬
thy, as Handing high, and every'where expofed to the
air ; yet fome places, where mines are found, prove
poifonous, andean, upon no account, be dug, though
ever fo rich: the way of examining a fufpe&ed place
;of this kind, is to mak£ exrefiments upon brutes, by
expofing them to the effluvia or exhalations, to find the
effects.
Devonfture and Cornwal, where- there are a_great
many mines of copper and tin, is a very mountainous
country, which gives an opportunity in many places
to make adits, or fubterraneous drains, to fotne valley
at a diftance, by which to carry off the water from
the mine, which otherwife would drown them out from
getting the ore. Thefe adits are fometimes carried a
mile or two, and dug at a vaft expence, as from 2000 1.
to 40001, efpecially where the ground is rocky; and yet
they find this cheaper than to draw up the water out
of the mine quite to the top, when the water runs in
plenty, and the mine is deep. Sometimes, indeed,
they cannot find a level near enough, to which an adit
may be carried from the very bottom of the mine ;
yet they find it worth while to make-an adit at half
the height to which the water is to be railed, thereby
faving half the expence.
The late Mr Coftar, confideringthat fometimes from
fmsll dreams, and fometimes from little fprings, or
colleilions of rain-water, one might have a pretty
deal, of water above ground, though not a fufficient
quantity to turn an overlhot-wheel, thought, that if a
fufficient fall might be had, this coHeffion of water
might be made ufeful iff raffing the water in a mine to
the adit, where it may be carried off.
Mine, in the military art, denotes a fubterraneous ca¬
nal, or paffage, dug under the wall or rampart of a
fortification, intended to be blown up by gun-powder.
The alley or paffage of a mine is commonly about
four feet fquare; at the end of this is the chamber of
the mine, which is a cavity about five feet in width
and in length, and about fix feet in height; and here
the gun powder is ftowed. The faucifle of the mine,
is the train, for which there is always a little aperture
left. There are various kinds of mines, which acquire^
various names, as royal mines, Terpentine-niings, fork¬
ed mines, according as their paffages are ftraight, ob¬
lique, winding, &C.
MINEHEAD, a borough and port town of Somerfet-
ftiire, which fends two members to parliament: W.
long. 30 20', N. lat. yi0 18'.
MINEIIAL, in natural hiftory, is ufed, in general, for
all foffil bodies, whether fimple or compound, dug out
of a fubterraneous mine, from which it takes its deno¬
mination.
Mineral Waters, iff medicine, all thofe wherein any
medicinal virtues, befides thofe of common water, are
found.
Thefe mineral waters are of various kinds, but they
-are confidered under the general titles of chalybeate,
purgative, and alterative. The more-ufeful and com¬
modious additions for examining thefe three kinds of
mineral waters, are, according to Dr Shaw, galls, fy-’
rup of violets, and oil ef tartar per deliquium. -Galls
difeover in them any fmall proportion of vitriol or dif-
folved iron, as having the property of immediately
ftriking a purple or black colour in all waters where
any fuch fubftance is lodged. Spirit of violet, in the
fame ,
MIN ( 249 ). M • I N
fame manner, difcovers any fmall predominancy of an
acid or alkali therein, by changing the water red if
acid, and green if alkali prefides. Oil of tartar dif-
covers any imall proportion of earthy matter lefs ca¬
pable of diflblving in water than that fait, by precipi¬
tating fuch earthy matter in form -of a white cloud to
the bottom of the containing glafs,, where it collects
- and appears like a fubtile white powder.
Thefe particulars may be Iheiitfi, and proved fatis-
fa&crily, by adding to -pure water a little of a known
acid, alkali, diffolved iron, and fubtile earth, or fine
light fediment of an earthy water ; applying the fyrup
of violets, galls, and oil of tartar refpeiftively.
Mineral waters are imitable by art. The rulfc is, by
a proper analyfis to find the contents of fuch water
(by evaporation, the addition of tinging ingredients,
&c. as above mentioned) and their proportions; then,
by means of fynthetical chemiftry, to compofe a fimi-
lar mixture : thus, for example, we learn by a pro
per analyfis, that the ingredients, or different confti-
- tuent parts of Pyrmont waters, are a fubtile aqueous
fluid, a volatile iron.^and a predominating alkali, all
joined together in one brilk pungent fpirituous water.
The imitation of this kind of chalybeate water, is by
much the moll difficult, and may perhaps be rendered
molt perfect, by boiling the pureft common water in a
clofe veffel, with a fmall proportion of ochre, foftirbn
ore, or pyrites.
The imitation of the common purgative mineral
waters is eafy ; thus Epfom water is imitated by barely
diffolving three or four drams of Epfom fait in a quart
of pure water, made fomewhat brilk or quick with a
few drops of fpirit-of vitriol qnd oil of tartar per de-
liquium, fo as to let the alkali prevail.
The imitation of the alterative waters, fuch as thofe
of Bath, Buxton, has hitherto jcarce been at¬
tempted, ndr caft be rationally, for want of their re-
fpe<Sive juft analyfis, upon which fuch imitation ffiould
always be grounded.
As to the ufe of mineral waters, the learned Heifter
ohferves, that in geiieral they are found to,agree much
better with perfons in the middle ftages of life, than
with perfons very old or very young. If any general
b rule can be given in this cafe, it is, that people ffiould
not take them when younger than eighteen,-, or older
than fixty. -
MINERVALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals celebra¬
ted in honour of Minerva, in the month of March ;
at which time the fcholars had a vacation, and ufually
made a prefent to their mafters, called, from this feiti-
val, minerval.
MLNHO, a great river of Spain-, which taking its rife in
'Gallicia,-divides that province from Portugal, andfalls
. irto the Atlantic at Camioha.
MINIATURE, a delicate kind of painting, diftinguiffied
from all others by the fmallnefs of the figures, its be¬
ing performed with dots or points inftead of liftes ; by
the faintnefs of the coloXiring; its requiring to be
viewed very near: and by its being ufually done on
vellum.
This is the niceft and mbft tedious of all kinds of
Yol, III. N®. 79. 2
painting, being performed wholly with the point of the
pencil: for when the colours are laid on flat without dot¬
ting, though the figures be fmall, and the ground either
vellum or paper, it is not called painting in miniature, but
waffiing. There are fome painters who never ufe any
white colourin painting in miniature, but make the grou id
of the vellum ferve to raife their figures; in which ca'e
the lights appear bright in proportion to the depth and
ftrength of the colours of the figures. Others, before
they go to work, give the vellum a light wafli with virhite
lead well prepared and purified. Thefe colours that have
the leaft, body, are the heft and moft commodious for
painting in miniature.; as carmine, ultramarine, fine
lakes, and greens made of herbsand flowers: but befidcs
thefe, the following colours afe alfo made ufe of, viz.
vermilion, black lead, -brown red, mafticote pale, yel¬
low mafticote, indigo, ivory black, lamp black, SpaBifin
brown, umber, gall ftonfe, brown ochre, French pink,
orpiment, gamboge, Naples yellow, bladder-green, ver-
diter,-fea-green, German allies, flake white, and white
lead. All terrene colours, and other grqfs fubftances,
are too coarfe for fine work, how well-foever they may
be ground: but tht; fineft particles may be feparated by
-tempering the colour in a cup of fair water ; andiiaving
ftirred well with your finger, and the whole being
thoroughly .mixed, let it fubfide for a -while, and then
pour it by inclination into a (hell that has been well
fcoured in hot water, and let it ftand to dry. Yellow
ochre, brown red, umber, and ultramarine, purify by
fire ; but if they are burnt in too fierce a fire, they change,
and the brown red turns yellow, .the yellow ochre and
umber turn reddiffi, and fo of the reft : if the fire is not
{00 fierce, it renders them fofter and'kinder than before,
fo that tbe fineft and pureft ultramarine, burnt in a red
hot ffiovel, becomes much more brilliant than it was be¬
fore it was burnt. Greens, blacks, greys, and yellows,
on being mixed with a little of thJ gall of the ox, .9.1 rp,
creel, efpecially of thelaft, acquire a’luftreand vivacity
not natural to them. You muft take the galls of eels, and
hang them on a nail to dry ; and when you ufe any. fteep
it in brandy, and mingle fome of it with the colour al¬
ready tempered with gum water wherein is a little fugar-
candy. When you begin to paint, the colours m .ft be
placed on a fmail ivory pallet of the fize of your hand, in
the aniddle of which ffiould be placed the white, well
fpread out, and nearer it the lighter, and further off thofe
darker colours you are going to ufe.
Your vellum muft be glued to a copper-plate, or a
piece of thin board, exadtiy of the fame fize with the in¬
tended piece; in doing which, the fair fide of the vel¬
lum ffiould be moiftened with a fine wet linen , and a piece
of white paper being put upon the back of it, it is to be'
applied to the plate or board, and ftrrtching it.upon it
equally in-all diredtions, the vellum, W; ich ought to be
every v/ay a finger’s-breadth larger'than what you glue
it to, in order to be doubled over and glued behind.
When your piece is fketehed outiupon the vel um with a
pencil, you muft, with a little thin carmine, run over all ihe
ftrokes that|rhey may not be defaced in working ; and this
done, clean your vellum with crumb of hreafl. In laying on '
the colours, begin with, llietching or drawing with large,
l R bold.
MIN ( 25
bold, but clear;ftrokss; like thgfe who. paint in oil;
your lights muft at prft be fomething brighter,'and your
lhades not quite fo dark as is required in finifhing ; be-
caufe in (trippling upon them ySu ftrengthen the co¬
lour, which, if too deep at firft, would inliniihing be
come too dark. Endeavour alfo to drown your colours
into each other, that no line of reparation may be feen
between th6m : to this purpofe, foften your drokes with
the colours op each fide of them, 'fo that they may be
blended and confounded with each other. There are fe-
veral ways of ftrippling,andevery painter has his manner:
fomedo it with round points, others make them longifh;
others again hath fine ftrokes, crolling each other in
all directions, till the whole appears as if ftrippled or
wrought with points : this laft method is the bell,
boldeft, and fooneft perfected: the artift fhould here
accuftom himfelf to be rich, mellow, and foft in his
work; the points mull feem in a manner loll in the
ground they are wrought upon, and appear but juft
enough to ihew that-the piece is flrippled. When the
work feems finilhed, heightening it a little has a fine
efFeCt; that is, ftrengthening the lights with touches of
a paler colour than atlirfl, which muft be foftened a-
way into the reft.
For laces, point, and the like, lay on firft a mixture
of blue, black, and white, as for linens; and then
heighten the pattern, flowers orflourilhes, with white
only; then fhade and finilh with the firft colour. When
they are upon flelh, or any thing elfe which you would
^ have feen through them, finilh what is under them, as
if you intended to lay nothing upon it, and then lay
on the lace or point with pure white, and finilh with
the other mixture.' In painting a fur, lay on a ground
as for drapery, according to the colours of it, and then
fhade by the fame rule ; and having done, inftead of
. ftrippling, draw fine llrokes this way and that, accord¬
ing as the down of the fur you imitate lies : heighten
the lights of a brown fur with ochre and white, and
thofe of a light fur with white and a little blue.
' There are feveral forts of grounds for pictures and
portraits : fome are quite brown, with Spanifh brown,
umber?* tec. with a little black and white ; others are
- more yellow, being mixed with a good deal of ochre ;
others are upon the grey, with indigo ; and-others are
blue or crimfon. -
To make a ground all of glory, firft lay a bright mix¬
ture of a little ochre and. white, adding more and more
of the firft, as you draw more and more towards
the extremities of the intended picture ; and when
the ochre happens not to be dark enough (for you
muft go on darkening and darkening,) add gall-ftone,
thbn carmine, and at laft Spanilh brown. This ground
you muft lay in fuch a manner, that the different de¬
grees of darknefs may, as much as poffible, infenfibly
increafe and ftrengthen : the whole muft then be ftrip¬
pled with the fame colours.
For a day-fky, mingle fome ultramarine with a good
deal of white, and lay it on as fmooth and uniform as
poflible with a large pencil and broad ftrokes, laying it
on paler and paler as you defcend towards the horizon,
which muft be made of vermilion, mine-de-plumb and
o ) MIN
white, of the ftrength that finifhes the fky, or rather
a little weaker, artfully blending the blue and red,
mingling at laft gall-ftone and a good deal of white ;
and all this muft be fo laid on that no feparation muft
be feen between the colours. When there are to be
clouds in the fky, you need lay on no blue where they
are to be; but fketch them out, if they are reddifh,
with vermilion, gall-ftone, and white, together with
a little indigo ; and if they are to be darker, a great
deal muft be ufed qf this laft, making the lights of the
one and the other with mafticot, vermilion, and white,
according to the degree of ftrength you would give them,
fwelling out the whole with ftrippling ; and if the fky be
not fufficiently uniform, you muft ftripple that likewife.
MINIM, in mufie, a note equal to two; crotchets, or
half a femibreve. See Music.
MINIMUM, in the higher geometry, the leaft quantity
attainable in a given cafe. «
MINISTER, a perfon who preacKes, performs religi-
ou4 worfhipin public, administers the facraments, ijc.
Ministers, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. j.
Minister of Jiate, a perfon to whom a fovereign
prince intrufts the adminiftration of the government.
Foreign Minister, is a perfon Tent into a foreign coun¬
try, to manage the affairs of his province, or of the ftate
to which he belongs. Of thefe there are two kinds ;
thofe of the firft rank are embafladors and envoys extra¬
ordinary, who reprefent the perfbns of their fovereigns.
The minifters of the fecond rank are the ordinary re-
fidents. See Embas.sador.
MINIUM, or red-lead. See Chemistry, p. 84.
and 136.
MINOR, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. 7.
Minor, in logic, the fecond propofition of a regular fyl-
logifin. See Logic/'
MINORCA, an ifland in the Mediterranean, about twenty
miles eaft of Majorca, thirty miles long, and twelve
broad. Jt is fubjedl to Great Britain, and only valu¬
ed for its capacious harbour of Port Mahon.
MINOTAUR, in antiquity, a fabulous monfter much
talked of by the poets, feigned to be half man and half
bull.
The minotaur was brought forth by Pafiphae, wife
of Minos, king of Crete. It was fhut-up in the laby¬
rinth of that ifland, and at laft killed by Thefeus.
Servius gives the explanation of this fable : he fays
that a fecretary of king Minos, named Taurus, bull,
havinglan intrigue with the queen Pafiphae, in the cham¬
ber of Daedalus, fhe was at length delivered of twins ;
one of whom refembled Minos, and the other Taurus,
- This occafipned the produ<5ti'on to Be reputed monflrous.
MINSTREL, an ancient term for a fidler, or pjayferen
any other kind of mufical inftrument.
MINT, the place in which the king’s money is coined.
See Coinage.
There were anciently mints in almoft every county
in England ; but the only mint at prefent in theBritifh
dominions, is that in the Tower of London. The of-'
ficers of the mint are, 1. The warden of the mint,
who is chief; he overfees the otherolficers, and receives
the bullion. 2. The mailer worker; who receives the
bullion
MIS (
•buU-'on from the warden, caufes it to be melted, deli¬
vers it to'the moneyers, and when it is coined receives
it again. 3. The comptroller, who is the Overfeer of
all the inferior officers, and fees that all the money is
made to the jufi: affize. 4. The allay-mailer ; who
weighs the gold and River, and fees that it is accord¬
ing to the llahdard. 5. The auditor ; _who takes the
accounts. 6.-The furveyor of the melting ; who af¬
ter the affay-mailer has made trial of the bullion, lees
that it is call out, and not altered after it is delivered
to the melter. 7. The engraver ; who engraves the
llamps and dyes for the coinage of the money. 8. The
clerk of the irons ; who fees that the irons are clean
and tit'to work with. 9. The melter ; who melts the
bullion before it is coined. 10. The provoll of the
mint ; -who provides fot, and overfees all the morieyers,
11.,The blanchers ; who anneal and cleanfe the money.
12. The moneyers; feme of whom forge the money,
forne Ihear it, fame round and mill it, and fome llamp or
Coin it. ig.Theporters; who keep the gate ofthe mint.
MrNT, in botany. See Mentha.
MINUARTIA, in b&tany, a genus of the triandria tri-
gynia clafs. The cahx conlifts of five leaves ; it has^
no-corolla; and the capfule has one cell and three
valves. There are three fpecies, all natives of Spain.
MINUET, in mufic, a very graceful kind of dance,
which confifts of a coupee, a high Hep, and a balance;
it begins with a beat, and its motion is triple.
MINUTE, in geometry, the lixtieth part of a degree of
a pircie. See Astronomy, Geography, Geome¬
try.
Minute of time, the fixtieth part of an hour.
Minute, in archltedure, ufually denotes the fixtieth,
fometimes the thirtieth part of a module. See Art
chitecture.
Minute is alfo ufed for a Ihort memoir, or fketbh of a
thing, taken in writing.
MiR-ABILIS, marvel of Peru, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is
funnel fhaped ; the calix is below the fruit ; and the
nebtarium is globular, including the germen. There
are three fpecies, all natives of America.
Tournefort and Linnseus will have the root of this
plant to be the jalap of the fhops ; but Houllon de¬
clares, that jalap is the root of a fpecies of convolvulus.
MIRACLE,' is a work effected in a manner different
from the .pbmmon and regular method of providence,
by the interpofition either of God himfelf, or f»me in
telHgens agent fuperior to man.
MIRALETUS, in ichthyology. See Raja.
MISCHNAH, orMisNAH, the code or colleffion of the
civil law of the Jews. The Jews pretend, that when
God gave the v/fitten law to Mofes, he gaveffitm alfo
another not written, which was preferved by tradition
amongjhe debtors of the fynagogue, 'till rabbi Judah,
furnamed theffibly, feeing the danger they were in,
through their difperfion, of departing from the traditi¬
ons of theii-fathers, judged it proper to reduce them
to writing.
The mifnah is divided in fix parts: the full relates
to the dillinbtion of feeds in a field, to trees., fruits.
251 .) MIT
tythes, he. The fecond regulates.the manner of oh- '
- ferving fetlivals : the third treats of tyomen, §nd ma¬
trimonial cafes : the fourth of Ioffes in trade, he.: the
fifth is on obligations, facrifices, hc,\ and the fixth
treats of the leveral forts of purification.
MISDEMEANOUR, inlaw, fignifies a heinous offence
or fault, particularly in the execution of an office.
MISFEASANCE, in law-books, fignifies a trefpafs.
MISLETOE, in botany. SeeViscuM.
MISNOMER, in law, a mifnaming, pr millaking a per-
fon’s name. The Chriflian name of a perfon ftmuld
always be perfebl, but the law is not fo llribt and pre-
cifefin regard to furnames, a fmall miflake fn which will
be difpenfed with to make good a contract, and fhpport
the abt of the party.
MISPRISION fignifies, in general, fome neglebl or
overiigln ; as where a perfon is privy1 to a treafon or
felony committed by another, and neglebts to reveal
it to the king or his council, or to a magillratej but
entirely conceals it: this is called mifprifioa of thofe
crimes. In cafes of mifprifion of treafon, the offender
is to be imprifoned for life, and to forfeit his goods
and chattels, together with the profits of his lands,
he. but in mifprifion of felony, the offender is only
to be puniffied with fine and imprifonment, and to re¬
main in prifontill the fine is paid.
MISSAL,, the Romiffi maff-book, containing the fever^
maffes to be faid on particular days. ^
MISSEL bird. SeeTuRDUs.
MISSIONARIES, fuch ecclefiaflics as are fent by any
Chritlian church, into pagan or infidel countries, to
convert the natives, and eliabliffi the Chriftian religion
among them. 1
MISUSER, in law, fignifies fome abufe of any particu¬
lar liberty or beftefit.
MISY, in natural hiftory, a fpectes of the chalcantha, a.
foffil v^ry commonin theTurkifndonlinions, and fome-
times found in the mines at Cremnitz in Hungary.
It is a confiderably firm fubdance, of an irregular
te*uure, not compadl, mucht refembling fome of our
more gaudy marchafites, but wanting in their hardnefs
and weight. It is of no determinate ffiapeorfize, but
it is oftentimes found in fmall detached maffes, which
are ufuaily broad, flat, and very rugged at the edges.
As toits medical virtues, they are no other than thofe
of the green vitriol.
MITCHELLA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
mbnogynia clafs. The corolla confifis of one jietal ; it
has four ftigmata; and the berry is bifid, containing four
feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of Carolina., i.
MITE, a fmall coin formerly current, equal to about
one third part of a farthing.
Mite, in zoology. See Acarus.
MITELLA, in botany, a genus of the decandria digy-
nia clafs. The calix confilts of five fegments, the
corolH of five pinnatifid petals inferted into the calix,
and the capfule of two equal valves. There are two
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
MU RALES valvulje. See Anatomy, p. 279.
MITRE, a faeerdotal ornament worn on the head by bi-
ihops and certain abbots on folemn occafions; being a
fort
MOD (2.
fort of cap, pointed, and cleft at top. The high pried
among the Jews wore' a mitre or bonnet on his head.
The inferior priefts .among the Jews had likewife their
mitres, but in what refpeet they differed from that of
the hi^h ^priert is uncertain. Some contend that the an¬
cient biihops wore mitres, but this is by no means certain.
MITREOLA, in botany. See Qphiorrhiza.
MIT'FAU, the capital of the duchy of Courland, in Po¬
land : fituated in E. long. 240, N. lat1. 56° 4c/.
MITTIMUS, as generally ufed, hath two (igniheations.
j. It (ignifies a writ for removing and transferring of
records from one court to another. 2. It fignifies a
precept, or command in writing under the hand and
feal of a juftice of the peace, diretfled to the gaoler or
keeper of fome prifon, for the receiving and fafe keep¬
ing of an offender changed with any crime until he be
delivered by due courfe of law.
MIXT, or mixt body, in chemiftry, that which is com-
poahded of different elements or principles. See Che¬
mistry.
MIXTURE, a compound, or affemblage of feveral dif¬
ferent bodies in the fame mafs. See Chemistry.
MIZEN, in the fea-language, is a particular mad or fail.
The mizen mad (lands in the dernmod part of the (hip.
In fome great (hips there are two of thefe; when that
next, the main-mad is called the main-mizen, and that
* next the poop the bonaventure-mizen.
MNIUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia mufei
ciafs. The anthera is operculated ; and the.cap tulum
of the female is naked, and dudy. There are 18 fpe-
cies, 7 of which are natives of Britain.
Perpetual Mobile, or Movement. SeeMovEMENT.
MOCO, or Mocho, a great city and port-town of A
rabia Felix, fituated near the draits of Babelmandel, at
the entrance of the Red Sea: E. long 45°, N .lat. 130.
MODBURY, a market-town of Devonlhire, 32 miles
fouth-wed of Exeter.
MODE, in metaphyfics, denotes the manner of a thing’s
exidence. See Metaphysics, p. 179.
Mode, in mufic, is defined to be a p irticular manner of
cohdituting the oiSave ; or, it is the melodious condi-
tution of the octave, as it confids of feven effential
founds, befides the key or fundamental.
A mode, then, is the particular order of the concin-
nous degrees of an oflave ; the fundamental note where¬
of may be called the key, as it fignifies that principal
note which regulates the red.
MODEL, in a general fenfe,~an original pattern, pro-
pofed for any one to copy or imitate.
This word is particularly ufed, in building, for an
artificial pattern made in wood, done, plader, or o-
ther matter, with, all its parts and proportions, in or¬
der for the better conducing and executing fome grekt
work, and to give an idea of the efFeft it will have in
large. In all great buildings, it is much the fureft
way to make a model in relievo, and not to trud to a
bare defign or draught.
MODENA, a duchy of Italy, bounded by Mantua on
the north, by Romania on the ead, by Tufcany and
Lucca on the fouth, -and by Parma and the territory
«f Genoa on the wed.
52 ) M O H
Modena, the capital of the .duchy'of that name,‘Gtu-
ated in 110 20' E. long, and 44'0 45^ N. lat. .
MODERATOR, in the fchools, the perfoh who pre-
fides at a difpute, or in a public affembly : thus the
prefident of the annual aflembly of the church of Scot¬
land, is-dyled moderator.
MODERN, in a general fenfe, fotttething new, or of
our time,.in oppofition to what is antique or ancient.
MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Noto,
twenty-five'miles fouth of Syracufe.
MODIFICATION, in philofophy, that which modifies
a thing, or gives it this or that manner of being.
Quantity and quality are accidents which modify all
bodies. _
Decree of Modification, in Scots law, a decree af-
certaining the extent of a minider’s (tipend, without pro¬
portioning it among the perfons liable in payment. See
Law, Tit. v. 13.
MODILLIONS, in architefture. ornaittents in the cor-
niche of the Ionic, Corinthian, and .Compofite colunjns.
See Architecture. ' v
MODIUS, in antiquity, a kind of dry meafure, in ufe
among the Romans, for feveral forts of grain.
-MODULATION, in mufic, the art of keeping in, or
changing the mode or key.
MODULE, in archite&ure, a certain meafure.or big-
nefs, taken at pleafure, for regulating the proportions
of columns, and the fymmetry or difpofition of the
whole building. Architects generally chufe the femi-
diameter of the bottom of the column for their module,
and this they fubdivide into parts or minutes. See
Architecture.
MOHERINGIA, in botany, a genus of the odtandria
digynia ciafs. .The calix has 4 leaves, and the corol¬
la 4 petals, and the capfule confids of one cell and 4
valves. There is but one fpecies, a native of Swit¬
zerland.
MOFFAT, a village in the (hire of Annandale, thirty-
fix miles fouth wed of Edinburgh ; famous for its mi¬
neral wells, one of which is ufed for bathings and the
water of the other is taken inwardly. Thefe waters
are of great fervice in grippings of the guts, colics,
and pains in the domach. Thofe who are troubled
with obdrufHons, rheumatic pains, and aches, find great
relief both from bathing and drinking ; nor is this wa¬
ter a lefs fovereiga remedy in fcorbutic cafes, and the
king’s evil. Thefe wells, in the opinion of Dr Plum¬
mer, profeflbr of ^medicine in the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh, owe their virtues to a fulphureous principle.'
MOGULS, or Monguls, hoards or tribes of vagrant
Tartars, on the north of India, from whom the mo¬
guls or fovereigns of India, as well as-of the Ufbcc-
Tartars, are defeended.
MOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a kind of goat,
frequent about Angoura, in Turky ; the inhabitants
'■ of which city are all employed in the manufacture of
cambfets, made of this hair.
MOHAWK-country, a part of ^Nonh America, in¬
habited by one of the five nations of the Iroquois, fi¬
tuated between the province of New York and the.lake
Ontario or Frontignac.
MOHILA,
MOM { 253 ) MON
MOHl'LA., one of the Comora-iflands in the Indian 0-
cean, lituated between Madagafcar and the continent
cf Africa: E. long, 43* :$o\ S. lat. 120.
MOIDORE, aPortugudegoldcoin, value i-l. 7s. Selling.
MOIETY, the half of any thing.
MOLA, in geography, a town of Italy, feven miles eaft
of the city of Barri, in the kingdom of Naples.
Mola, in ichthyology. See Tetrodon.
MOLARES, or dentes molares, in anatomy, the
large teeth called in Englifh grinders. See Anato¬
my, p. 165.
MOLDAVIA, a province.of European Turky, fepara-
ted from Poland by the river Neifter.
MOLE, in zoology. See Talpa.
Mole Cricket. See Gryllus.
Mole, in midwifery, a mafs of flertiy matter, ofafphe-
rical “figure; generated in the uterus, or womb, and
fometimes miftaken for a child. See Midwifery.
Mole, in geography, a river in Surry, fo called from
- its running, for part of its courfe, under ground.
Mole, is alfo a maffive work of large Hones laid in the
Tea by means of cofferdams ; extending before a port,
either to defend the harbour from the impetuofity of the
waves, or to prevent the paffage of fiiips without leave.
Action of MOLESTATION, in Scots law. See
Law, Tit. xxx. 19.
MOLLUGO, in botany, agenus of the triandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves ; the corolla is
wanting; and the capfulehas three cells and three valves.
Thereare five fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
jMOLLOSSES, in commerce, the thick fluid matter
remaining after the fugar is made, refembliifg fyrup.
In Holland moloffes are much uled in the manufac¬
ture of tobacco, and by the poor people for fugar. A
brandy is alfo diftilled from them, but it is Paid to be
unwholefome. •
MOLOSSUS, in Greek and Latinjioetry, a foot com-
pofed of three long fyllables, as delettant.
MOLUCCA-islands, five iflands in the Indian ocean,
the largeft of which is fcarce thirty miles round ; they
are called Bachian, Machian, Motyr, Ternate, and Ty-
4or; they produce fago, oranges, lemons, and Tome o-
ther fruits; but what is peculiar to thefe iflands, is
their producingcloves. They are fubjedTto the Dutch,
and are fituated in 125° of eaft longitude, and'between
5c/ foutb, and 20 north latitude.
MOLUCCELLA., in botany, a genus of thedidynamia
gymnofpermia clafs. The calix is bell-fhaped, and lar¬
ger than’the corolla. There are threeTpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
MOLWITZ, a town of Silefia in the kingdom of Bo¬
hemia ; E long. 160 45/, N. lat. 50° 26V
MOLYBDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus
of cryltals, of a cubic form, or compofed of fix fides,
at right angles, like a dye.
MOMBAZA, or Monbasa, an ifland and city on the
eaft coaft of Africa, oppofite to the country of Mom-
baza, in Zanguebar : E. long. 48°, N. Lt. 40.
MOMENT, in the dodtrine of time, an inftant, or the
mcft minute and indivifihle pint of duration.
MOMENTUM, in mechanics, (ignifies the fame with
impetus, or the quantity of motion in a moving body;
Vol. III. N°, 79. 2
which is always equal to the quantity of matter mul¬
tiplied into the velocity; or, which is the fame thing,
it may be confidered as a rediangle under the quantity
of matter and velocity.
MOMORDICA, in botany, a genus of the montecia
fyngenefia clafs. The calix of the male and female con-
fifts of five fegments ; the corolla of the male has fix
fegments ; and the filaments are three. The corolla
of the female confifts of five fegments ; and it has three
ftyli. There are eight fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
MONA, an ifland in the Baltic, fouth-weft of the ifland
of Zealand, fubjedt to Denmaik : E, long. 120 30', N.
lat. 550 20 .
MONADELPHIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 63
MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulfter, bounded by Tyrone, on the north ; by Ar¬
magh, on the eaft ; by Caven and Louth, on the fouth ;
and by the county of Farmanagh, on the weft.
MONANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p.635.
MONARCHY, a government in w.hich the fupreme
power is veiled in a fingle perfon. See Government.
MONARDA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is-unequal, the fuperior lip
involving a linear filament. It has fourfeeds. There
are five fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
MONASTERY, a convent, or hoirfe built for ihe re¬
ception and entertainment of monks, mendicant friars,
or nuns, whether it be an abbey, priory,
Monafteries are governed by different rules, according
to the different regulations preferibed by their found¬
ers. The firft regular and perfedl monafteries were '
founded by St. Pachomius, in Egypt; but St. Bafil
is generally confidered as the great father and patriarch
of the Eaftern monks; fince in the fourth century Ee
preferibed rules for the government of the monafteries,
to which the Anachorets 'and Coenobites, and the o-
ther ancient fathers of the deferts, fubmitted. In like
manner St. Benedidt was ftyled the patriarch of the
Wertern monks. He appeared in Italy towards the lat¬
ter end of the fifth century, and publilhed his rule,
which was -univerfally received throughout the weft.
St. Auguftin being fent into England by St Gregory
the pope, in the year 596, to convert the Englifh, he
at the fame time introduced the monaftic ftate into this
kingdom; which made fuch progrefs here, that within
the fpace of two hundred years, there were thirty kings
and queens who preferred the religious habit to their
crowns, and founded ftately monafteries, where they
ended their days in folitude and retirement.
MONASTIC, fomethiftg belonging to monks. See
Mo NX.
MONCON, a two of Spain, in the province of Arragon,
fifty miles north-eaft of Saragoffa.
MONDAY, the fecond day of the week, To called as
being anciently facred to the moon, q d moon-day,
MONEMUGI a country in the fourh of Africa, fituated
between Angola and Zanguebar.
MONEY, a piece of matter, commonly metal, to which
public authority has affixed a certain value and weight
to ferve as a medium in commerce.
3 S Of
M
O N
( 254 ) MON
Of artificial or material money.
I. From the infancy of the world, at lead as far back
as our accounts of the tranfa&ions of mankind reach, we
find they had adopted the precious metals, that is, filler
and gold, as the common meafure of value, and as the
adequate equivalent for every thing alienable. '
The metals are admirably adapted 'for this jmrpofe :
They are perfeftly homogeneous: When pure, theirmaffes,
or bulks, are exactly in proportion to their weights : No
phyfical difference can be found between two pounds of
golcl, or filver, let them be the production of the mines
of Europe, Afia, Africa, or America: They are perfectly
malleable, fufible, and fuffer the mod exaCt divifion which.
human art is capable to give them : They are capable of
being mixed with one another, as well as with metals of
a bafer, that is, of a lefs homogeneous nature, fuch as
copper: By this mixture they fpread themfelves uniform¬
ly through the whole mafs of the compofed lump, fo that
every atom of it becomes proportionally poffeffed of a
{hare of this noble mixture ; by which means the fubdi-
vifion of the precious metals is rendered very extenfive.
’ Their phyfical qualities are invariable ; they lofe no¬
thing by keeping; they are folid and durable; and though
their parts are feparated by fridion, like every other thing,
yet dill they are of the number of thofe which fuffer lead
by it.
If money, therefore, can be made, of any thing, that
is, if the proportional value of things vendible can be
meafured by any thing material, it may be raeafured by
the metals.
li. The two metals being pitched upon as the mod pro¬
per fubdances for realizing the ideal fcale of money, thofe
who undertake the operation of adjuding a dandard mud
condantly keep in their eyesthe nature and qualities of a
fcale, as well as the principles upon which itis formed.
The.unit of the fcale mud condantly be the fame, al¬
though realized in the metals, or the whole operation fails
in the mod effenrial part. This realizing the unit is like
adjuding a pair of compaffes to a geometrical fcale, where
the fmalled deviation from the exaCt opening once given
mud occafion an incorreCt meafure. The metals, there¬
fore, are to money what a pair of compaffes is. to a geo¬
metrical fcale.
This operation of adjuding the metals to the money of
account implies an exaCt and determinate proportion of
both metals to the money unit, realizedin all the fpecies
and denominations of coin, adjuded to that dandard.
The fmalleft particle of either metal added to, or taken
away from any coin, which reprefent certain determinate
parts of the fcale, overturns the whole fydem of material
money. And if, notwithdanding fuch variation, thefe
coins continue to bear the'fame denominations as before,
this will as effectually dedrOy their ufefufnefs in meafu-
ring the value of things, as it would overturn the ufeful-
nefs of a pair of compafles, to fuffer the opening to vary,
after it is adjuded to the fcale reprefenting feet, toifes,
miles, or leagues, by which the didances up the plan are
to be meafured.
ill. Pebafing the dandard is a good term ; becaufe it
conveys a clear and didinCt idea. It is diminifiiihg the
yveight of the pure metal contained in that,denomination
by which a nation reckons, and which we have called the
money-unit. Raifingthe dandard requires no farther de¬
finition, being the direft contrary.
IV. Altering the dandard (that is, raifing or debafing
the value of the money-unit) is like altering the national
meafures or weights. This is bed difcovered by compa¬
ring the thing altered with things of the fame nature Which
have differed no alteration. Thus if the foot of meadre
was altered at once over alEEngland, by adding to it, or
taking from it, any proportional part of its dandard length,
the alteration would be bed difcovered, by comparing the
new foot with that of Paris, or of any other country, which
had dffered no alteration. Jud d, if the pound sterling,
which is the Englifh unit, fliall be found any how changed,
and if the variation it has met with be difficult to aicer-
tain, becaufe of a complication of circumdances, the bed
way to difcover it, will be to compare the former and the
prefent .value of it with the money of other nations which
has fuffered no variation. This the courfe of exchange
will perform with the greated exaCtnefs.
V. Artids pretend, that the precious metals, when ab-
folutely pure from any mixture, are not of Efficient hard-
nefe to conditute a folid and lading coin. They are found
aid in the mines mixed-with other metals of a bafer na¬
ture, and the bringing them to a date of perfeCi purity
occafions an unneceffary expence. To avoid, therefore,
the inconvenience of employing them in all their purity,
people have adopted the expedient of mixing them with
a determinate proportion of other metals, which hurts
neither their fufibility, malleability, beauty, or ludre.
This metal is called alloy; and, being confidered only as a
dpport to the principal metal, is accounted of no value
in itfelf. So that eleven ounces of gold, when mixed with
one ounce of filver, acquires, by that addition, no aug¬
mentation of value whatever.
This being the c.afe, we ffiall, as much as poffible, over¬
look the exidence of alloy, in fpeaking of money, in or¬
der to render language lefs fubjedt to ambiguity.
Incapacities of the metals to perform the office of an in-
variable yneafure of value.
I. Were there but one fpecies of dch a dbdance as
we have reprefented gold and fiiver to be ; were there but
one metal poffeffing the qualities of purity, divifibility,
and durability; the inconveniences in the ufe of it for
money would be fewer by far than they are found to be
as matters dand.
Such a metal might then, by an- unlimited divifion into .
parts exactly equal, be made to (erve as a tolerably deady
and univerfal meadre. But the rivalfinp between the
metals, and the perfect equality which is found between
all their phyfical qualities, fo far as regards purity and
divifibility, render them fo equally well adapted to ferve
as the common meafure of. value, that they are univerfaliy
admitted to pafs current as money.
What is the ccnfequedce of this ? That the one mea,-
dres the value of the other, as well as that of every other
things Now the moment any meadre begins to be mea-
fiured
MON ( 255 ) MON
fared by another, whofe proportion to it is not pbyficaiJy,
perpetually, and invariably the fame, ail the ufefulnefs of
fuch a meafure is loft. An example will make this plain.
A foot of meafure is a determinate length. An Eng-
lifh foot may be compared With the Paris foot, or with
that of the Rhine ; that is to fay, it may be meafu-
red by them ; and the proportion between their lengths
fnay be exprefled in numbers; which proportion will be
the fame perpetually. The meafunng the one by the o-
ther will occafron no uncertainty ; and we may {peak of
lengths by Paris feet, and be perfetftly well Cnderftood by
others who are ufed to meafure by the Englilh foot, or
by the foot of the Rhine. v
But fuppofe that a youth of twelve years old takes it
into his head to meafure from time to time, as he ad vances
'in age, by the length of his own foot, and that he di¬
vides this growing foot into inches and decimals: what
can be learned from his account of meafures ! As he in-
creafes in years, his foot, inches, and fubdivifions, will
be gradually lengthening ; and were every man to follow
his example, and meafure by his own foot,-then, the foot
of a meafure now eftabliftied would totally ceafe to be of
any utility.
This is juft the cafe with the two metals. There is no
determinate invariable proportion between their value;
and the confequence of this is, that when they are both
taken for meafuring the value of other things, the things
to be meafured, like lengths to be meafured by the young
man’s foot, without changing their relative proportion be¬
tween themfelves, change however with refped to the de¬
nominations of both their meafures. An example will make
this plain.
Let, us fuppofe an ox to be worth three thoufand
pounds weight of wheat, and the one aud the other to be
worth an ounce of gcfid, and an ounce of gold to be worth
exaAly fifteen ounces of filver : If the cafe fhould hap¬
pen, that the proportional value between gold and filver
ihould come to be as 14 is to 1, would not the ox, and
confequently the wheat, be eftimated at lefs in fil ver, and
more in'gold, than formerly ? Farther, would it be in
the power of any ftate to prevent this variation, in the
meafure of the value of oxen and wheat, without putting
into the unit of their money lefs filver and more gold than
formerly.
If therefore any particular ftate fhould fix the ftandard
of the unit of their money-to one fpecies of the metals,
while in fatft both the one and the,other are a&ually em¬
ployed in meafuring value; does not fuch a ftate refem-
bie the young man, who meafures all by his growing foot?
For if filver, for example, be retained as the ftandard,
while it is gaining upon gr-ld'one fifteenth additional-va¬
lue ; and if gold continue all the while to determ-ne the
value of things as well as filver, it is plain, that, to all in¬
tents and purpofes, this filvernneafure is lengthening dai¬
ly. like the young man’s foot, fince the fame weight of it
muft become every day equivalent'-to more and more of
the fame commodity ; notwithftanding that we fuppofe
the fame proportion,to fubfilt, without the leaft variation,
between that commodity and every other fpecies of things
alienable
Jgjaying and felling are purely conventional, and no man
is obliged to give his merchandize at what may be fop-
pofed to be the proportion of its worth. The ufe, there¬
fore of an univerfal meafure, is, to ,mark, not only the re¬
lative value of the things to which it is applied as a mea-
fore, but to difcover in an inftant the proportion between
the value of thofe, and of every other commodity valued
by a determinate meafore in all the countries of the
world.
Were pounds fterling, livres, florins, piaftres, <bc. which
are all money of account, invariable in their values, what
a facility would it produce in all converfions, what an
affiftance to trade ! But as they are all limited or fixed to
coins, and confequently vary from time to ^ime, this ex¬
ample foews the utility of the invariable meafure which
we have deforibed.
There is another circumftance which incapacitates the
metals from performing the office of money; the fobftance
of which the coin is made, is a commodity, which rifes
and finks in its value with refpeft to other commodities,,
according to the wants, competition, and caprices of man¬
kind. The advantage, therefore, found in putting an in-
trinfic value into that fobftance which performs the funftion
of money of account, is compenfated by the inftability of
that intrinfic value; and the advantage obtained by the
{lability of paper, or fymbolical money, is compenfated
by the defeft it commonly has of not being at all times
fofceptible of realization into folid property or intrinfic
value.
In order, therefore, to render material money more per-
fe<5t, this quality of metal, that is, of a commodity, ffiould
betaken from it; and in order to render paper-money
more perfed, it ought to be made to circulate upon me¬
tallic or land fecurityr
II. There are feveral fmaller inconveaiences accom-
panj'ing the ufe of the metals, which we ftiall- here fhort-
ly enumerate:
\mo. No money made of gold or filver can circulate-
long, without lofing of its weight, although it all along
preferves the fame denomination. This reprefents the con-
trading a pair of compafies which had been rightly adjuft-
ed to the fcale.
, ido. Another, inconvenience proceeds from the fabri¬
cation of mopey. , Suppofing the faith of Princes who
coin money to be inviolable, and the probity as well as
capacity of thofe to whom they commit the infpedion of
the finenefs of the metals to be fofficient, it is hardly
poffible for workmen to render every piece ekadly of a
proper weight, or to preserve the due proportion between
pieces of different denominations ; that is to fay, to make
every ten fixpences pxadly of the fame weight with every
crown-piece and every five {hillings {truck in a coinage. In
proportion to fuch inaccuracies, the parts 6f the fcaie be¬
come unequal.
, Another inconvenience, and far from being in-
co^fiderable, flows from the Pxpence requifite for the
coining of money. This expence adds >0 its value as a
manufadure, without adding any thing to its- weight.
4/0. The laft inconvenience is, that by fixing the money
of account'entirely to tlje coin without having any inde-'
pendent common meafore ; to-mark and control tbefe de¬
viations from mathematical exadnefs, which are eitben
infeparablc
MON ( 25
iiifeparable from-the metals themfelves, or from tl«£ fa
brication of them) the whole fneafare of value, and all
the relative interdls of debtors and creditors, become at
the difpofal not only of workmen in the mint, of Jews
who deaf in money, of clippers and walhers of coin, but
they are alfo entirely at the mercy of princes, \vho
have the right of coinage, and who have frequently alio
the right of railing or debafing the ftandard of the coin,
according as-they find it mod: for their prefent and tem¬
porary intereft.
Methods which may he propofed for 'hjfening the feveral
inconveniences to which material money is liable.
The inconveniences from the variation in the relative
value of the metals to one another, may in fome raeafure
be obviated by the following expedients,
imo. _ By conlidering one only as the ftandard, and
leaving the other to feek its own value, like any other
commodity.
ido. By confidering one only as the ftandard, and
fixing the value of the other from time to time by au¬
thority, according as the market-price of the metals (hall
vary.
■$tio. By fixing the ftandard of' the unit according to
the mean proportion of the metals, attaching it to neither;
regulating the coin accordingly ; and upon every confi-
derable variation in the proportion between them, cither
to make a new coinage, or to raife the denomination of
one of the fpecies, and lower it in the other, in order to
preferve the unit exactly in the mean proportion between
the gold and lilver.-
4/5. To have two units, and two ftandards, one of
gold, and one of filver, and to allow every body to fti-
pulate in either.
Sto.- Or laft of all, to oblige all debtors to pay onejialf
in gold, and one half in the filver ftandard.
Variations to which the value of the money-unit is ex-
pofed fro?n every diforder in the coin.
Let us fuppofe, at prefent, the only diforder to con-
fift in a want of the due proportion between the gold and
filver in the coin.
This proportion can only be eftablilhed by the market-
price of the metals; becaufe an augmentation and rife in
the demand for gold or filver has the effed of augment¬
ing the value of the metal demanded. Let us fuppofe,
that to day one pound of gold may buy fifteen pounds of
filver ; if to-morrow there be a high demand for filver,
a competition among merchants to have filver for gold
will enfue; they will contend who fhal! get the filver at
the rate of fifteen pounds for one of gold : this will raife
the price of it; and in proportion to their views of profit,
fome will accept of lefs than the fifteen pounds. This is
plainly a raife in the filver, more properly than a fall in
the gold; becaufe it is the competition for the filver which
•has occafioned the variation in the former proportion be¬
tween the metals.
Let us now fuppofe, that a ftate, having with great ex-
a&nefs examined the proportion of the metals in the
.market, and having determined the precije quantity of
each for realizing or representing the money-unit, ftiall
6 ) MON
execute amoft exad coinage-of gold and filver coin. As
long as that proportion continues unvaried in the market,
no inconvenience c?.n refuit from that quarter, in making
ufe of metals for money of account.
But let us fuppofe the proportion to change ; that the
filvec, for example, fiiall rile in its value with regard to
gold ; will it not follow, from that moment, that the unit,
realized in the Giver, will become of more value than the
unit realized in the gold coin ?
But as the law has ordered them to pafs as equivalents
for #ne another, and as debtors have always the option
of paying in what legal-coin they think fit, will they not
all chufe to pay in gold, and will not then the filver coiq be
melted down or exported, in order to be fold as bullion,
above the value it bears when it circulates in coin ? Will
not this paying in gold alfo really diminish the value of
the money unit, fince upon this variation every thing
muft fell for more gold than before, as we have aireacy
obferved ?
Confequently, merchandize which have not varied in
their relative value to. any other thing but to gold and
filver, muft be meafured by the mean proportion of the
metals ; and the application of any other meafure to them
is altering the ftandard. If they are meafured by the
gold, the ftandard is debafed ; if by filver, it is ratfed.
If, to prevent the inconvenience of melting down the
filver, the ftate fhall give up affixing the value of their
unit to both fpecies at once, and ffiall fix it to one, leaving
the other to feek its price as any other commodity ; in
that cafe, no doubt, the melting down' of the coin will be
prevented; but will ever this reftore the value of the
money unit to its former ftandard? Would it, for ex¬
ample, in the foregoing fuppofition, raife the debafed
value of the monqy-unit in the gold coin, if that fpecies
were declared to be the ftandard ? It would indeed render
filver coin purely a merchandize, and, by allowing it
to feek its value, would certainly prevent it from being
melted down as before; becaufe the pieces would rife
conventionally in their denomination ; or an agio, as it is
called, would be taken in payments made in filver; but
the gold would not, on that account, rife in its value, or
begin to purchafe any more merchandize than before,
Were therefore the ftandard fixed to the gold, would
not this be an arbitrary andfa violent revolution in the
value of the money-unit, and a debafement of the ftan¬
dard ?.
If, on the other hand, the ftate ffiould fix the ftandard
to the filver, which we fuppofe to have rifen in its value,
would that ever fink the advanced Value which the filver
coin had gained above the worth of the former ftandard
unit ? and.would not this fie a violen^and an arbitrary re¬
volution in the value of the money unit, and a raifing of
the ftandard ?
The only expedient, therefore, is, in fuch a cafe, to fix
the numeracy unit to neither of the metals, hut to contrive
a way to make it fluctuate in a mean proportion between
them ; which is in effeift the introdudion of a pure ideal
money of accoupt.
The regulation of fixing the unit by the mean propor¬
tion, ought to take place at the inftant the ftandard unit
is affixed with exadnefs both to the gold and filver. If
M ON (
it be introduced long after the market proportion between
the metals has deviated from the proportion eftablifhed
in the coin ; and if the new regulation is made to have a
retrofpedf, with regard to the acquitting of permanent
contradts entered into, w'hile the value of the money-
unit had attached itfelf to the lowed currency, in confe-
quence of the principle above laid down ; then the redo-
ring the money-unit to that dandard where it ought to
have remained (to wit, to the mean proportion) is an in¬
jury to all debtors who have contraded fince the time
drat the proportion of the metals began to vary.
This is clear from the former reafoning. The mo¬
ment the’market-price pf the metals differs from that in
the coin, every one wlio has payments-to make, pays in
that fpecies which is the highed rated in the coin ; con-
fequently, he who lends, lends in that fpecies. If after
the contrad, therefore, the unit is carried up to the
mean proportion, this mud be a lofs to him who had
borrowed.
From this we may perceive, why there is lefs inconve¬
nience from the varying of .the proportion of the metals,
where the dandard is fixed to one of them, than when it
is fixed to both. In the firft cafe, it is at lead uncertain
whether theflandard or xhzmerchandize-fpecies is to rife;
confequently it is uncertain whether the debtors or the
creditors are to gain by a variation. If the Jiandard
fpecies ihould rife, the creditors will gain ; if the mer¬
chandize fpecies rifes, the debtors will gain ; but when
the unit is attached to both fpecies, then the creditors
never can gain, let the metals vary as they will : if di¬
ver rifes; then debtors will pay in gold; if gold rifes,
debtors will pay in diver. But whether the unit be at¬
tached to one or to both (pecies, the infallible confequence
of a variation is, that one half of the difference is either
gained or lod by debtors and creditors. The invariable
unit is condantly the mean proportional between the two
meafures.
Hous the variations in the intrinfic value cf the unit of
money muji of eft all the domejiic inter eft of a Nation.
If the changing the content of the bufhef by which grain
is meafured, would affe<5t the intertd of thofe who are
obliged to pay, or who are intitled to receive, a certain
number of bufhels of grain for the rent of lands ; in the
Fame manner mud every variation in the value of the
unit ofaccompt affe£t all perfons who, in permanent con¬
trails, are oblioed to make payments, or who are intitled
to receive fums of money flipulatedin multiples or in frac-
tibns of'that money unit.
Every variation, therefore, upon the intrtndc value of-
the money unit, has the effeil of benefiting the clafs of
■creditors, at the ex pence of debtors, or vice verfa.
This confequence is deduced from an obvious principle.
, Money is more or lefs valuable in proportion as it can
purchafe more or lefs of every kind of merchandize. Now
without entering anew into the caufes of the rife and fail
'6f prices, it is agreed upon all hands, that whether an
augmentation;of the general mafs of money in circulation
has the efftdf of raidng prices in general, or not, any
augmentation of the quantity of the metals appointed to
be put into the money-unit, mud at lead ajfefl the value
. Vol. III. N°. 79. 2
257 ) MON
of that money-unit, and make it purchafe more of any
commodity than before; that is to fay, if 113 grains'of
fine gold, the prefent weight of a pound derling in gold,'
can buy 113 pounds of flour ; were the pound derling raifed
to 114 grains of the fame metal, it would buy 114 pounds
of flour; confequently, were the pound derling augment¬
ed by one grain of gold, every miller who paid a rent
of ten pounds a year, would be obliged to fell 1x40
pounds of his flour, in order to procure 10 pounds to pay
his rent, in place of 1130 pounds of flour which he fold
formerly to procure the lame fum ; confequently, by this
innovation, the miller mud lofe yearly ten pounds of
flour, .which his mader confequently mud gain. , From
this example, it is plain, that every augmentation of me¬
tals put into the pound derling, either of filver or gold,
mud imply an advantage to the whole clafs of creditors
who are paid in pounds derling, and confequently muft
be a proportional lofs to all debtors who muft pay by
the fame denomination.
Of the d'tforder in the Britijh coin, for fo far as it oc-
cajions the melting down or the exporting of the fpecie.
The defe<5ts in the Britifh coin are three.
\nto. The proportion between the gold and filver in it
is found to be as 1 to 1 whereas the market price
may be fuppofed to be nearly as 1 to 144-.
ido. Great part of the current money is worn and
light.
3//f. From the fecond defedt proceeds the third, to
wit, that there are feveral currencies in circulation which
pafs for the fame value, without being of the fame weight.
4/0. From all thefe defefls refults the laft and greateft
inconvenience, to wit, thatfome innovation muft be made,
in order to fet matters on a right footing.
The Englilh, befides the unit of their money which
they call the pound fterling, have alfo the unit of their
weight for weighing the precious metals.
This is called the pound troy, and confifts of 12 ounces
every ounce of 20 penny weight, and every penny-weight
of 24 grains. The pound troy, therefore, confifts of 240
penny-weigixt, and 5760 grains. 1
The fincnefs of the filver is reckoned by the number of
ounces and penny-weights of the pure metals in the pound
troy of the compofed mafs ; or in other words, the
.pound troy, which contains 5760 grains of ftnndard fil¬
ver, contains 5328 grains of fine filver, and 432 grains
pf copper, called alloy. ,
Thus ftandard filver is 11 ounces 2 penny-weights of
fine filver in the pound troy to 18 penny-weights copper,
or 11 x parts Jne filver to 9 parts alloy.
Standard gold is n ounces fine to one ounce filver or
copper employed for alloy, which together make the
pound troy; Confequently, the pound troy of ftandard
gold, contains 5280 grains fine; and 480 grains alloy,
which alloy is reckoned of no value.
This pound of ftandard filver is ordered, by ftamte of
the'43d of Elizabeth, to be coined into 62 (hillings, 20
of which make the pound fierling ; confequently the 20
(hillings contain 1718.7 grains of fine filver, and x8c8.o6
ftandard filver.
The pound troy of ftandard gold, fine, is ordered
3 T by
M O N ( 258 ) M O N
by an afl of King Charles II. to be cut into 44 4 gui¬
neas that is to lay, every guinea contains 129.43 grains
of ftandard gold, and 118.644 of fine gold ; and the pound
Herling, which is 4r the guinea, contains x 12.994,
which vve may fiate at 113 grains of fine gold.
The coinage in England is entirely defrayed at the ex¬
pence of the date. The mint price for the metals is the
.very fame with the price of the coin. Whoever carries
to the mint an ounce of ffandard filver, receives for it in
fiver coin jr. 2d. or 62 d: whoever carries an ounce of
Itandard gold receives in gold coin 3/. 17/. \od\. the
one and the other making exadlly an ounce of the lame
finenefs with the bullion. Coin, therefore, can have no
value in the market above bullion ; confequcntly, no lofs
can be incurred,by thofe who melt it down.
When the guinea wss fit!!: {truck, the government (not
inclining to fix the pound defling to the gold coin of the
nation) fixed the guinea at 20 (hillings, (which was then
below its proportion to the, filver) leaving it to feek its
own price above that value, according to the courfe of
the market.
By this regulation no harm was cone to the Englilh
filter flandard; becaufe the guinea, or 118.644 grains
fine gold being worth more, at that time, than 20 (bil¬
lings, or 1718-7 grains fine filter, no debtor would pay
with gold at its (tandard-value, and whatever it wa& re¬
ceived for above that price was purely conventional.
Accordingly guineas fought their own price until the
year 1728, that they were fixed a-new, not below their
value as at firft, but at what was then reckoned their ex-
aft value, according to the proportion of the metals, to
wit, at 2 x (billings, and at this they W'ere ordered to
pafs current in all payments.
This operation had the effect of making the gold a
ftandard as well as the diver. Debtors then paid indif¬
ferently in gold as well as in filver, becaufe both were
fuppofed to be of ihe fame intrinfic as well as current va¬
lue; in which cafe no inconvenience could follow upon
this regulation. But, in time, filver came to be more
demanded; the making of plate began to prevail more
than formerly, and the exportation of (liver to the Eaft
Indies increafing yearly, made the demand for it greater,
or perhaps brought its quantity to be proportionally lefs
than before. This changed the proportion of the metals ;
and by (low degrees they have come from that of 1 to'
15 2 (the proportion they were fuppofed to have when
the guineas were fixed and made a lawful money at 21
ihiHings) to that of 14.5 the prefent proportion.
The confequence of this has been, that the fame gui¬
nea which was worth 1804.6 grains fine filver, at the
time it was fixed at 21 (hillings, is now worth'no more
than 1719,9 grains of fine filver according to the propor¬
tion of 144 to 1. .
Confequently, debtors, who have always the optipn
of the, legal fpecies in paying their debts, will pay pounds
flerling no more in Giver but in gold ; and as the gold
pounds they pay in, are not intrinfically worth the filver
pounds they paid in formerly, according to the ftatute of
Elizabeth, it follows that the pound fterling in filver is
really no more the (landard, fince no body will pay at
that rate, and fince no body can be compelled to do it.
Befides this want o{ proportion between the metals,
the filver coined beforethe reign of George I. is now be¬
come light by circulation ; and the guineas coined by all
the Princes fince Charles II, pafs by tale, though many
of them are confiderably diminifhed in their weight.
Let Us now examine what profit the want of propor¬
tion and the want of weight in the coin can afford to
the money-jobbers, in melting it down or exporting it.
Did every body confider coin only as the meafure for
reckoning value, without attending to its value as a me¬
tal, the deviations of gold and filver coin from perfect
exa&nefs either as to proportion or weight would occa-
fion little inconvenience.
Great numbers indeed, in every modern fociety, con¬
fider coin in no other light,ethan that of money of ac-
compt; and have great difficulty to comprehend what dif¬
ference any one can find between a light (billing and a
heavy one; or what inconvenience there can poffibly re-
fult from a guinea’s being fome grains of fine gold too-
light to be worth 21 ffi llings ftandard weight. And did
every one think in the fame way, there would be no oc-
cafion for coin of the precious metals at all; leather,
copper, iron, or paper, would keep the reckoning as well
as gold apd (liver.
But although there be many who look no farther than
at the (tamp on the coin, there are others whpfe foie bu-
finefs it is to examine its intrinfic worth as a commodity,
and to profit of every irregularity in the weight and pro¬
portion of metals.
By the very inftitution of coinage, it is implied, that
every piece of the fame metal, and fame denomination
with regard to the money-unit, (hall pafs current for the
fame value.
It is, therefore, the employment of money-jobbers,
to examine, with a fcmpulpus exadbipfs, the precife
weight of every piece of coin which comes intotheirhands.
The firit object of their attention, is, the price of the
metals in the market: a jobber finds, at prefent, that
with 14.5 pounds of fine filver bullion, he can buy one
pound of fine gold bullion.
He therefore buys up with gold coin, all the new fil¬
ver as fart as it is coined, of which he can get at the rate
of 15.2 pounds for one in gold ; thefe 15.2 pounds fil¬
ver coin he melts down into bullion, and converts that
back into gold bullion, giving at the rate of only 14.5
pounds for one.
By this operation he remains with the value of 4^ of
one pound weight of filver bullion clear profit upon the
154 pounds he bought; which T7^. is really loft by the
man who inadvertently coined filver at the mint, and gave
it to the money-jobber for his gold. Thus the ftate lo-
fes the expence of the coinage, and the public the con¬
venience of change for their guineas.
But here it may be afked. Why (hould the money-
jobber melt down the filver coin? can he not buy gold
with it as well without melting it down? He cannot;
becaufe when it is in coin, he cannot avail himfelf of its
being new and weighty. Coin goes by tale, not ,by
weight; therefore, were he to come to market with hss
new filver coin, gold bullion being fold at the mint price,'
we (h-all fuppofe, viz, at 3/. 17/. ioid. rterling money
per
MON
( 259 )
MON
/trounce, h.& would be obliged to pay the price of what of-bullion is paid weighed more than a pound troy, it
he bought with heavy money, which he can equally do
-with light.
He therefore melts down the new filver coin, and fells
it for bullion, at fo many pence an ounce, the price of lefs.
would be a Ihortet^ and-better way for him who wants
bullion to melt dowtv the {hillings and make ufe of the
metal, than to go to market with them in order to get
which bullion is, in the Eng ifh market, always above
the price of Giver at the mint, for the reafojis now to be
given.
When you fell ftandard filvep bullion at the mint, you
are paid in weighty money ; that is, you receive for your
bullion the very fame, weight in ftandard coin ; the coin¬
age cofts nothing : but when you fell bullion in the mar¬
ket, you are paid in worn out filver, in gold, in bank
notes, in ftiort, in every fpecies of lawful current money.
Now all tbefe payments have fome defeft: the filver you
are paid with is worn and light; the gold you are paid
with is over rated, and perhaps alfo light; and the bank
notes mufthave the fame value with the fpecie with which
the bank pays them; that is, with light filver or over¬
rated gold.
It ivs for thefe reafons, that filver bullion, which is
bought by the mint at 5/, 2d- /trounce of heavy filver
money, may be bought at market at 65 pence the ounce
,in light fiver, .over-rated gold, or bank notes, which is
the fame thing.
Farther, we have feen how the impofition of coinage
has the eftedt.of rafting coin above the value of bullion,
by adding a value to it which it had not as a metal.
Juft fo, when the unit is once affixed to certain deter¬
mined quantities of both metals, if one of the metals
fhould afterwards rife ih value in the market, the coin
made of that metal nruft lofe a part of its value as coin,
although it retains it as a metal. Confequently, as in
the firft cafe, it acquired an additional value by being
coined, it muft now acquire an additional value by being
melted down. From this we may conclude, that when
the ftandardis affixed to both,the metals in the coin, and
when the proportion of that value is not made to follow
the price of the market, that fpecies which rifes in the
market is melted down, and the bullion is fold for a price
as much exceeding the mint price as the metal has rifen
in its value.
If, therefore, in England, the price of filver bullion is
found to be at 65 pence the ounce, while at the mint it
"s rated at 62 ; this proves that (ilvep has rifen above
We may, therefore, be very certain, that no man will
buy filver bullion at 65 pence an ounce, with any ffiiliing
which weighs above -£T of a pound troy.
We have gone upon the fuppofition that the ordinary .
price of bullion in the Engliffi market is 65 pence per
ounce. This has been, done upon the authority of fome
late writers on this fubjedl : it is now proper to point
out the caufes which may make it deviate from that
value.
I. It may vary, and certainly will vary, in the price, ac¬
cording as the currency is better or worfe.. When the
expences of a war, or a wrong balance of trade, have
carried off a great many heavy guineas, it is natural that
bullion ffiould rife ; becaufe then it will be paid for more
commonly in light gold and filver ; that is to fay,
with pounds'fterling, below the value of 113 grains
fine gold, the worth of the pound flerling in hew guineas.
II. This wrong balance of trade, or a demand, for
bullion abroad, becoming very great, may occafion a
fcarcity of the metals in the market, as well as a fcarcity
of the coin ; confequently, an advanced price muft be
given for it in proportion to the greatnefs and height of
the demand. In this cafe, both the fpecie and the bullion
muft be bought with paper. But the rife in the price of
bullion proceeds from the demand for the metals, and
the competition between merchants to procure them, and
not becaufe the paper given as the price is at all of inferior
value to the fpecie. The leaft difcredit of this kind would
not tend to diminiffi the value of the paper ; it would an¬
nihilate it at once. Therefore, fince the metals muft be
had, and that the paper cannot fupply the want of them
•when they are to be exported, the price rifes in propor¬
tion to the difficulties in finding metals elfewhere than in
the Engliffi market.
III. A fudden call for bullion, for the making of plate.
A goldfmith can well afford to give 67 pence for an ounce
of filver, that is to fay, he can afford to give one pound
of gold for 14 pounds of filver, and perhaps for lefs,
notwithftanding that what he gives be more than the or¬
dinary proportion between the metals, becaufe he indemni-
the proportion obferved in the coin, and that all coin of fies himfelf amply by the price of his workmanfhip: juft as
ftandard weight may confequently be melted down with
a profit of But as there are feveral other circum-
ftances to be attended to. which regulate and influence
the price of bullion we-fhall here pafs them in review,
the better to difeover the nature of this diforder in the
Engliffi coin, and the advantages which money-jobbers
may draw from it.
The price of bullion, like that of every othermerchan-
dize, is regulated by the value of the money it is paid
with.
If bullion, therefore, fells in England for 65 pence
an ounce, paid in filver coin, it muft left for 65 (hillings
the pound troy ; that is to fay, the (hillings it is com¬
monly paid with do not exceed the weight of of a
pound troy ; for if the 65 (hillings with which the pound
tavern keeper will pay any price for a fine fiffi, becaufe,
like ilie goldfmith, he buys for other people.
IV. The mintjirice has as great an effedt in bringing
down the price of bullion, as exchange has in railing it.
In countries where the metals in the coin are juftly pro¬
portioned, where all the currencies are of legal weight,
and where coinage is impofed, the operations of trade
make the price of bullion conftantly to fludtuate be¬
tween the value of the coin and the mint price of the
metals.
Now let us fu’ppofe-that the current price of filver bul¬
lion in the market is 65 pence the ounce, paid in lawful
money, no matter of what weight, or of'what metal.
Upon this the money jobber falls to work. All (hillings.
which are above of a pound troy, he throws into his
melting
MON ( 25
melting pot, and fells them as bullion, for 65^. per
ounce ; all thofe which are below that weight he carries
to market, and buys bullion-with them, at 6$ pence
ounce.
What is the confequence of this?
That thofe who fell the bullion, finding the /hillings
which the money jobber pays with perhaps not above
of a pound troy, they on their fide raife the price of their
bullion to 66 pence the ounce.
This makes new work for the money-jobber ; for he
muft always gain. He now weighs all fhiliings as they
come to hand ; and as formerly he threw into h:s melting-
pot thofe only which were worth more than -gr of a pound
troy, he now throws in all that are in value above.g-1^. •
He then fells the melted {hillings at 66 pence the ounce,
and buys bullion with the light ones at the fame price.
This is theoonfequence of ever permitting any fpecies
of coin to pafs by the ahthority of the (lamp, without,
controlling it at the fame time by the weight : and this
is the manner in which money-jobbers gain by the currency
of light money.
It is no argument againft this expofition of the matter
to fay, that filver bullion is ftldom bought with filver
coin ; becaufe -the pence in new guineas are worth no more
than the pence of (hillings of 65 in the pound trc y : that
is to fay, that 24O pence contained in of a new
guinea, and 240 pence contained in 28 (hillings of 65
. to the pound troy differ no more in the intrinfic value
than 0.88 of a grain of fine filver upon the whole,
which is a mefe trifle.
-Whenever, therefore, (hillings come below the weight
of -gL. of a pound troy, then there is an advantage in
changing them for new guineas: and when that is the cafe,
the new gtsineas will be melted down,' and profit will be
found in felling them for bullion, upon the principles
we have juft been explaining.1
We have already given a fpecimen of the domeftic o-
perations .of themoney-jobbers ; butthefeare hot the moft
prejudicial to national concerns. Tl)e jobbers maybe
iuppofed to'he Engliftimen 5 and in that cafe the profit
they make remains at home : but whenever there is a call
for bullion to pay the balance of trade, it isVvident that
this will be paid in filver coin, never in gold, if heavy
filver can be got; and this again carries away the filver
coin, and renders it at home fo rare, that great inconv'e-
niencies are found for want of the lefler denominations of
ft. The lofs, however, here is confined to an inconve¬
nience ; becaufe the balance of trade being a debt which
nruft be paid, we do not confider the exportation of the
filver for that purpofe as any confeqUence of the diforder
of the coin. But hefides this exportation which is ne-
ceffary, there are others which are arbitrary, and which
are made only with a view to profit of the wrong pro¬
portion.
When the money jobbers find difficulty in carrying oh
the traffic we have defcribed, in the Englifh market,
becaufe of the competition among themfelves, they carry
the filver com out of the country, and fell it abroad for
gold, upon the fame principles that the Eaft India com¬
pany fend filver to China, in order to purchafe geld.
It may be demanded, what hurt this trade can do to
9 ) MON
England, fince thofe who.export filver bring back thJ
fame value in gold ? Were this trade carried on by na¬
tives, there would be no lo!s ; becaufe they would bring
home gold for the whole intrinfic value of the filver.
But if we fuppofe foreigners fending over gold to be coined
at the Englilh mint, and changing that gold into Englifh
filver coin, and then carrying off this coin, it is plain
that they muft gain the difference, as well as the money
jobber?. But it may be anfwered, that having given gold
for filver at the rate of the mint, they have given value
for what they hav*e received. Very right ; but fo did
Sir Hans Sloane, when he paid five guineas for an over¬
grown tod : he got value for his money; but it was
value only to himfelf. Juft fo, whenever the Englilk
government (hall be obliged to reftore the proportion of
the metals, (as.they muft do,) this operation will annihi¬
late that imaginary value which they have hitherto fet
upon gold ; which imagination is the only thing which
renders the exchange of their filver againft the foreign
gold equal.
But it is farther objefled, that foreigners cannot carry
°ff4the heavy filver; becaufe there is none to carry off.
Very true ; but then they have carried off a great quan¬
tity already: or if the Englifli Jews have been too (harp
to allow fuch a profit to fall to ftrangers, (which may or
mav not have been the cafe,) then this diforder is an
effectual ftoptoany more coinage of filver for circulation.
Of the diforder in the Britijh coin, fo far as it ejfetts
the value of the pound fterling currency.
From what has been .faid, it is evident, that there
muft be found in England two legal pounds fterling, of
differept values; the one worth 113 grains of fine gold,
the other worth 1 y 18.7 grains of fine filver. Wecall them
different ; becaufe thefe two portions of the precious
metals are of different values all the over Europe.
But befides thefe two different pounds fterling, which
the change in the proportion of the metals have created, the
other defe&s of the circulating coin produce fimilar effefts.
The guineas coined by all the Princes fince K. Charles
II. have been of the fame ftandard weight and finepefs,
44i in a pound troy of ftandard gold fine: thefe have
been conftantiy wearing ever fince they have been coined;
and in proportion to their wearing they are of lefs value.
If, therefore, the new guineas are below the value of
a pound fterling in filver, ftandard weight, the old muft
be of lefs value (till. Here then is another currency,
that is, anotherpoynd fterling ; or indeed, more properly
fpeaking, there are as many different pounds fterling, as
there are guineas of different weights. This is not all ;
the money jobbers having.carried off all the weighty fil¬
ver,' that which is worn with ufe, and reduced even be¬
low the ftandard of gold, forms one currency more, and
totally deftroys all determinate proportion between the
money unit and the currencies which are fuppofed to re-
prefent it.
It may be allied, how, at this rate, any filver has re¬
mained in England ? It is anfwered, that the' few weighty
(hillings which ftill remain in circulation, have marvel-
loufly efcaped the hands of the money jobbers; and as
for thtyeft, the rubbing and wearing of thefe pieces has
done
M O' N ( 2'
donew^at the (late might have done ; that is to fay, it has
reduced them-to their due proportion with the lighted gold.
The diforder, therefore, of the Englifh coin has ren¬
dered the ftandard of a-pound derling quite uncertain.
To fay that it is 1718.7 grains of fine (ilver, is quite
ideal. Who are paid in inch pounds ? To fay that it is
11 g grains of pure gold, may aifo not be true ; becaufe
-there are many currencies worfe than the new guineas.
What then is the cqnfequence of all this diforder ?
What.effect has it upon the current value of a pound
her ling ? And which way can the value of that be deter¬
mined i
The operations of trade bring v<due to an equation,
notwithitahdirtg the greatefl: irregularities poffible, and
fo in fadta pound fferling has acquired a determinate va¬
lue over all the world by the means of foreign exchange.
This is a kind of ideal fcale for meafuring the Britifh
coin, although it has not all the properties of that defcribed
above.
Exchange confiders the pound fterling as a value de¬
termined according 50 the combination of the values of
all the different currencies, in proportion as paynfents
are made in the one or the other ; and as debtors gene¬
rally take care to pay in the worft fpecies they can, it
confequently follows, that the value of the pound fterling
Ihould tall to that of the lowed: currency.
Were there a fufficient quantity of worn gold and di¬
ver to acquit all bills of'exchange, the pound derling
would come down to the value of them ; but if the new
gold be alfo neceffary for that purpofe, the value of it
mud be proportionally greater.
All thefe combinations are liquidated and compenfated
with one another, by the operations of trade and exchange:
and the pound derling, which is fo different i» itfci'f, be¬
comes thereby, in the eyes of commerce, a determinate
unit, fubjedt however to variations, from which it never
can be exempted.
Exchange, therefore, is one of the bed meafures for
valuinia pound derling, prefenf currency. Here occurs
a quedTon: , ,
Does the great quantity of paper money in England
tend to diminifh the value of the pound derling ?
We anfwer in the negative. Paper, money is jud as
good a§ gold or filver money, and no better. The va¬
riation of the dandard,- we have already faid, mud in¬
fluence the intereds of debtors and creditors proportion¬
ally every where. From this it follows, that all augmen¬
tation of the value of the money unit in the fpecie mud
hurt thedebtors in the paper money, and all diminutions,
on the other hand, muft hurt the creditors in the paper mo¬
ney as well as every'w)iere elfe. The payments, there¬
fore, made in paper money, never can contribute to the
regulation of the dandard of the pound derling ; it is the
fpecie received in liquidation of that paper money which'
alone can contribute to mark the value of the Britifh unit;
becaufe it is affixed to nothing elfe.
From this we may draw a principle, WThat in coun¬
tries where the money unit is entirely affixed to the coin,
fhe aftual value of it is not according to the legal dandard
of that coin, but according to the mean propqryon of the
aftua! worth of thofe ctinencics in which d|bts %,re paid.
Vox.. III. 'N0. 80. 2
U ) MON
From this we fee the reafon why the exchange between
England and all other trading^towns in Europe has long
appeared fo unfavourable. People calculate the real par,
upon the, foppofition thatapoupd derling is worth 1718 7
grains troy of fine filver, when in faff the currency is not
perhaps worth 1638, the value of a new guinea in filver,
at the market proportion of 1 to 14.3; that is to fay,
the currency is but 95.3. per cent of the filver dardard
of the 43d of Elizabeth. No wonder then if the ex¬
change be thought unfavourable.
From the principle we have jud laid down, we may
gather a confirmation of what we advanced concerning
thecaufe of the advanced price of bullion in the EngliP.i
market.
When people buy bullion with current money at a de¬
terminate price, that operation, in conjundfion with the
courfe of exchange, ought naturally to mark the adtual
value of the pound derling with great exa&nefs,
If therefore the price of dandard bullion in the Engiifh
market, when no demand is-found for the exportation of
the metals, that is to fay, when paper is found for paper
upon exchange, and when merchantsverfed in thefe mat¬
ters judge exchange (that is, remittances) to be at par,
if then, filver bullion cannot be bought at a lower price
than 65 pence the ounce, it is evident that this bullion
might be bought with 65 pence in fhiliings, of which 65
might be coined out of the pound troy Englidv dandrrd
filver; finCe 65 per ounce implies 65 (hillings for the 12
ounces or pound troy.
This plainly fhews how dandard filver bullion fhould
fell for 6j pence the ounce, in a country where the
ounce of dandard filver in the coin is worth no more
than 62 ; and were'the market price of bullion to ftand
uniformly at 65 pence per ounce, that would fhew the value
of the pound fferling to be tolerably fixed. All the heavy
filver coin is novy carried off; becaufe it was intrinfieaily
worth more than the gold it paffed for in currency. The
filver therefore which remains is worn down to the
market proportion of the metals, as has been faid ; that
is to fay, 20 (hillings in filver currency are worth 113
grains of fine gold, at the proportion of 1 to 14,3 between
gold and filver. Now,
as 1 is to 14.3, fo is 113 to 1638.
fo the 20 (hillings current weigh but 1638 grains fine
filver, indead of 1718.7, which they ought to do accord¬
ing to the (fandardi
Now let us fpeak of dandard filver, fince we are exa¬
mining how'far the Englifh coin mud be worn by ufe.
•The pound troy contains 5 760 grains. This, according
to the dandard, is coined into 62 drillings ; confequently,
every drilling ought to weigh 92.9 grains. Of fuch
drillings it is impoffible that ever dandard bullion drould,
fell at above 62 pen<:e/>i?r ounce. If therefore fuch bullion
fells for 65 pence, the drillings with which it is bought mud
weigh no more than 88.64 grains dandatd filver; that
is, they mud lofe 4 29 grains, and are reduced to a
pound troy.
But it is not neceffary that bullion be bought with
drillings ; no dipulation of price is ever made farther,
than at fo many pence de’rling per ounce. Does not this
virtually determine the value of fuch currency with re-
3 U gard
MON ( 21
ward to all the currencies in Europe ? Did a Spaniard, a
Frenchman, or a Dutchman, know the exaft quantity of
filver bullion which can be bought in the London market
for a pound fterling, would he inform himfelf any farther
as to the intrinfic value of that money-unit’; would he not
underftand the value of it far better from that circum-
ftancethan by the courfe of any exchange, fince exchange
does not mark-the it}trin!ic value of money, but only the
value of that money tranfported from one place to ano¬
ther ?
The price of bullion, therefore, when it is not influen¬
ced by extraordinary demand, (fuch as for the payment
of a balance of trade, or for making an extraordinary
provifion of plate) but when it (lands at what everybody
knows to be meant by the common market price, is a very
tolerable meafure of the value of the a final money (lan-
dard in any country. ,
If it be therefore true, that a pound (lerling cannot
purchafe above 1638 grains of fine fiiver bullion, it will
require not a little logic to prove that it is really, or has
been for thefe many years, worth any more ; notwith-
itanding that the (landard weight of it in England is re¬
gulated by the laws of the kingdom at 1718.7 grains of
fine filver.
If to this valuation of the pound (lerling drawn from
the price of bullion, we add the other drawn from the
courfe of exchange; and if by this we find, that when
paper is found for paper upon exchange, a pound (lerling
cannot purchafe above 1638 grains of fine filver in any
country in Europe ; upon thefe two authorities we may
very fafely conclude (as to the matter of fa£t at lead.)
that the pouqd'dei'ling is not worth more, either in London
or in any other trading city ; and if this be .the cafe, it
is juft worth 20 (hillings of 65 to the pound troy.
If therefore the mint were to coin (hillings at that rate,
and pay for filver bullion at the market price, that is, at
the rate of 65 pence per ounce in thofe new coined (hil¬
lings, they would be in proportion to the gold ; filver
would be carried to the mint equally with gold, and would
be as little fubjeft to be exported or melted down.
It may be inquired in this place, how far the coining
the pound troy into 65 (hillings'is contrary to the laws
of England ?
The moment a date pronounces a certain quantity of
gold to be worth a certain quantity of filver, and orders
thefe refpe&ive quantities of each metal to be received as
equivalents of each other, arid as lawful money in pay¬
ments, that moment gold is made a ftandard as much as
diver. If therefore too fmall a quantity of gold be or¬
dered or permitted to be confidered as an equivalent for
the unit, the filver ftandard is from that moment debafed;
orindeed, more properlyfpeaking, all filver money is from
that moment proferibed ; for who, from that time, will
ever pay in filver, when he can pay cheaper in gold ?
Gold, therefore, by fuch a law, is made the ftandard, and
all declarations to the contrary are againft the matter of
fad.
Were the king, therefore, to coin filver at 65 (hillings
in the pound, it is datn'onftration, f/jat by fuch an afibt
would comuiit.no adulteration upon the ftandard : the
adulteration is already committed. The ftandard has
$2 ) MON
defeended to where it is, by (low degrees, and by the
operation of political caufes only; and nothing prevents it
from falling lower, but the ftandand of thegold coin. Let
guineas be now left to feek their value as they did former¬
ly, and let light lilver continue to go by tale, Ve fhall fee
the guineas up at ,30 (hillings in 20 years time, as was the
cafe in i69y.
It is as abfurd to fay that the ftandard of Queen Eliza-
beth-has not been debafed by enading that the Englifh
unit (hall be acquitted with 113 grains of fine gold, as it
would be to affirm that it would not be debafed from what
it is at prefent by enading that a pound of butter (hould
every where be received in payment for a pound fterling;
although the pound fterling (houl$ continue to confift of
3 ounces, 17 penny-weights, and 10 grains of ftandard
filver, according to the ftatute of the 43d of Elizabeth.
In that cafe moft debtors would pay in butter, and filver
would, as at prefent, acquire a conventional value as a
metal, but would be looked upon no longer as a ftandard,
or as money.
If therefore, by the law of England, a pound fterling
muft confift of 1718.7 grains troy of fine filver; by the
law of England alfo, 1x3 grains of gold muft .be of the
fame value : but no law can eftablifh that proportion ;
confequentiy, in which ever way a reformation be brought
about, fome law muft be reverfed ; confequentiy, expe¬
diency, and not compliance with law, muft be the motive
in reforming the abufe.
From what has been faid, it is not at all furprifing that
the pound fterling (hould in fad be reduced nearly to the
value of the gold. Whether it ought to be-kept at that
value is another queftion. All that we here decide, is,
that coining the pound troy into 65 (hillings would re-
ftore the proportion of the metals, and ren'derboth fpecies
common in circulation. But reftoring the weight and
proportion of the coin is not the difficulty which prevents
a reformation of the Englifh coinage.
Circuinfiances to be attended to in a new regulation of the
Britijh coin.
To people w ho do not under (land the nature of fuch
operations, it may have an air of juftice to fupport the
unit at what is commonly believed to be the ftandard
of Queen Elizabeth, to wit, at 1718.5 grains of fine filver.
T he regulating the ftandard of both filver and gold to
4-t fine, and the pound fterling to four ounces ftandard
fiiver, as it ftood during the reign of Queen Mary I. has
alfo its advantages, as Mr Harris has oblerved. It makes
the crown piece to weigh juft one ounce, the (hilling four
penny weight, and the penny eight grains ; conlequently,
were the new ftatute to bear, that the weight of the coin
fhould regulate its currency upon certain occafions, the
having the pieces adjufted to certain aliquot parts of
weight would make weighing eafy,. and would accuftom
the common people to judge of the value of money by its
weight, and not by the (lamp.
In that cafe, there might be a conveniency in finking
the gold coins of the fame weight with the filver ; becaufe
the proportion of their values would then conftantly be
the fame jvith the proportion of the metals. The .gold
crowns would be worth at prefent, 3/. 12/. (od. the
half
M O N (
hilfcrowns i/. \6s. ^d. the gold (hilling^ 14/. and (W.
and the half 7 /. and 3 d.. This was anciently, the prac¬
tice in the Spanifh mints.
The intereth within the ftate can be nowife perfectly
protected bat by permitting conTerfions of value from the
old to the new ftandard, whatever it be, and by regula¬
ting the footing of fuch converfions by ad of parliament,
according to circumftances.
For this purpofe, we ihall examine thofe intereffs which
will chiefly merit the attention of government, when they
form a regulation for the future of acquitting permanent
contrads already entered into. Such as may be contrac¬
ted afterwards will naturally follow the new ftandard.
The landed intereft is, no doubt, the mdft confiderable
in the nation. Let us- therefore examine, in the firft
place, what regulations it maybe proper to make, in or¬
der to do juftice to this great clafs, with refped to the
land-tax on one hand, and with refped to their leflees on
the other.
The valuation of the lands of England was made many
years ago, and reafonably ought to be fuuported at the
real value of the pound fterling at that time, according
to the principles already laid down. The general valua¬
tion, therefore, of the whole kingdom will rife according
to this fcheme. Th's will be confidered as an injuftice;
and no doubt it would be fo, if, for-the future, the land
tax be impofed as heretofore, without attending to this
circumftance ; but as that impofition is annual, as it is
laid on by the landed intereft itfelf, who compofe the
parliament, it is to be fuppofed that this great clafs will
at leaft take care of their own intereft.
Were the valuation of the lands to be ftated accord-
ing to the valuation of the pound fterling of 1718 7 frains
of filver, which is commonly fuppofed to be the ftandard
of Elizabeth, there would be no great injury done : this
would faife the valuation only 5 per cent, and the land
tax in proportion.
There is" no clafs of inhabitants in all England fo much
at their eafe, and fo free from taxes, as the clafs of far¬
mers. By.living in the country, and by confuraing the
fruits of the earth without their fuffering any alienation,
they avoid the effetfl of many excifes, which, by tho.fe
who live in corporations, are felt upon many articles of
their confumption, as well as on thofe which are im¬
mediately loaded-with thefe impbfttions. For this reafon
it will not, perhaps, appear unreafonablei if the additi¬
onal 5 per cent, on the land tax were thrown upon this
clafs, and not upon the landlords.
With refpeff to leafes, it may be obfervedj that we
have gone upon the fuppofition that the pound fterling in
the year 1728, was worth-1718.7 grains of fine filver,
and 11 3 grains of fine gold.
There would be no injuftice done the lefiees of all the
lands in the kingdom, were their rents to be fixed at the
mean proportion of thefe values. We have obfeiVed how
the pound fterling has been gradually diminifhing in its
worth from that time by the gradual rife of the filver.
This mean proportion, therefore, will nearly anfwer to
what the value of the ppund fterling was in 1743 ; fup-
pofing the rife of the filver to have been uniform.
^ It maybe farther alledged in favour of the landlords,
that the gradual debafement of the ftandard has been'
more prejudicial to their intereft in letting their lands,
than to the farmers in difpofing of the fruits of them.
Proprietors cannot fo eafily raife their rents upon cev/
leafes, as farmers can raife the prices of their grain, ac¬
cording to the debafement of the value of the currency.
The pound fterhng, thus regulated at the mean pro¬
portion of its worth, as it ftands at prefent, and as it
flood in 1728, may be realized in 1678.6 grains of fine
filver, and 115.76 grains fine gold : which is 2.4 per
cent, above the value of the prefent currency. No in¬
jury, therefore, would be done to leflees, and no unrea-
fonable gain would accrue to the landed intereft, in ap¬
pointing converfions of all land rents at per cent, a-
bove the value of the prefent currency.
Without a thorough knowledge of every circumflance
relating to Great Britain, it is impblEble to lay down any
plan. It is fufficient, here, briefly to point out the prin*
ciples upon-which it muft be regulated.
The next intereft to be confidered is that of the oa*
tion’s creditors. The right regulation of their concerns
will have a confiderable influence in eftablifhing public
credit upon a folid bafis, by making it appear to all the
world, that no political operation upon the money of
Great Britain can in any refpe£t either benefit or preju¬
dice the intereft' of thofe who lend their r&oney upon the
faith of the nation The regukuing alfo the intereft of
fo great a body, will ferve as a rule for all creditors who
are in the fame circumftances, and will, upon other ac¬
counts, be produdive of greater advantages to thenatioa
in time coming.
In 1749, a new regulation was madeewith the public
creditors, when the intereft of the whole redeemable na¬
tional debt was reduced to 3 per cent. This circumftance
infinitely facilitates the matter, with refped to this clafs,
fince, by this innovation of all former contrads, the whole:
national debt may be confidered as contraded at or po-
fterior to the 25th of December 1749.
Were the ftate, by any arbitrary operation upon money,,
(which every reformation muft be,) to dimin lh the value
of the pound fterling in which the parliament at that
tinie bound the nation to acquit tbofe capitals and the
intere/l upon them, would not all Europe fay, that the
Britifli parliament had defrauded their creditors ? If
therefore the operation propofed to be performed (hould
have a contrary tendency, to wit, to augment the value
of the pound fterling with which the parliament at that
time bound the nation to acquit thofe capitals and interefts,.
muft not all Europe alfo agree, that the Britilh parlia-
mentftiad defrauded the nation?
This convention with the ancient creditors of the ftatej,
who, in cOnfequence of the debafement of the ftandard,
might have juftly claimed an indemnification for the lofs
upon their capitals, lent at a time when the pound fter¬
ling was at the value of the heavy filver, removes all
caufe of complaint from that quarter. There was in the
year 1749, an innovation in all their contradb ; and they
are now to be confidered as creditors only from the 25th
of December of that year.
Let the value of the pound fterling be inquired into
during one year preceding and one polterior to the tranf-
MON ( 26a ) M O N
aSlon of the month of December 1749. The great fums
borrowed and paid back by the nation during that pe¬
riod will furnifh data fufficient for jhat calculation.
Le,t this value of the pound be fpecified in troy grains of
fine filver and fine gold bullion, without mentioning any
denomination of money according to the exaft proportion
of the metals at that time. And let this pound be call-
ed^he pound of national credit.
This firft operation being determined, let it be enafted,
that the pound fterling, by which the'ftate is to borrow
for the future, and that in which the creditors are to be
paid, fhall be the exaft mean proportion between the
quantities of gold and filver above fpecified, according to
the aflual proportion of the metals at the time fuch pay¬
ments lhall be made ; or that the fums lhall be borrowed
or acquitted, one half in gold and one half in filver, at
the refpeftive requifitions of the creditors or of the date,
when borrowing. AH debts contra&ed poderior.to 1749,
may be made liable to converfions.
The confequence of this regulation will be the infenfi-
ble eftablilhment of a bank money. Nothing would be
more difficult to eftabliffi, by a gofitive revolution, than
fuch an invariable meafure ; and nothing will be found fo
eafy as to let it eftabliffi itfelf by its own advantages.
This bank money will be liable to much fewer inconve¬
niences than that of Amfterdam. There the perfons
tranfa&ing muft be upon, the fpot; here, the fterling cur¬
rency may, every quarter of a year, be adjufted by the
exchequer to this invariable flandard, for the benefit of
all debtors and creditors, who incline to profit of the
liability of this meafure of value. •
This fcheme is liable to no inconvenience from the va¬
riation of the metals, let them be ever fo frequent, or
hard to be determined ; becaufe upon every occafion where
there is the fmallefl doubt as to the aftual proportion,
the option competent to creditors to be paid half in filver
and half in gold will remove.
Such a regulation will alfo have this good effiedt, that
it will give theliation more juft ideas of the nature of mo-
■ ney, and confequently of the influence it ought to have
upon prices. 1
If the value of the pound fterling ffiall be found to have
been by accident lefs in December 1749, than it is at pre-
fent; or if at prefent the currency be found below w-kat has
commonly been fince 1749, in juftice to the creditors, and
to prevent all complaints, the nation may grant them the
mean proportion of the value of the pound fterling from
1749 to 1760; or any other which may to parliament
appear reafonable.
This regulation muft appear equitable in the eyes of all
Europe; and the ftrongeft proof of it will be, that it will
not produce the ftnalleft effedt prejudicial to the intereft
of the foreign creditors. The courfe of exchange with
regard to them will ftand precifely as before.
A Dutch, French, or German creditor, will receive
the fame value for his intereft ia the Engliffi flocks as
heretofore. This muft filence all clamours at home, being
the moft convincing proof, that the new regulation of the
:Coin will have made no alteration upon the-real value of
;8ny man’s property, let him be debtor or creditor.
The intereft of every other denomination of creditors,
whofe contradfs are of a fi effi date, may be regulated up¬
on the fame principles. But where debts are of an old
Handing, juftice demands, that attention Be had to the
value of money at the time oi contradling. - Nothing but
the liability of the Engliffi coin, when compared with that
of other nations, can make fuch a propofal appear extra¬
ordinary. Nothing is better known in France than this
ftipulation added to obligations, Argent au court de ce
jour; that is to fay, that the fuin ffiall be repaid in coin
of the fame intriafic value with what has been lent. Why
ffiould fuch a claule be thought reafonatle for guarding
people againft arbritrary operations upon the numerary
value of the coin, and not be found juft upon every oc--
cafion when the numerary value of it is found to be chan¬
ged, let the caufe be w'hat it will ?
The next intereft we ffiall examine is that of trade.
When men have attained the age of twenty one, they have
no more occafion for guardians. This may be applied to
traders: they can party with their pen every inconveni¬
ence which may refult to other people from the changes
upon money, provided only the laws permit them to do
themfdves juftice with refpeft to their engagements. This
clafis demands no’more than a right tooonvert all recipro¬
cal obligations into denominations of coin of the fame
intrinfic value with thofe they have contradled in.
The next intereft is that of buyers and fellers ; that is,
of manufacturers with regard to confumers, and of fer-
vants with refpqft to thofe who hire their perfonal fer-
vice.
The intereft of this clafs requires a moft particular at¬
tention. They muft, literally fpeaking, be put to fchool,
and ttught the firft principles of their trade, which is
buying and felling. Theymuft learn to judge of price by
th,e grains of filver and gold they receive: They are chil¬
dren of a mercantile mother, however warlike the father’s
difpofujon maybe. If it be the intereft of\the ftate that
their bodies be rendered robuft and aftive, it is no lefs
the intereft of the ftate that their minds be inftrufted in
the firft principle of the trade they exercife.
For this purpofe, tables of converfion from the old
flandard to the new muft be made, and ordered to be put
up in every.market, in every ffiop. All duties, all ex-
cifes, muft be converted in the fame manner. Uniformity
muft be made to appear every where. The fmalleft de¬
viation from this will be a .humbling block to the multi¬
tude.
Not only the intereft of the individuals of the clafs
we are ar prefent confidering, demands the nation’s care
and attention inthis particular; but the profperity of trade,
and the well-being of the nation, are alfo deeply inte-
refted in the execution.
The whole delicacy of the intricate combinations of
commerce depends upon a juft and equable vibration of
prices, according as circumftances demand it. The more
therefore the induftrious clafles are inftruCted in the prin¬
ciples which influence prices, the more ealily will the ma¬
chine move. A workman then learns to fink his price
without regret, and can raifi? it Without avidity. When
principles ar enot undetftood, prices cannot gently fall,
they
MON ( 265 ) M O . N
they mufl be pulled down; and merchants dare no; fuf-
fer ihem to rife, for fear of abufe, even although the per¬
fection of an infant manufacture fliould'require it..
The laft intereft is that of the bank of England, which
naturally muft regulate that of every other.
Had this great company followed the example of other
banks, and eftablilhed a bank money-of an invariable
ftandsrd, as the meafure of all their debts and credits,
they would hot have been liable to any inconvenience up¬
on a variation of the ftandard.
The bank of England was projected about the year
1694, at a time when the current money of the nation
was in the gr.eateft diforder, and government in tire great-
eft diftrefs, both for money and for credit. Commerce
was then at a very low ebb ; and the only, or at leaft the
moft profitable trade of any, was jobbing in coin, and
carrying backwards and forwards,the precious metals from
Holland to England. Merchants profited alfo greatly
from the effects which the utter diforder of the coin pro¬
duced upon the price of merchandize.
At fuch a juncture the refolution was taken to make a
new coinage ; and upon the profpeCt of this, a company
was found, who, for an exclufive charter to hold a bank
for 13 years, willingly lent the government upwards of a
million fterling at 8 per cent, (in light money we fuppofe)
with a profpeCt of being repaid both intereft and capital
in heavy. This was not all: part of the money lent
was to be applied for the eftablifhment of the bank; and
no iefs than 4000 pounds a year was allowed to the com¬
pany, above the full intereft, for defraying the charge of
management^
Under fuch circumftances the introduction of bank-
money Was very fuperfluous, and would have been very
impolitic. That invention is calculated againft the raifing
of the ftandard ; but here the bank profited of that rife
in its quality of creditor for the money lent, and took
care not to commence debtor by circulating their paper,
until the effeCf of the new regulation took place in 1695 ;
that is, after the general recoihage of all the clippped
filver.
From that time til! now', the bank of England has
been the bafis of the nation’s credit, and with great rea-
fon has been conftantly under the moft intimate protec¬
tion of every minifter.
The value of the pound fterling, as we have feen, has
been declining ever fince the year iboi, the ftandard be¬
ing fixed to (ilver during all that century, while the gold
was'conftaatly rifing. No fooner had the proportion ta¬
ken another turn, and filver begun to rife, than the go¬
vernment of England threw the ftandard virtually upon
the gold, .by regulatmg the value of the guineas at the
exaCf proportion of the market. By thefe operations,
however, the bank" has conftantly beem a gainer (in its
quality of debtor) upon all the paper in circulation; and
therefore has loft nothing by not having eftablilhed a bank-
money.
The intereft of this great company being eftabliftied
upon the principles we have errdeavoured to explain, it is
very evident, that the government of England never will
take any ftep in the reformation of the coin which in its
confequences can prove hurtful to the bank. Such a ftep
Vol. III. N°. 80. 2
wou(d be contrary both to juftice and t& common fenfe.
To make a regulation which, by raifing the ftandard,
will prove beneficial to the public creditors, to the pre¬
judice of the bank (which we may call the public debtor)
would be an operation upon public credit, like that of a
perfon who is at great pains to fupppt t his houfe by props
upon all fides, and who at the fame time blows up the
foundation of it with gun-powder.
We may therefore conclude, that with regard to the
bank of Ebgland, as well as every other private banker,.
the notes which atje conftantly payable upon demand
muft be made liable to a converfion at the actual value of
the pound fterling at the time of the new regulation.
That the bank will gain by this, is very certain ; but
the circulation of their notes is fo fwift that it would be
abfurd to allow to the then poiTdTors of them that in¬
demnification which naturally fhould be fhared by all
thofe through whofe hands they have palled, in propor¬
tion to the debafement of the ftandard during the time of
their refpedlive pofieflion.
Befides thefe confiderations, which are in common to
all ftates, the government of Great Britain has one pe¬
culiar to itfelf. The intereft of the bank, and that of
the creditors, are diametrically oppofite: every thing
which raifes the ftandard, hurts the bank; everything
which can fink it, hurts the creditors: and upon the right
management of the one and the other, depends the foli-
dity of public credit. For thefe reafons, without the
moll: certain profpeift of condu&ing a reftitution of the
ftandard to the general advantage as well as approbation
of the nation, no minifter will probably ever undertake
fo dangerous an operation.
We fhall now propofe an expedient which may remove
at leaft fome of the inconveniences which would refuit
from fo extenfive an undertaking as that of regulating the
refpedtive interefts in Great Britain by a pofitive law,
upon a change in the value of their money of accompt.
Suppofe then, that, -before any change is made in the
’coin, government fhould enter into a tranfablion with the
public creditors, and afcertain a permanent value for the
pound fterling for the future, fpecified in a determined
proportion of the fine metals in common bullion, with¬
out any regard to money of accompt, or to any coin
whatever.
This preliminary ftep being taken, let the intended al¬
teration of the ftandard be proclaimed a certain time be¬
fore it is to commence. Let the nature of the change
be clearly explained, and let all fuch as are engaged in
contradfs which -are diftblvable at will upon the prefta-
tions ftipulated, be acquitted between the parties, or in¬
novated as they fhall think proper, with certification,
that, pofterior to a certain day, the ftipulations formerly
entered into fhall be binding according to the desomina-
tions of the money of accompt in the new ftandard.
As to permanent contradfs,' which cannot at once be
fulfilled and diftolved. Inch as Jeafes, the parliament may
either preTcribe the methods and terras of converfion ; or
a liberty may be given to the'parties to annul the con-
tradl, upon the debtor’s refufing to perform his agree¬
ment according to the new ftand^rd. Contradls, on the
other hand, might remain-liable, with refpedl to credi-
MON (2
tors who would be fatisfied with payments made on the
footing of the old ftandard. If the rife intended (hould
not be very confiderable, no great injuftiee can follow fuch
a regulation.
Annuities are now thoroughly undefftood, and the va¬
lue of them is brought to fo nice a calculation, that no¬
thing will be eafier than to regulate thefe upon the foot¬
ing of the value paid for them, or of the fubjed affe&ed
by them. If by the regulation land-rents are made to
rife in denomination, the annuities charged upon them,
ought to rife in proportion ; if in intrinlic value, the an¬
nuity (hould remain as it was.
Regulations which the principles of this inquiry point
out as expedient io be shade by a new Jlatute for regu¬
lating the Britijb coin.
Let us now examine what regulations it may be pro¬
per to make by a new ftatute concerning the coin of Great
Britain, in order to preferve always the fame exaft value
of the pound fterl ng realized in gold and in fiiver, in
fpite of all the incapacities inherent in the metals to per¬
form the fundtioiTs of an invariable fcale or mealure of
value.
1. The (irft point is to determine the exa£t number of
grains of fine gold and fine fiiver which are to compofe it,
according to the then proportion of the metals in the Lon¬
don market.
2. To determine the proportion of thefe metals with
the pound troy, and in regard that the dandard of gold
and fiiver is different, let the mint price of both metals
be regulated according to the pound troy fine.
3. To fix the mint, price within certain limits: that is
to fay, to leave to the King and Council, by proclama¬
tion, to carry the mint price of bullion up to the value
of the coin, as is the prefent regulation, or to fink it to
per cent, below that price, according as govern
ment lhall incline to impofe a duty upon coinage.
4. To order, that fiiver and gold coin, {hall be ftruck
of fuch denominations as the K.ng fhall think fit to ap¬
point ; in which the proportion of the metals above de¬
termined fhall be conftantly obferved through every de¬
nomination of the„coin, until neceflity fhall make a new
general coinage unavoidable.
y. Tohave the number of grains of the fine metal in
every piece marked upon the exergue, or upon the legend
of the coin, in place of fome initial letters of titles,
which not one perfon in a tboufand can decypher ; and
to make the coin of as compaft a form as pollible, dimi-
niihing the furface of it as much as is confident with
beauty. '
6 That it fhall be lawful for all contracting parties to
fiipulate their payments either in gold or fiiver coin, or
to leave the option of the fpecies to one of the parties.
7. That where no particular dipulation is made, cre¬
ditors dial! have power to demand payment, half in one
fpecies, half in the other ; and when the fum cannot fall
equally into gold and fiiver coins, the fractions to be paid
in fiiver.
8. That in buying and felling, when no particular fpe¬
cies has been dipulated, and when no aft in writing has
66 ) MON
intervened, the option of the fpecies {hall be competent
to the buyer.
9. That all Turns paid or received by the King’s re¬
ceivers, or by bankers, fhall be delivered by weight, if
demanded.
10 That all mdney which fhall be found under the
legal weight, from whatever caufe it may proceed, may
be rejected in every payment whatfoever; or if offered in
payment of a debt above a certain fum, may be taken ac¬
cording to its weight, at the then mint price, in the option
of the creditor.
11. That no penalty fhall be incurred by thofe who
melt down orexport the nation’s coin ; but that wafhing,
clipping, or diminifhing the weight of any part of it fhall
be deemed felony, as much as any other theft, if the
perfon fo degrading the coin fhall afterwards make it cir¬
culate for lawful money.
To prevent the inconveniences proceeding from the
variation in the proportion between the metals, it may be
provided,
12. That upon every variation of proportion in the
market price of the metals, the price of both fhall be
changed, according to the following rule.
Let the prics^of the pound troy tine gold in the coin
be called G.
Let the price of ditto in the fiiver be called S.
Let the new proportion between the market price of
the metals be called P.
Then flate this formula,:
to a pound troy fine fiiver, in flerling currency.
—P -j—=to apound troy fine gold, in fierling currency.
This will be a rule for the mint, to keep the price of
the metals conftantly at par with the price of the market;
and coinage may be Impofed, as has been defcribed, by
fixing the mint price of them at a certain rate below the
value of the fine metals in the coin.
13. As long as the variation of the market price of the
metals (hall not carry the price of the rifing metal fo high
as the advanced price of the coin above the bullion, no
alteration need be made on the denomination of either
fpecies.
14, So foon as the variation of the market price of the
metals fhan give a value to the rifing fpecies, above the
difference between the coin and the bullion ; then the
king fhall alter the denominations of all the coin, filveff
and gold, adding to the coins of the nfing tecta! exactly
what is taken from thofe of the other. An example will
make this plain.
Let us fuppofe that the coinage has been made accor¬
ding to the proportion of 14 5 to 1 ; that ;o {hillings,
dr 4 crown-pieces, {hall contain, in fine fiiver, 14.5 times
as many grains as the guinea, or the gold pound, fhall
contain grains of fine gold. Let the new proportion of
the metals be fuppofed to be 14 to 1. In that cafe, the
20 fhillings, or the 4 crowns, will contain ^ more value
than the guinea. Now fince there is no queftion of ma¬
king a new general coinage upon every variation, in or¬
der to adjuft the proportion of the metals in the weight
of
M O N (
of the coins, that proportion muft. be adjulTed by chan¬
ging their refpe&ive denominations according to this
formula.
Let the 20 fhillings, or 4 crowns, in coin, be called S.
v Let the guinea becalkn G. Let the difference between
the old proportion and the new, which is be called
P. Then'fay,
P p
S———= a pound derling, and G-f— = a pound fterlmg.
2 2
By this it appears that all the filver coin muftberaifed
in its denomination and all the gold coin mud: be
lowered in its denomination -Jg- ; yet dill S+G will be:
equal to two pounds derling, as before, whether they
be confidered according to the old, or according to the
new denominations.
But it may be obferved, that the impofition of coinage
rendering the value of the coin greater than the value of
the bullion, tharcirctyndance gives a certain latitude in
fixing the new denominations of the coin, fo as to avoid
-minute frafficns. For, providing the deviation from the
exa<51 proportion (hall fall within the advanced price of the
coin, no advantage can be taken by melting down one
fpecies preferably to another; fince, in either cafe, the
lofs incurred by melting the coin mud be greater than the
profit madeupon felling the bullion. The mint price pf
the metals, however, may befixed exadtly, that is, within
the value of a farthing upon a pound of fine filver or gold.
This is eafily reckoned at the mint; although upon every
piece in common circulation the fraftions of farthings
would be inconvenient.
15. That notwithdanding of the temporary variations
made upon the denomination of the gold and filver coins,
all contrafts formally entered into, and all dipulations in
pounds fliiilings and pence, may continue to be acquit¬
ted according to t! e old denominations of tiie coins, pay¬
ing one half in gold, and one half in filver: unlefs in the
cafe where a particular fpecies has been dipulated ; in
which cafe, the fums mud be paid according to the new
regulation made upon the denomination of that fpecies to
the end that neither profit or lofs may refult to any of the
parties.
16. That notwith-dariding the alterations on the mint
price of the metals, and in the denomination of the coins,
no change lhall be made upon the weight of the particu¬
lar pieces of the latter^ except in the cafe of a general
recoinage of one denomination at lead : that is to fay,
the mint mud not coin new guineas, crowns, *
different weight from thofe already in currency, although
by fo doing the fractions might be avoided. This would
occafion confufion, and the remedy would ceafe to be of
any ufe upon a new change in the proportion of the me¬
tals. But it may be found convenient, for removing the
6*} ) MON
, final! fraffions in (hillings and fixpences, to recoin fuch
denominations all together, and to put them to their
integer numbers, of twelve and of fix pence, without
changing in any refpedt their proportion of value to all o-
ther denominations of the coin : this will be no great ex¬
pence, when the bulk of the filver coin is put into j (hil¬
ling pieces.
By this method of changing the denominations of the
coin, there never can refult any alteration in the value of
the pound derling: and although fra&ions of "value may
now and then be introduced, in order to prevent the a-
bufes to which the coin would otherwife be expofed- by
the artifice of thofe who melt it down, yet dill the in¬
convenience of fuch fractions may be avoided in paying,
according to the old denominations, in both fpecies, by
equal parts. This willalfo prove demondratively, that
no change is thereby made in the true value of the na¬
tional unit of money.
17. That it be ordered, that (hillings and fixpences (hall
Only be current for twenty years, and all other coins,
both gold and filver, for forty years, or more. For af-
certaining which term, there may be marked, upon the
exergue of the coin, the lad year of their currency, in
place of the date of their fabrication. This term elap-
fed, or the date effaced, that they (hall have no more
currency whatfoever ; and when offered in payment, may
be received as bullion at the aftual price of the mint, or
refqfedat the option of the creditor.
18. That no foreign coin (hall have any /ega/ curren¬
cy, except as bullion at the mint price.
Jdy thefe or the like regulations may be prevented,
1 mo. The melting or exporting of the coin in general.
1J0, The melting or exporting one fpecies, in order to-
fell it as bullion, at an advanced price. .3/w, The profit
in acquitting obligations preferably in one fpecies to ano¬
ther. 4/0, The degradation of the dandard, by the
wearing of the coin, or by a change in the proportion
between the metals. 5/5, The circulation of the coin
below the legal weight. 9/0, The profit that other na¬
tions reap by paying their debts more cheaply to Great
Britain than Great Britain can pay hers to them.
And the great advantage of it is, that it is an uniform
plan, and may ferv^as a perpetual regulation, compatible
with all kinds of denominations ot coins, variations in
the proportion of the metals, and with the impofition of
a duty upon coinage ; or with the preferving it free: and
further, that it may in time be adopted by other nations,,
who will find the advantage of having their money of ac-
compt preferved perpetually at the fame value, with re-
fpedt to the denominotions of all foreign money of kc-
Comp edabiidled on the fame principles.
TABLE
MON ( :
MONK, a perfdn who wholly dedicates hsmfslf to-the
fet-vice of religion, in fome mooaftery, under tlie di-
' region of forne particular ftatures and rules.
The molt probable account of the original of the
monks is, that in the Decian perfecution, inyhe middle
of the I.IId century, many perfons in Egypt, to avoid
. the fury of the ilorm, fled to the neighbouring defarts
and mountains, where ’they not only found a fafe re¬
treat, but alfo more time and fiberty to exercife thefn-
felves in a&sof piety and divine contemplations ; which
fort of life-became io agreeable, that when the perfecu-
tion wasover, they refufed toretum to their habitations
~ again, chufing rather to continue in thofe cottages and
- cells, which they had made for themfeives in the wil-
dernefs. From that time to the reign of Cpnllantine,
mouachifm was confined to the hermits or anachorets,
who lived in private cells in the wildernefs; but when
Pachomiusbad erefted monafteries, other countries pre-
fently followed the example.
MONKEY,’ in zoology. See Si mi a.-
MONMOUTH, the capital of Monmouth fhire, fitua-
ted on the river Wye, twenty-five miles snorth of
. Briltol. .
MONOCHORD, amufical inflrument, compofed of one
firing, ufed to try the variety and proportion of founds.
MONOGULUS, in zoology, a genus of the order of
aptera. The feet are fitted for fwimming ; ihe body
is covered with a cruftaceous fkin ; and the eyes are
very near each other. There are nine fpecies.
‘"MONODON, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes belong¬
ing to the order of bete. It has a long wreathed tooth
in the uppier jaw, which perforates the upper-lip, and
has the appearance of a horn ; from this circumflance
it has got the name of th£ unicorn-fifh. This fifh is
of the whale kind, and often grows to 25 feet in
length, though the general fize is from 16 to 20.
MONODY, in ancient poetry, a mournful kind of
fong, fung by a perfon all alone, to give vent to his
grief. , t
MONOECIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 63^.
MONOGAMY, the flate or condition of thofe who
have only-been once married, and are reftrained to a
Angle wjfe. „
MONOGRAM, a charadter or cypher, compofed of one,
two, or more letters, interwoven ; being a kind of ab¬
breviation of a name, anciently ufed as a feal, badge,
arms, &c.
MONOLOGUE, in poetry, a dramatic fcene, in which
a perfon appears alone on the Rage, and ipeaks to
himfbif.
MONOMOTOPA, a country of Africa, bounded by
Mdnemugi on the north, and by Cafraria on the eaft,
fomb.-and weft.
MONOPETALOUS, in botany, a term applied to
flowers that have.only one petal, or flower-E«f.
MONOPOLI, a town in the kingdom of Naples, fitu-
ated on the. gulph. of Venice : E long. 180, and N.
lat. 410 5'.
MONOPOLY, one or mr'ce perfons making themfeives
the foie ruaftcrs of the whole of a commodity, manu-
ladrure. nd the like, in order to make private ad-
Vo. III. N°. 8.0. 2
169 ) MON
vantage of it, by felling it again at a very advanced
' price.
MONOPYRENEOUS, in botany, fuch fruit'as contains
onlyune feed, or kernel.
MONOSTlCH, an epigram that cpnfifts of only one
Angle verfe.
MONOSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word that conAfts
of only one fyllable, and is compofed of either one or
more letters pronounced at the fame tithe.
MONOTONY, an uniformity of found, or a fault in
pronunciation, when a long feries of words are deli¬
vered in one unvaried tone.
MONOTROPA, in bdtany, a ^genus of the decandria
monbgynia clafs. It has no caltx ; the petals are ten;
and it has Aye capfules.- There are two fpecies, one
o'F which, viz. the hypopithys., or bird’s neftfmelling
' like the roots of the primrofe, is a native of Britain.
MONS, the capital of the province of Hainalt, in the
Auftrian Netherlands : Atnated twenty-Ax miles fouth-
weft of Bruflels : eaft long. 3^ 33', and fouth lat.
5°° 34 ■-
MONSIEUR, a title of civility ufed by the French, in
fpeaking to, or of their equals, or thofe that are but
a little below them, fynonimous with Sir in Eng-
lifh.
MONSOON, in phyAology, a fpecies of trade-wind, in
the Eaft-Indies, which for Ax months blows conl^ant-
ly the fame way, and the contrary way the other
Ax months. See Pneumatic s, Of Winds.
MONSTER, in general, denotes any produ&ion that
deviates from the fpecies to which it belongs, whether
with refpeft to the number pr difpoAtion of its p'arts ;
in which fenfe, a man with Ax fingers on each hand,
or fix toes on each foot, is a monller. But the term
monfter feems to be chiefly applied to fuch produc¬
tions as deviate very much from the ordinary courfe of
nature.
MONTE sancto, or Mount-Athos, a mountain of
European Turky, in the province of Macedon : E.
Iqng. 230, andN. lat. 40° 12'.
-It is called Monte San<So, or Holy Mountain, from,
twenty two monafteries fituated upon it, in which
are four thoufand mbnksf or friars, who never fuffer a
woman to come \Vitbin fight of their convent.
MONTFERRAT, a duchy in Italy, bounded by the
lordlhip of Verceil on the north, by the Alexandria
on the eaft, by-the territory of Genoa on the fouth,
and by the county of Afti on theAveft.
MONTFORT, the capital of the county of Montfort,
* in the circle of S wabia, in Germany : E. long. 9° 40',
and N. lat, 47° 15'.
MONTGOMERY, the capital of Montgomery (hi re, in
Wales, fituated on the river Severn, twenty miles fouth-
weft of Shrewlbury.
.MONTH, the twelfth part of a year. See Astro¬
nomy.
MONTI A, in botany, a genus of the triandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confifls of one leaf, and the corolla
of one irregular petal ; and the capfulc has one cell
and three- valves. There is but one fpecies, viz.
the fentana, or water chickweed, a native of Britain.
3 Y MONTIFRINGILLA,
M ON ( 270 ) M O II
MONTIFIIINGILLA, in zoology. See Fringilla. where there is a monaftery and chapel dedicated to
MONTPELIER, a city of France, in the province of the Virgin Mary, to which there is a great reiort of
Languedoc and county of Nifmes, fnuated on the little pilgrims.
river Lez, fifty miles north-eafl of Narbonne, and Montserat is alfo one of the fnialleft of the Caribbee
forty five miles fouth-weft of Avignon ; a place iflands ; it is fituated about thirty miles fouth-wed of
famous for its delightful fitua'tion, and its healthy Antigua.
ferene air. MONUMENT, in architeflure, a building ,deftined to
MONTREAL, a city of Sicily, in the province of preferve the memory, of the perfon who railed it,
Mazara,- fituated near the fea, five miles eaft of Pa- or for whom it was railed ; fuch are a triumphaj arch,
lermo. - a maufoleum, a pyramid, drc. r
Montreal is alfo a town of Canada, in North America, MOOD, or Mode. See Log-ic and Metaphysics.
fituated on the river of St Laurence, one hundred miles - Mood, or Mode, in grammar, the different manner of
fouth of Quebec. conjugating verbs. See Grammar.
MONTROSE, a town of North Britain, in the fhire MOON, in aflronomy. See Astronomy, p. 440.
of Angus, fituated at the mouth of the river Elk, on Moon-wort, in botany. See Lunaria.
,the German ocean, forty-fix miles north-eaft of Edin- MOOR, in country affairs, denotes an unlimited t/a<ff of
-burgh. land, ufually over-run with heath.
Steel fpaws are very numerous in the country about Moor-buzzard. See Falco,
Montrofe ; befides thefe, there is a well near this town Moor-cock, or gor-cock. See Tetrao.
whofe water is of a whiiifh colour, foft tafie, and Moor-stone, a valuable done, muchufed in the coarfer
faintly difeovering a mineral quality, and is of a dif- works of the prefent builders ; being truly a white
ferent nature from the deel one. It is univerfally granite, of a marbly texture.
diuretic; and has been found ufeful in dranguries, MOORING, or Moaring, in the fea language, is
doppages of urine, fcorbutic diforders, flatulencies, the laying out the anchors of a flfip in a place where
&c. fhe can ride fecure.
MONTSERAT, a mountain of Spain, in the province MORAL', fomething belonging to manners, of thecon-
of Catalonia, twenty-one miles north-wed of Barcelona, du<d of life. See—-—
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, on.MORALS.
in other words, we mud colled the appearances of nature
in any given indance ; trace thefe to fome general prin¬
ciples, or laws of operation ; and then apply thefe prin¬
ciples or laws to the explaining of other phasnomena.
Therefore Moral Pbilofophy inquires, not how man
might have been, but how he is, condituted : not into
what principles or difpofiiions his adions may be artfully
refolved; but from wliat principles anddifpofitions they ac¬
tually flow : not what he may, by education, habit, or
foreign' influence, come to be, or do ; but what, by his
nature, or original coftdituent principles, he is formed to
be and do. We difeover the office, ufe, or dedination of
any work, whether natural or artificial, by obferving its
drudure, the parts of which it confids, their connedion
or joint adion. It is thus we underdand the ofike and
ufe of a watch, a plant, an eye, or hand. It is the fame
with a living creature, of the rational, or brute kind.
Therefore, to determine the office, duty, of dedination of
man; or, in other words, what his bufinefs is, or what con-
dud he is obliged to purfue; we mud infped his confti-
tution, take every part to pieces, examine their mutual
relationsTrne to the other, and-the common effort or ten¬
dency of the whole.
Of Man and his conncftions.
Man is born a weak, ht-iplefs, delicate creature; un¬
provided with food, cloathing, and whatever elfe is ns*
ceflary for fubfidence, or defence. And yet, expofed stS
th«
MORAL PHILOSOPHY is “ The fcience of man-
“ ners or duty ; which it traces from man’s
t‘ nature and condition, andfhews to terminate in his hap-
“ pinefs.” In other words, it is “ The knowledge of
•“ our duty and felicity ;” or, “ The art of being
“ virtuous and happy.”
It is denominated an art, as it contains a fydem of
pules for becoming viituous and happy. Whoever prac-
tifes thefe rules, attains an habitual power or facility of
becoming virtuous and happy. It is likewife-called a
fcience, as it deduces thofe rules from the principles and
Connexions of our nature, and proves that the obfervance
of them is produftive of our happinefs.
It is an art, and a fcience, of the highed dignity, im¬
portance, and ufe. Its objeid is man’s duty, or his con¬
duct in the feveral moral capacities and connexions which
he fudains. Its office is to direX that conduX; to fhew
whence our obligations arifp, and where they terminate.
Its ufe, or end, is the attainment of happinefs ; and the
means it employs are rules for the right conduX of our
moral powers.
Moral Philofophy has this jn common with Natural Phi-
lofophy, that it appeals to nature or faX ; depends on
obfervation ; ar^d builds its reafonings on plain uncontro¬
verted experiments, or upon the' fulled indwXion of par¬
ticulars of which the fubjeX will admit. We mud ob-
ferve, in both .thefe fciences, how nature is affeXed, and
what her conduX is in fuch and fuch circumdances. Or,
MORAL PH
the infant is to numberlefs \yants and dangers, he is ut¬
terly incapable of fupplying the former, or fecuring him-
felf again'! the latter. But, though thus feeble and ex-
pofed, he finds immediate and fure-refources in the affec¬
tion and care of his parents, who fefufe no labours, and
forego, no dangers, to nurfe and rear up the tender babe.
By thefe .powerful inftin&s, as by fome mighty chain,
does nature link the parent to the child, and fornt the
flrongeft moral copnedtion on his part, before the child
has the leaf! apprehenfion of it. Hunger and third, with
all the'fenfations that accompany or are connected with
them, explain themfelves by a language ftrongly expref-
five, and irrefiftibly moving. As the I ever a! fenfes bring
in notices and informations of furrounding ohje&s, we
may perceive in the young fpedtator early figns of a
growing/wonder and admiration. Bright objects and
Unking founds are-beheld and heard with adort of com¬
motion and furprife. But without refting on any, lie
eagerly paffes on from objedt to objddt, Uill pleafed with
whatever isuioU new. Thus' the love of novelty is form-
■ ed, and the paflion of wonder kept awake. By degrees
he comes acquainted with the moft familiar objedts, his’
parents, his brethren, and thofe of the family who are
moft converfant with him. He contradis a fondnefs for
them ; is uneafy when they are gone, and charmed todee.
them again. Thefe feelings become the foundation of a
moral attachment on his fide; and"by this reciprocal
fympathy he forms the domeftic alliance with his parents,
brethren, and other members of the family. Hence he
becomes interefled in their concerns ; and feds joy or
grief, hope or fear, on their account, as well as his own.
As his affedlions now point beyond himfdf to others, he
is denominated a good or ill creature, as he ftands well
or ill affedted to. them. Thefe then are the firft links of
the moral chain, the’ eatly rudiments or outlines of his
charadter, his firft rude effays towards agency, freedom,
manhood.
When he begins tq-make excurfiohs from the nurfery,
and extend his acquaintance abroad, he forms a little cir¬
cle of companions, engages with them in play or in queft
of adventures, and leads or is led by them as his genius
is more or lefs afpiring. Though this is properly the fea-
fon in which appetite and paflion have‘tile aicendant,
yet his imagination and intelledtual powers open apace:
and as the various images of things pals before the faental
eye, he forms a variety of-taftes ; refifhes fome things and
dift kes others, as his parents, companions, and a thou-
fand other circumftances, lead him to combine agreeable
or difagreeable fets of ideas, or reprefent to him objedla
in alluring or odious lights.
As his views are enlarged, his adtive and focial powers
expand themfelves in proportion ; the love of adlion, of
imitation, and of praife, emulation, curiofity, docility, a
paflion for command, and fondnefs of qhange. His paf-
lions are quick, variable, and pliant to every impreffion;
his attachments and difgufts quickly fucceed each other.
He compares things, dift-ingufthes adiions, judges of cha-
radiers, and loves or hates them as they appear well or
ill affedted to himfelf or to thofe he holds dear Mean
while, he ffoon grows fenfible of the confequences of his
i L O S O P H Y. 271
own adtioos, as they attradl applaufe, or bring contempt;
he triumphs in the former, and is afhamed pf the lat¬
ter, wants to hide them, and blufties when they are dif-
covered. By,means of thefe powers, he becomes a fit
fubjed! of culture, the moral tie is drawn clo'fer, lie feels
that he is accountable for his condudt to others as well
as to himfelf, and thus is gradually ripening for fociety
and adtion.
As man advances from childhood to youth, his paflions
as well as perceptions take a more extenfive range. New
fenfes of pleafure invite him to new purfuits; he grows
fenfible to the attradlibns of beamy, feels a peculiar fym¬
pathy with the fex, and forms a more tender kind ofjit-
tachment than he has yet experienced. This becomes
the cement of a new moral relation, and gives a fofter
turn to his^aflions and behaviour. In this turbulent pe¬
riod he enters more deeply into al relifli of friendfhip, com¬
pany, exercifes, and diversions-, the love of truth, of irai-
tadon and of defign, grows upon him ; and as his connec¬
tions fpread among his neighbours, fellow citizens, and
countrymen, his thirft of praife, emulation, and focial
affedhons grow more intenfe-and adtive. Mean while it
is impoffible for him to have lived thus long without ha¬
ving become fenfible of tbofe more auguft fignatures of
order, Wifdom, and goodnefs, which are ftamped on the
vifible creation ; and of thofe ftrong fuggeftions within
himfdf of a parent mind, the fource of all ihtelligence and
beauty, and the objedt as wdl as fource of that adtivity and
thole afpirations which fometimes rouze his inmoft frame
and carry him out of himfdf to an all-mighty and all go¬
verning Power : Hence arife thofe fentiments of reverence,
and thofe affedlions of gratitude, refignatiorp; and love,
which link the foul with the Author of nature, and form
that moft fublime and godlike of all connedtions.
Man having now reached his prime, either new paflions .
fucceed,'or the old fet are wound up to an higher‘pitch.
For, growing more fenfible of his connedtion with the
public, and that particular community to which he more
immediately belongs ; and taking withal a larger profpedt
of human life, and its various vvants_and enjoyments; he
forms more intimate friendftfips, grafps at power, courts
honour, lays down cooler plans of intereft, and becomes
more attentive to the cojicerns of fociety; he enters into
family-connedFiops, and indulges thofe charities which a-
rife from thence. The reignjng paflions of this period
powerfully prompt him to provide for the decays of life ;
and in it compaflibn and gratitude exert their influence in
urging thejman, now in full vigour, to requite the affec¬
tion and care of his parents, by Applying their wants and
alleviating their infirlbities.
At length human life verges ftpwnwards; and old age'
creeps on apace, with its anxiety, loveof eafe, interefted-
nefs, fearfulnefs, forefight, and love of offspring. The
experience of the aged is formed to diredl, and their cool-
, nefs to temper, the heat of youth: the former teaches them '
to look back cn paft follies; and the latter to look for¬
ward into the confequer.ces of things, and provide againft
the worft. Thus every age has its peculiar genius and
fet of paflions, cofrefponding to that period, and moft
conducive tp die_prosperity ^f the reft. And thus arc
the.
272 M O R' A L P II
the wants of one period {upplied by the capacities of ano¬
ther, and the weakneffes of one age tally to the paffions
of another,
Befides thefe, there are other paffions and affc&ibns
of a Jefs ambulatory nature ; not peculiar to one period,
but belonging to every age, and^afting more orlefs in eV
very bread throughout life: fuch are, love^ benevo¬
lence, love of life, honour, (hame, hope^fear, defire, a-
verfion, joy, forrow, anger, and the like. > The two lirft
are affeiftipns of a cooler drain ;l one pointing to the good
of the individual,~the other to that of rfie fpecies : joy,
and forrow, hope and fear,- feem -to be only modifications,
ordifferent.exertions of the fame original affedtions of love
and hatred, defire and averfion, arifing from the different
circumdances or pofitionpf the objcdt defired or abhorred,
as it is prefent or abfent. Ftom thefe likewife arife o
ther fecondary, or occafional paflions, which depend,, as
to their exidence and feveral degrees, upon the original
affedlions being gratified ordifappointed ; as, anger, com¬
placence, confidence, jealoufy, love, hatred,-dejedlron, ex¬
ultation, contentment, difgud, which do-not form leading
paffions, but rather hold of them.
"By. thefe fimpls,' but powerful fprrngs, whether perio¬
dical or fixed, the life of man, weak and indigent as he is,
is preferved and fecured; and the creatifre is prompted to
a cdnftant round of a&ion, even to fupply his own nume¬
rous and ever-returning wants, and to guard" againft the
various dangers and evi's to which he is obnoxious^ By
thefe links, men are connedted with each other, formed
into families, drawn into particular communities, and all
united, as By a common league, into one fyftem or body,
whofe members feel and fympathize one with another.
By this admirable adjuftment of the ccyiftitution 0f man
to his date, and the gradual evolution of his powers, or¬
der is maintained, fociety upheld, and human life filled
•with that variety of paffion and adtion, which at once en¬
liven and diverfify it. .
This is a fhort Iketch of the principal, movements of
the human mind. Yet thefe movements are not the whole
of man : they impel to adtion, but do not ditedt it; they
need a regulator to guide their motions, to meafure and
apply their force's. And accordingly they have one that
naturally fuperintends and diredts their adtion. We are
confcious of a principle within us, which examines, com¬
pares, and weighs things ; notes the differences, obfer.ves
the forces, and forfees the confeqiiences of affedtions and
adfions. By this power we look back on pad times, and
forward into futurity, gather experiences, eftimate the
real and comparative value of objedfs, lay out fchemes,
contrive means to execute them, and fettle the whole or¬
der and cecono.my of life. This power we commonly
diftinguifh jsy the nameof reafon, or refledlion; the bufi-
nefs.of which is, fiot to lugged any original notices or
fenfations, but to canvafs, range, and make dedudiions
from them.
,We are. intimately confcious of another principle with¬
in us, which approves of certain fentirtients, paffions,.and
addons, and difap-proves of their contraries. In confe-
<juence of the.decisions of this inward judge, we denomi¬
nate fome adtiohs and principles of condudt right, honaji,
good; and others ‘wrong, dijhonej}, ill. The former ex-
I L O S O P H Y.
cite our-edeem, moral complacence, andaffeddon, imme¬
diately and originally of therrifelves, without regard to
their, confeqiiences, and whether they affedt our intered or
not. The latter do a| naturally and neceffarily call forth
our contempt, fcorn, andaverfion. That power, by which
we perceive this difference in, affedtions and adtions, and
feel a co’nfequent rellfh or didike, is commonly called
confcience, or the moral fenfe. Whether fuch a power
belongs to human'nature or not, mud be referred to e-
very one’s experience-of what paffes within himfelf. ^
Thefe two powers of reafon and confcience, are evi-l
_ dently principles different in..nature/nd kind from the
paffions and affedtidns. For the paffions are mere force or
power, blind impulfes/ adting violently and .-without
choice, and ultimately tending each to their refpedtive
objedts, without regard to the intered of the others, or
of the whole fydem : Whereas the diredting and judging
powers didinguifh and afeertain the different forces, mu¬
tual proportions,.and relations, which the paffioas |pear to
each other and to the whole ; recognize their feveral de¬
grees of merit; and judge of the whole temper and con-
dqdt, as they refpedl either the individual or the fpecies ;
and are capable of diredting or redraining the blind im¬
pulfes of paffion in a due confiderfcy one with the other,
and-a regular fubordination to the w-hole fydem.
This is fonie account of the- condituent principles of
our mature, which, according to their different mixtures,
degrees, and proportions, mould oar charadter, and fway
our condudt in life. In reviewing that large train of af¬
fedtions which fill up the different dages of human life,
we perceive this obvious diftindtion' among them ; that
fome of them refpedt the good of the individual, and o-
thers carry us beyond ourfelves to the good of the fpe¬
cies, or kind. The former have therefore been called
private, and the latter public affedtions. Of the fird
fort are love of life, of pleafure, of power, and the like.
Of the lad are compaffionj gratitude, frienddup, natural
affedtion, and the like. Of the private paffions,-fome
refpedt merely the fecurity and defence of the creature ;
fuch as refentment, and fear: whereas others aim at fome
pofitive advantage or good ; as wealth, eafe, fame. The
former fort therefore, becaufe of this difference mf ob¬
jedts, may be termed defenfive paffions. Thefe anfwer to
our dangers, and prompt us to avoid them if we can,
or boldly to encounter them when we cannot.
Tiie other clafs of private paffions, which purfue pri¬
vate pofitive good, may be called appetitive. However,
we ffiall dill retain the name of private, in contradidinc-
tion to the defenfive paffions. Man has a great variety
of wants to fupply, and is capable of many enjoyments,
according to the feveral periods of his life, and theTIif-
ferent fituations in which he is placed. To thefe, there¬
fore, a fuitable train of private paffions correfpond,. which
engage him in the purfuit of whatever is necedary for his
fubfidenedbr welfare.
Our public or focial affedlions are adapted to the le-
veral focial connedlions and' relations whichvwe~bear to
others, by making us fenfible of their dangers, and inte-
reding us in their wants, and fo prompting us to fecure
them againd one, and fupply the other.
This is the fird depjhen to difeover the duty and de-
ftination
MORAL PH
ft! rfation of man., the having analyzed the principles of
wh ich he ig compofed/ It is neceflary, in the next place,
to ccnfider in what order, proportion, and meafure of
thofe inward principles, virtue, or a found moral temper
and right conduct, confifts j that we may difcover whence
moral obligations arife.
Of Duty, or Moral Obligation.
It is by the end or defign of any power or movement,
that we muft dire# it motions, and, eftimate the degree
of force nsceffary to its juft aftion. • If it want the force
rcquifite for the obtaining its end, we reckon it defective;
if it has too much, fo as to be carried beyond it, we fay
it is over-barged ; and in either cale it is imperfetft, and
ill contrived. If it has juft chough to reach the fcope,
we efteem it right, and a's it Ihouid be. ■ Let us- apply
this reafoningto the paflions.- ■
The defence and fecurity of the individual being the
aim of the defenfive paftions., that fecurity and defence
muft be the meafure of their ftrength or indulgence. If
they are fo weak as to prove infufficient for that end, or
if they carry us beyond it, i, e.lraife unneceflary commo¬
tions, or continue longer than is needful, they are unfit
to anfwer their original defign, and therefore are in an
unfound and unnatural ftate. The exercife of fear or of
refentment has nothing defirable in it, nor can we give
way to either without painful fenfations. Without a cer¬
tain degree, of them, we are naked^and expofed : with
too high a proportion of them, we are miferable, and of¬
ten injurious to others. Thus cowardice or timidity,
' which is the excefs of fear, inftead of faving us in danger,
gives it too formidable an appearance,' makes us incapable
of attending to the beft means of prefervation, and dif¬
arms us of courage our natural armour. Fool-hardi-
nefs, which is the want of a due meafure of fear, leads
us needleflyinto danger, and lulls us into a pernicious fe-
curity. Revenge, i. e. exceffive refentment, by the
violence of its commotion, robs us of that prefence of
mind which is often the belt guard againft injury, and in¬
clines us to purfue the? aggreffor with more feverity than
felf defence requires. Pufillanimity, or the want of a
juft'indignation againft wrong, leaves us quite unguarded,
and tends to fink the mind into a paffive enervated tame-
nefs. Therefore, “ to keep the defenfive paflions duly
proportioned to our dangers, is their natural pitch and
tenor.”
The private paftions lead us to purfue fome pofiuve
fpecies of private good. That good, therefore, which is
the objeeft and end of~each, muft be the meafure oPtheir
refpeftive force., and dire6t their operation. If they are
too weak or ftuggifh to engage us in the purfuit of their
feveral objects, they are evidently deficient; but if they
defeat their end by their impetuofity, then are they
ftrained beyond the juft tone of nature. Thus vanity, or
an/exceflivs paflion for applaufe, betrays into fuch mean-
neJfes and liule arts of popularity, as makes us forfeit the
honour we fo anxioufly court. Oh the other hand, a
total indifference about the efteem,of mankind, removes
a ftrong guard and fpur to virtue, and lays the mind open
-•to the moft abandoned profecutions. Therefore, “ to
keep out- private pafiion's and defires proportioned to our
Vot,. III. N°. 80. 2
I L O S G R R Y. 2 73
want?. Is the juft meafure and pitch of this clafs of af-
fedions.”
The defenfive and private paftions do all agree in ge¬
neral, in their tendency or conducivenefs to the intereft
or good of the individual. Therefore, when there is, a
coliifion of interefts, as may,fometimes happen., that ag*
gregate of good or happinefs, which is compofed of the
particular goods to which they refpe&ively tend, muft be
the common ftandard by which their comparative degrees
of ftrength are to be meaftfred. That is to fay, if afiy
of them, in the degree in which they prevail, are incom¬
patible with the greateft aggregate of good, or moft ex-
tenfive huereft of the individual, then are they unequal
and difproportiGnate. For, in judging of a particular
fyftem or conftitution of powers, we call that the fupreme
or principal end, in which the aims of the feveral parts
or "powers coincide, and to which they are fuhordinatef
and reckon them in dbe, proportion to each other, and
right with regard to the whole, when they maintain that
fubordination or fubferviency. Therefore, “ to propor¬
tion our defehfive and private paflions in fuch meafure to
our dangers and wants, beft: to fecure the individual,
and obtain the greateft: aggregate of private good or hap-
pinefs, is their juft balance or comparative ftandard in
cale of competition.”
In like manner, as the public or focial affe&ions point
at the good of others, that good muft.be the meafure of
their force. When a particular focial affedlion, as gra¬
titude or friendfliip, which belongs to a particular fociai
connexion, viz. that of a benefactor or of a. friend, is
too feeble to make us aft the grateful or friendly part ;
that affefticn, being infufficient to anfwer its end, is de¬
fective and unfbuhd. If, *on the other hand, a particu¬
lar paflion of this clafs counteract or defeat the intereft it
is defigned to promote, by its violence or difproportion,
then is that jjaffion exceffive and irregular. Thus natu¬
ral affeftion, if it degenerates into a paffionate fondnefs,
not only hinders the parents from judging coolly of the
intereft of their offspring, but often leads them into a moft
partial and pernicious indulgence."
As every kind affeftiop points at the good of its parti-
cutar objeft, it is pcffible there may be fometimes a col¬
iifion of interefts or goods.- Thus the regard, due to a
friend may interfere1 with that which we owe to a commu¬
nity. In fucb a.competition of interefts, it is evident,
that the greateft is to be.choften ; and that is the greateft
intereft, which contains the greateft ftum or aggregate of
public good, greateft in quantity as well as duration.,'
This then is the common ftandard, by which the refp’ec*
live forces and fubordinations of the fociaf affeftions muft
be adjufted. Therefore we conclude, tiiat this “clafs'of
affeftions are found and regular, when they prompt us to
purfue the infereft of individuals in an entire confifteney
with the public good or, in other words, “ when they
are duly proportioned to the dangers and wants of cithers,
and to the various relation^ in which we Hand to indivi¬
duals, or to fbetety ”
Thus we have found, by an in dHt ion of particulars, the
natural pitch or tenor of the different orders of affeftion,
confidered apart by themfelv.s, -Now as the virtue of
perfection of every creature lies in following its nature,
3,Z ot
274 MORAL P II
or a&Ing fuitably to the juft proportion and harmony of
its feverai powers ; therefore, “ the virtue of a creature
endowed with fuch affeftions as man, muft conftft in
obfcrving or ailing agreeably to.their naturyal pitch and
tenor.”
But, as there are no independent affedtions in the fa-
brick of the mind, no paftion that ftands byitfelf without
fome relation to the reft, we cannot pronounceof any one,
coniidered ap^rt, that it is either too ftrong or too weak.
Its ftrengtli; and juft proportion muft be rheafured, not
only-by. its fuhferviency to its own immediate end, but by
the refpcdf it bears to the whole fyftem of affeition.
Therefore, we fay a paflion is too ftrong, not only when
it defeats-its own end, but when it impairs the force of
other paftions, which are equally neceffary to forma tem¬
per of mind fttited to a certain ceconomy or 'ftate; and
too weak, not-merely on account of its infufficiency to
anfwer its end, but beca'ufe it cannot fuftain its part or
office in the -balance of the whole fyftera. Thus the
love of life may be too ftrong, when it takes from the
regard due to one’s country, and will not allow one brave¬
ly to encounter dangers, or evqn death, on its account.
Again, the love of fame may be too weak, when it throws
down the fences which render virtue more fecure, or
weakens the incentives which make it more adtive andpu-
blick-fpirited.
If it be alked, “ How far may the affedlions towards
private good or happinefs be indulged ?” one limit was
before fixed for the particular indulgencies of each, viz.
their fubordination to the common aggregate of good to
the private fyftem. In thefe therefore, a due regard
is always fuppofed to be had to "health, reputation, for¬
tune, the freedom of adlion, the unimpaired exercife of
reafon, the calm enjoyment of one’s felf, which are all
private goods. Another limit now refults from the balance
of affedlion juft named, viz. “ The fecurity and happi-
nefs of others ;’’ or, to exprefs it more generally, “ a
private affedtion may be fafely indulged, when, by that
indulgence, we do not violate the obligations which re-
fult from our higher relations, or public connedtions.”
A juft refpedt therefore being had to thefe boundaries,
W'hich nature has fixed in the breaft of. every man, What
ffiould limit our purfuits of private happinefs ?Ts nature
fallen and penurious ? Or does the God of nature envy
the happinefs of his offspring ?
Whethej there ts ever a real collifion pf interefts be¬
tween the public and private fyftem of affedlions, or the
ends which each clafs has in view, will .be afterwards con-
fidered ; but where there is no collifion, there is little or
no danger of carrying either, but efpecially the public af¬
fedlion, to excels, provided both kinds are keptfubordi-
nate to a difcreet and cool felf love, and to a calm and
univerfal benevolence ; which principles ftand as guards
at the head of each fyftem.
This then is the condudt pf the pafiions, confidered as
particular and feparate forces, carrying us out to their re-
fp'rdtive ends •, and this is their balance or oeconomy, con-
frJered as compound powers, or powers mutually related,
acting in conjundlion towards a common en3j and coafe-
quently as forming a fyftemor whole.
Now, whatever adjufts or maintains this balance,
I L O S O P H 7.
whatever in the human conllitution is formed for dircdling
the paffions, fo as to keep them from defeating their own
end or interfering with each other, muft be a principle
of a fuperior nature to them, and ought to diredl their
meafures, and govern their proportions, But it was
found, that reafpn or refleftion is fuch a principle/which
points out the tendency of our paffions, weighs their in¬
fluence upon private and public happinefs, and thews the
heft means of attaining either. It having been likewiie
found, that there is another diredmg or controuiing prin¬
ciple, which wecall confidence, or the moral fenfe, which,
by a native kind of authority, judges of affecftions and ac¬
tions, pronouncing fome juft and good, and others unjuft
and ill ; it follows, that the paffions, which are mere mr-
pulfes, or blind forces, are pcinciples inferior and fubor*
dinate to this judging faculty. Therefore, if we would
obferve the mutual refpefls and the fubordination which,
the different parts of the human conftitution bear one to
another, the paffions ought to be fubjedled to the direc¬
tion and authority of the leading or controuling prin¬
ciples.
We conclude therefore from this induffion, that “ the
conftitution or juft ceconomy of human nature confifts in
a regular fubordination of the paffions and affe&ions to the
authority of confcience, and the direction of reafon.”
That fubordination is regular, when the proportion
formerly mentioned is maintained; that is to fay,
“ When the defenfive paffions are kept proportioned to
our dangers; wlien the private paflions are proportioned
to our wants ; and when the-public affe&ions are adapt¬
ed to our public connections, and proportioned to the
wants and dangers of others.”
But the natural ftate, or the found and vigorous con¬
ftitution, of any creature, or the juft oeconomy of its
powers, we call its health and perfection ; and the acting
agreeably to thefe, its- virtue or goodnefs. Therefore,
“ the health and perfection of man muft lie in the afore-
faid fupremacy'of confcience and reafon, and in the fub¬
ordination of the paffions to their authority and direc¬
tion ; and his virtue or goodnefs muft confift in aCting
agreeably to that order or oeconomy.”
That fuch an ceconomy of the mind, and fuch a con¬
duct of its power and paffions, will Hand theteftof reafon,
cannot admit of any dispute. For, upon a fair examina¬
tion into the confequences of things, or the relations and
aptitudes of means to ends, reafdn evidently demonftrates,
and experience confirms it, that “ to have our defenfive
paffions duly proportioned to our dangers, is the fureft
way to avoid or get clear of them, and obtain the fecu¬
rity we fe.ek after.”—“ To proportion our private paffions
to our wants, is the beft means to fupply them ;—and,
to adapt our public affeCtions to our focial relations and
the good of others; is the moft effectual method of ful¬
filling one, and procuring the other.” In this fenfe,
therefore, virtue maybe faid to be a “ conduCt conform¬
able to reafon, as reafon difeovers aq apparent aptitude
in fuch an order and oeconomy of powers and paffions
to anfwer the end for which they are naturally formed.
If the idea of moral obligation is to be deduced merely
from this aptkudC or connection between certain paffions,
or a certain order and balance of paffions, and certain
. ends
MORAL PH
ends obtained or to be obtained by them ; then is reafon
or reflection, which perceives that aptitude or connec¬
tion, the proper judge of moral obligation ; and on this
fiippofition it may be defined, “ the connection between thet
affeCtion and the end, or between the aCtion and the mo¬
tive for the end is the motive, or the final caufe; and
,'the affeCtich is the aCtion, or its immediate natural caufe.
A man, from mere felf love, may be induced to ftdfil that
obligation which is founded on the connection between the
defenfiv.e paffrons and their ends, or the private paffxons
and their ends.; becaufe, in that cafe, h'is own inte-
lelt will prompt him to indulge them in the due propor-
tioh required. But if he has no affeCtions which point
beyond himfelf, no principle but felf-love or feme fubtle
modification of it, what {hail intereft him in the bappinefs
of others, where there is no connection between it and
his own ? or what fenfe can he have of moral obligation
to promote it ? Upon this fcheme therefore, without pu-
biick or focial affeCtions there could> be no motive, and
confequently no moral obligation, to a beneficent difinte-
reffed conduct.
But if the mere connection between certain paflions,-or
a certain order of paffions, and certain ends, is what
confHtutes or gives us the idea of moral obligation ; then
why may not the appofitenefs of any temper or copdaCt,
nay, of any piece of machinery, to obtain its end, form
ah equally ttrict moral obligation ? For the connection
and aptitude are as ftrong and invariable' in the latter
inftanc'es as in the former. But as this is confounding
the moft obvious differences of things, we muft trace
the idea of moral obligation to another apd a more natu¬
ral fource.
Let us appeal therefore to fenfe and experience, “ how
we Hand affeCted to thofe different fets of paflions in the
juft meafure and balance of which we found a right tem¬
per to confift.” For this is. entirely a matter of expe¬
rience, in which we muft examine, as in any other natural
inquiry,? “ what-are the genuine feelings and operations
of nature, and what affeCtions or fymptoms of them ap
pear in the gUen inftance.”
The defenfive paflionSj as anger and fear, give us ra¬
ther pain than pleifure ; yet we cannot help feeling them
when provoked by injury or expofed to harm. We
account the creature imperfeCt that wants them, becaufe
they are neceflary to his defence. Nay, we fhould in
fome meafure condemn ourfeives, did we want the necef-
fary degree of refentment and caution. Butif our refent
ment exceeds the wrong received, or our caution the e-
vil dreaded, we then blame- ourfelves for having over-
aCted our part. Therefore, while we are in danger, to
be totally deftitute of them we‘reckon a blameable defeCt,'
and to feel them in a juft^J. e. neceffary meafure, we ap¬
prove,' as faited to the nature and condition of fuch a
creatureas man. But, our fecurity obtained, to continue
to indulge them,^ we not only difapprove as hurtful, but
condemn as unmanly, unbecoming, and mean-fphited :
Nor will fuch a conduCt afford any felf-approving joy,
when we coolly refleCf upon it.
With regard to the private paffions, fuch as love of
life, 'pleafure, eafe, and the like; asthefe aim at private
.good, and are necefTary to the perfection and happinefs
I L O S O P H Y. 275
of the individual, we fliould reckon any Creature defec¬
tive, and 'even blameable, that was deftitute ©f them.
Thus, we condemn the man who imprudently ruins his
fortune, impairs his health, or expofes his life;- we not
only pity him as an unfortune creature, but feel, a kind
of moral indignation and contempt of.him, for having,
made himfelf fuch. On the other-hand, though a dif-
cfeet felf regard does not .attract olir efteem and venera¬
tion, yet we approve of it in fome degree-, in an higher
and different degree from what we would regard a well-,
contrived mach ne as neceffary to .conftitute a finilhed
creature, nay, io complete the virtuous chara&er, and as
exaCfly fuited to our prefent indigenrdlate. There are
fome paffipns r^fpeCting'private good, towards which we
feel higher degrees of approbation; as the love of know¬
ledge, of aClipn, of honour, and the like. We efteem.
them as marks of an ingenious mind, and cannot help
thiaking the character in which they are wanting re-
mai kably ftupid, and in fome degree immoral.
With regard'to the focial affeCtions, as compaflion,.
natural affeCtion, friendftup, benevolence, and the like,
we approve, admire, and love them in ourfelyes, and in
all in whom we difeover them, with an efteem and
approbation, if not different in kind, yet furely far
fuperior in degree to what we feel towards the other
paffions. Thefe we reckon neceffary, juft, and excellently
fitted to our ftruCture and ftate ; and the creature which
wants them we call defective, ill-conftitut6d,'a kind of
abortion. But the public affeCtions we efteem as felf-
worthy, originally and eternally amiable.
But among the focial affections, .we make an obvious,
and conftant diftinCtion, viz. between thofe particular
paffions, which ©rge us with a.fudden violence, and un-r
eafy kind of fenfation, to purfue the good of their re-i
fpeCtive objects, as pity, natural affeCtion, and the like ;
and thofe calm difpaffionate affeCtions and defires which
prompt us more ifeadily and uniformly to promote the
happinefs of others. The former we generally call paf-*
/ions; to diftinguifh them from the other fort, which go
more commonly by the name of off .(lions t or calm de¬
fines. The fir.ft kind we approve indeed, and delight in
but we feel ftill higher degrees of approbation and moral
complacence towards the laft, and towards all limitations
of the particular inftincts; by the principle of univerfal
benevolence. The more objects the calm affeCtions take
in, and the worthier thefe are, their dignity rifes in pro¬
portion, and with this our approbation keeps an exaCt
pace. A character, on the other hand, w-hich is quite
diverted of'thefe public affeCtions, which feels no love
for the fpecies, but, intleadofit, entertains malice, rancour,
and ill-will, we reckon totally immoral and unnatural. .
Such then are the .fentfments and difpofitions we feel,
when thefe. feveral orders of affeCtion. pafs before the
mental eye.
Therefore, “ that ftate in which we feel ourfelves mo¬
ved, in the manner above deferibed, towards thofe affec¬
tions and paffions, as they come under the mind’s review,
and in which we are inftamaneoufly. and independently of '
our choice or volition, prompted to a correfponc'erxt con¬
duct, we call a ftate of moral obligation.” Let us fup.:
pofe, for irftaace, a parent, a friend, a benefactor, re-
- duccd
MORAL P H I L 0 S 0 P H Y.
iduced to a-condition of the utmoft indigence and diftrefs,
and that it is in our power to give them immediate relief.
To' what conduct are we obliged ? what duty does nature
didate and require in fuch a cafe ? Attend, and nature
will tell with a voice irrefiftibly audible and commanding
to the human heart, “ that immediate relief ought to be
■given.” Again, let a ,friend, a neighbour, or even a
' Granger, have lodged a depofit in our hands, and after
fome time reclaim it; no fooner do thefe ideas of the
confidence repofed in us, and of property not transferred
hut depofjted, occur, than we, immediately and unavoid¬
ably feel and recognize the obligation to reftore it. In
both thefe cafes, we Ihould condemn ourfelves,. if we
aded otherwife, as having done,- or omitted doing, what
we ought not ;—as having aded beneath the dignity of our
nature,—contrary to our mof! intimate fenfe of right and
wrong we fliouid accufe otufelves as guilty of ingrati¬
tude, injuftice, and inhumanity;—-and be confcious of de-,
ferving the cenfure, andllicrefore dread the refentment,
of all rational beirigs,—But in complying-with the obli¬
gation, we feel joy and felf-approbation,—are confcious
of an inviolable harmony between our nature and duty,—
and think ourfelves entitled to the applaufc of every im¬
partial fpedator of our condud.
To defcribe therefore what we cannot perhaps define,
a (late of moral obligation, is “ that ftafe in which a crea¬
ture, endued with fuch fenfes, powers, and affedions as
man, would condemn himfelf, and think he deferved the
condemnation of all cfthers, fliouid he refufe to fulfil it;
but would approve himfelf, and exped the approbation
of all others, upon complying with it.” >
And we call him a moral agent, who is in fuch a ftate,
oris IXibjed. to moral obligation. Therefore as man’s
flrudure and connedions often fubjed him to fuch a (late
of moral obligation, \Ve conclude that he is a moral a-
gent. But as man may fometimes ad without knowing
what he docs, as in cafes of frenzy or difeafe, or in many
natural fundions ; or, knowing what he does, he may ad
without choice or affedion, as in cafes of neceffity'or
compulfion ; therefore, to denominate an adion moral,'*'. <r.
approveable, or blameable, it muft be‘ done knowingly
and willingly, or from affedion and choice. A mo¬
rally good adion,’ then, is to fulfil a moral obligation
knowingly and willingly ;” and a morally bad adion,
or an immoral adion, is “ to violate a moral obligation
knbwingly and willingly.”
As not an adion, but a feries of adions conflitute a
charader ; as not an affedion, but a feries of affedions
conftitute a temper; and as we denominate things by the
grofs', a fortiori, or by the qualities which chiefly pre¬
vail in ghem: “therefore we call that a morally good '
charader, in which a feries of morally good adions pre-
'vail; and that a morally good temper, in which a feries
of morally good affedions have the afcendant.” A bad
charader and bad temper are the reverfe. But where
the above fnentioned order or proportion of paflions is
maintained, there a feries. of morally good affedions and
adions will prevail. Therefore, “ to maintain that or¬
der and proportion, is to have a morally good temper
and charader.” But a “ morally good temper and clu-.
rader is moral reditude, integrity, virtue, orthe com¬
pletion of duty.”
If it be afked, after all, “ How we come by the idea of
moral obligation or duty ?” we may anfwer, that we come
by it in the fame way as by our other original and pri¬
mary perceptions. We receive them all from nature, or
the great Author of nature. For this idea of .moral ob¬
ligation is not a creature of the mind, or dependent on
any previous ad of volition ; but arifes on certain occa-
fions, or when certain other idfeas are prefented to the
mind, as neceffarily, inflantaneoiifly, and unavoidably,
as pain does upon too near an approach to the fire, or
pleafure from the fruition of any good. It does not, for
inflance, depend on our choice, whether we fhall fee] the
obligation to fuccour a diftreffed parent, or to reftore a
depofit intruded to us when it is recalled. We cannot
call this a compound idea made up of one or more fimplii
ideas. We ma'y indeed, nay, we muft, have fome ideas
antecedent to k, e. g. that of a parent—in diftrefs—of
a child—able to relieve—of the relation of one to the
other,—of a truft,—of right, fee'. But none of’thefe
ideas conflitute the perception of obligation. Thefe in¬
deed, by a law of our nature, are the occafion of fug-
gefting it-; but they are as totally different from it, as
colours are from founds. By fenfe or refledlion we per¬
ceive the correlatives, our memory recalls the favours or
depofit we received, the vaiious circumftances of the cafe
are matters of faft or experience ; but fome delicate in¬
ward organ or power, or call it what we pleafe, does,
by a certain inftantaneous fympathy, antecedent to the
cool deduflions of reafon, and independent of previous in-
flruction, art, or volition, perceive the moral harmony,
the living irrefiftible charm of moral obligation, which
immediately interefts the "correfpondent paflions, and
prompts us to fulfil its awful diffates.
We need not apprehend any danger from the quick-
nefs of its decifions ; nor be frightened, becaufe it looks
like inftinft, and has been called fo. Would we approve
one for deliberating long, or reafoning the matter much
at leifure, whether he fliouid relieve a dirtrefled parent,
feed a ftarving neighbour, or reftore the truft committed
to him ? Should we not fufpedt the reafoner of knavery,
or(of very weak affedfions to virtue ? We employ rea¬
fon in examining the condition, relations, and other cir-
-cumftances of the agent or patient, or pf thofe with
'whom either of them are connefted, or,-in other words,
the (fate of the cafe; and in complicated cafes, where
the circumftances ate many, it may require no fmall at¬
tention to find the true-ftate of the cafe : but when the
relations of the agent tor patient, and the circumftaoces
of the adlions, ate obviou*, or come out fuch after a fair
trial, we fliould fcarce approve him who demurs on the
obligation to that conduift which the cafe fuggefts.
From what has been faid it is evident,, that it is not
the pleafure or agreeable fenfations which accompany
the exercife of the feveraf affedlions, nor thofe confe-
quent to the affions, that conftitute moral obligation, or
excite in us the idea of it. That pleafure is pofterior to
the idea of obligation ; and frequently we are obliged, -
and acknowledge’ourfelves under an obligation, to fuch
affedlions_
MORAL P H
affections and actions as are attended with pain ; as in the
trials of virtue, where we are obliged to facrifice private
to public good, ora prefent pleafure to a future intefeft.
We have pleafure' in ferving an aged parent, but it is
neither the perception nor profpeft of that pleafure which
gives us the idea of obligation to that conduit.
The Final Caufes of ear Moral Faculties e/'Perception
and Affeition.
We bave now taken a general profpeit of man, and of
bis moral powers and connedtions ; and on thefe erefted
a fcheme of duty, or -moral obligation, which feems to
be confirmed by experience, confonant to reafon, and
approved by his mod inward and molt facred fenfes. It
may be proper, in the next place, to take a more particular
view of the final caufes of thofe delicate fprings by which
he is impelled to adtion, and of thofe clogs by which he
is reflrained from it. By this detail we fhall be able
to judge of their aptitude to anfwer their end, in a crea¬
ture endued with his capacities, fubjedt to his wants, ex-
pofed‘to his dangers, and fufceptible of bis enjoyments ;
and from thence, we lhall be in condition to pronounce
concerning the end of. his Whole ftrudture, its harmony
with his Hate, and confequently its fubferviency to an¬
fwer the great and benevolent intentions of its author.
The fupreme being has feen fit to blend in the whole
of things a prodigious variety of difeordant and contrary
principles, light and darknefs, pleafure and pain, good
and evil. There are multifarious natures, higher and
lower, and many intermediate ones between the wide-di-
ftant extremes. Thefe are differently fituated, varioufly
adjufted, and fubjefted to each other; and all of them
fubordinate to the order and perfeftion of the.whole.
We may fuppofe man placed as in a centre amidft thofe
innumerable orders of beings; by his outward frame
drawn to the material fyftem, and by his inward connec¬
ted with the intellcdlual or moral, and of courfe affefted
by the laws which govern both, or affedted by that good
and all that ill which refult from thofe laws. In this infinite
variety of relations with which he is furrounded, and of
contingencies to which he is liable, he feels ftrong attrac¬
tions to the good, and violent repulfions or averfions to
the ill. But as good and ill are often blended, and won¬
derfully complicated one with thq other ; as they fome-
times immediately produce and run up into each other,
and at other times lie at great diftances, yet, by means of
intervening links, introduce one another; and as thefe
effefts are often brought abdut in confeqUence of hidden
relations, and general laws, of the energy of which he
is an incompetent judge; it is eafy for him to miftake
good for evil, and evil for good ; and confequently he
maybe frequently attracted by fuch things as are deltruc^
tive, or repel fuch as are falutary. Thus, by the tender
and complicated frame of his body, he is fubje&ed to a
great variety of ills, to ficknefs, Cbld, heat, fatigue, and
innumerable wants. Yet his knowledge is fo narrow
withal, and his reafon fo weak, that in many cafes he
cannot judge, in the way of inveftigation, or reafoning,
of the connedions of thofe 'effe&s with their refpedive
caufes, or of the various latent energies of natural things.
He is therefore informed of this connedion by the ex¬
perience of certain fenfes, or organs of perception, which,
Vol, III. N°, So. 2
I L O S O P H Y. , 277
by a mechanical inflantaneous motion, feel thegood and
the ill, receiving-pleafure from one, and pain from the
other. By tfaefe, without any reafoning, he is taught
to attrad or chufe what tends to-his welfare, and to re¬
pel and avoid what tends to his ruin. Thus, by his fen¬
fes of tafte and Imell, or by the pleafure he receives from
certain kinds of food, he is admonifhed which agree with
his conftitution, and, by an oppofite fenfe of pain, he is
informed which forts difagree, or are deftrudive of it;
but is not by means of thefe inftruded in the inward na¬
tures and conftitutions of things.
Some of thofe fenfes are armed with ftrohg degrees of
uneafinefs or pain, in order to urge him to feek after fuch
objeds as are fuited to them. And thefe refped his more
immediate and preffing wants; as the fenfe of hunger,
third, cold, and the like; which by their painful impor¬
tunities, compel him to provide food, drink, raiment,
fhelter. Thofe inftinds by which we are thus prompted,
with fome kind of commotion or violence, to attrad and
purfue good, or to repel and avoid ill, we call appetites
and paffions. By our fenfes, then we are informed of
what is good or ill to the private fyftem, or the indivi¬
dual ; and by our private appetites and paftions we are
impelled to one, and reftrained from the other.
In copfequence of this machinery, and the great train
of wants to which our nature fubjeds us, we are enga¬
ged in a continued feries of occupations, which often re¬
quire much application of thought, or great bodily la¬
bour, or both. The neceffaries of life, food, cloaths,
flielter, and the like, muft be provided ; conveniencies
muft be acquired to render life ftill more eafy and com¬
fortable. In order to obtain thefe, arts, induftry, ma-
nufadures, and trade arq neceffary: and to fecure to
us the peaceable enjoyment of their frui'.s, civil govern¬
ment, policy, and laws muft be contrived, and the various
bufinefs of public life carried on. Thus while man is
concerned and bufied in making provifion, or obtaining
fecurity for himfelf, he is by degrees engaged in connec¬
tions with a family, friends, neighbours, a community,
or a commonwealth. Hence arife new wants, new in-
terefts, new cares, and new employments. The paffions
of one man interfere with thofe of another. Interefts
are oppofed. Competitions arife ; contrary courfes are
taken. Difappointments happen, diftindions are made,
and parties formed. This opens a vaft feene of diftrac-
tion and embarraffment, and introduces a mighty train of
good and ill, both public-and private. Yet amidft all this
confufion and hurry, plans of adion muft be laid, con-
fequences forefeen or guarded againft, inconveniencies
provided for; and frequently particular refolutions muft
be taken, and fchemes executed, witho.ut reafoning or
delay.
Now, what provifion has the Author of our nature made
for this neceftitous condition? How has he fitted the ac¬
tor, man, for playing his part in this perplexed and bu-
fy feene ?
Our fupreme Parent, watchful for the whole, has not
left himfelf without a witnefs here neither, and hath
made nothing imperfed, but all things are double one a-
gainft another. He has not left man to be informed,
only by the cool notices of reafon, of the good or ill,
the happinefs or mifery of his fellow cr.eatures. He has
4 A made
278 MORAL PH
made him fentible of their good and happinefs, but ef-
pecially of their ill and mifery, by an immediate fympa-
thy, or quick feeling of pleafure and of pain.
The latter we call pity orcompaffion. For the former,
though every one who is not quite diverted of humanity
feels it in fome degree, we'have not got a name, unlefs
we .call it congratulation, or joyful fympathy, or that
good" humour which arifes on feeing others pleafed or
happy. Both thefe feelings have been called, in general,
the public or common fenfe, by which we feel for others,
and are interefted in their concerns as really, though
perhaps lefs fenfibly, than in our own.
-When we fee our fellow-creatures unhappy through
the fault or injury of others, we feel refentment or in-'
dignation againft the unjuft caufers of that mifery. If ■
we are confcious that it has happened through our fault
or injurious conduct, we feel lharae; and both thefe
clafles of fenfes and paflions, regarding mifery and wrong,
are armed with fuch fharp fenfations of pain, as not only
prove a powerful guard and fecurity to the fpecies, or
public fyftem, againft thofe ills it may, but ferve alfo.to
lerten or remove thofe ills it does, fuffer.- Compiflion
draw's us out of ourfelves to bear a part of the misfor¬
tunes of others, powerfully folicits us in their favour,
melts us at fight of their dirtrefs, and makes us in fome
degree unhappy till they are relieved from it. It is pe¬
culiarly well adapted to the condition of human life, be-
caufe it isjmuch more and oftener in our power to do
mifchief than good, and to prevent or lefisn mifery than
to communicate pofitive happtqefs ; and therefore it is an
admirable rertraint upon the more felfifh paffions, or thofe
violent impulfes that carry us to the hurt of others.
There are other particular inftinfts or pafiions, which
interert us in the concerns of others, even while we are
moft bufy about our own, and which are ftrongly attrac¬
tive of good, and repul five of ill to them. Such are
natural affedtion, friendlhip, love, gratitude, defire of
fame, love of fociety, of one’s country. Now as the
private appetites and paflions were found to be armed
with ftrong fenfations of defire and uneafintfs, to prompt
man the more effedfually to furtain labours, and en¬
counter dangers, in purfuit of thofe goods that are necef-
fary to the prefervation and welfare of the individual,
and to avoid thofe ills which tend to his deftrudtion ; in
like manner it was neceflary that this other clafs of de¬
fires and affedtions fhould be prompted with as quick
fenfations of pain, not only to counteradt the rtrength of
their antagonirts, but to engage us in a virtuous adjnvity
for our relations, families, friends, neighbours, country.
Indeed our fenfe of right and wrong will aJmoni/h us
that it is our duty, and reafon and experience farther af-
fure us that it is both our intereft and heft fecurity, to
promote the .happinefs of others; but that fenfe, that
reafon, and that experience, would frequently prove but
weak and ineffedtual prompters to fuch a condudt, efpe-
cially in cafes of danger and hardftiip, and amidrt all the
importunities of nature, and that conftant hurry/in which
the private paflions involve us, without the aid of thofe
particular kind affedtions, which mark out to us particu¬
lar fpheres of duty, and with an agreeable violence en¬
gage and fix us down to them.
I L O S O P H Y.
It is evident therefore, that thefe two clafles of affec¬
tion, the private and public, are fet one againft the other,
and defigned to controul and limit each others influence,
and thereby to produce a juft balance in the whole. In
general, the violent fenfations of pain or uneafinefs
which accompany hunger, thirft, and the other private
appetites, or too great fatigue of mind as well as of
body, prevent the individual from running to great ex-
cefles in the e'xercife of the higher fundtions of the
mind ; as too intenfe thought in the fearch of truth,
violent application to bulinefs of any kind, and different
degrees of romantic heroifm. On the other hand, the
finer lenfes of perception, and th.ofie generous defires and
affedlions which are connedted with them, the love of ac-
• tion, of imitation, of truth, honour, public virtue, and
the like, are wifely placed in the oppofite fcale, in order
to prevent us from linking into the -dregs of the animal
life, and debafing the dignity of man below the condition
of brutes. So that by the mutual readKon of thofe op¬
pofite powers, the bad'tffedis are prevented that would
naturally' refult from their adting fingly and apart; and
the good effedts are produced which each are feverally
formed to produce.
The fame wholefome oppofition appears likewife in
the particular counterworkings of the private and public
affedtions one again!! the other. Thus compaffion is
adapted to counterpoife the love of eafe, of pleafure,
and of life; and to difarm, or to fet bounds to refent¬
ment : and refentment of injury done to ourfelves or to
our friends, prevents an effeminate comp.alfion or con-
fternation ; and gives us a noble contempt of labour, pain,
and death. Natural affedlion, frien.dihip, love of one’s
country, nay, zeal for any particular virtue, are frequently
more than a match for the whole train of felfilh paflions.
On the other hand, without that intimate over-ruling
paflion of felf-love, and thofe private defires which are
connedted with it, the focial and tender inftindts of the
human heart would degenerate into the wildelt dotage,
the moft torturing anxiety, and downright frenzy.
But not only are the different orders or claffes of af-
fedtion checks one upon another, but paflions of the fame
clafles are mutual clogs. Thus, how many are withheld
from the violent outrages of refentment by fear ? and
how eafily is fear controuled in its turn, while mighty
wrongs awaken a mighty refentment ? The private pal-
fions often interefere, and therefore moderate the vio¬
lence of each other ; and a calm felf-love is placed at
their head to diredt, influence, and controul their parti¬
cular attradHons and repulfions. The public affedtions
likewife reftrain one the other ; and all of them are put
under the contrcul of a calm difpaftionate benevolence,
which ought in like manner to diredt and limit their par¬
ticular motions. -Thus moft part, if not alj the paflions
have a twofold-afpedt, and ferve a twofold end. In one
view they may be confidered as powers, impelling man¬
kind t<J a certain courfe, with a force proportioned to
the apprehended moment of the good they aim at. In
another view they appear as weights balancing the adtion
of the powers, and controuling the violence of their im¬
pulfes. By means of thefe powers and weights a natural
poife is fettled in the human breaft by its all-wife Author,
by
MORAL PH
, by which the creature is kepi tc^erably fteady and regular
in his courfe, amidft that variety of itages through which
he rouft pafs.
But this is not all the prorifion which God has made
for the hurry and perplexity of the fcene in which man
is deflined to aft. - Amid ft thofe infinite attraftions. and
lepulfions towards private and public good and ill, man¬
kind either cannot often forelee the confequences or ten¬
dencies of all their aftions towards one or other of thefe,
efpecially where thofe tendencies are intricate and point
different ways, or thofe confequences remote and com¬
plicated : or though, by careful and cool inquiry, and a
* due improvement of their rational powers, they might
■ find them out; yet diftrafted as they are with bufinefs,
amufed with trifles, diflipated by pleafure, and difturbed
by paffipn, they either have, or can find, no leifure ta
attend to thofe conlequences, or to examine how far this
or that conduft is produftive of private or public good on
the whole. Therefore^ were it left entirely to the flow
and fobef deduftions of reafon to trace thofe tendencies
and make out thole cpnfequences, it is evident, that, in
many particular infiances, the bufinefs of life muft Hand
ftill, and many important occafions of aftion be loft, or
perhaps the grcffeft blunders be commuted. On this ac¬
count the Deity, befidts that general approbation which
we belFow’ on every degre'e of kind affeftion, has more¬
over implanted in man many particular perceptions, or
determinations, to approve of certain qualities or aftions,
which, in cfftft, tend to the advantage of fociety,; and
are connefted with private good, though'he does not al¬
ways fee that tendency, nor mind that conneftion. And
thefe perceptions or determinations do, without reafoning,
point out, and, antecedent to -views of intereft, prompt to
a conduft beneficial to.the public, and ufeful to the pri¬
vate fyftem. Such is that ienfe of candor and veracity,
that abhorrence of fraud and falfhooodV(that fenfe of fi¬
delity, juftice, gratitude, greatnefs of nrind, fortitude,
clemency, decorum; and that difapprobation of knavery,
injuftice, ingratitude, meannefs of Ipirit,.cowardice, cru¬
elty and indecorum, - which are natural to the human
mind. The former of thoYe. difpofitions, and the aftions
flowing from them, are approved, and thofe of the latter
kind difapproved by us, even ab'ftrafted from tfie view of
their tendency or conduciyenefs to the happinefs or mi-
fery of others or of ourfeives. In one we difcern a beau¬
ty, a fuperior excellency, a congruity to the dignity of
man ; in th.e other a deformity, a littlenefs, a debafement
of human nature.
There are other principles alfo, connefted with the
good of fociety, or the happinefs and. perfeftion of the
individual, though that conneftion is not immediately ap¬
parent, which we behold with-real complacency and ap¬
probation, though perhaps inferior in degree, if not in
kind; filch as gravity, niodefty, fimplicity of deportment,
temperance, prudent oeconomy ; and we feel fome,deg.ree
of contempt and difltke where they are wanting, or where
the oppbfite qualities prevail. Thefe and the. like per¬
ceptions or feelings are either different modifications of
the moral fenfe, or fubordinate to it, and plainly ferve the
fame important purpofe, being expeditious monitors in
- the feveral emergencies of a various and diftrafted life, of
I L O S O P H Y.
279
what is right, what is wrong, what is to be purfued,.
and what avoided ; and, by the pleafant or painful
confcioufnefs which attends them, exerting their influ¬
ence as powerful prompters to a fuitable conduft.
From a flight infpeftion of the above-named principles,
it is evident they all carry a friendly afpeft to fociety and
the individual, and have a more immediate or a more
remote tendeney to promote the perfiaftion or good of
both. This tendency cannot be always forefeen, and
would be often miftakcn, or feldoma ttended to by a weak,
bufy, fhort-fighted creature, like man, both rafh and
variable in his opinions, a dupe to his own paflicfns or
to the defigns of others, liable to ficknefs, to want, and
to error. Principles, therefore, which are fo nearly linked
wdth private fecurity'and public good, by direfting him,
without operofe reafoning, where to find one, and how
to promote the other, and by prompting him to a conduft
conducive to both, are admirably adapted to the exigen¬
cies of his prefent ftate, and wifely calculated to obtain
the ends ofuniverfal benevolence.
It were eafy, by conficlering the fubjeft in another
light, to flrew, in a curious detail of particulars, how
wonderfully'the infide of man, or that aftonifhing train of
moral powers and affeftions with which he is endued, is
fitted to the feveral ftages of that progreflive and proba¬
tionary flate, through which he is deftined to pafs. As
out faculties are narrow and limited, and rife from very
fmall and imperfeft beginnings, they mult be improved
by exercife, by attention, and repeated trials. And this
hold* true, not only of our intelleftual, but of our fijoral
and aftive powers. The former are liable to errors ia
fpeculation, the latter to blunders in practice, and both
often terminate in misfortunes and pains: and thofe er¬
rors and blunders are generally owing to our paffions, or
to our too forward and warm admiration of thofe partial
goods they naturally purfue, or to our fear of thofe partial
ills they naturally repel. Thofe misfortunes therefore
lead us back to confider where our mifconduft lay, and
whence our errors flowed ; and confequently are falutary
pieces of trial, which tend to enlarge our views, to correft
and refine our paffions, and confequently improve both
our inteileftual and moral powers.—Our paffions then are
the rude materials of our virtue, which heaven has given
us to work up, to refine and polifti into- an harmonious
and divine piece of workmanlhip. They furnifh out the
whole machinery, the calms and ftorms, the lights and
fhades of human life. They ffiew mankind in every atr
titude and variety of charafter, and give virtue both its
ftruggles and its triumphs. To conduft them well in e-
very ftate, is merit ; to abufe or mifapply them, is de¬
merit.
The different fets of fenfes, powers, and paffions,
which unfold themfeives in thofe fucceffive ftages, are
both neceffary, and adapted to that rifing and progreffivs
ftate. Enlarging views and growing conneftions require
new paffions and new habits ; and thus the mind, by
thefe continually expanding and finding a progreffive ex¬
ercife, rifes to higher improvements, and pufties forward;
to maturity and perfeftion.
In this beautiful oeconomy and harmony of our ftruc-
ture, both outward and inward, with that ftate, we may
s8o
MORAL PH
at once Jlfcern the great lines of our duty,traced out in
the faireft and brighteft charafters, and contemplate with
admiration a more augufl: and marvellous fcene of di¬
vine wifdom and goodnefs laid in the human bread,
than we (hall perhaps find in the whole compafs of
nature.
From this detail it appears, that man, by his original
frame, is made for a temperate, eompaffionate, benevo¬
lent, active, and progreffive date. He is ftronly attrac¬
tive of the good, and repulfive of the ills, which befall
others as well as himfelf. He feels tire higheft approba¬
tion and moral complacence in thofe affedtions and in
thofe actions which immediately and diredtly refpeft the
good of others, and the highelt difapprobation and abhor¬
rence of the contrary.' Befides thefe, he has many par¬
ticular perceptions or inftih&s of approbation, which
though perhaps not of the fame kind with the others, yet
are accompanied with correfpondent degrees of affe&ion,
proportioned to their refpeftive tendencies to the public
good. Therefore, by a&ing agreeably to thefe principles,
man afls agreeably to his Itru&ure, and fulfils the bene¬
volent intentions of its Author.
"The principal DiJUnttions of Duty or Virtue.
We have now confidered the conllitution and connec¬
tions of man ; and on thefe erefted a general fyftem of
duty or moral obligation, confonant ta reafon, approved
by his mod facred and intimate fenfe,' fuitable to his
mixed condition, and confirmed by the experience of
mankind. We have alfo traced the final caufes of his
moral faculties and affedions to thofe noble purpofes
they anfwer with regard both to the private and the public
fydem.
From this indu&ion it is evident, that there is one or¬
der or clafs of duties which man owes to himfelf; ano¬
ther to fociety; and a third to God.
The duties he owes to himfelf are founded chiefly on
the defenfive and private paflions, which prompt him to
purfue whatever tends to private good or happinefs, and
to avoid or ward off whatever tends to private ill or mi-
fery. Among the various goods which allure and folicit
him, and the various ills which attack or threaten him,
« To be intelligent and accurate in feleding one, and
rejeding the other, or in preferring the moft excellent
goods, and avoiding the moft terrible ills, when there is
a competition among either, and to be difcreet in ufing
the beft means to attain the goods and avoid the ills, is
what we call prudence.” This, in our inward frame,
correfponds to fagacity, or a quicknefs of fenfe in our
outward.—“ To proportion our defenfive paffions to our
dangers, we call fortitude which always implies “ a
juft mixture of calm refentment or animofity, and well
governed caution.” And this firmnefs of mind anfwers
to the ftrength and mufcling of the body.—And “ duly
to adjuft oar private paflions to'our wants, or to the re-
fpedive moment of the good we affed or purfue, we call
temperance which does therefore always imply “ a
juft balance or command of the paflions.”
The fecond clafs of duties arifes From the public or
•focial affedipns ; “ the juft harmony or proportion of
which to the dangers and wants of others, and to the fe-
I L O S O P H Y.
veral relations we bear, commonly goes by the name of
juftice.’* This includes the whole of our duty to fociety,
to its paient, and the general polity of nature ; particu¬
larly gratitude, friendlhip, fmcerity, natural affedidn,
benevolence, and the other focial virtues. The virtues
comprehended under the former clafs, efpecially prudence
and fortitude, may likewife he transferred to this'; and
according to the various circumftanees in which they are
placed, and the more confined or more extendve fphere
in which they operate, may be denominated private, ©eco¬
nomical, or civil prudence, fortitude, &c. Tftefe 'di-
red! our conduct with regard to the wants and dangers
of thofe leffer or greater circles with which we are con-
nedted.
The third clafs of duties refpedfs the Deity, and arifes '
alfo from the public affedions,' and the feveral glorious
relations which he fuftains to us, as our creator, bene-
fadlor, law-giver, judge, fcc.
We cbofe to confidef this fet of duties in the laft place,
becaufe, though prior in dignity and excellency, they
feem to be laft in order of time, as thinking it the moft:
Ample and eafy method to follow the gradual progrefs of
nature, as it takes its rife from individuals, and fpreads
through the focial fyftem, and ftill afcends upwards, till
at length it ftretches to its almighty Parent and Head,
and fo terminates in thofe duties which are higbeft and
bed.
The duties refulting from thefe relations, are reverence,
gratitude, love, relignation, dependence, obedience,
worfhip, praife ; which, according to the model of our
finite capacities, muft maintain fome fort of proportion to
the grandeur and perfe&ion of the objeft whom we vene¬
rate, love, and obey. “ Thi$ proportion or harmony,
is exprefled by the general name of piety or devotion
which is always ftronger or weaker, according to the
greater or lefs apprehended excellency of its objed. This
fublime principle of virtue, is the enlivening foul which
animates the moral fyftem, and that cement which binds
and fuftains the other duties which man owes to^himfelf or
to fociety."
This then is the general temper and conftitution of vir¬
tue, and thefe are the principal lines or divifions of duty.
To thofe good difpofitions, which refped the feveral ob-
jeds of our duty, and to all jtdions which,flow from fuch
difpofitions, the mind gives its fandion or teftimony.
And this fandion, or judgment concerning the moral qua¬
lity, or the goodnefs of adions or difpofitions, mbralifts
call confcience. When it judges of an adion that is to
be performed, it is called an antecedent confcience ; and
when it pafies fentence on an adton which is performed,
it is called a fubfequent confcienc§. The tendency of an
adion to produce happinefs, or its external conformity to a
law, is termed its material goodnefs; but the good difpo¬
fitions from which an adion proceeds, or its- conformity
to law in every refped, conftkutes i^s formal goodnefs'.
When the mind is ignorant or Uncertain about the mo¬
ment of an adion, or its tendency to private or public
good; or when there are feveral circumftances in the cafe,
fome of which being doubtful, render the mind dubious
concerning the morality of the adion; this is called a
doubtful or fctupuioils confcience : if it miftakes concern-
MORAL P II
ing .ihelp, it is called an erroneous confcience. If the
error or ignorance is involuntary or invincible, the a<5Hon
proceeding from that error, or from that ignorance, is
• reckoned innocent, or not imputable. If the error or
ignorance is fupine or affefled, i. e. the effedt of negli¬
gence, or of affectation and wilful inadvertence, the con¬
duct flowing from fuch error, or fuch ignorance, is cri¬
minal and imputable. Not to follow one’s confcience,
though erroneous and ill-formed, is criminal, as it is the
guide of life ; and to counteract it, {hews a depraved and
incorrigible fpirit: Yet, to follow an erroneous confcience
is likewife criminal, if that error which milled the con¬
fcience was the effect of inattention, or of any criminal
paffion.
If it be afleed, ‘\c How an erroneous confcience (hall
be rectified, fince it is fuppofed to be the only guide of
life, and judge of morals r” we anfwer, In the very fame
way that we would rectify feafon, if at any time It (hould
judge wrong, as it often does, viz. By giving it proper
, and fufficient materials for judging right, i. e. by inqui¬
ring into the whole ftate of the cafe ; the relations, con¬
nections, and feveral obligations of the aCtor; the confe-
quences, and other circumftances of the ^aCtion ; or the
furplufage of private or public good which refults, or is
likely to refult, from the aCtion or from the'omiffion of
it. If thofe circumftances are fairly and fully ftated, the
confcience will be juft and impartial in its decifion. For,
by a neceffary law of our nature, it approves, and is well
affeCted to the moral form j and if it feems to approve of
vice or immorality, it is always under the notion or mafic
of feme virtue. So that, ftriCtly fpeaking, it is not con¬
fcience which errs ; for its fentence is always conformable
to the view of the cafe which lies before it ; and is juft,
upon the fuppofition that the cafe is truly fuch as it is re-
prefented to it. All the fault is to be imputed to the a-
gent, who negleCts to be better informed, or who, thro’
weaknefs or wickednefs, haftens to pafs fentence from an
imperfeCt evidence. s
Of Man's Duty to Himself. Of the Nature of Goon,
and the chief Good.
Evert creature, by the conftitution of his nature, is
determined to love himfelf, to purfue whatever tends to
his prefervation and happinefs, and to avoid whatever
tends to his hurt and mifery. Being endued with fenfe
and perception, he muft neceffarily receive pleafure from
feme objects, and [5ain from others. Thofe objects which
give pleafure are called good, and thofe which give pain
evil. To the former he feels that attraction or motion
we call defire, or love : To the latter that impulfe we
call averfion or hatred. To objects which fuggeft neither
pleafure nor pain, and are apprehended of no ufeto pro¬
cure one, or ward off the other, we feel neither defire
nor averfion; and fuch objects are called indifferent.
Thofe objects which do pot of themfejves produce plea¬
fure or pain, but are the means of procuring either, we
call ufeful or noxious. Towards them we are afteCted in
a fubordinate manner, or with an indirect and reflective,
rather than a direCt and immediate affeCtion.. All the o-
riginal and particular affect ions' of our nature, lead us
out to, and ultimately reft in, the firft kind of obieCts,
Vol. ill. N°. 80.-2
I L O S O P H Y. 283
viz. thofe which give immediate pleafure, and which we
therefore call good, direClly fo. The calm affeCtion,
of felf-Iove. alone is converfant about fuch objects as
are only confequentially good, or merely ufeful to our-
felres.
But befides thofe forts of objects which we call good,
merely and folely as they give pleafure, or are means of
procuring it, there is an higher and nobler fpecies of
good, towards which we feel that peculiar movement we
call approbation or moral complacency, and which we
therefore denominate moral good. Soch are our affec-
tiops, and the conlequent actions to them. The percep¬
tion of this is quite diftinCt in kind from the perception
of the other fpecies; and though it may be connected
with pleafure or advantage by the benevolent conftitutioh
of nature, yet it conftitutes a good independent of that
pleafure-and that advantage, and far fuperior, not in de¬
gree only, but in dignity, to both. The other, viz. the
natural good, confifts in obtaining thofe pleafures which
are adapted to the peculiar fenfes and pafftons fufceptible
of them, and is as various as are thofe fenfes and paf-
fions. This, viz., the moral good, lies in the right con-,
dud of the feveral fenfes and paffions, or their juft pro¬
portion and accommodation to their refpediye objeds
and relations ; and this is of a more fimple and invariable
kind.
By our feveral fenfes we are capable of a great variety
of pleafing fenfations. Thefe conftitute diftind ends or
objeds ultimately purfuable for their own fake. To thefe
ends, or ultimate objeds, correfpond peculiar appetites
or affedions, v/hich prompt the mind to purfue them.
When thefe ends are attained, there it refts and looks no
farther. Whataver therefore is purfuable, not on its
own account, but as fubfervient or neceffary to the at¬
tainment of fomething elfe that is intrinfically valuable or
for its own fake, we call a mean, and not an. end. So
that ends, and not means, conftitute the materials or the
very effence of our happinefs. Confequently, happinefs
cannot be one fimple uniform thing in creatures confti-
tuted, as we are, with fuch various fenfes of pieafure, or
fuch different capacities of enjoyment. Now, the fame
principle or law of our nature which determines us to
purfue any one end or fpecies of good, prompts us to
purfue every other end or fpecies of good of which we are
fufceptible, or to which our Maker has adapted an origi¬
nal propenfioo. But amidft the great multiplicity of ends
or goods, which form the various ingredients of our
happinefs, we perceive an evident gradation or fubordi-
nation, fuited to that gradation of fenfes, powers, and
paflions, which prevails in our mixed and various con-
ftitutiqn, and to that afeending fe.ries of. connexions
which open upon us in the different ftages of our progref-
five ftate.
Thus the goods, of the body, or of the external fenfes,
feem to hold the loweft rank in. this gradation_or fcale of
goods. Thefe we have in common with the ' rutes : and
though many men are brutifh enough to purfue the goods
of the body with a more than brutual fury ; yet when at
any time they come in competition with goods of. an
higher order, the unanimous verdjX of mankind, by gi¬
ving the laft the preference, condemns the firft to the
4 B mean eft
284 MORAL P T
meaneft pJace. Goods confiding in exterior focial con¬
nexions, as fame, fortune, power, civil authority, feem to
fucceed next, and are chiefly valuable as the means of
procuring natural or moral good, but principally the lat¬
ter. Goods of the intelleX are dill fuperior ; as tade,
knowledge, memory, judgment,' &c. The highed are
moral goods of the mind, direXly and ultimately regard¬
ing ourfelves ; as command of the appetites and paflions,
prudence, fortitude, benevolence, &c. Thefe are the
great objeXs of our purfuit, and the principal ingredients
of our happinefs. Let us confider each of them, as they
rife one abo.ve the other in this natural feries or fcale, and
touch briefly on our obligations to purfue them.
Thofe of the body are health, drength, agility, hardi-
pefs, and patience of change, neatnefs, and decency.
Good health, and a regular eafy flow of fpirits, are in
themfelves fweet natural enjoyments, a great fund of plea-
fure, and indeed the.proper feafoning which gives a flavour
and poignancy to every other pleafure. The want of health
unfits us for mod duties of life, and is efpecially an enemy to
the focial and human affeXions, as it generally renders the
unhappy fufferer peevilh and fullen, difguded at the al¬
lotments of providence, and confequently apt to entertain
fufpicious and gloomy fentiments of its Author. It ob-
druXs the free excrcife and full improvement of our rea-
fon, makes us a burden to our friends, and ufelefs to
fociety. Whereas the uninterrupted enjoyment of good
health, is a condant fource of good humour: and good
humour is a great friend to opennefs and benignity of
heart; enables us to encounter the various ills and difap-
pointments of life with more courage, or to fudain them
with more patience; and, in fliort, conduces much, if we
are otherwife duly qualified, to our aXing our part in
every exigency of life with more firmnefs, confidency,
and dignity. Therefore it imports us much to preferve
and improve an habit or enjoyment, without which every
other external entertainment is tadelefs, and mod other
advantagesof little avail. And this is bed donebya driX
temperance in diet and regimen, by regular exercife, and
by keeping the mind ferene and unruffled by violent paf-
fions, arid unfubdued by intenfe and condant labours,
which greatly impair, and gradually dedroy, the dronged
conditutions.
Strength, agility, hardinefs, and patience of change,
fuppofe health, and are unattainable without it; but they
imply fomething more, and are necedary to guard it, to
give us the perfeX ufe of life and limbs, and to fecure us
againd many otherwife unavoidable ills. The exercife of
the necedary manual, and of mod the elegant arts of life,
depends on drength and agility of body ; perfonal dan¬
gers, private and public dangers, the demands of our
friends, our families and country require them; they are
necetfary in war, and ornamental in peace ; fit for the
employments of a country and a town life, and they exalt
the entertainments and diverfions of both. They are
chiefly obtained by moderate and regular exercife.
Few arefo much raifed above want and dependence, or
fo exempted from bufinefs and care, as not to be often
expofed to inequalities and changes of diet, exercife, air,
climate, and other irregularities. Now, what can be fo
efFeXual to fecure one agatnft the.mifghiefs arifing from
I I L O S O P H Y.
fuch unavoidable alterations, as hardinefs, and a certain
verlatility of conftitution, which can bear extraordinary
labours, and fubmit to great changes, without any fenfible
uneafinefs or Bad confequences. This is heft attained,
not by an over great delicacy and minut attentions to
forms, or by an invariable regularity in diet, hours, and
way of living, but rather by a bold difcreet latitude of
regimen. Befides, deviations from eftablifhed rules and
forms of living, if kept within the bounds of fobriety and
reafon, are friendly to thought and original fentiment, a-
nimate the dull fcene of ordinary life and bufinefs, and
agreeably ftir the paflions, which flagnate or breed ill hu¬
mour in the calms of life.
Neatnefs, cleanlinefs, and decency, to which we may
add dignity of countenance and demeanour," feem to have
fomcthmg refined and moral in them. At leaf! we gene¬
rally efteem them indications of an orderly, genteel, and
well governed mind, conlcibus of inward worth, or the
refpeX due to one’s natutre. Whereas naflinefs, floven-
linefs, aukwardnefs, and indecency, are (hrewd fymptotns
of fomething mean, carelefsj, and deficient, and betray a
mind untaught, illiberal, unconfcious of what is due to
one’s felf or tOjOthers. How much cleanlinefs conduces
to health needs hardly to be mentioned ; and how necef-
fary it is to maintain one’s charaXer and rank in life, and
to render us agreeable to others as well as to ourfelves,
is as evident.—There are certain .motions, airs and gef-
tures, which become the human countenance and form,
in which we perceive a comelinefs, opennefs, fimplicity,
gracefulnefs; and there are others, which, to our fenfe
of decorum, appear uncomely, affeXed, difingenuous, and
aukward, quite unfuitable to the native dignity of our face
and form. The firfl: are in themfelves the moft eafy, na¬
tural, and commodious; give one boldnefs and prefence
of mind, a modeft affurance, an adrefs both awful and al¬
luring, they befpeak candour and* greatnefs of mind, raife
the molf agreeable prejudices in one's favour, render fo¬
ciety engaging, command refpeX, and -often love, and
give weight aud authority both in converfation and bufi¬
nefs: in fine, they are the colouring of virtue, which fliew
it to the greateft advantage in whomfoeverit is; and not on¬
ly imitate, but in fome meafure fuppiy it where it is want¬
ing. Whereas thelaft, viz. rudenefs, affeXation, indeco¬
rum, and the like, have all the contrary effeXs ; they are
burdenfome to one’s felf, a difhonour to our nature and
% nuifance in lociety. The former qualities or goods are
beft attained by a liberal education, by preferving a jutt
fenfe of the dignity of our nature, by keeping the beft and
politeft company ; but above all, by acquiring thofe vir¬
tuous and ennobling habits of mind, which are decency in
perfeXion, which will give an air of unaffeXed grandeur,
and fpread a luftre truly engaging over the whole form and
deportment.
We are next to confider thofe goods which confift in
exterior focial connexions ; as fame, fortune, civil autho¬
rity, power.
The firft,has a twofold afpeX; as a good pleafant in it-
felf, or gratifying to an original paffion; and then, as expe¬
dient or ufeful towards a farther end. Honour from th^
wife and good, on the account of a virtuous comiu , is
regaling to a good man. There are few quite indifirient
even
MORAL PH
even to the commendation of the vulgar. Though wecan-
not approve that conduct which proceeds entirely from this
principle, and not from good affeftion or love of the con-
du<5t itfelf; yet as it is often a guard and additional mo¬
tive to virtue in creatures imperfed as we are, and often
dilfr^ded by interfering paffions, it might ,be dangerous
to fuppref it altogether, however wife it may be toreftrain
it within due bounds, and however laudable to ufe it on¬
ly as a fcaffplding to our virtue, which may be taken down
when that glorious ilrudure is finilhed, but hardly till then.
To purfue fame for iifelf, is innocent , to regard it only
as an auxiliary to virtue, is noble; to feek it chiefly as
an engine of public ufefulnefs, is hill more noble. For
though the opinion and breath of men are tranfient and
fading things; bften obtained without merit, andlolt with¬
out caufe: yet as- our bufmefs is with men, and as our
capacity of ferving them is generally increaled in propor¬
tion to their efteem of us ; therefore found and well efta-
blilhed moral a; plaufe may, and will be, modedly, not
oflentatioufly, fought after by the good ; not indeed as a
folitary retined fort of luxury, but as a public and proper
inftrument to ferye and blefs mankind. At the fame time
they will learn to defpife4ihat reputation which is founded
on rank, fortune, and any other circumftances or accotn-
plifhments that are foreign to real merit, or to ufeful fer-
vices done to others; and think that praife of little avail
which is purchafed without defert, and bellowed without
judgment.
Fortune, power, and civil authority, or whatever is cal¬
led influence and weight among mankind, are goods of the
fecond divifion; that is, valuable and purfuable only as
they are ufeful, or as means to a farther end,, v/z. the pro¬
curing or preferving the immediate objedts of enjoyment
or happinefs to ourfelves or others. Therefore, to love
fuch goods on their own account, and to purfue them as
ends, not the means of enjoyment, mull be highly prepo-
flerous and abfurd. There can be no meafure, no limit
to fuchpurfuit; all mull be whim, caprice, extravagance.
Accordingly, fuch appetites, unlike all the natural ones,
are increafed by pofleflion, and whetted by enjoyment.
They are always precarious, and never without fears be-
caufe the objefts lie without one’s fclf; they are feldom
without forrow and vexation, becaufe no acceffion of
wealth or power can fatisfy them. But if thofe goods
are confidered only as the materials or means of private
or public happinefs; then the fame obligations which bind
us to purfue thelatter, bind us likewife to purfue the former.
We may, and no doubt we ought, to feek fuch a meafure of
wealth as is neceflarytofupplyall ourreal wants, toraife us
above fervile dependence, and provide us with fuch con- -
veniencies as are fuited to our rank and condition in life.
To be regarcllefs of this meafure of wealth is to expofe
ourfelves to all the temptations of poverty and corruption;
to forfeit our natural independency and freedom ; to de¬
grade, and confequently to render the rank we hold, and
the character we fultain in fociety, ufelefs, if not con¬
temptible. When thefe important ends are fecured. we
ought not to murmur or repine that we pcffefs no more ;
yet we are not feciuded by any obligation, moral or di¬
vine, from feekiog more, m order to give us that happiefl
and nioft God-like of all powers, the power of doing
I L O S O P H Y. ’ 285
good. A fupine indolence in this refpedl is both abfurd
and criminal ; abfurd, as it robs us of an inexhaufted
fund of the moll refined and durable enjoyments; and
criminal, as it renders as fo far ufelefs .to the fociety to,
which we belong. “ That purfuit of wealth which goes
beyond the former end, viz. the obtaining the necefiaries,
or fuch conveniences of life, as in the eftimation of rea-
fon, not of vanity or pallion, are fuited to our rank and
condition, and yet is not directed to the latter, viz, the
doing good, is what we call avarice.” And “ that pur¬
fuit of power, which, after fecuring one’s felf, e. at¬
taining the proper independence and liberty of a rational
focial creature, is not direfted to the good of others, is
what we call ambition, or the lull of power.” To what
extent the flri<ft meafures of virtue will allow us to pur¬
fue either wealth, or power, and civil authority, is not
perhaps poffible precisely to determine. That mull be
left to prudence, and the peculiar character, condition,
and other circumllances of each man. Only thus far a
limit may be fet, that the purfuit of either mull encroach
upon no other d«ty or obligation which we owe to our¬
felves, to fociety, or to its Parent and Head. The fame
reafoning is to be applied to power as to wealth. It is
only valuable as an inflrument of our own fecurity, and
of the free enjoyment of thofe priginal goods it may, and
often does, adminiller to us ; and as an engine of more,
extenfive happinefs to our friends, our country, and
mankind.
Now the bell, and indeed the only way to obtain a
folid and lading fame, is an uniform inflexible courfe of
virtue, the employing one’s ability and wealth in fup-
plying the wants, and uling one’s power in promoting or
fecuring the happinefs, the rights and liberties of man¬
kind, joined to an univerfal, affability and politenefs of
manners. And furely one will not miftake the matter
much, who thinks the fame courfe conducive to the ac¬
quiring greater acceffions both of wealth and power : e-
fpecially if he adds to thofe qualifications a_ vigorous in-
duftry, a conilant attention, to the charadters and wants
of men, to the conjundtures of times, and continually
varying genius of affairs ; and a lleddy intrepid honefty,
that will neither yield to the allurements, nor be over¬
awed with the terrors of that corrupt and corrupting feene
in which we live. We have fometimes heard, indeed, of
other ways and means, as fraud, diflimulation, fervility,
and proftitution, and the like ignoble arts, by which the
men of the world (as they are called, (hrewd politicians,
and men of addrefs !) amafs wealth, and procure power :
but as we want rather to form a man of virtue, an honed,
contented, happy man, we leave to the men of the
^world their own ways, and permit them unenvied, and
unimitated by us, to reap the fruit of their doings.
The ffext fpecies of objects in the fcale of good, are
the goods of the intellefl; as knowledge, memory, judge¬
ment, tafle, fagacity, dociHty, and whatever elfe we call
intelleftual virtues. Let us confider them a little, and
the means as well as oFligations to improve them.
As man is a rational creature, capable of knowing the
differences of things and actions;—-as he not only fees and
feels what is prefent, but remembers what is pail, and
often forefees what is future;—as he advances, from fmall
beginnings
286 MORAL PH
beginnings, by flow degrees, and with much labour and
difficulty to knowledge and experience ;—-as his opinions
fway his pallions;—as his pafiions influence his conduit,—
and as his conduit draws confequences after it, which ex¬
tend nqt.only to the prefent, but to-the future time,-and
therefore is the principal fource of his happinefs or mi-
fery;—it is evident, that he is formed for intelleitual im¬
provements, and that it muft: be of the utmoft confequence
for him to improve and cultivate his intelleitual powers,
on which thofe opinions, thofe paflions, and that conduit
depend.
But befldes the future confequenees and moment of
improving our intelleitual powers, their immediate exer-
cife on their proper objeits yields the moft rational and
refined pleafures. Knowledge and a right tafle in the
arts of imitation anddefign, as poetry, painting, fculpture,
mu(5c, architeiture, afford not only an innocent, but a moft
fenfible and fublime entertainment. By thefe the under-
flanding is inftruited in ancient and modern life, the hi-
ftory of men and things, the energies and effeils of the
paflions, the confequences of virtue and vice ; by thefe
the imagination is at once entertained and nourilhed with
the beauties of nature and art, lighted up and fpread out
with the novelty, grandeur, and harmony of the uni-
verfe;- and in fine, the paffions are agreeably rouzed,
and fuitably engaged by the greateft and moft interefting
objefts that can fill the human mind. He who has a
tafte formed to thefe ingenious delights, and plenty of
materials to gratify it, can never want the moft agreeable
exercife and entertainment, nor once have reafon to
make that fafhionable complaint of the tedioufnefs of
time. Nor can he want a proper fubjedt for the difei-
pline and improvement of his heart. For being daily
converfant with beauty, order and defign, in inferior
fubjefts, he bids fair for growing in due time an admirer
of what is fair and well-proportioned in the condufl of
l^fe, and the order of fociety, which is only order and
defign exerted in their higheft fubjefl. He will, learn to
transfer the numbers of poetry to the harmony of the
mind, and of well-governed paffions; and from admiring
the vritucs of others in moral paintings, come to approve
and imitate them himfelf. Therefore to cultivate a true
« and correft tafte, nauft be both our intereft and our duty,
When the circumftances of our ftation give leifure and
opportunity for it, and when the doing itis not inconfiftent
with our higher obligations or engagements to fociety and
mankind.
Itis beft attained by reading the heft books, where
good fenfe has more the afeendant than learning, and
which retain more to pradice than to fpeculation ; by ftu-
dying the heft models, i. e. thofe which profefs to imi¬
tate nature moft, and approach the neareft to it; and by
converfirg with men of the moft refined tafte, and the
greateft experience in life.
As to the other intelleffual goods, what a fund of en¬
tertainment muft it be to inveftigate the truth and various
relations of things; to trace the operations ’of nature to
general laws; to explain by thefe its manifold phasnome-
■ na ; to underftand that order by which the univerfe is up¬
held, and that ceconomy by which it is governed ; to be
acquainted with the human mind, the connexion, fubor-
I L O S O P H Y.
dinations, and ufes ot its powers, and to mark their en¬
ergy in life! How agreeable to the ingenious inquirer,"
to obferve the manifold relations and combinations of in¬
dividual minds in fociety; to difeern thecaufes why they
flourifli or decay ; and from thence to afeend, through
the vaft fcale of beings, to that General Mind which pre-
fides over all, and operates unfeen in every fyftem, and
in every age, through the whole compafs and progreffion
of nature .l Devoted to fuch entertainments as thefe, the
contemplative have abandoned every other pleafui e, and
fequeftered themfelves from focial intercourfe; for thefe
the bufy kav^ often preferred, to the hurry and din of
life, the calm retreats of contemplation; for thefe, when
once they came to tafte them, even the gay and voluptuous
have thrown up the lawlefs purfuits of fenfe and appetite,
and acknowledged thefe mental enjoyments to be the
moft refined, and indeed the only luxury. Befides, by a
juft and large knowledge of nature, we recognize the
perfeffions of its Author; and thus piety, and all thofe
pious affedlions which depend on juft fentiments of his
character, are awakened and confirmed ; and a thoufand
fuperftitious fears, that arife from partial views of his
nature and works, will of courfe be excluded. An ex-
fenfive profpeft of human life, and of the periods and
revolutions of human things, will conduce much to the
giving a certain ^greatnefs of mind, and a noble cotempt
of thofe little competitions about power, honour, and
wealth, which difturb and divide the bulk of mankind ;
and promote a calm indurance of thofe inconveniencies
and ills that are tjje common appendages of humanity.
Add to all, that a juft knowledge of human nature, and
of thofe hinges upon which the bufinefs and fortunes of
men turn, will prevent our thinking cither too highly,
or too meanly of our fellow-creatures; give no fmall
fcope to the exercife of friendffiip, confidence, and good¬
will ; and, at the fam? time, brace the mind with a pro¬
per caution and diftruft, and givea greater maftery in the
conduit of private as well as public life. Therefore, by
cultivating our intelleitual abilities, we (hall beft promote
and fecure our intereft, and be qualified for aiting our
part in fociety with more honour to ourfelves, as well
as advantage to mankind. Confequently, to improve them
to the utmoft of our power is our duty ; they are talents
committed to us by jhe Almighty Head of fociety, and
we are accountable to him for the ufe of them.
The intelleifual virtues are beft improved by accurate
and impartial obfervation, exteafive reading, and tfh-
confined converfe with men of all characters, efpecially
with thofe who, to private ftudy, have joined the wideft
acquaintance with the world and greateft pradice in its af¬
fairs ; but above all,*by being much in the world, and
having large dealings with naankind. Spchopportunities
contribute much to divert one of prejudices and a fervile
attachment to crude fyftems, to open one’s views, and to
give that experience on which the moft ufeful knowledge
is built, and from which the fureft maxims for the cpn-
dud of life are deduced. ,
The higheft goods which enter into the compofmon of
human happmels are moral goods of the mind, diredly
and ultimately regarding’ourfelves ; as command of the
appetites and paffions, prudence and caution, magnanimity,
fortitude,
' MORAL P H :
-fortitude, humility, love of virtue, love of God, re-
fignation, and the like. Thefe fublime goods are, byway
of eminence, goods recommended and enforced by^ the
moil intimate and awful fenfe and confcioufnefs of our
mature; goods that conilitute the quinteifence of happi-
nefs, that form and compledlion of foul which renders us
approveable and lovely in the fight of God; goods, in
fine, which are fhe elements of all our future perfe&ion
and felicity.
Moil of the other goods we have .confidered depend
partly on ourfelves, and partly on accidents which we
can neither forefee nor.prevent, and refult from caufes
which we cannot influence or alter. They are fuch good^
as we may poiftfs to-day and lofe to-morrow, and which
require a felicity of conilitution and talents to attain them
in full vigour and perfection, and a felicity of conjunc¬
tures to fecure the poITeflion of them. Therefore, did
our happinefs depend altogether or chiefly on fuch tran-
fitory and precarious pofleflions, it were itfelf mofl pre¬
carious, and the higheft folly to be anxious about it.—
But though creatures, conftituted as we are, cannot be
-iadifferent about’fuch goods, and mu ft fuffer in fome
degree, and confequently have our happinefs incomplete
without them, yet they weigh but little in the fcale when
compared with moral goods. By the benevolent confli
tution of our nature, thefe are placed within the fphere of
our aCHvity, fo that no. man can be deflitute of them un-
lefs he is firft. wanting to Biihfelf. Some of the wifeft
and beft: of mankind have wanted molt of the former
goods, and all the external kind, and felt moft of the
oppofite ills; yet, by polfelling the latter, have declar¬
ed they were happy, and to the conviction of the moft
impartial obfervers have appeared, happy. The worft
of men have been furrounded with every outward good
and advantage of fortune, and have polfefle’d great parts;
yet, for want of moral reCtitude, have been notorioufly
and exquifitely miferable. The exercife of virtue has
fupported its votaries, and made them exult in the midft
of tortures almoft intolerable; nay, how often has fome
falfe form or fhadow of it fuftained even the greateft vil¬
lains and bigots under the fame preffures ! But no exter¬
nal goods, no goods of fortune, have been able to alleviate
the agonies, or expel thefears-of a guilty mind, confcious
of the deferved hatred and reproach of mankind, and the
juft difpleafure of almighty God.
As the prefent condition of human life is wonderfully
chequered with good and ill; and as no height of ftatfon,
no affluence of fortune, can abfolutely -infure the good or
fecure againlt the ill; it is evident, ;hat a great part of the
comfort and ferenity of life muft lie in having our minds
duly aflfeCicd with regard to both, i e, rightly attemper¬
ed' to the lofs of one and the fufferance of the other.
For it is certain, that outward calamities derive their chief
malignity and preflure from the inward difpofitions with
whieh we receive them. By managing thefe right, we
may greatly abate that malignity and preffnre, and con¬
fequently diminifh the number and weaken the moment
of the ills of life, if we fhould not have it in our power
to obtain a large (hare of its goods. There are particu¬
larly three virtues which go to the forming this right
temper towards ill, and which ?re of Angular efficacy, if
Von. III. N°. 81. 3
L O S O P H Y. 287
not totally to remove, yet wonderfully to alleviate the
calamities of life. Thefe are fortitude, or patience, hu¬
mility, and refignation. ‘
Fortitude is that calm and fteddy habit of mind, which
either moderates our fears, and enables us bravely to en¬
counter the profpeCt of ill, or renders the mind ferene
and invincible under its immediate preflure. It lies
equally diftant from rafhnefs and cowardice; and though
it does not hinder us from feeling, yet prevents our com¬
plaining or Ihrinking under the ftroke. It always includes
a generous contempt of, or at lead a noble fuperiority to,
thofe precarious goods of which we can infure neither the
poffeflion nor continuance. The man therefore who
poffeffes this virtue in this ample fenfe of it, ftands upon
an eminence, and fees human tilings below him; the
tempeft indeed may reach him, but he ftands fecure and
colledted againft it upon the bafis of confcious virtue,
which the fevereft ftorms can feldom ftiake, and never
overthrow.
Humility is another virtue of high rank and dignity,
though often miftaken by proud mortals for meannefs
and pufillanimity. It is oppofed to pride, which commonly
includes in it a falfe or over-rated eftimation of our own
merit, an afcription of it to ourfelves as its only and
original caufe, an undue comparifon of ourfelves with
others, and, in confequence of that fuppofed fuperiority,
an arrogant preference of ourfelves, and a fupercilious
contempt of them. Humility, on the other hand, feemstb
denote that modeft and ingenuous temper of mind, which
arifes from a juft and equal eftimateofourown advantages
compared with thofe of others, and from a fenfe of our
deriving all originally from the Author of our being. Its
ordinary attendants are mildntfs, a gentle forbearance,
and an eafy unaffuming humanity with regard to the
imperfedtfons and faults of others; virtues rare indeed,
but of the faireft completion, the proper offspring of fo
lovely a parent, the beft ornaments of fuch imperfet
creatures as we are, precious in the fight of God, and
which fweetly allure the hearts of men/
Refignation is that mild and heroic temper of mind,
which anfes from a fenfe of an infinitely wife and good pro¬
vidence, and enables ond toacquiefce with a cordial affetion
in its juft appointments. This virtue has fomething very
peculiar in its nature, and fublime in its efficacy. For it
teaches us to bear ill, not only with patience, and as being
unavoidable; but it transforms, as it were, ill into good,
. by fading us to confider it, and every thing that has the leaft
appearance of ill, as a’divine difpenfation, a wife and bene¬
volent temperament of things, fubfervi ent to univerfal good,
and of courfc including that of every individual, efpecially
of fuch as calmly ftoop to it. In this light, the admini-
ftration itfelf, nay, every a<ft of it, becomes an objeft of
affedtion ; the evil difappears, oris converted into a balm
which both heals and nourilhes the mind. For, though
the firft unexpected accefs ‘of ill may furprife the foul
info grief; yet that grief, when the mind calmly reviews
its objedt, changes into contentment, and is by degrees
exalted into veneration and a divine compofure. Our
private will is loft in that of the Almighty, and our fe-
curity againft every real ill refts on the fame bottom as
the throne of Him who lives and reigns for ever.
4 C Before
288 MORAL PH
Before we finifli this feftion, it may be fit to obferve,
that as the Deity is the fupreme and inexhaufted fource
of good, on whom the happinefs of the whole creation
depends ; as he is the highelt objeft in nature, and the
only objefl who is fully proportioned to the intellectual
and moral powers of the mind, in whom they ultimately
reft and find their moft perfeft exercife and completion;
he is therefore termed the -chief good of man objettively
confidered : And virtue, or the proportioned and vi¬
gorous exercife of the feveral powers and affections on
their refpeCtive objeCts, as above defcribed, is, in the
fchpols^ termed the chief good formally confidered, or
its formal idea, being the inward temper and native con-
ftitution of human happinefs.
From the detail we have gone through, the following
corollaries may be deduced.
i. It is evident that the happinefs of fuch a pro-
gregreffive creature as man can never be at a ftand, or
continue a fixed invariable thing. HJs finite nature, let
it rife everfo high, admits ftill higherdegrees of improve¬
ment and perfection : and his progreffion in improve¬
ment, or virtue, always makes way for a progrellion in
happinefs. So that no poffible point can be affigned in
any period of his exiftence in which he is perfectly hap¬
py, that is, fo happy as to exclude higher degrees of
happinefs. All his perfection is only comparative. 2. It
appears that many things muft confpire to complete the
happinefs of fo various a creature as man, fubjeCt to fo
many wants, and fufceptible of fuch different pleafures.
3. As his capacities of pleafure cannot be all gratified at
the fame time, and muft often interfere with each other
in fuch a precarious and fleeting ftate as human life, or
be frequently difappointed, perfeCt happinefs, /. e. the
undifturbed enjoyment of the feveral pleafures of which
we are capable, is unattainable in our prefent ftate. 4.
That ftate is moft to be fought after, in which thefeweft
competitions and difappointments can happen, which
leaft of all impairs any fenfe of pleafure, and opens an
inexhaufted fource of the moft refined and lading enjoy¬
ments. 5. That ftate which is attended with all thofe
advantages is a ftate or courfe of virtue. 6. Therefore,
a ftate of virtue, in which the moral goods of the mind
are attained, is the happieft ftate.
Duties to Society.
Filial and Fraternal duty.
As we have followed the order of nature in tracing the
hiftory of man, and thofe duties which he owes to him-
felf; it feems reafonable to take the fame method with
thofe he owes to fociety, which conftitute the fecondclafs
of his obligations.
His parents are among the earlieft objeCts of his atten¬
tion ; he becomes fooneft acquainted with them, repofes
a peculiar confidence in them, and feems to regard them
with a fond affe&ion, the early prognoftics of his future
piety and gratitude. Thus does nature dhftate the firft
lines of filial duty, even before a juft fenfe of the connec¬
tion is formed. But when the child is grown up, and
has attained to fuch a degree of underftanding as to com¬
prehend the moral tie, and be fenfible of the obligations
I L O S O P H Y.
he is under to his parents; when he looks back on their
tender and difinterefted affeftion, their inceffant cares and
labours in nurfing, educating and providing for him du¬
ring that ftate in which he had neither prudence nor
ftrength to care and provide for himfelf; he muft be con-
fcious that he owes to them thefe peculiar duties.
1. To reverence and honour them as the inftruments of
nature in introducing him to life, and to that ftate of
comfort and happinefs which he enjoys; and therefore
to efteem and imitate their good qualities, to alleviate
and bear with, and fpread as much as poflible a decent
veil over their faults and weakneffes.
2. To be highly grateful to them for thofe favours
which it can hardly ever be in his power fully to repay ;
to ftiew this gratitude by a ffridt attention to their wants,
and a felicitous care to fupply them; by a fubmiflive de-.
ference to their authority and advice ; by yielding to, ra¬
ther than peevifhly contending with their humours, as
remembering how oft they have been perfecuted by his;
and in fine, by foothing their cares, lightening their
forrows, fupporting the infirmities of age, and making
the remainder of their life as Comfortable and joyful
as poflible.
As his brethren and fillers are the next with whom
the creature forms a focial and moral conneftioe, to them
he owes a fraternal regard; and with them ought he to
enter into a ftrid league of friendlhip, -mutual fympathy,
advice, .afliftance, and a generous intercourfe of kind of¬
fices, remembering their relation to common parents,
and that brotherhood of nature which unites them into
a clofer community of intereft and affe&ion.
Concerning Marriage.
When man arrives to a certain age, he becomes fen¬
fible of a peculiar fympathy and tendernefs towards the
other fex; the charms of beauty engage his attention,
and call forth new and fofter difpofitions than he has yet
felt. The many amiable qualities exhibited by a fair
outfide, or by the mild allurement of female manners,
or which the prejudiced fpeftator without much reafoning
fuppofes thofe to include, with feveral other circumftan-
ces, point his view and affedtion to a particular objefl,
and of courfe contradl that general rambling regard,
which was loft and ufelefs among the undiftinguilhed
croud, into a peculiar and permanent attachment to one
woman, which ordinarily terminates in the moft impor¬
tant, venerable, and delightful connedlion in life.
The ftate of the brute-creation is very different from
that of human creatures. The former are cloathed and
generally armed by their ftrutf ure, eafily find what is ne-
ceffary to their fubfiftence, and foon attain their vigour
and maturity ; fo that they need the care and aid of their
parents but for a fhort while; and therefore we fee that
nature has afligned to them vagrant and tranfient amours.
The connedlion being purely natural, and formed merely
for propagating and rearing their offspring ; no fooner is
that end anfwered, than the connedtion diflblves of courfe.
But the human race are of a more tender and defencelefs
conftitution; their infancy and non-age continue longer;
they advance (lowly to ftrength of body, and maturity of
reafon ; they need conftant attention, and a long feries of
cares
MORAL PH
cares and labours to train them up to decency, virtue,
and the various arts of life. Nature has, therefore, pro¬
vided themjwith the moft affedioflate and anxious tutors,
to aid their weaknefs, to fuppiy their wants, and to ac-
complilh them in thofe neceflary arts ;—even their own
parents, on whom fhe has devolved this mighty charge,
rendered agreeable by the mod alluring and powerful of
all ties, parental affeftion. But unlefs both concur in
this grateful talk, and continue their joint labours, till
they have reared up and planted out their young colony,
it mud become a prey to every rude invader, and the
purpofe of nature in the original union of the human pair
be defeated. Therefore our drufture as well as condi¬
tion is an evident indication, that the human fexes are
dedined for a more intimate, for a moral and lading u-
nion. It appears likewife, that the principal end of mar¬
riage is not to propagate and nurfe up an offspring, but
to educate and form minds for the great duties and ex-
tenfive dedinations of life. Society mud be fupplied
from this original nurfery with ufeful members, and its
faired ornaments and fupports.
The mind is apt to be diflipated in its views, and adts
of friendfhip and humanity ; unlefs the former be direct¬
ed to a particular objedt, and the latter employed in a
particular province. When men once indulge to this
diffipation, there is no dopping their career; they grow
infenfible to moral attractions, and, by obdrudting or im¬
pairing the decent and regular exercife of the tender
and generous feelings of the human heart, they in time
become unqualified for, or averfe to, the forming a mo¬
rtal union- of fouls, which is the cement of fociety, and
the fource of the pured domedic joys. Whereas a ra¬
tional undepraved love, and its fair companion mar¬
riage, colledt a man’s views, guide his heart to its pro¬
per objeCt,. and by confining his affedtion to that objedt
do really enlarge its influence and ufe. Befides, it is
but too evident from the condudt of mankind, that the
common ties of humanity are too feeble to engage and
intered the paflions of the generality in the affairs of fo¬
ciety. The connections of neighbourhood, acquaintance,
and general intercourfe, are too wide a field of action for
many ; and thofe of a public or community are fo for
more, and in which they either care not or know not
how to exert themfelves. Therefore nature, ever wife
and benevolent, by implanting that drong fympathy which
reigns between the individuals of each feX", and by urging
them to form a particular moral connection, the fpring
of many domedic endearments, has meafured out to each
pair a particular fphere of aCtion, proportioned to their
views, and adapted to their refpeCtive capacities. Be¬
fides, by intereding them deeply in the concerns of their
own little circle, die has connected them more clofely
with fociety, which is compofed of particular families,
and bound them down to their good behaviour in that
particular community to which they belong. This mo¬
ral connection is marriage, and this fphere of aCtion is a
family.
Of the conjugal alliance the following are the na¬
tural laws. i. Mutual fidelity to the marriage-bed.
"Difloyalty defeats the very end of marriage; diffolves
the natural cement of the relation; weakens the moral
I L O S O P H Y. 289
tie, the chief ftrength of which lies in the reciproca¬
tion of affeCtion; and, by making the offspring uncer¬
tain, diminidies the care and attachment neceffary to
their education.
2. A confpiration of counfels and endeavours to pro¬
mote the common intered of the family, and to educate
their common offspring. In order to obferve thefe laws,
it is neceffary to cultivate, both before and during the
married date, the drifted decency and chadity of man¬
ners, and a jud fenfe of what becomes their refpeftive
charafters;
3. The union mud be inviolable and for life. The
nature of frienddiip, and particularly of this fpecies of
it, the education of their offspring, and the order of
fociety, and of fucceflions which would otherwife be ex¬
tremely perplexed, do all feem to require it. To pre-
ferve this union, and render the matrimonial date more
harmonious and comfortable, a mutual edeem and ten-
dernefs, a mutual deference and-forbearance, a commu¬
nication of advice, and aflxdance and authority, are ab-
folutely neceffary. If either party keep within their pro¬
per departments, there need be no difputes about power
or fuperiority, and there will be none. They have no
oppofite, no feparate intereds; and therefore there can
be no jud ground for oppofition of conduft.
From this detail, and the prefent datq of things,
in which there is pretty near a parity of numbers of
both fexes, it is evident, that potygamy is an unnatu¬
ral date: and though it fhould be granted to be more
fruitful of children, which however it is not found to
be; yet it is by no means fo lit for rearing minds;,
which feems to be as much, if not more, the intention
of nature, than the propagation of bodies.
Of Parental Duty.
TnE-conneftion of parents with their children is a
natural confequence of the matrimonial conneftion, -and
the duties which they owe them refult as naturally from
that conneftion. The feeble date of children, fubjeft to
fo many wants and dangers, requires their inceffant care
and attention; their ignorant and uncultivated minds de¬
mand their continual indruftion and culture. Had hu¬
man creatures come into the world with the full drength
of men, and the weaknefs of reafon and vehemence of
paflions which prevail in children, they would have been
too flrosg or too dubborn to have fubmitted to the go¬
vernment and indtuftion of their parents. But, as they
were defigned for a progreflxon in knowledge and virtue,
it was proper that the growth of their bodies fhould keep
pace with that of their minds, led the purpofes of that
progreflion fhould have been defeated. Among other ad¬
mirable purpofes which this gradual expanfion of their
outward as well as inward ffrufture ferves, this is one,
that it affords ample fcope to the exercife of many ten¬
der and generous affeftions, which fill up the domedic
life with a beautiful variety of duties and enjoyments;
and are of courfe a noble difcipiine for the heart, and an
hardy kind of education for the more honourable and im¬
portant duties of public life.
The above-meptioned weak and ignorant date of chil¬
dren, feems plainly to invefi their parents with fuch au¬
thority
29o MORAL PH
thority and power as is neceffary to their .fupport, pro-
tedion, and education : but that.authority and power can
be conftrued to extend no farther than is neceflary to an-
fwer thofe ends, and tolait no longer than that weaknefs
and ignorance continue; wherefore, the foundation or
reafon of the authority and power ceafing, they ceafe of
courfe. Whatever power or authority, then, it may be
Beceffary or lawful for parents to exercife during the
non-age of their children, to affume or ufurp the fame
•when they have attained the maturity or full exercife of
their ftrength'and reafon, \vould be tyrannical and un-
juft. From hence it is evident, that parents have no
right to punifh the perfons of their children more fevere-
Jy than the nature of their wardfhip requires ; much lefs
to invade their lives, to encroach upon their liberty, or
transfer them as their property to any mafter whatfoever.
The firft clafs of duties which parents owe their chil¬
dren refped their natural life ; and thefe comprehend pro-
tedion, nurture, provifion, introducing them into the
world in a manner fuitable to their rank and fortune, and
the like.
The fecond order of duties regards the intelledual and
moral life of their children, or their education in fuch
arts and accomplilhments as are neceffary to qualify them
for performing the duties they awe to themfelves and to
others. As this was found to be the principal defign of
the matrimonial alliance, fo the fulfilling that defign is
the moft important and dignified of all the parental duties.
In order therefore to fit the child for ading his part wifely
and worthily, as a man, as a citizen, and a creature of
• God, both parents ought to combine their joint wifdom,
authority, and power, and each apart to employ thofe ta¬
lents which are the peculiaj excellency and ornament of
their refpedive fex. The father ought to lay out and fu-
perintend their education ; the mother to execute and ma¬
nage the detail of which (he is capable. The former (hould
dired the manly exertion of the intelledual and moral
powers of his child. His imagination, and the manner of
thofe exertions, are the peculiar province of the latter.
The former (hould advife, proted, command, and by his
experience, mafculine vigour, and that fuperior authority
which is commonly afcribed to his fex, brace andflrength-
en his pupil for adive life, for gravity, integrity, and firm-
nefs in fuffering. The bufinefs of the latter is to bend
and foften her male pupil, by the charms of her conver-
fatiOn, and the foftnefs and decency of her manners, for
focial life, for politenefs of tafte, and the elegant deco¬
rums of and enjoyments of humanity ; and to improve
and refine the tendernefs and modefty of her female pu¬
pil, and form her to all thofe mild domeftic virtues,
which are the peculiar charaderiftics and ornaments of
her fex.
To condud the opening minds of their fweet charge
through the feveral periods of their progrefs; to affifhhem
in each period in throwing out the latent feeds of reafon
and ingenuity, and in gaining frelh acceffions of light and
virtue ; and at length, with all thefe advantages, to pro¬
duce the young adventurers upon the great theatre of hu¬
man life, to play their feveral parts in the fight of their
friends, of fociety, and mankind.
r l o s o p h y.
Herile and Servile Duty. .
In the natural courfe of human affairs it mu ft necefla-
rily happen, that fome of mankind will live in plenty and
opulence, and others be reduced to a (late of indigence
and poverty. The former need the labours of the latter,
and the latter the provifion and fupport of the former.
This mutual neceflity is the foundation of that connedioa,
whether we call it moral or civil, which fubfilts between
mafters and fervants. He who feeds another has a right
to fome equivalent, the labour of him whom he maintains,
and the fruits of it. And he who labours for another
has a right to expe<5t that he (hould fupport him. But
as the labours of a man of ordinary ftrength are certainly
of greater value than mere food and cloathing ; becaufe
they would actually produce more, even the maintenance
of a family, were the labourer to employ them in his own
behalf ; therefore he has an undoubted right to rate and
difpofe of his fervice for certain wages above mere main¬
tenance ; and if he has incautioufly difpofed- of it for the
latter only, yet the contrad being of the onerous kind,
he may equitably claim a fupply of that deficiency. If
the (ervice be fpecified, the fervant is bound to that only;
if not, then he is to be con (trued as bound only to fuch
fervices as are confident with the laws of jufttce and hu¬
manity. By the voluntary fervitude to which he fubjeds
himfelf, he forfeits no rights but fuch as are neceffarily
included in that fervitude, and is obnoxious to no puniftt-
ment but fuch as a voluntary failure in the fervice may
be fuppofed reafonably to require. The offspring of fuch
fervants have a right to that liberty which neither they
nor their parents have forfeited.
As to thofe who, becaufe of fome heinous offence, or
for fome notorious damage, for which they cannpt other-
wife compenfate, are condemned to perpetual fervice;
they dp not, on that account, forfeit all the rights of
men ; hut thofe, the lofs of which is neceffary to fecure
fociety againft the like offences for the future, or to re¬
pair the damage they have done.
With regard to captives taken in war, it is barbarous
and inhuman to make perpetual flaves of them, unlefs
fome peculiar and aggravated cireumftances of guilt have
attended their hoftility. The bulk of the fubjeds of any
government engaged in war, may be fajrly efteemed in¬
nocent enemies ; and therefore they have a right to that
clemency which is confident with the common fafety of
mankind, and the particular fecurityof that fociety againft
which they are engaged. Though ordinary captives have
a grant of their lives; yet to pay their liberty as an equi¬
valent, Is much too high a price. There are other ways
of acknowledging or returning the favour, than by fur¬
rendering what is far dearer than life itfelf. To thofe
\vho, under pretext of the neceflities of commerce, drive
the unnatural trade of bargaining for human flefh, and
configning their innocent but unfortunate fellow-creatures
to eternal fervitude and mifery, we may addrefs the words
of a fine writer ; “ Let avarice defend it as it v,ill,
there is an honeft reludance in humanity againft buying
and felling and regarding thofe of our own fpccies as our
wealth and poffeffions.”
Social
MORAL PH
Social Duties of the private JCmd.
"Hitherto we have confidered only the domeftic
< oeconomical duties, becaufe thele'are firft in the progrefs
of nature. But as man pafles beyond the little circle of
a family, he forms connexions with relations, friends,
-neighbours, and others ; from whence refults a new train
of duties of the more private focial kind, as f riendlhip,
chaftity, courtefy, good-neighbourhood, charity, for-
givenefs, hofpitality.
Man is admirably formed for particular focial attach¬
ments and duties. There is a peculiar and ftrong pro-
penfity in his nature to be. affe&ed with the fentiments
and difpofitions of others. Men, like certain mufical in-
flruments, are fet to each other, fd that the vibrations
or notes excited in'one raife correfpondent notes and vi¬
brations in the others. The impulfes of pleafure or pain,
joy or forrow, made on one mind, are, by an inftantane-
ous fympathy of nature, communicated in fome degree to
all; efpeciaily when hearts are in-unifon of kindnefs ; the
joy th&t vibrates in one, communicates to the other alio.
We may add, that though joy thus imparted fwells the
harmony; yet grief vibrated to the heart of a friend, and
rebounding from thence in fympathetic notes, melts, as it
were, and almoft'dies away. All the paflions, but efpe¬
ciaily thofe of the focial kind, are contagious ; and when
the paflions of one man mingle with thofe of anotheb,
they increafe and multiply prodigioufly. There is a moft
-moving eloquence in the human countenance, air^ voice,
and gefture, wonderfully expreflive of the moft latent
feelings and paflions of the foul, which darts them, like
a fubtle flame, into the hearts of others, and raifes cor¬
refpondent feelings there: friendlhip, love, good-humour,
joy, Ipread through every feature, and particularly fhoot
from the eyes their fofter and fiercer fires with an irrefif-
tible energy. And in like manner, the oppofite paffions
of hatred, 'enmity, ill humour, melancholy, diffufe a ful-
len and faddening air over the face, and, flafhing from eye
to eye, kindle a train of fimflar paflions. By thefe and
other admirable pieces of machinery, men are formed
for fociety and the delightful interchange of friendly
fentiment and duties; to increafe the happinefs of o-
thers by participation, and their own by rebound; and
to diminilh, by dividing, the common flock of* their
mifery.
The firft emanations of the focial principle beyond the '
bounds of a family, lead us to form a nearer conjunXion
of friendlhip or goodwill with thofe' who are anywife
conneXed with us by blood or domeftic alliance. To
them' our affeXion does, commonly, exert itfelf in a
greater or lefs degree* according to the uearnefs or dif-
tanee of the relation. And this proportion is admirably
fuited to the extent of our powers and the indigence of
our.ftate ; for it is only within thofe lefler circles of con-
fanguinity or alliance, that the generality of mankind are
able to difplay their abilities or benevolence, and confe-
quently to uphold their connexion with fociety and fub-
ferviency to a public intereft. Therefore it is our duty
to reg’ard thefe clofer connexions as the next department
to that of a family, in which nature has marked out for
us a fphere of aXivity and ufefulnefs ; and to cultivate the
Vol. III. NVSi. , 3,
I L O S O P II Y. -291
kind affeXions which are the cement of thofe endearing
alliances.
Frequently, the view of diftinguilhing moral qualities
in fome of our acquaintance may give birth to that more
noble connexion we call friendlhip, which is far fuperior
to the alliances of confknguinity. For thefe are of a fu-
perficial, and often of a tranfitory nature ; of which, as
they hold more of inftinX than of reafon, we cannot give
fuch a rational account. But friendfhip derives all its
ftrength and beauty, and the only exiftence which is du¬
rable, from the qualities of the heart, or from virtuous
and lovely difpofnions. Therefore friendlhip may be
deferibed to be, “ The unierf of tw6 fouls, by means of
virtue, the common objeX and cement of their mutual
affeXion.” Without, virtue, or the fuppofition of it,
friendlhip is only a mercenary league, an alliance of in¬
tereft, which muft diffolve of courfe when that intereft
decays or fubfifts no longer. It is not fo much any par¬
ticular paflion, as a compofition of fome of the nobleft
feelings and paflions of the mind. Good fenfe, a juft
tafte &nd love of virtue, a thorough candor and benignity
of heart, or what we ufually call a good temper, add a
generous fympathy of fentiments and affeXions, are the
neceffary ingredients of this virtuous connexion. When
it is grafted on efteem, ftrengthened by habit, and mel¬
lowed by time, it yields infinite pleafure ever new and
ever growing, is a noble fupport amidft the various trials
and viciflitudes of life, and an high feafoning to moft of
our other enjoyments. To form and cultivate virtuous
friendlhip muft be very improving to the temper ; as its
principal objeX is virtue, fet off with all the allurement
of countenance, air, and manners, fliining forth in the na¬
tive graces of manly honeft fentiments and affeXions, and
rendered vifible as it were to the friendly fpeXatOr in a
conduX unaffeXedly great and good; and as its principal
exerciles are the very energies of virtue, or its effeXs and
emanations. So that, where-ever this amiable attach¬
ment prevails, it will exalt our admiration and attach¬
ment to virtue, and, unlefs impeded in its courfe by un¬
natural prejudices, run out into a friendfhip to the human
race. For as no one can merl1^ and none ought to ufurp,
the facred name of friend, who hates mankind ; f<5, who¬
ever truly loves them, poflefles the moft effential quality
of a true friend.
The duties of friendfliip are, a mutual efteem of each
ether, unbribed by intereft,.and independent of it; a ge¬
nerous confidence, as far diftapt from lufpicion as from re-
ferve; an inviolable harmony of fentimems and difpofitions,
of defigns and interefts; a fidelity unlhaken by the changes
of fortune; a conftancy unalterable by diftance, of time
or place; a refigpation of one’s perfonal interefts to thofe
of one’s friend; and a reciprocal, unenvious, unreferved
exchange of kind offices;—But amidft all the exertions
of this moral connexion, humane and generous as it is,
we muft remember that it operates within a narrow fphere,
and its immediate operations refpeX only the individual;
and therefore particular impulfes muft ftill be fubor-
dinate to a more public intereft, or be always direXed
and controuled by the more extenfive connexions pf our
nature.
When-our friendffiip terminates on any of the other
4 D ' fox,
292 MORAL P H
fex, in whom beauty or agreeablenefs of perfon and ex¬
ternal gracefulnefs of manners confpi re to exprefs and
heighten the moral charm of a tender honeft heart, and
fweet, ingenuous, modeft temper, lighted up by good
fenfe, it generally grows into a more foft and endearing
attachment. When this attachment is improved by a
growing acquaintance with the worth of its object, is con¬
duced by difcretion, and iffues at length, as it ought to
do, in the moral conneCion of marriage, it becomes the
fource of many amiable duties, of a communication of
paflions and interefts, of the molt refined decencies,,
and of a thoufand namelefs deep-felt joys of recipro¬
cal tendernefs and love, flowing from every look, word,
and aftion. Here friendfhip afts with double ener¬
gy, and the natural confpires with the moral charm to
ftrengthen and fecure the love of virtue. As the deli¬
cate nature of female honour and decorum, and the in-
expreflible grace of a chalte and modeft behaviour, are the
fureft and indeed the only means of kindling at firft, and
ever after of keeping alive this tender and elegant flame,
and of accompliftiing the excellent ends defigned by it ;
to attempt by fraud to violate one, or, under pretence of
paflion, fully and corrupt the other, and, by fo doing, to
expofe the too often credulous and unguarded objeC,
with a wanton cruelty, to the hatred of her own fex, and
the fcorn of ours, and to the loweft infamy of both, is a
conduC not only bafe and criminal, but inconfiftent with
that truly rational and refined enjoyment, the fpirit and
quinteffence of which is derived from the balhful and fa-
cred charms of virtue kept untainted, and therefore ever
alluring to the lover’s heart.
Courtefy, good-neighbourhoood, affability, and the
like duties which are founded on our private focial con-
neCions, are no lefs neceflary and obligatory to creatures
united in fociety, and fupporting and fupported by each
other in a chain of mutual want and dependence. They
do not confift in a fmooth addrefs, an artificial or obfe-
quious air, fawning adulation, or a polite fervility of
manners; nut in a juft and modeft fenfe of our own dig¬
nity and that of others, and of the reverence due to man¬
kind, efpecially to thofe who hold the higher links of the
focial chain ; in a difcreet and manly accommodation of
ourfelves to the the foibles and humours of others ; in a
ftrid obfervance of the rules of decorum and civility; but
above all in a frank obliging carriage, and generous in¬
terchange of good deeds rather than words. Such a
conduit is of great ufe and advantage, as it is an excellent
fecurity againft injury, and the beft claim and recom¬
mendation to the efteem, civility, and univerfal refpeit of
mankind. This inferior order of virtues unites the
particular members of fociet^more clofely, and form the
leffer pillars of the civil fabric ; which, in many inftances,
fupply the unavoidable defeats of laws, and maintain
the harmony and decorum of focial intercourfe, where the
more important and eflential lines of virtue are wanting.
Charity and forgivenefs are truly amiable and ufeful
duties of the focial kind. There is a twofold diftinftion
of rights commonly taken notice of by moral writers,
viz. perfedl and imperfect. To fulfil the former, is ne-
cefiary to the being and fupport of fociety; to fulfil the
latter, is a duty equally facred and obligatory, and tend;
I L O S O P H Y.
to the improvement and profperity of fociety: but as the
violation of them is not equally prejudicial to the public
good, the fulfilling them is not fubjedted to the cogni¬
zance of. laws, but left to the candor, humanity, and-
gratitude of individuals. And by this means ample fcope
is given to exercife all the generofity, and difplay the ge¬
nuine merit and luftre of virtue. Thus the wants and
misfortwnes of others call for our charitable afliftance and
feafooable fupplies : and the good man, unconftrained
by law, and uncontrouledby human authority, will chear-
fully acknowledge and generoufly fatisfy this mournful
and moving claim; a claim fupported by the fandtion of
heaven, of whofe bounties he is honoured to be the
grateful truftee. If his own perfedl: rights are invaded
by the injuftice of others, he will not therefore rejedt
their imperfedt right to pity and forgivenefs, unlel's his
grant of thefe ftiould be inconfiftent with the more ex-
tenfive rights of fociety or the public good. In that
cafe he will have recoutfe to public juftice and the laws ;
and even then he will profecute the injury with no unne-
ceffary feverity, but rather with mildnefs and humanity.
When the injury is merely perfonal, anS of fuch a nature
as to admit of alleviations, and the forgivenefs of which
would be attended with no wqrfe confequences, efpe¬
cially of a public kind, the good man will generoufly
forgive his offending brother. And it is his duty to do
lo, and not to take private revenge, or retaliate evil for
evil. For though refentment of ipjury is a natural
paflion, and implanted, as was obferved above, for wife
and good ends ; yet, confidering the manifold partialities
which moft men have for themfelves, was every one to
aft as judge in his own caufe, and to execute the fen-
tence dictated by his own refentment, it is but too evident
that mankind would pafs all bounds in their fury, and the
laft fufferer be provoked in his turn to make full reprifals.
So that evil, thus encountering with evil, would produce
one continued feries of violence and mifery, and render
fociety intolerable, if not impra&icable. Therefore, where
the fecurity of the individual, or good of the public, does
not require a proportionable retaliation, it is agreeebleto
the general law of benevolence, and to the particular end
of the paflion (which is to prevent injury, and the mifery
occafioned by it) to forgive perfonal injuries, or not to re¬
turn evil for evil. This duty is one of the noble refine¬
ments which Chriftianity has made upon the general max¬
ims and praftice of mankind, and enforced with a pecu¬
liar ftrength and beauty by famftions no lefs alluring than
awful. And indeed the pradtice of it is generally its own
reward ; by expelling from the mind the moft dreadful
intruders upon its repofe, thofe rancorous paffions which
are begot and nurfed by leferitment; and by difarming
and even fubduing every enemy one has, except fuch as
have nothing left of men but the outward form.
The moft enlarged and humane connexion of the pri¬
vate kind, feems to be the hofpitable alliance from which
flow the amiable and difinterefted duties we owe to ftran-
gers. If the exercife of paflions of the moft private and
inftindtive kind is beheld with moral approbation and de¬
light, how lovely and venerable muft thofe appear, which
refult from a calm philanthropy, are founded in the com¬
mon rights and connexions of fociety, and embrace men,
not
,MORAL PH
■not of a particular fe<£t, party, or nation, but all in ge¬
neral without diftin&ion, and without any of the little
partialities of felf-love!
Social Duties of the Commercial Kind.
The next order of connexions are thofe which arife
from the wants and weaknefs of mankind, and from the
various circumftances in which their different fituations
place them. Thefe we may call comjnercial connexions ;
and the duties which refult from them commercial du¬
ties, as juftice, fair-dealing, fincerity, fidelity to corn-
pads, and the like.
Though nature is perfed in all her works, yet (he has
obferved a manifeff and eminent diftindion among them.
To all fuch as lie beyond the reach of human Ikill and
power, and are properly of her own department, ftie has
given the finifhing hand. Thefe man ma£ defign after
and imitate ; but he can neither rival them, nor add to
their beauty or perfedion: fuch are the forms and
ftrudure of vegetables, animals, and many of their pro-
dudions. There are others of her works which /he has
of defign left unfinilhed, as it were, in order to exercife
the ingenuity and power of man. She has prefented to
him a rich prafufion of materials of every kind for his
convesiency and ufe; but they are rude and unpolifhed,
or not to be come at without art and labour. Thefe
therefore he muft apply, in order to adapt them to his
ufe, and to enjoy them in perfedion. Thus nature has
given him an infinite variety of herbs, grain, foffils, mi¬
nerals, wood, water, earth, and a thoufand other crude
materials to fupply his numerous wants. But he muft
fow, plant, dig, refine, polifh, build, and, in fhort, ma-
nufadure the various produce of nature, in order to ob¬
tain even the neceffaries, and much more the convenien-
cies and elegancies of life. Thefe, then, are the price of
his labour and induftry; and, without that, nature will
fell him nothing. But as the wants of mankind are ma¬
ny, and the fingle flrength of individuals fmall, they
could hardly find the neceffaries, and much lefs the con-
veniencies of life, without uniting their ingenuity and
flrength in acquiring thefe, and without a mutual inter-
courfe of good offices. Some men are better formed for
feme kinds of ingenuity and labour, and others for other
kinds; and diffsrent foils and climates are enriched with
different produdions ; fe that men, by exchanging the pro¬
duce of their refpedive labours, and fupplying the wants
of one country with the fuperfluities of another, do,
in effed, diminifh the labours of each, and increafe
the abundance of all. This is the foundation of all
commerce, or exchange of commodities and goods one
with another; in order to facilitate which, men have
contrived different fpecies of coin or money, as a com¬
mon ftandard by which to eftimate the comparative va¬
lues of their refpedive goods. But, to render commerce
fure and effedual, juftice, fair-dealing, fincerity, and fi¬
delity to compads are abfelutely neceffary.
Juftice, or fair dealing, or, in other words, a difpo-
fition to treat others as we would be treated by them, is
a virtue of the fir ft importance, and infeparable from the
virtuous charader. It is the cement of fociety, or that
pervading fpirit which conneds its members, infpires its
I L O S O P H Y. 293
various relations, and maintains the order and fubordi-
nation of each part to the whole. Without it, feciety
would become a den of thieves and banditti, hating and
hated, devouring and devoured, by one another.
Sincerity or veracity in our words and adions is an¬
other virtue or duty of great importance to fociety, be¬
ing one of the great bands of mutual intercourfe, and
the foundation of mutual truft. Without it, feciety
would be the dominion of miftruft, jealoufy and fraod,
and converfation a traffick of lies and diffimulation. It in¬
cludes in it a conformity of our words with our fenti-
ments, a correfpondence between our adions and difpofi-
tions, a ftrid regard to truth, and an irreconcileable ab¬
horrence of falfehood. It does not indeed require that
we expofe our fentiments indifcreetly, or tell all the
truth in every cafe ; but certainly it does not and cannot
admit the leaft violation of truth, or contradidion to our
fentiments. For if thefe bounds are once palled, no pof-
fible limit can be affigned where the violation ffiall ftop;
and no pretence of private or public good can poffibly
counterbalance the ill confequences of fuch a violation.
Fidelity to promifes, compads and engagments, ishke-
wife a duty of fuch importance to the fecurity of com¬
merce and interchange of benevolence among mankind,
that fociety would foon grow intolerable without the ftrid
obfervance of ft. Hobbes, and others who follow the fame
track, have taken a worderful deal of pains to puzzle this
fubjed, and to make all the virtues of this fort merely
artificial, and not at all obligatory, antecedent to human
conventions. No doubt, compads fuppofe people who
make them, and promifes fuppofe perfons to whom
they are made ; and therefore both fuppofe feme focie¬
ty more or lefs between thofe who enter into thefe mu¬
tual engagements. But is not a compad or promife
binding, till men have agreed that they ffiall be binding?
Or are they only binding becaufe it is our intereft to be
bound by them, or to fulfill them ? Do not we highly ap¬
prove the man who fufills them, even though they ffiould
prove to be againft his intereft ? And do not we condemn
him as a knave, who violates them on that account ? A
promife is a voluntary declaration, by words, or by an adion
equally fignificant, of our refolution to do fomething in be¬
half of another, or for his fervice. When a promife is
made, the perfon who makes it is by allfuppofed under an
obligation to perform it; and he to whom it is made may
demand the performance as his^right. That perception of
obligation is a fimple idea, and is on the fame footing as
our other moral perceptions, which may be deferibed by
inftances, but cannot be defined. Whether we have a per¬
ception of fuch obligation quite diftind from the intereft,
either public or privatq, that may accompany the fulfil- -
raent of it, muft be referred to the confcienee of every in¬
dividual. And, whether the mere fenfe of that obligation,
apart from its concomitants, is not a fufficient inducement
or motive to keep one’s promife, without having recourfe
to any felfiffi principal of our nature, muft be likewife
appealed to the confcience of every honeft man. Fair deal¬
ing and ^fidelity to compads require- that we take no
advantage of the ignorance, paffion, or incapacity of o~
thers, from whatever caufe that incapacity arifes;—that-
we be explicit and candid in making bargains, juft and
faithful:
294 M O R A L P H
faithful in fulfilling our part of then). And if the other
party violates his engagements, redrefs is to be fought
from the laws, or from thofe who are intrufted with the
execution of them. .In fine, the commercial virtues
and duties_ require that we not only do not invade, but
maintain the rights of others that we be fair and im¬
partial in transferring, bartering, or exchanging proper¬
ty, whether in goods or fervice ;—and be inviolably faith¬
ful to our word and our engagements, where the matter of
them is not criminal, and where they are not extorted
-by force.
Social Duties of /^Political Kind.
We are now arrived at the lad and higheft order of
duties refpefting fociety, which refult from the exercife
of the mod generous and heroic affetdions, and are found¬
ed on our mod elegant connexions.
The focial principle in man is of fuch an expanfive
nature, that it cannot be confined within the circuit of a
family, of friends, or a neighbourhood; it fpreads into
•wider fydems, and draws men into larger confederacies,
communities, and commonwealths..—It is in thefe only
that the higher powers of our nature attain the highed
improvement and perfeXion of which they are capable.
Thefe principles hardly find objeXs in the folitary date of
nature. There the principle of aXion rifes no higher at
farthed than natural affeXion towards one’s offspring.
There petfonal or family-wants entirely engrofe the crea¬
ture’s attention and labour, and allow no leifure, or, if
they did, no exercife for views and afFeXions of a more
enlarged kind. In folitude all are employed in the fame
•way, in providing for the animal life. And even after
. their utmod labour and care, fingle and unaided by the
indudry of others, they find but a forry fupply of their
wants, and a feeble precarious fecurity againd daggers
from wild beads, from inclement flties and feafons, from
the midakes or petulant paflions of their fellow-creatures,
from their preference of themfelves to their neighbours,
and from all the little exorbitances of felf-love. But in
fociety, the mutual aids which men give and receive fhort-
en the labours of each, and the combined drength and
reafon of individuals give fecurity and proteXion to the
whole body. There is both a variety and fubordination
of genius among mankind. Some are formed to lead-and
direX others ; to contrive plans of happinefs for individu¬
als, and of government for communities; to take in a pub¬
lic intered; to invent laws and arts, and fuperintend their
execution; and, infhort, to refine and civilize human life.
Others, who have not fuch good heads, may have as ho¬
ned hearts, a truly public fpirit, love of liberty, hatred of
corruption and tyranny, a generous fubmiffion to laws,
order, and public inditutions, and ap extenfive philan¬
thropy. And others, who have none of thofe capacities
either of heart, or head, may be well formed for manual
exercifes and bodily labour. The former of thefe princi¬
ples have no fcope in folitude, where a man’s thoughts
and concerns do all either center in himfelf, or extend no
i farther than a family ; into which little circle all the duty
and virtue of ^he folitary mortal is crouded. Bat fociety
finds proper objeXs and exercifes for every genius,vand
^he nobled objeXs and exercifes for .the nobled gqnuifes,
I L O S O P H Y.
and for the highed principles in the human conditution;
particularly for that warmed and mod divine pafixon,
which God hath kindled in our bofoms, the-inclination of
doing good, and reverencing our nature ; which may find
here both employment, and the mod'exquifite fatisfaXion.
In fociety a man has not only more leifure, but better
opportunities of applying his talents with much greater per-
feXion and fuccefs, efpecially as he is furnifhed with the
joint advice and affidance of his fellow-creatures, who are
now more clofely united one with the other, and fudain
a common relation to the fame moral fydem, or community.
This'then is an objeX proportioned to his mod enlarged
focial affeXions, and in ferving it he finds fcope for the
exercife and refinement of his highed intelleXual and mo¬
ral powers. Therefore fociety, or a date of civil govern¬
ment, reds on thefe two principal pillars ; “ that in it we
find lecurity tgaind thofe evils which are unavoidable in
folitude ; and obtain thofe goods, fome of which cannot
be obtained at all, and others not fo well, in that date,
where men depend folely on their individual fagacity and
indudry.”
From this fiiort detail it appears that man is a focial
creature, and formed for a focial date ; and that fociety,
being adapted to the higher principles and dedinations of
his nature, mud, of neceffity, be his natural date.
The duties fuited to that date, and refulting from thole
principles and dedinations, or, in oilier words, from our
focial paffions and focial connexions, or relation to a pu¬
blic fydem, are love of our country, refignation and o-
bedience to the laws, public fpirit, Jove of liberty, facrl-
fice oflite and all to the public, and the like.
Love of our country is one of the nobled pallions that
can warm and animate the human bread. It includes all
the limited and particular affeXions to our parents, chil¬
dren, friends, neighbours, fellow-citizens, countrymen.
It ought to direX and limit their more confined and par¬
tial aXions within their proper-and natural bounds, and
never let them incroach on thofe facred and fird regards
we owe to the great public to which we belong. Were
we folitary creatures, detached from the red of mankind,
and without any capacity of comprehending a public in¬
tered, or without affeXions leading us to defire and pur-
fue it, it would not be our duty to mind it, nor criminal
to negleX it. But, as we are parts of the public fydem,
and are not only .capable of taking in large views of its
intereds, but by the dronged affeXions conneXed with
it, and prompted to take alhare of its concerns, we are
under , the mod facred ties to profecute its fecurity and
welfare with thevitmod ardor, efpecially in times of pu¬
blic trial. This love of our country, does not import an
attachment to any particular foil, climate, or ipot of
earth, where perhaps we firlWdrew our breath, though
thofe natural ideas are often affociated with the moral
ones, and, like external figiis or fymbols, help to ascer¬
tain and bind them ; but it imports an affeXion to that
moral fydem, or community, which is governed by the
fame laws and magidrates, and whofe feveral parts are
varioufly conneXed one with the other, and all united up¬
on the bottom of a common intered. Perhaps indeed e-
very member of the community cannot comprehend fo
large an objeX, efpecially if it extends through large
provinces.
MORAL PH]
provifices, and ofer vafl trafts of land ; and ftill lefs can
he form fuch an idea, if there is no public, i. e. if all
are fubje&ed to the caprice and unlimited will of one
nian : but the preference the generality fliew to their
native country, the concern and longing after it which
they exprefs when th'ejy have been long abfent from it,
the labours they undertake and fufferings they endure
to fave or ferve it, and the peculiar attachment they have
to their countrymen, evidently demonftrate that the paf-
fion is natural, and never fails to exert itfelf, when it is
fairly difengaged from foreign clogs, and is dire&ed to
its proper objedt. Wbere-ever it prevails in its genuine
vigour and extent, it fwallows up all fordid and felfifli
regards ; it conquers the love of cafe, power, pleafure and
wealth; nay, when the amiable partialities of friendlhip,
gratitude, private affedtion, or regard to a family come
in competition with it, it will teach us bravely to facri-
hce all, in -order to maintain the rights and promote or
defend the honour and happinefs of our country.
Refignation and obedience to the laws and orders of
the fociety to which we belong, are political duties ne-
ceflary to its very being and fecurity, without which it
muft foon degenerate into a ftate of licence and anarchy.
The welfare, nay, the nature of civil fociety, requires
that there (hould be a fubox dination of orders or diverfity
of ranks and conditions in it-that certain men, or or¬
ders of men, be appointed to fuperintend and manage fuch
affairs as concern the public fafety and happinefs;—that
all have their particular provinces affignedthem;—that fuch
a fubordination be fettled among them, as none of them
may interfere with another ;—and finally, that certain
rules or common meafures of a&ion be agreed on, by
which each is to difcharge his refpe&ive duty to govern or
be governed, and all may concur in fecuring the order
and promoting the felicity of the whole political body.
Thofe rules of adlion are the laws of the community; and
thofe different orders are the feveral officers, or magi-
flrates, appointed by the public to explain them, and fu¬
perintend or aflift in their execution. In confequence
of this fettlement of things, it is the duty of each indi¬
vidual to obey the laws enafled, to fubmit to the execu¬
tors of them with all due deference and homage accord¬
ing to their refpe6:ive ranks and dignity, as to the keepers
of the public peace, and the gurdians of public liberty ;
to maintain his own rank, and perform the fun&ions of
his own flation with diligence, fidelity, and iacorruption.
The fuperiority of the higher orders, or the authority
with which the ftate has inverted them, entitle them, e-
fpeaally if they employ their authority well, to the obe¬
dience and fubpiiffion of the lower, and to a proportion-
able honour and refpeift from all. The fubordination of
the lower ranks claims protection, defence, and fecurity
from the higher. And the laws, being fuperior to all,
require the obedience and fubmiflion of all ; being the
laft refort, beyond which there is no decifion or appeal.
Public fpirit, heroic zeal, love of liberty, andtheother
political duties, do, above all others, recommend thofe
who praCtife them to the admiration and homage of man¬
kind ; becaufe, as they are the offspring of the nobleft
minds, fo are they the parents of the greateft bleffings
to fociety. Yet, exalted as they are, it is only in equal
Vox.. III. N°..§i. 2
L O S O P H Y. 295
and free governments where they can be exercifed and
have their due effeft: for there only does a true public
prevail, and there only is the public good made the ftan-
dard of the civil conftitution. As the end of fociety is
the common intereft and welfare of the people aflbciated,
this end muft of neceflity be the fupremc law or common
ftandard by which the particular rules of aftion of the
feveral members of the fociety towards each other are to
be regulated. But a common intereft can be no other
than that which is the refult of the common reafon, or
common feelings of all. Private men, or a particular
order of men, have interefts and feelings peculiar to
themfelves, and of which they may be good judges:
but thefe may be feparate from, and often contrary
to the' interefts and feelings of the reft of the fo¬
ciety ; and therefore they can have no right to make,
much lefs to impofe, laws on their fellow-citizens,
inconfiftent with, or oppofite to, thofe interefts and
thofe feelings. Therefore a fociety, a-government, a
real public, truly worthy the name; and not a confe¬
deracy of banditti, a clan oflawlefs favages, or a band of
flaves under the whip of a mafter ; mart be fuch a one as
confiftsof freemen, chufing or confenting to laws them¬
felves, or, fince it often happens that they cannot af-
femble and ad in a collefiiive body, delegating a fufficient
number of reprefentatives, /. <?. fuch a number as ftiall
moft fully comprehend, and moft equally reprefent, their
common feelings and common interefts, todigeft and vote
laws for the conduit and centroul of the whole body the
moft agreeable to thofe common feelings and common in¬
terefts.
A fociety thus conftituted by common reafon, and
formed on the plan of a common intereft, becomes im¬
mediately an objeit of public attention, public veneration,
public obedience, a public and inviolable attachment,
which, ought neither to be feduced by bribes, nor awed
by terrors; an objedt, in fine, of all thofe extenfive and
important duties which arife from fo glorious a confede¬
racy. To watch over fuch a fyftem ; to contribute all
he can to promote its good by his reafon, his ingenuity,
his ftrength, and every other ability, whether natural or
acquired ; to refill, and to the utmoft of his power de¬
feat, every incroachment upon it, whether carried on by
fecret corruption, or open violence ; and to facrifice his
cafe, his wealth, his power, nay life itfelf, and, what is
dearer ftill, his family and friends, to defend or fave it;
is the duty, the honour, the intereft, and the happinefs of
every citizen ; it will make him venerable and beloved
while he lives, be lamented and honoured if he falls in fo
glorious a caufe, and tranfmit his name with immortal
renown to the iateft pofterity.
As the people are the fountain of power and authority,
the original feat of majefty, the authors of laws, and
the creators of officers to execute them ; if they lhall
find the power they have conferred abufed by their tru-
ftees, their majefty violated by tyranny or by ufurpation,
their authority proftituted to fupport violence or fcreen
corruption, the laws grown pernicious through accidents
unforefeen or unavoidable, or rendered iheffedtual thro’
the jnfidelity and corruption of the executors of them ;
then it is their right, and what is their right is their du-
4 E ty,
296 M ORAL PH
ty, to refume that delegated power, and call their trullees
to an account; to refill the ufurpation, and extirpate the
tyranny'; to reftore their fullied 'majelly and proftituted
authority ; to fufpend, alter, or abrogate thofe laws,
and punilh their unfaithful and corrupt officers. Nor is
it the duty only of the united-body, but every member
of it ought, according to his refpedive rank, power, and
weight in the community, to concur in advancing and fup-
porting thofe glorious defigns.
Duty to God.
Of all the relations which the human mind fullains,
that which fubfills between the Creatorand his creatures,
the Supreme Lawgiver and his fubjtds, is thehighell and
the bell. This relation arifes from the nature of acrea-_
ture in general, and the eonftitutioa of the human mind
in paiTicular; the noblell powers and affe<ftions of which
point to an Univerfal Mind, and would be imperfedand
abortive without fuch a diredion. How lame then mull
that fyllem of morals be, which leaves a Deity out of the
quellion ! How difconfolate, and how deftitute of its
firmed fupporc !
It does not appear, from any true hillory or experience
of the mind’s progrefs, that any man, by any formal de-
dudionof his difcurfive powers, everreafoned himfelf into
the belief a God. Whether fuch a belief is only fome
naturaj anticipation of foul; or is derived from father to
fon,'and from one man to another, in the way of tradi¬
tion ; or is fuggefted to us in confequenceof an immutable
law of our nature, on beholding the augult afped and
beautiful order of the univerfe ; we will hot pretend to
determine. What feems mod agreeable to, experience is,
that a fenfe of its beauty and grandeur, and the admi¬
rable fitnefs of one thing to another in its vad apparatus,
leads the mind neceflarily and unavoidably to a perception
of defign, or of a defigning caufe, the origin of all, by a
progrefs as fimple and natural as that by which a beau¬
tiful pidure or a fine building fuggeds to us the idea of
an excellent artid. For it feetns to hold univerfally
true, that where-ever we. difcern a tendency or co¬
operation of things towards a certain end, or producing
a common effed ; there, by a neceflary law of aflbciation,
we apprehend defign, a defigning energy or caufe : S-ee
Metaphysics. As we conceive this Being or Fird Caufe
before all, above all, 4nd greater than all, we naturally,
and without reafoning, afcribe to him every kind; of per-
fedron, wifdom, power, and goodnefs without bounds,
exiding through all time, and pervading all fpace. We
apply to him thofe glorious epithets of our Creator,
Preferver, Benefador, the Supreme Lord and Law-giver
of the whole fociety of rational intelligent creatures,---
Not only the tmperfedions and wants of our being and
condition, but fome of the nobled indinds and affec¬
tions of our minds, conned us with this great and
imiverfal nature. Tbe mind, in its progrefs from ob-
^jed to obj?d, from one charader and profped of beauty
to another, finds fome blemiffi or deficiency in each,’ and
foon exhauds or grows weary and diffatisfied with its
fubjed: it fees no charader of excellency among men,
equal to that pitch of edeem which it is capable of ex¬
erting ; no objed within the compafs of human things a.d-
I L O S O P H Y.
equate to the drength of its affedion. Nor can it flop
any where in this felf-expanfive progrefs, or find repofe
after its highad -flights, till it arrives at a Beihg of un¬
bounded greatnefs and worth, on whom it may employ
its fublimed powers without exhaudirrg the fubjed, and
give fcope to the utmod force and fullnefs of its love
without fatietyor difgud. So that the nature of this Be¬
ing correfponds to the nature of man ; nor can his intel¬
ligent and moral powers obtain their entire end, but
on the fuppofition of fuch a Being, and without a real
fyrhpatby and communication with him. The native'
propenfity of the mind to reverence whatever is great
and wonderful in nature, finds a proper objed of ho¬
mage in him who fpread out the heavens and the earth,
and who fudains and governs the whole of things. The
admiration of beauty, the love of order, and the com¬
placency we feel in goodnefs, mud rife to the highed
pitch, and attain the full vigour and joy of their opera¬
tions, when they unite in Him who is the fum and fource
of all perfedion.
It is evident, from the flighted furyey of morals, that
how pundual foever one may be in performing the duties
Avhich refult from our relations to mankind; yet to be
quite deficient in performing thofe which arife from our
relation to the Almighty, mud argue a drange perverfion
of reafon or depravity of heart. If imperfed degrees of
worth attrad our veneration, and if the want of it would
imply an infenfibility, or, which is worfe, an averfion-to
merit; what lamenefs of affedion, and immorality of cha-
rader, mud it be, to be unaffected with, and much more
to be ill-affeded to, a Being of fuperlative \ttorth ! To love
fociety, or particular members of it, and yet to have no
fenfe of our connedion with its Head, no affedion to our
common Parent and Benefador; to be concerned about
the approbate,! or cenfure of our fellow-creatures, and
yet to feel nothing of this kind towards Him who fees and
weighs our adions with unerring wifdom and judice, and
can fully reward or punifli them ; betrays equal madnefs
apd partiality of mind. It is plain, therefore, beyond ail
doubt, that fome regards are due to the great Father 6f
all, in whom every lovely and adorable quality combines
to infpire veneration and homage.
As it has been obferved already, that our affedions
depend on our opinions of their objeds, and generally
keep pace with them, it mud be of the highed impor¬
tance, and feems to be among the fird duties we owe to
the Author of our being, “ to form the lead imperfed,
fince we cannot form perfed conceptions of his charader
arid adminidration,” For fuch conceptions, thoroughly
imbibed, will render our religion rational, and our dif-
pofitions refined. If our opinions, are diminutive and
didorted, our religion will be fuperditious, and our tem¬
per abjed. The foundation, then, of all true religion is a
rational faith. And of a rational faith thefe feem to be
the chief articles : To believe, “ that an infinite all-perfed
Mind exids, who has no oppofite nor any feparate intered
from that of his creatures:—that he Superintends and
governs all creatures and things:—that his goodneis ex¬
tends to all his creatures, in different degree's indeed,
according to their refpedive natures, but without any
partiality or envy:—that he does every thing for the bed,
or
M O R A L P H
or in a fuBferviency to the perfection and happinefs of
the whole ;—particularly, that he direCts and governs the
affairs of men,--infpeCts' their a&ions,—rdiflinguifhes the
good from the bad,—loves and befriends the former,—
is difpleafed with'and pities the'latter in this world,^—
and will, according to their refpeCtive deferts, reward the
one, and p uni fit the other in the next:—^that, in fine, he
is always carrying on a fcheme of virtue and happinefs
through an unlimited duration,—and is-ever guiding the
univerfe through its fueceffive flages arid periods, to high¬
er degrees of perfection and felicity.” This is true
theifm, the glorious fcheme of divine faith ; a fcheme
exhibited in all the works of God, and executed through
his whole adminiftration.
This faith, well-founded and deeply felt, is nearly
conneCled with a true moral tafte, and hath a powerful
efficacy on the temper and manners of the theift. He
who admires goodnefs in others, and delights in the prac¬
tice of it, muff be confcious of a reigning-order within,
a reCtitude and candor . of heart which difpofes him to
entertain favourable apprehenfions of men, and, from an
impartial lurvey of things, to prefume that good order
and good meaning prevail in the univerfe; and if good
meaning and good order, then ari ordering^ and intend¬
ing Mind, who is no fenemy, no tyrant to his creatures,
but a friend, a benefactor, an indulgent fovereign.-r-Qn
the other hand, a bad man, having nothing goodly or
generous to contemplate within, no right intentions, nor
honefly of heart, fufpeds every perfon and every thing;
and beholding nature through the gloom of a felfiffi and
guilty mind, is either averle to the belief of a reigning
order; or, if he cannot fupprefs the unconquerable anti¬
cipations of a governing mind, he is prone to tarniffi the
beauty of nature, and to impute malevolence, or blind-
nefs and impotence at leaft, to the Sovereign Ruler, He
turns the univerfe into a forlorn and horrid wafte ; and
transfers his own character to the.Deity, by afcribing to
him that uncommunicative grandeur, that arbitrary or re¬
vengeful fpirit which he affeCts or admires in himfelf.
As fuch a temper of mind naturally leads to atheifm, or
to a fuperftition full as bad.; therefore, as far as that
temper depends on the unhappy creature in whom it pre¬
vails, the propenfity to atheifm or fuperftition confequent
thereto muft be immoral'. Farther, if it be true that
the belief or fenfe of a Deity is natural to the mind, and
the evidence of his exifteace re'fleCled from his works fo
full as to ftrike even the moft fuperficial obfetver with
eonviCtion ; then the fupplanting or corrupting that fenfe,
or the want of due attention to that evidence, and, in
confequence of both, a fupine ignorance or affcCted un¬
belief of a Deity, muft argue a bad temper, or an immoral
turn of rnind. In the cafe of invincible ignorance, or a
very bad education, though nothing can be concluded
direCtly againft the clfaraAer, yet whenever ill paffions
and habits pervert the judgment, and by perverting the
judgment terminate in atheifm, then the cafe becomes
plainly criminal.
But let cafuifts determine this^ as they will, a true
faith in the divine character and adminiftration is gene¬
rally the confequence of a virtuous (late of mind. The
I L O S O P H Y. 297
man who is truly and habitually good, feels the love of
order, of beauty, and goodnefs, in the ftrongeft degree;
and therefore cannot be infenfibte to thofe emanations of
them which appear in all‘the works of God, nor help
loving their Supreme Source and Model. He cannot but
think, that He who has poured fuch beauty and goodnefs
over all his works, muft Himfelf delight in beauty and
goodnefs, and what He delights in muft be both amiable
and happy. Some indeed there are, and it is pity there
ffiould be any fuch, who, through the unhappy influence
of a wrong education, have entertained dark and un¬
friendly thoughts of a Deity and his adminiftration,
though otherwife of a virtuous temper themfelves. How¬
ever, it muft be acknowledged, that fuch fentimefits have,
for the moft part, a bad effeCI on the temper ; and
wheh they have not, it is becaufe the undepraved'af¬
fections of an honeft heart are more powerful in their o-
peration, than the fpeculative opinions of an ill-formed
head.
But where-ever right conceptions of the Deity arid his
providence-prevail, when he is confidered as the inex-
haufted fource of light and love and joy, as aCting in
the joint character of a father and governor, imparting an
endlefs variety of capacities to his creatures, and fupply-
ing them with every thing neceflary to their full comple¬
tion and happinefs, what veneration and gratitude muft:
fuch conceptions thoroughly believed excite in the mind!
How natural and delightful muft it be to one whofe heart
is open to the perception of truth, and of every thing
fair, great, and wonderful in nature, to contemplate and
adore Him, who is the Firft Fair, the Firft Great, andFirft
Wonderful; in whom wifdom, power and goodnefs dwell
vitally, eflentially, originally, and aCt in perfeCl: concert^!
What grandeur is here to fill the moft enlarged capacity,
what- beauty to engage the moft ardent love, what a mafs
of wonders in fuch exuberance o£ perfection, to aftonifta
and delight the human mind through an unfailing dura¬
tion !
If the Deity is confidered as our fupreme guardian and'
benefactor, as the father of mercies, who loves his crea¬
tures with infinite tendernefs, and in a particular manner
all good men, nay, who delights in goodnels even in its
moft imperfeCt degrees ; what refignation, what depend¬
ence, what generous confidence, what hope in God and
his all-wife providence, muft arife in the foal that is poflef-
fed of fuch amiable views of him ! All thofe exercifes of
piety, and above all a fuperlative efteem and love, are
directed to God as to their natural, their ultimate, and
indeed their only adequate objeCt: and though the im-
menfe obligations we have received from him may ex¬
cite in. as more lively feelings of divine goodcefs than a
general and abftraCted contemplation of it; yet the affec¬
tions of gratitude and love are themfelves of the generous
difintecefted kind, not the refult of felf intereft, or views
of reward. - A perfect character, in which w‘e always fup-
pofe infinite goodnefs, guided by unerring wifdom, and
fupported by almighty power, is the proper objeCt of per¬
fect love ; and though that character fuftains to us the
relation of a benefactor, yet the mind, deeply ftruck with
that perfection, is quite loft anaidft fuch a blaze of beau¬
ty,.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
298
ty, and grows as it were infenfible to thofe minuter ir¬
radiations of it upon itfelf. To talk, therefore, of a mer¬
cenary love of God, or which has fear for its principal
ingredient, is equally impious and abfurd. If we do not
love the lovelielt objedl in the univerfe for his own fake,
no profpedt of good or fear of ill can ever bribe our e-
fteem, or captivate our love. Thefe affe&ions are too
noble to be bought or fold., or bartered in the way of
gain; worth, or merit, as their object) and their reward
is fomething fimilar in kind. Whoever indulges fuch
fentiments and affe&ions towards the Deity, muft be con¬
firmed in the love of virtue, in a defire;to imitate its all-
perfetf Pattern, and in a cheerful fecurity that all his great
concerns, thofe of his friends and of the univerfe, fhall
be abfolutely fafe under the conduct of unerring wif-
dom and unbounded goodnefs. It is in his care and
providence alone that the good man, who is anxious for
the happinefs of all, finds perfect ferenity, a ferenity
neither ruffled by partial ill, nor foured by private difap-
pointment.
When we confider the unftained purity and abfolute per¬
fection of the divine nature, and reflect withal on the
imperfection and various blemiffles of our own, we mull
fink, or be convinced we ought to fink, into the deeped
humility and prodration of foul before Him who is fo
wonderfully great and holy. When, farther, we call to
mind what low and languid feelings we have of the Divine
Prefence and Majedy ; what infenfibility of his fatherly
and univerfal goodnefs, nay,\what ungrateful returns we
have made to it; how far we come fhort of the perfection
of his law, and the dignity of our own nature; how much
we have indulged to the feifflh pafflons, and how little to
the benevolent ones ; we mud be confcious that it is our
duty to repent of a temper and conduCt fo unworthy our
nature, and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and to refolve and endeavour to aCt a wifer and better
part for the future.
Neverthelefs, from the character which his works ex¬
hibit of him, from thofe delays or alleviations of punifh-
ment which offenders often experience, and from the
merciful tenour of his adminidration in many other iodan-
ces, the fincere penitent may entertain good hopes that
his Parent and Judge will not be drift to mark iniquity, but
will be propitious and favourable to him, if he honedly
endeavours to avoid his former practices, and fubdue his
former habits, and to live in a greater conformity to the
divine will for the future. If any doubts or fears fiiould
dill remain, how far it may be confident with the recti¬
tude and equity of the divine government to let his ini¬
quities pafs unpunilhed; yet he cannot think it unfuitable
to his paternal clemency and wifdom to contrive a method
of retrieving the penitent offender, that fflall unite and
reconcile the majedy and mercy of his government. If
reafon cannot of itfelf fugged fuch a fcheme, it gives at
lead fome ground to expeft it. But though natural reli¬
gion cannot let in more light and affurance on fo intereding
a fubjeft, yet it will teach the humble theid to wait with
great fubmiffion for any farther intimations it may pleafe
the Supreme Governor to give of his will; examine with
candour and impartiality whatever evidence fhall be j>ro-
pofed to him of a divine revelation, whether that evidence
is natural or lupernatural; to embrace it with veneration
and cheerfulnefs, if the evidence is clear and convincing •
and finally, if it bring to light any new relations or con¬
nections, natural religion will perfuade its fincere votary
faithfully to comply with the obligations, and perform the
duties which refult from thofe relations and conneftions.
—This is theifm, piety, the completion of morality !
We mud further obferve, that all thofe affeftions which
we fuppofed to regard the Deity as their immediate and
primary objeft, are vital energies of the foul, and confe-
quently exert themfelves into aft; and like ail its other
energies, gain drength or greater aftivity by that exertion,
It is therefore our duty, as well as highed intered, often,
at dated times, and by decent and folemn afts, to con¬
template and adore the great Original of our exidence, the
Parent of all beauty, and of all good; to exprefs our ve¬
neration and love, by an awful and devout recognition of
his perfections; and to evidence our gratitude, by celebra¬
ting his goodnefs, and thankfully acknowledging all his
benefits. It is likewife our duty, by proper exercifes of
forrow and humiliation, to confefs our ingratitude and
folly; to fignify our dependence on God, and our confi¬
dence in his goodnefs, by imploring his bleffing and gra¬
cious concurrence in affiding the weaknefs, and curing the
corruptions of our nature ; and finally, to tedify oijr fenfc
of his authority, and our faith in his government, by de¬
voting ourfelves to do his will, and refigoing ourfelvesto
his difpofal. Thefe duties are not therefore obligatory,
becaule the Deity needs or can be profited by ihem; but
as they are apparently decent and moral; fuitable to the
relations hefudains of our Creator, Benefaftor, Law-giver
and Judge; expreffive of our date and obligations ; and
improving to our tempers, by making us more rational,
focial, godlike, andconfequently more happy.
We have now confidered internal piety, or the worfhip
of the mind, that which is in fpirit and in truth ; we diall
conclude the feftion with a fhort account of that which is
external. Exrernal worfhip is founded on the fame prin¬
ciples as internal, and of a drift moral oligation. It is
either private or public. Devotion, that is inward, or
purely intellectual, is too fpiritual and abdrafted an ope¬
ration for the bulk of mankind. The operations of their
minds, fuch efpecially as are employed on the mod fub-
lime immaterial objefts, mud be affided by their outward
organs, or by fome help from the imagination, other-wife
they will be foon diflipated by fenfible impreffions, or grow
tirefome if too long continued. Ideas are fuch fleeting
things that they mud be fixed, and fo fubtle that they
mud be expreffed and delineated, as it were, by fenfible
marks and images; otherwife we canhot attend at them,
nor be much affefted to them. Therefore verbal adora¬
tion, prayer, praife, thankfgiving, and confeffion, are ad¬
mirable aids to inward devotion, fix our attention, com-
pofe and enliven our thoughts, impreis us more deeply
with a fenfe of the awful prefence in which we are, and,
by a natural and mechanical fort of influence, tend to
heighten thofe devout feelings and affeftions which we
ought to entertain, and after this manner reduce into for¬
mal and explicit aft.
This holds true in an higher degree in the cafe of pub¬
lic worlhip, where the prefence of our fellow-creatures,
and the powerful contagion of the focial affeftions, con-
fpire to kindle and fpread the devout flame'with greater
energy.
M O R, A L PH
energy. To conclude: As God is tlie parent and
head of the focial fyftem; as he has formed us for a fo-
cial ftate; as by one we find the belt fecurity againll
the ills of life, and in the other enjoy its greatelt com¬
forts ; and as, by means of both, our nature attains its
higheft improvement and perfection; and moreover, as
there are public bleflings and crimes in which weall lhare
in fome degree, and public wants and dangers to which
all are expofed ; it is therefore evident, that the various
and folemn offices of' public religion, are duties of indif-
penfable moral obligation, among the belt cements of fq-
ciety, the firmed prop of government, and the faired or¬
nament of both.
tf/PraCtical Ethics, or the Culture of the Mind.
We have now gone through a particular detail of the
feveral duties we owe to ourfelves, to fociety, and to God.
In confidering the fird order of duties, we jud touched
on the methods of acquiring the different kinds of goods
which we are led by nature to purfue ; only we left the
confideration of the method of acquiring the moral goods
of the mind to a fedtiqn by itfelf, becaufe of its lingular
importance. This feflion, then, will contain a brief enu¬
meration of the arts of acquiring virtuous habits, and of
eradicating vitious ones, as far as is confident with the
brevity of fuch a wqrk ; a fubjeft of the utmod difficulty
as well as importance in morals : to which, neverthelefs,
the lead attention has been generally given by moral wri
ters, efpecially thofe of a modern date. This will proper¬
ly follow a detail of duty, as it will diredt us to fuch
means or helps as are mod neceffary and conducive to
the pradice of it.
In'the fird part of this inquiry we traced the order in
which the paffions ffioot up in the different periods of
human life. That order is not accidental, nor dependent
on the caprice of men, or the influence of cudom and e-
ducation ; but arifes from the original conditution and
laws of our nature ; of which this is one, viz. “ That
fenfible objeds make the fird and drongef! impreffions on
the mind ” \Thefe, by means of our outward organs,
being conveyed to the mind, become objeds of its atten¬
tion on which it refleds when the outward objeds are
no longer prefent, or, in other words, when the impref-
fions upon the outward organs ceafe. Thefe objeds of
the .mind’s refledion are called ideaj or images. Towards
thele, by another law of our nature, we are not altoge¬
ther indifferent; but correfpondent movements of defire
* or averfion, love or .hatred, arife, according as the objeds
of which they are images or copies made an agreeable
or difagreeable impreffion on our organs. Thofe ideas and
affedions which we. experience in the firfl period of life, .
we refer to the body, or to fenfe ; and the tafle which
is formed towaros them, we call a ferjible, or a merely
natural talie; and the objeds correfponding to them we in
general call^oc^ or fcleafant.
But, as the mind moves forward in its courfe, it extends
its views, and receives a new and more complex fet of
ideas, in whi .h it qbferves uniformity, variety, fimilitude,
fymmetry of parts, reference to an end, novelty, gran¬
deur. Thtfe compofe a vail train and diverfity of ima-
Vol. HI. N°. 81. 3
ILOSOPHY. 299
gery, which the mind compounds, divides, and moulds
into a thoufand forms, in the abfence of thofe objeds
which firfl introduced it. And this more complicated
imagery fuggeits a new train of defires and affedions, full
as fprigbtly and engaging as any which have yet appeared.
This whole clafs of perceptions or impreffions is referred
to the imagination, and forms an higher talle than the
fenfible, and which has an immediate and nvghty influence
on the finer paffions of our nature, and is commonly term¬
ed a fine tajle.
The objeds which correfpond to this tafte we ufe to
call beautiful, harmonious, great, or wonderful, or, in
general, by the name of beauty.
The mind (till puflring onwards, and increafing its flock
of ideas, afcends'from thofe to an higher fpecies of ob¬
jeds, viz. the order and mutual relations" of minds to
each other, their reciprocal affedions, charaders, adions,
and various afpeds In thefe it difcovers a beauty, a
grandeur, a decorum more interelfing and alluring than
in any of the former kinds. Thefe objeds, or the i-
mages of them, palling in review before the mind, do, by
a neceffary law of our nature, call forth ,another and
nobler fet of affections, as admiration, eiteem, love,
honfiur, gratitude, benevolence, and others of the like
tribe. This clafs of perceptions, and their correfpondent
affedions, we refer, becaufe of their, objeds (manners,) to
a moral fenfe ; and call the tafle or temper they excite,
moral: and the objeds which are agreeable to this tafle
or temper, we denominate by the general name of moral
beauty ; in order to diftinguiffi it from the other, which is
termed natural.
Thefe different fets of ideas or images are the materials
about which the mind employs itfelfwhich it blends,
ranges, and diverfifies ten thoufand different ways. It
feels a llrong propenfion to connned and affociate thofe
ideas among which it obferves any fimilitude, or any ap¬
titude, whether original and natural, or cuflomary and
artificial, to fuggeft each other See Metaphysics.
But whatever the reafons are, whether fimilitude, co-
exillence, cafuality, or any other aptitude or relation,
why any two or more ideas are conneded by the mind at
firfl:, it is an eftabliffied law of our nature, “ That when
two or more ideas have often flarted in company, they
form fo ftrong an union, that it is very difficult ever after
to feparate them.” Thus the lover cannot feparate the
idea of merit from his miftrefs ; the courtier that of
dignity from his title or ribbon ; the mifer that of happi-
nefs from his bags.—It is thefe affociations of worth or
happinefs with any fet of objeds or images that form our
tafle or complex idea of good. By another Jaw of our
nature, “ our affedions follow and are governed by this
tafte ; and to thefe affedions our charader and condud
arefimilar and proportioned, on the general tenor of which
our happinefs principally depends.”
As all our leading paffions, then, depend on the direc¬
tion which our tafle takes, and as it is always of the fame
flrain with our leading affociations, it is worth while to
inquire a little more particularly how thefe are formed,
in order to deted the fecret fources from whence our
paflions derive their principal ftrength, their various rifes
4 F and
300 M O R A L P II I
and fails. For this 'will give us the true key to their
management, and let us into the right method of corredt-
ing the bad, and improving the good.
No kind of objedts makes fo powerful an impreffion
on us as thofe which are immedirtely impreffed on
our fenfes, or ftrongly painted on our imaginations.
Whatever is purely intelledlual, as abftradted or fciemific
truths, the fubtle relations and difference of things, has
a fainter fort of ejdftence in the mind; and, though it
may exercife and whet the memory, the judgment, or
the reafoning powers, gives hardly any impulfe at all to
the adfive powers, the paffions, which are the main
fprings of motion. On the other hand, were the mind
entirely under the direction of fenfe, and impreflible only
by fuch objedts as are prefent and ftrike feme of the
outward organs, we fhould then be precifely in the ftate
of the brute creation, and be governed folely by inftindt
or appetite, and have no power to controul whatever im-
preffions are made upon us. Nature has therefore endued
us with a middle faculty,^ wonderfully adapted to our
mixed ftate ; which holds partly of fenfe, and partly of
reafon ; being ftrongly allied to the former, and the com¬
mon receptacle in which all the notices that come from that
quarter are treafured up; and yet greatly fubfervient and
minifterial to the latter, by giving a body, a coherence,
and beauty to its conceptions. This middle faculty is
called the imagination, one of the moft bufy and fruitful
powers of the mind. Into this common ftorehoufe are
likewife carried all thofe moral images or forms which
are derived from our moral faculties of perception ; and
there they often undergo new changes and appearances,
by being mixed and wrought up with the images and. forms
of fenfible or natural things. By this coalition of ima¬
gery, natural beauty is dignified and heightened by mo¬
ral qualities and perfedions, and moral qualities are at
onee exhibited and fet off by natural beauty. The fen¬
fible beauty, or good, is refined from its drofs by par¬
taking of the moral ; and the moral receives a ftamp, a
vifible chara&er and currency from the fenfible.
As we are firft of all accuftomed to fenfible impreffions
and fenfible enjoyments, we contraft early a fenfual re-
jifh or love of pleafure in the lower fenfe of the word.
In order, however, to juftify this relifh, the mind, as it
becomes open to higher perceptions of beauty and good,
borrows from thence a nobler fet of images, as fine tafte,
generofity, focial afieftion, friendlhip, good-fellowftrip,
and the like ; and, by dreffing out the old purfuits with
thefe new. ornaments, gives them an additional dignity
and luftre. By thefe ways the defire of a table, love of
finery, intrigue, and pleafure, are vaftly increafed beyond
their natural pitch, having an impulfe combined of the
force of the natural appetites and of the fuperadded
ftrength of thofe paffions which tend to the moral fpecies.
—When the mind becomes more fenfible to thofe objefts
or appearances, in which it perceives beauty, uniformity,
grandeur, and harmony, as fine cloaths, elegant furniture,
plate, pictures, gardens, houfes* equipage, the beauty
of animals, and particularly the attractions of the fex ;
to thefe objeds the mind is led by nature, or taught by
caftom, the opinion and example of others, to annex
certain ideas of moral character, dignity, decorum, ho-
L O S O P II Y.
nour, liberality, tendernefs, and aCtive or focial enjoyment:
The confequence of this affbeiation is, that the objeCts to
which tbefe are annexed, muft rife in their value, and be
purfued with proportionable ardor. The enjoyment of
them is often attended with pleafure; and the mere
pofleffion of them, where that is wanting, frequently
draws refpeCt from one’s fellow-creatures : this refpeCt is,
by many, thought equivalent to the pleafure of enjoyment.
Hence it happens, that the idea of happinefs is connected
with the mere poffeffion; which is therefore eagerly fought
after, without any regard to the generous ufe, or honour¬
able enjoyment. Thus the paffion refting on the means,
not the end, i. e. lofing fight of its natural objeCt, becomes
wild and extravagant.
In fine, any objeCt, or external denomination, a ftaff,
a garter, a cup, a crown, a title, may become a moral
badge or emblem of merit, magnificence, or honour,
according as thefe have been found or thought by the
pofieflbrs or admirers of them to accompany them ; yet,
by the deception formerly mentioned-, the merit or the
conduCt which entitled, or ffiould entitle, to thofe marks
of diftinCtion, (halljse forgot ornegleCted, and the budges
themfelves be paffionately affeCted, or purfued, as in¬
cluding every excellency. If thefe are attained by any
means, all the concomitants which nature, cuftom, or
accidents have joined to them, will be fuppofed to follow
of courfe. Thus moral ends-, with which the unhappy
admirer is apt to colour over his paffion and views, will,
in his opinion, juftify the moft immoral means, as profti-
tution, adulation, fraud, treachery, and every fpecies of
knavery, whether more open or more difguifed.
When men are once engaged in aClive life, and find
that wealth and power, generally called intereji, are the
great avenues to every kind of enjoyment, they are apt
to throw in many engaging moral forms to the objeCt of
their purfuit, in order to juftify their paffion, and varnifh .
over the meafures they take to gratify it; as, independency
on the vices or paffions of others, provifion and fecurity
to themfelves and friends, prudent oeconomy or well-
placed charity, focial communication, fuperiority to their
enemies who are all villains, honourable fet vice, and
many other ingredients of merit. To attain fuch capaci¬
ties of ufefulnefs or enjoyment, what arts, nay, what
meannefles can be thought blameable by thofe cool pur-
fuers of intereft ! Nor have they, whom the gay
world is pleafed to indulge with the title of men of plea-
fure, their imaginations lefs pregnant with moral images,
with which they never fail to ennoble, or, if they cannot
do that, to palliate their grofs purfuits. Thus, admiration
of wit, offentiments and merit, friendfhip, love, generous
fympathy, mutual confidence, giving and receiving plea¬
fure, are the ordinary ingredients with which they feafon
their gallantry and pleafurable entertainments ; and by
which they impofe on themfelves, and endeavour to impofe
on others, that their amours are the joint iffue of good
fenfe and virtue.
Thefe aflbeiations, varioufly combined and proportioned
by the imagination, form the chief private paffions which
govern the lives of the generality ; as the love of aCtion,
of pleafure, power, wealth, and fame : they Influence
the defenfive, 8»d affeCt the public paffions, and raife
j°y
MORAL PH
joyorforrow, as they are gratified or difappointed. So
that, in effedt, thefe affociations of good and evil, beauty
and deformity, and the paffions they raife, are the main
hinges of life and manners, and the great fources of out
happinefs or mifery. It is evident, therefore, that the
whole of moral culture muft depend on giving a right
direction to the leading paffions, and duly proportioning
them to the value of the objefts or goods purfued, under
what name foever they may appear.
Now, in order to give them this right direftion and
due proportion, it appears, from the foregoing detail,
that thofe affociations of ideas, upon which the paffions
depend, mufl: be duly regulated: that is to fay, as an ex¬
orbitant paffion for wealth, pleafure, or power, flows
from an aflbciation or opinion that more beauty and good,
whether natural or moral, enters into the enjoyment or
poffeffion of them, than really belongs to either; there¬
fore, in refloring thofe paffions to their julf proportion,
we muft begin with correfting the opinion, or breaking
the falfeaflbciation ; dr, in other words, we muft decom¬
pound the complex phantom of happinefs or good, which
we fondly admire; difunite thofe ideas, that have no na¬
tural alliance ; and feparate the original idea of wealth,
power, or pleafure, from the foreign mixtures incorporated
with it, which enhance its value, or give it its chief power
to enchant and feduce the mind. For inftance, let it be
confidered how poor and inconfiderable a thing wealth is,
if it be disjoined from real ufe, or from ideas of capacity
in the pofleflbr to do good, from independency, genero-
fity, provifion for a family or friends, and focial commu¬
nication with others. By this ftandard let its true value'
be fixed; let its mifapplication, or unbenevolent enjoy¬
ment, be accounted fordid and infamous; and nothing
worthy or eftimable be afcribed to the mere pofleffion of
it, which is not borrowed from its generous ufe.
If that complex form of good which is called pleafure,
engages us, let it be analyfed into its conftituent princi¬
ples, or thofe allurements it draws from the heart and
imagination, in order to heighten the low part of the in¬
dulgence ; let the feparate and comparative mom.ent of
each be diftimftly afcertained, and deduced from that grofs
part; and this remainder of the accumulative enjoyment
will dwindle down into a poor, infipid, tranfitory thing.
In proportion as the opinion of the good purfued abates,
the admiration muft decay, and the paffion lofe ftrength
of courfe. One effe&ual way to lower the opinion, and
confequently to weaken the habit founded on it, is to
pra&ice lefler pieces of felf-denial, or to abftain, to a
certain pitch, from the purfuit or enjoyment of the fa¬
vourite objeft; and, that this may be the more eafily ac-
compliftied, one muft avoid thofe occafions, that compa¬
ny, thofe places, and the other circumftances that infla¬
med one, and endeared the other: And, as a counter-pro-
cefs, let higher of even different enjoyments be brought
in view, other paffions played upon the former, different
places frequented, other exercifes tried, company kept
with perfons of a different or more corredl way of think¬
ing both in natural and moral fubjefls.
As much depends on our felting out well in life, let
the youthful fancy, which is apt to be very florid and
luxuriant, be early accuftomed, by inftruftion, example,
I L O S O P H Y. gar
and fignificant moral exercifes, nay, by looks, geftures,
and every other teftimony of juft approbation or blame,
to annex ideas of merit, honour, and happinefs—not to
birth, drefs, rank, beauty, fortune, power, popularity,
and the like outward things,—but to moral and truly vir¬
tuous qualities, and to thofe enjoyments which fpring
from a well-informed judgment, and a regular conduct
of the affediions, efpecially thofe of the focial and difln-
terefted kind. Such dignified forms of beauty and good,
often fuggefted, and, by moving pidtures and examples,
warmly recommended to the imagination, enforced by
the authority of confcience, and demonftrated by reafon
to be the fureft means of enjoyment, and the only inde¬
pendent, undeprivable and durable goods, will be the beft
counter-balance to meaner paffions, and the firmeft foun¬
dation and fecurity to virtue.
It is of great importance to the forming a juft tafte,
or pure and large conceptions of happinefs, to ftudy and
underftand human nature well, to remember what a com¬
plicated, fyftem it is, particularly to have deeply imprinted
on our mind that gradation of fenfes, faculties, and
powers of enjoyment formerly mentioned, and the fub-
ordination of goods refulting from thence, which nature
points out, and the experience of mankind confirms ;
who, when they think ferioufly, and are not under the
immediate influence of fome violent prejudice or paffion,
prefer not the pleafures of adtion, contemplation, fociety,
and moft exercifes and joys of the moral kind, as friend-
fliip, natural affedtion, and the like, to all fenfual grati¬
fications whatfoever ? Where the different fpecies of plea¬
fure are blended into one complex form, let them be ac¬
curately diftinguiftied, and be referred each to its proper-
faculty and fenfe, and examined apart what they have
peculiar, what common with others, and what foreign
and adventitious. Let wealth, grandeur, luxury, love,.
fame, and the like, be tried by this left, and their true
alloy will be found out.—Let it be farther confidered,.
whether the mind may not be eafy, and enjoy itfelf greatly,
though it want many of thofe elegancies and fuperfluities
of life which fome poflefs, or that load of wealth and
power which others' eagerly purfue, and under which
they groan. Let the difficulty of attaining, the preca-
rioufnefs of pofleffing, and the many abatements in en¬
joying overgrown wealth and envied greatnefs, of which
the weary pofleflbrs fo frequently complain, as the
hurry of bufinefs, the burden of company, of paying
attendance to the few, and giving it to the many, the
cares of keeping, the fears of lofing, and the defires
of increafing what they have, and the other troubles
which accompany this pitiful drudgery and pompous
fervitude; let thefe and the like circumftances be often
confidered that are conduciye.to the removing or leflening
the opinion of fuch goods, and the attendant paffion or
fet of paffions will decay of courfe.
Let the peculiar bent of our nature and charafter be
obferved, whether we are moft inclined to form aflbcia-
tions and reliffi objects of the fenfible, intelle&ual, or
moral kind. Let that which has the'afcendant be parti¬
cularly watched ; let it be diredled to right objefts, be
improved by proportioned exercifes, and guarded by pro¬
per checks from an oppofite quarter. Thus, the fenfible
turn
3(52 MORAL
turn may be exalted by the infe’Ieftual and a talk for
the beauty of the fine arts, and both may be made fub-
fervient to convey and rivet fentiments highly moral and
public-fpirited. This inward fur e/muft extend to the
flrength and weaknefiVs of one’s nature, one’s condition,
connexions, habitudes, fortune, ftudies, acquaintance,
and the other circumftances of one’s life ; from which e-
very man will form the jufteft eftimate of his own difpo-
fitions and charaXer, and the beft rules for correXing
and improving them. And, in order to do this with
more advantage, let thofe times cr critical feafons be
watched when the mind is Heft difpofed towards a
change, arid let them be improved by vigorous refo-
lutions, promifes, or whatever elfe will engage the mind
to perfevere in virtue. Let the conduX, in fine, be of¬
ten reviewed, and the caufes of its corruption or improve¬
ment be carefully obferved.
It will greatly conduce to refine the moral tafte and
ftrengthen the virtuous temper, to accuftom the mind to
the frequent exercife of moral fentiments and determina¬
tions, by reading hiftbry, poetry, particularly of the pic-
turefque and dramatic kind, the ftudy of the fine arts ;
by converfing with the moft eminent for good-fenfe and
virtue ; but, above all, by frequent and repeated aXs of
humanity, compaffion, friendfhip, politenefs, and-hofpitali-
ty. It is exercife gives health and ftrength. He that
reafons moft frequently, becomes the wifeft, and moft en
joys the pleafures of wifdom. He who is moft often af-
feXed by objeXs of compaffion in poetry, hiftory, or real
life, will have his foul moft open to pity and its delightful
pains and duties. So he alfb who praXifes moft diligently
the offices of kindnefs and charity, will by it cultivate
that difpofition, from whence all his pretentions to per
fonal merit muft arife, his prefent and his future happi-
nefs.
An ufeful and honourable employment in life will ad-
miniftera thoufand opportunities of this kind, and greatly
ftrengthen a ferife of virtue and good afFeXions, which
rouft be nourifhed by right training, as well as our under
Handings. For fuch an employment, by enlarging one’s
experience, giving an habit of attention and caution, er
obliging one, from neceffity or intereft, to keep a guard
over the paffions, and ftudy the outward decencies and
appearancies of virtue, will by degrees produce good ha¬
bit, and at length infinuate the love of virtue and honefty
for its own fake.
It is a great inducement to the exercife of benevolence,
to view human nature in a favourable light, to obferve
thecharaXers-and circumftances of mankind on the faireft
fides, to put the beft conftrpXions on their aXions they
will bear, and to confider them as the refult of partial and
miftaken, rather than ill affeXions, or. at word, as the
excefles of a pardonable felf love, feldom .or never the
effeXs of pure malice.
Above all. the nature and confequences of virtue and
vice, their confequences being the law of our nature and
will of heaven ; the light in which they appear to ourfu-
preme Parent and Law-giver, and the reception they will
meet with from him; muft be often attended to. The ex-
ercifes of piety, as adoration and praife of the Divine Excel¬
lency, invocation of and dependence.on his aid, confeffion,
PHILOSOPHY.
thankfgiving, and refignation, .are habitually to be indulged,
and frequently performed, not only as medicinal, but high¬
ly improving to the temper.
To conclude: It will be of admirable efficacy towards
eradicating bad habits, and implanting good ones, fre¬
quently to contemplate human life as the great nurfery
of our future and immortal exiftence, as that ftate of
probation in which we are to be educated for a divine life;
to remember that our virtues or vices will be immortal
as ourfelves, and influence our future as well as_our pre¬
fent happinefs, and therefore that every difpofition and
aXion is to be regarded as pointing beyond the prelent
to an immortal duration An habitual attention to this
wide and important connexion will give a vaft compals
and dignity to our fentiments and aXions, a noble fupe-
riority to the pleafures and pains of life, and a generous
ambition to make our virtue as immortal as our being.
Motives to Virtue from perfonal Happinefs.
We have already confidered our obligations to the
praXice of virtue, anfing from the conftitution of our
nature, by which we are led to approve a certain order
and ceconomy of affeXions, and a certain courfe of aXion
correfpondent to it.—But befides this, there are feveral
motives which ftrengthen and fecure virtue, though not
themfelves of a moral kind. Thefe are, its tendemcy
to perfonal happinefs, and the contrary tendency of vice.
“Perfonal happinefs arifes, either from the ftate ot a
man’s own mind, or from the ftate and difpofition of ex¬
ternal caufes towards him.” .
We {hall firft examine the “ tendency of virtue to
happinefs with refpeX to the ftate of a man’s own mind.”
—This is a point of the utmoft confequ nee in morals;
becaufe, unlefs we can convince ourfelves, or fliew to o-
thers, that, by doing our duty, or fulfilling our moral
obligations, we confult the greateft fatisfaXion of our own
mind, or our higheft intereft on the whole, it will raife
ftrong and often unfurmountable prejudices againft the
praXice of virtue, efpecially (whenever there arifes any
appearance of eppofinon between our duty and our fa¬
tisfaXion or intereft. To creatures fo defirous of happi¬
nefs and averfe to mifery as we are, and often fo oddly
fituated amidft contending paffions and interefts, it is ne-
ceffary that virtue appear not only an honourable, but a
pleafing and beneficent form. And in ord$r to juftify our
choice to ourfelves, as well as before others, we muft
ourfelves feel, and.be able to avow in the face of the whole
world, that her ways are ways of pleafantnefs, and her
paths the paths of peace. This will {hew, beyond all
contradiXion, that we not only approve, but can give a
fufficient reafon for what we do.
Let a man in a cool hour, when he is difengaged from
bufinefs, and undifturbed by paffion, as fuch cool hours
will fometimes happen, fit down, and ferioufly refleX with
himfelf what ftate or temper of mind he would chufe to
feel and indulge, in order to be eafy and to enjoy himfelf.
Would he chufe, for that purpofe, to be in a eonftant
diffipation and hurry of thought ; to be difturbed in the
exercife of his reafon ; to have various, and often inter¬
fering phantoms of good playing before his imagination,
foliciting and diftraXing him by turns, now Toothing him
with
MORAL PHIL
with amufing hopes, then torturing him with anxious
fears ; and to approve this minute what he fhali condemn
the next ? Would he chufe to have a ftrong and painful
fenfe of every petty injury ; quick apprehenfions of every
impending evil; incefl’ant and infatiable defires of power,
Wealth, honour, pleafure ;■ an irreconcileable antipathy
againft all competitors and rivals ; infolent and tyrannical
difpofitions to all below'him ; fawning, and at the fame
time envious, difpofitions to all above him; with dark
fufpicions and jealoufies of every naortal ? Would he chufe
neither to love, nor to be beloved of any; to have no
friend in whom to confide, or with whom to interchange
his fentiments or defigns ; no favourite, on whom to be-
ftow his kindnefs, or vent his paffions; in fine, to be con-
fcious of no merit with mankind, no elleem from any
creature, no good affecflion to his Maker, no concerns for
or hopes of his approbation ; but, inftead of all thefe, to
hate, and know that he is hated, to contemn, and know
that he is contemned by all; by the good becaufe he
is fo unlike, and by the bad becaufe he is fo like them-
felves ; to hate or to dread the very Being that made
him ; and, in fhort, to have his breaft the feat of pride
and paflion, petulance and revenge, deep melancholy, cool
malignity, and all the other furies that ever pofieffed and
tortured mankind ?—Would our calm inquirer after hap-
pinefs pitch on fuch a ftate, and fuch a temper of mind,
as the moft likely means to put him in pofleffion of his
defired eafe and felf-enjoyment ?
Or would he rather chufe a ferene and eafy flow of
thought; a reafon clear and compofed; a judgment
unbiafled by prejudice, and undiftrafted by paflion ; a
fober and well-governed fancy, which prefents the images
of things true and unmixed with delufive and unnatural
charms, and therefore adminiflrers bo improper or dan¬
gerous fuel to the paflions, but leaves the mind free to
chufe or rejedt, as becomes a reafonable creature; a fweet
and fedate temper, not eafily ruffled by hopes or fears,
prone neither to fufpicion nor revenge, apt to view men
and things in the faireft lights, and to bend gently to the
humours of others rather than obftinately to contend with
them ? Would he chufe fuch moderation and continence
of mind, as neither to be ambitious of power, fond of
honours, covetous of wealth, nor a (lave to pleafure ; a
mind of courfe neither elated with fuccefs, nor dejedled
with difappointment ; fuch a modeft and noble fpirit as
fupports power without infolence, wears honours with¬
out pride, ufes wealth without profufion or parfimony ;
and rejoices more in giving than in receiving pleafure ;
fuch fortitude and equanimity as rifes above misfortunes,
or turns them into bleffings ; fuch integrity and greatnefs
of mind, as neither flatters the vices, nor triumphs over
the follies of men ; as equally fpurns fervitude and
tyranny, and will neither engage in low defigns, nor abet
them in others ? Would he chufe, in fine, fuch mildnefs
and benignity of heart as takes part in all the joys, and
refufes none of the fbrrows of others ; {lands well affec¬
ted to ail mankind ; is confcious of meriting the efteem
of all, and of being beloved by the befl ; a mind which
delights in doing good without any fhew, and yet arro¬
gates nothing on that account; rejoices in loving and be¬
ing beloved by its Maker, a<5ts ever under his eye, refigns
Vox.. III. N°. Si. 2
O S O P H Y. 303
itfelf to his providence, and triumphs in his approbation ?
Which of thefe difpofitions would be his choice, in order
ro be contented, ferene, and happy ?—The former temper
is vice, the latter virtue. Where one prevails, there
mifery prevails, and by the generality is acknowledged to
prevail. Where the other reigns, there happinefs reigns,
and by the confeflion of mankind is acknowledged to feign.
The perfe&ion of either temper is mifery, or happinefs, in
perfedtion. Therefore every approach to either extreme,
is an approach to mifery, or to happinefs ; that is to fay,
every degree of vice or virtue is accompanied with a pro¬
portionable degree of mifery or happinefs.
The principal alleviations of a virtuous man’s calamities
are thefe:—that, though fome of them may have been the
effedt of his imprudence, or weaknefs; yet few of them
are fliarpened by a fenfe of guilt, and none of them by a
confcioufnefs of wickednefs, which furely is their keened
ding that they are common to him with the bed of
men:—that they feldom or never attack him quite unpre¬
pared, but rather guarded with a confcioufnefs of his own
fincerity and virtue, with a faith and trud in providence,
and a firm refignation to its perfedl orders:—that they
may be improved as means of corredtion, or materials
to give fcope and dability to his virtues :—and, to
name no more, they are confiderably leffened, and often
fweetened to him, by the general fympathy of the wife and
good.
His enjoyments are more numerous, or, if lefs nume¬
rous, yet more intenfe, than thofe of bad men: for he
fhares in the joys of others by rebound ; and every in-
creafe of general or particular happinefs is a real addition
to his own. It is true, his friendly fympathy with others
fubjedts him to fome pains which the hard-hearted wretch
does not feel; yet to give a loofe to it, is a kind of a-
greeable difcharge. It is fuch a forrow as he loves to
indulge; a fort of pleafing anguifh, that fweetly melts
the mind, and terminates in a felf-approving joy. Tho’
the good man may want means to execute, or be difap-
pointed in the fuccefs of his benevolent purpofes ; yet he
is dill confcious of goodj'affedlions; and that confcioufnefs
is an enjoyment of a more delightful favour than the
greated triumphs of fuceefsful vice. If the ambitious,
covetous, or voluptuous, are difappointed, their paflions
recoil upon them with a furyproportioned to their opinion
of the value of what they purfue, and their hope of fuc¬
cefs ; while they have nothing within to balance the dif¬
appointment, unlefs it is an ufeful fund of pride, which
however frequently turns mere accidents into mortifying
affronts, and exalts grief into rage and frenzy. Whereas
the meek, humble, and benevolent temper is its own
immediate reward ; is fatisfied from within ; -and as it
magnifies greatly the pleafure of fuccefs, fo it wonderfully
alleviates, and in a manner annihilates, all pain for the '
want of it.
As the good man is confcious of loving and wifliing
well to all mankind, he mud be fenfibleof his deferving
the edeem and goodwill of all; and this fuppofed reci¬
procation of focial feelings, is, by the very frame of our
nature, made a fource of very intenfe and enlivening
joys. By this fympathy of affections and intereds he
feels himfelf intimately united with the human race; and
4 G being
304 MORAL PHI
being fenfibly alive over the whole fyftem, his heart re¬
ceives and becomes refponfive to every touch given to any
part. So that he gathers contehtment and delight from
the pleafed and happy ftate of thofe around him, from ac¬
counts and relations of fuch happineffes, from the very
countenances, geftures, voices, and founds even of crea¬
tures foreign to our kind, whofe figns of joy and content¬
ment he can any way difcern.
Nor do thofe generous affeftions flop any other natu¬
ral fource of joy whatever, or deaden his fenfe of any
innocent gratification. They rather keep the feveral
fenfes and powers of enjoyment open and difengaged, in-
tenfe, and uncorrupted by riot or abufe ; as is evident to
any one who confiders the diffipated unfeeling ftate of
men of pleafure, ambition, or intereft, and compares it
with the ferene and gentle (late of a mind at peace with
itfelf, and friendly to all mankind, unruffled by any vio¬
lent emotion, and fenfible to every good-natured and al¬
luring joy.
It were eafy, by going through the different fets of
affeftions, to Ihew, that it is only by maintaining
the proportion fettled there that the mind arrives at true
repofe and fatisfaftion. If fear exceeds that proportion,
it finks into melancholy and dejeftion. If anger paffes
juft bounds, it ferments into rage and revenge, or fub-
fides into a fullen corroding gloom, which embitters e-
very good, and renders one exqaifitely fenfible to every
ill. The private paffions, the love of honour efpecially,
whofe impulfes are more generous as its effefts are more
diffufive, are inftruments of private pleafure; but if thejfc.
are difproportioned to our wants, or to the value of the
feveral objefts, or to the balance of other paffions equal¬
ly neceffary and more amiable, they become inftruments
of intenfe pain and mifery. For, being now deftitute of
that counterpolfe which held them at a due pitch, they
grow turbulent, peevilh, and revengeful, the caufe of
conftant reftleffnefs and torment, fometimes Hying out
into a wild delirious joy, at other times fettling into a
deep fplenetic grief. The concert between reafon and
paflion is then broke: all is diffonance and diftraftion
within. The mind is out of frame, and feels an agony
proportioned to the violence of the reigning paffion.
The cafe is much the fame, or rather worfe, when
any of the particular kind affeftions are out of their na¬
tural order and proportion ; as happens in the cafe of ef¬
feminate pity, exorbitant love, parental dotage, or any
party pallion, where the juft regards to fociety are fup-
planted. The more focial and difinterefted the pallion
is, it breaks out into the wilder exceffes, and makes the
more dreadful havock, both within and abroad, as is but
loo apparent in thofe cafes where a falfe fpecies of reli¬
gion, honour, zeal, or party-rage, has feized on the
natural enthufiafm of the mind, and worked it up to
madnefs. It breaks through all ties natural and civil,
counterafts the moft facred and foleran obligations, filen-
ces every other affeftion whether public or private, and
transforms the moft gentle natures into the moft favage
and inhuman.
Whereas the man who keeps the balance of affeftion
even, is eafy and ferene in his motions; mild, and yet
affeftionate; uniform and confiftent with bimfelf; is not
L O S O P H Y.
liable to difagreeable collifions of interefts and paflioas;
gives always place to the moft friendly and humane affec¬
tions ; and never to difpofitions or afts of refentment,
but on high occafions, when the fecurity of the private,
or welfare of the public fyftem, or the great interefts of
mankind neceffarily require a noble indignation ; and e-
ven then he obferves a juft meafure in wrath ; and laft
of all, he proportions every paflion to the value of the
objeft he affjfts, or to the importance of the end he
purfues.
1 o fum up this part of the argument, the honeft and
good man has eminently the advantage of the knavilh
and felfifh wretch in every refpeft. The pleafures which
the laft enjoys flow chiefly from external advantages and
gratifications; are fuperficial and tranfitory; daflied with
long intervals of fuiety, and frequent ceturns of remorfe
and fear ; dependent on favourable accidents and conjunc¬
tures; and fubjefted to the humours of men. But the
good man is fatisfied from hirafelf; his principal poffef-
fions lie within, and therefore beyond the reach of the
caprice of men or fortune ; his enjoyments are exquifite
and permanent; accompanied with no inward checks to
damp them,\ and always with ideas of dignity and felf-
approbatiou ; may be tailed at any time, and in any place.
The gratifications of .vice are turbulent and unnatural,
generally arifing from the relief of paflions in themfelves
intolerable, and iffuing in tormenting refleftions ; often
irritated by difappointment, always inflamed by enjoy¬
ment, and yet ever cloyed with repetition. The plea¬
fures of virtue are calm and natural; flowing from the
exercife of kind affeftions, or delightful refleftions in
confequence of them ; not only agreeable in the profpeft,
but in the prefent feeling ? they never fatiate, or lofe
their relifli; nay, rather the admiration of virtue grows
ftronger every day; and not only is the defire but the
enjoyment heightened by every new gratification; and,
unlike to moft others, it is increafed, not diminifhed, by
fympathy and communication. In fine, the fatisfaftions
of virtue may be purchafed without a bribe, and poffeffed
innhe humbleft as well qs tjie moft triumphant fortune;
they can bear the ftrifteft review, do not change with
circumftances, nor grow old with time. Force cannot
rob, nor fraud cheat us of them ; and, to crown all, in-
ftead of abating, they enhance every other pleafure.
But the happy confequences of virtue are feen, not
only in the internal enjoyments it affords a man, but “ in
the favourable difpofition of external caufes towards him,
to which it contributes:”
As virtue gives the fober poffefiion of one’s felf and
the command of one’s paflions, the confequence muft be,,
heart’s eafe, and a fine natural flow of fpirits,. which
conduce more than any thing elfe to health and long life.
Violent paflions, and the exceffes they occafion, gradu¬
ally impair and wear down the machine. But the calm
placid ftate of a temperate mind, and. the healthful exer-.
cifes in which virtue engages her faithful votaries, pre-
ferve the natural funftions in full vigour and harmony,
and exhilarate the fpirits, which are the chief inftruments
of aftion.
It may by fome be thought odd to affert, that virtue
is no enerpy to a man’s fortune in the prefent ftate of
things.
MORAL PH
things.—But if, by fortune, be meant a moderate or
competent fhare of wealth, power, or credit, not over¬
grown degrees of them, what (hould hinder the virtuous
man from obtaining that ? He cannot cringe or fawn, it
is true ; but he can be civil and obliging as well as the
knave.: and furely, his civility is more alluring, becaufe.
it has more manlinefs and grace in it than the mean adu¬
lation of the other: he cannot cheat or undermine ; but
he may be cautious, provident, .watchful of occafions,
and equally prompt with the rogue in improving them :
he fcorns to prolHtute himfelf as a pander to the paffions,
or as a tool to the vices of mankind ; but he may have as
found an underftanding, and as good capacities for pro¬
moting their real interefts, as the verieft court-Have ; and
then, he is more faithful and true to thofe who emp’loy
him. In the common courfe qf bufinefs, he has the fame
chances with the knave of acquiring a fortune, and rifing
in the world. He may have equal abilities, equal in-
duflry, equaj attention to bulinefs ; and in other refpefts
he has greatly the advantage of him. People love better
to deal with him; they can trull: him more; they know
he will not impdfe cn them, nor take advantage of them,
and can depend more on his word than on the oath or
lirongell: fecurities of othe:s. Whereas what is com¬
monly called cunning, which is the offspring of ignorance,
and conllant companion of knavery, is not only a mean-
fpirited, but a very Ihort-fighted talent, and a fundamen¬
tal obllacle in the road of bufinefs. It may procure in¬
deed immediate and petty gains ; but it is attended with
dreadful abatements, which do more than over-balance
them, both as it finks a man’s credit when difcovered,
and cramps rhat largenefs of mind, which extends to
the remoteft as well as the nearell intereft, and takes in
the moll durable equally with the moll tranfient gains.
It is therefore eafy to fee how much a man’s credit and
reputation, and confequently his fuccefs, depend on his
honelly and virtue.
With regard to fecurity and peace with his neighbours,
it maybe thought, perhaps, that the man of a quiet for¬
giving temper, and a flowing benevolence and courtefy,
is much expbfed to injury and^ffronts from every proud
or peevilh mortal wb§ has the power or will to do mif-
chief. If we fuppofe, indeed, this quietnefs and gentle-
nefs of nature accompanied with cowardice or pufillani-
mity, this may 'often be the cafe ; but in reality, the
good man- is bold as a lion, and fo much the bolder for
being the calmer. Such a perfon will hardly be a butt
to mankind. The ill-natured will be afraid to provoke
him, and the good-natured will not incline to do it.
Belides, true virtue, which is condu&ed by reafon, and
exerted gracefully and without parade, is a moll infinu-
ating and commanding thing; if it cannot difarm malice
and refentment at once, it will wear them out by degrees,
and fubdue them at length. How many have, by favours,
and prudently yielding, triumphed over an enemy, who
would have been inflamed into tenfold rage by the fiercell
oppqfition In fine, goodnefs is the moll univerfally po¬
pular thing that can be.
To conclude, the good man may have fome enemies,
but he will have more friends ; and having given fo many
marks of private friendlhip or public virtue, he can hard-
I L O S O P H Y. 305
ly be deflitute of a patron to proteil, or a faryfluary to
entertain him, or to entertain or protect his children when
he is gone. Though he Ihould have little elfe to leave
them, he bequeaths them the fairell, and generally the
moll unenvied, inheritance of a good name; which, like
, good feed fown in the field of futurity, will often raife
up unfolicited frineds, and yield a benevolent harvell of
unexpected charities. But Ihould The fragrance of the
parent’s virtue prove offenfive to a perverfe or envious
age, or even draw perfecution on the friendlefs orphans,
there is One in heaven, -who will be more than a father
to them, and reCompence their parent’s virtues by ftiower-
ing down bleffings on them.
Motives to Virtue from the Being anil Providence
ey God.
Besides the interelling motive mentioned in the laft
feCtion, there are two great motives to virtue, llriffly
connected with human life, and refulting from the very
conllitution of the human mind. The firlt is the being
and providence of God; the fecond is the immortality of
the foul, with future rewards and punilhments.
It appears from what has been laid, that man, by the •
conllitution of his nature, is defigngd to be a religious
creature. He is intimately cconeCted with the Deity, and
neceffarily dependent on him. From that conneClion and.
neceflary dependence refult various obligations and du¬
ties ; without fulfilling which, fome of his fublimell pow¬
ers and affedions would be incomplete and abortive. If
he be likewife an immortal creature, and if his prefent
conduct lhall affeCl his future happinefs in another Hate
as well as in the prefent; it is evident, that we take only a
partial view of the creature if we leave out this important
property of his nature, and make a partial ellimate of
human life if we llrike out of the account,- or over-look,,
that part of his duration which runs out into eternity.
It is evident, that “ to have a refpeCt to the Deity incur
temper and conduCt, to venerate and love his character,
to adore-his goodnefs, to depend upon and refign ourfelves
to his providence, to feek his approbation, and aCt un¬
der a fenfe of his-authority, is a fundamental part of mo¬
ral virtue, and the completion-of the highell dellination.
of our nature.”
But as piety is an effential part of-virtue, fo likewife it
is a great fupport and enforcement to the practice of it.
To contemplate and admire a being of fuch tranfeendent
dignity and perfection as.God, mud naturally and necef¬
farily open and enlarge the mind, give a freedom and am-
plenefs to its powers, and a grandeur and elevation to its
aims. For, “ the greatnefs of an objeCt, and the excel¬
lency of the aCt of any agent about a tranfeendant objeCt,
doth mightily tend to the enlargement and improvement
of his faculties.” Little objects, mean company, mean
cares, and mean bufinefs, cramp the mind, contract its
views, and give it a creeping air and deportment. But
when it, foars above mortal cares and mortal purfuits in¬
to the regions of divinity, and converfes with the Created
and Bed of Beings, it fpreads itfelf into a wider compafs,
takes higher flights in reafon and goodnefs, and becomes
Godlike in its air and mariners. Virtue is, if one may
fay fo, both the effect and caufe of largenefs of mind. It
requires
go6 M O R A L P H I
requires tliat one tliink freely, and aift nobly. Now, what
can conduce more to freedom of thought and dignity of
aftton, than to conceive worthily of God, to reverence
and adore his unrivalled excellency, to imitate and tran-
fcribe that excellency into our own nature, to remember
our relation to him, and that we are the image and re-
pr'efentatives of his glory to the reft of the creation ? Such
feelings and exercifcs muft and will make us fcorn all
aftions that are bafe, unhandfome, or unworthy our ftate;
and the relation ■fre ftand in to God will irradiate the
mind with the light of wifdom, and ennoble it with the
liberty and dominion of virtue.
The influence and efficacy of religion may be confidered
In another light. We all know that the prefence of a friend,
a neighbour, or any number of fpe&ators, but efpecially
an auguft aflemblyof them, ufes to be a confiderable check
upon the codutft of one who is not loft to all fenfe of ho¬
nour and fhame, and contributes to reftrain many irregu¬
lar fallies of paffion. In the fame manner we may imagine,
that the awe of forne Superior Mind, who is fuppofed pri¬
vy to our fecret condu<ft, and armed with full power to
reward or puniffi'it, will impofe a reftraint on us in fuch
addons asTall not under the controul or animadverfion of
others. If we go ftill higher, and fuppofe our inmoft
thoughts and darkeft defigns, as well as our moft fecret
addons, to lie open to the notice of the Supreme and
Univerfal Mind, who is both the fpedlator and judge of
human addons; it is evident, that the belief of lo auguft
a prefence, and fuch awful infpeddon, muft carry a re¬
ftraint and weight with it proportioned to the ftrength
of that belief, and be an additional motive to the prac¬
tice of many duties which would not have been performed
without it.
It maybe obferved farther, that “ to live under an ha¬
bitual fenfe of the Deity and his great adminiftration, is
to be converfant with wifdom, order, and beauty, in the
higheft fubjedls, and to receive the delightful refleddons
and benign feelings which thefe excite, whiledhey irra¬
diate upon him from every fcene of nature and providence.”
How improving muft fuch views be to the mind, in di¬
lating and exalting it above thofe puny interefts and com¬
petitions which agitate and enflame the bulk of mankind
againft each other!—
■ Motive to Virtue fro7n the Immortality of the Soul, &c.
The other motive mentioned was the immortality of the
foul, with future rewards and puniffiments. The meta-
phyfical proofs of the foul’s immortality, are commonly
drawn—from its fimple, uncompounded, and indivifible
nature; from whence it is concluded, that it cannot be cor¬
rupted or extinguifhed by a diflblution or deftrudfton of
parts:—from its having a beginning of motion within it-
felf; whence it is inferred, that it cannot difcontinue and
lofe its motion:—from the different properties of matter
and mind; the fluggiflivefs and inaftivity of one, and the
immenfe aiftivity of the other; its prodigious flight of
thought and imagination; its penetration; memory, fore-
light, and anticipations of, futurity; from whence it is
concluded, that a being of fo divine a nature cannot be
«xtinguifl)ed. Rut as thefe metaphyfical proofs depend
©n intricate reafonings concerning the nature, properties,
L O S O P II Y.
and diftin&ion of body and mind, with which we are not
very well acquainted, they are not obvious to ordinary
underftandings, and arefeldom fo convincing, even to thofe
of higher reach, as not to leave fome doubts behind them..
Therefore, perhaps, it is not fo fafe to reft the proof of
fuch an important article on what many may call the
fobtleties of fchool-learning. Thofe proofs which are
brought from analogy, from the moral conftitution and
phenomena of the human mind, the moral attributes
of God, and the prefent courfe of things, and which are
therefore called the moral arguments, are the plaineft,
and generally the moft fatisfying. We ftiall feleft only one
or two from the reft.
In tracing the nature and deftination of any being, we
form the fureft judgment from his powers of adtion, and
thefcope and limits of thefe, compared with his ftate, or
with that field in which they are exercifed. If this being
paffes through different ftates or fields of adtion, and we
find a fucceffion of powers adapted to the different periods
of his progrefs, we conclude that he was deftined for
thofe focceffive ftates, and reckon his nature progreffive.
If, befides the immediate fet of powers which fit him for
adtion in his prefent ftate, we obferve another fet which
appears fuperfluous if he was to be confined to it, and
which point to another or higher one, we naturally con¬
clude, that he is not defigned to remain in his prefent ftate,
but to advance to that for which thofe fupernumerary
powers are adapted. Thus we argue, that the infedt,
which has wings forming or formed, and all the appara¬
tus proper for flight, Is not deftined always to creep on
the ground, or to continue in the torpid ftate of adhering
to a wall, but is defigned in its feafon to take its flight
in air. Without this farther deftination, the admirable
mechanifm of wings, and the other apparatus, would be
ufelefs and abfurd. The fame kind of reafoning rfiay be
applied to man, while he lives only a fort of vegetative
life in the womb. He is furniffied even there with a
beautiful apparatus of organs, eyes, ears, and other de¬
licate fenfes, which receive nouriffiment indeed, but are
in a manner folded up, and have no proper exercife or
ufe in their prefent confinement. Let us fuppofe fome
intelligent fpedlator, who never had any connexion with
man, nor theleaft acquaintance with human affairs, to fee
this odd phenomenon; a creature formed after fuch a man¬
ner, and placed in a fituation apparently unfuitable to
Inch various machinery; muft he not beftrangely puzzled
about the ufe of his complicated ftrufture, and reckon
fuch a profufion of art and admirable workmanffiip loft
on the fubjeft; or reafon, by way of anticipation, that a
creature, endued with fuch various, yet unexerted capa¬
cities, was deftined for a more enlarged fphere of adlion,
in which thofe latent capacities fliall have full play? The
vaft variety, and yet beautiful fymmetry and proportions,
of the feveral parts and organs with which the creature
is endued, and their apt cohefion with, and dependence
on, the curious receptacle of their life and nouriftnnent,
would forbid his concluding the whole to be the birth of
chance, or the bungling effort of an unfkilful artift, at
leaft would make him demur a while at fo harfh a fen-
tence. But if, while he is in this ftate of uncertainty,
we fuppofe him to fee the babe, after a few fuccefsful
MORAL PH
flruggles, throwing ofF his fetters, breaking loofe from
his Jittie dark prifon, and emerging into open day; then
unfolding his reckife and dormant powers, breathing in
air, gazing at light, admitting colours, founds, and all
the fair variety of nature ; immediately his doubts clear
up, the propriety and excellency of the workmanfnip
dawn upon him with full luftre, and the whole myftery
of the hrft period is unravelled by the opening of this
mew fcene.. Though in this fecond period the creature
lives chiefly a kind of animal life, i. e. of fenfe and ap¬
petite ; yet by various trials and obfervations he gains
experience, and by the gradual evolution of the powers
of imagination he ripens apace for an higher life, for
exercifmg the arts of defign and imitation, and of thofe
in which ftrength or dexterity are more requifite than
acutenefs or reach of judgment. In thefucceeding rational
or intelle<3ual period, his underftanding, which formerly
ceept in a lower, mounts into an higher fphere, canvaffesthe
natures, judges of the relations of things, forms fchemes,
deduces confequences from what js pad, and from prefent
as well as paftcollefts future events. By this fucceffion of
flates, and of correfpondent culture, he grows up at length
into a moral, focia!, and a political ■creature. Thisis thelaft
period, at which we perceive him to arrive in this his mor¬
tal career. Each period is introduflory to'the next fuq-
ceeding one ; each life is a field of exercife and improve¬
ment for the next higher one, the life of the foetus for
that of the infant, the life of the infant for that of the
child, and all the lower for the highefl: and beft.—But
is this the laft period of nature’s progreffion? Is this the
utmoft extent of her plot, where Ihe winds up the drama,
and difmifles the ador into eternal oblivion ! Or does he
appear to be inverted with fupernumerary powers, which
have not full exercile and fcope, even in the laft fcene,
and reach not that maturity or perfedion of which they
are capable; and therefore point to fome higher fcene,
•where he is to furtain another and more important cha-
raderthan he has yet fuftained ? If any fuch there are,
may we not conclude by ahalogy, or in the farpe way
of anticipation as before, that he is deftined for that
afterpart, and is to be produced upon a more auguft
and folemn ftage, where his fublimer powers Ihall have
proportioned adion, and its nature attain its completion ?
If we attend to that curiofity, or prodigious third: of
knowledge, which is natural to the mind in every period
of its progrefs ; and corifider withal the endlefs round of
bufinefs' and care, and the various hardlhips to which the
bulk of mankind are chained down; it is evident, that in
this prefent ftate, it h impoffible to exped the gratifica¬
tion of an appetite at once fo infatiable and fo noble.
Our fenfes, the ordinary organs by which knowledge is
let into the mind, are always imperfed, and often falla¬
cious ; the advantages of affirting, or correding them,
are poffe/Ted by few; the difficulties of finding out truth
amidft the various and contradidory opinions, intererts,
and paffions of mankind, are many ; and the wants of the
creature, and of thofe with whom he is conneded, nu¬
merous and urgent; fo that it may be .faid of moft men,
that their intelledual organs are as much fhut up and fe-
cltided from proper nouriffiment and exercife in that little
circle-to which they are confined, as the bodily organs
Vot.III. N°. 81. 5
I L O S O P H Y. 307
are in the womb. Nay, thofe who to analpiring genius
have added all the affirtances of art, leifure, andihemort
liberal education, what narrow profpeds can even they
take of this unbounded fcene of things .from that little e-
minence on which they rtand ? And how eagerly do they
rtill grafp at new difcoveries, without any fatisfadion or
limit to their ambition ?
But ffiould it be faid, that man is made for adion, and
not for fpeculation, or fruitlefs fearches after knowledge;
we alk, For what kind of adion ? Is it only for bodily
exercifes ; oj for moral, political, and religious ones ?
Ofall thefe he iscapable : yet, by the'unavoidable circum .
fiances of his lot, he is tied down to the former; and has
hardly any leifure to think of the latter ; or, if he has,
wants the proper inftruments of exerting them. The
love of virtue, of one’s friends and country, the generous
fympathy with mankind, and heroic zeal of doing good,
which are all fo natural to great and good minds, and
fome traces of which are found in the lowtrt, are feldom
united with proportioned means or opportunities of exer-
cifing them ; fo that the moral fpring, the noble energies
and impulfes of the mind, can hardly find proper fcope,
even in the moft fortunate condition ; but are much de-
preffed in forae, and almort entirely rertratned in the ge¬
nerality, by the numerous clogs of an indigent, fickly,
or embaraffed life. Were fuch mighty powers, inch
Godlike affeftions plantedinthe human brealt, to be fold¬
ed up in the narrow womb of our prefent exiftence, never
to be produced into a more perfect life, nor to expatiate
in the ample career of immortality?
Let it be confidered, at the fame time, that no pof-
feflion, no enjoyment within the round of mortal things,-
is commenfurate to the defires, or adequate to the capa¬
cities of the mind. The mpft envied condition has its
abatements; the happieft conjuncture of fortune leaves
many wifhes behind ; and after the higheft giatifications,
the mind is carried forward in purfuit of new ones without
end. Add to all, the fond defire of immortality, the
fecret dread of non-exiftence, and the high unremitting
pulfe of the foul beating for perfection, joined to the im¬
probability or the impoflibility of attaining it here; and
then judge whether this elaborate ftruCtpre, this magnifi-
cient apparatus of iriward powers and organs, does not
plainly point out an hereafter, and intimate eternity to
man ? Does nature give the finifhing touches ;to the
leffer and ignobler inftances of her fkill, and raife every
other creature to the maturity and perfection of his being ;
and fhall fhe leave her principal workmanfhip unfinifhed i
Does fhe carry the vegetative and animal life in man
to their full vigour, and higheft deftination; and ffiall fhe
fuffer his intellectual, his moral, his divine life to fade
away, and be for, ever extingulfhed ? Would fuch abor¬
tions in the moral world be congruCus to that perfection
of wifdom and goodnefs which upholds and adorns the
natural ?
We muft therefore conclude, from this detail, that the
prefent ftate, even at its beft, is only the womb of man’s
being, in'which the uobleft principles of his nature are
in a manner fettered or fecluded from a correfpondent
fphere of aCtion ; and therefore deftined for a future and
unbounded ftate, where they fhall emancipate themfelves,
4 H and
3o8 MORAL PH
and exert the fulnefs of their ftrength. Themoft accom-
pliihed mortal, in this low and dark appartment of na¬
ture, is only the rudiments of what he fhall be, when he
takes his etherial flight, and puts on immortality. With¬
out a reference to that Hate, man were a mere abortion, a
rude unfiniflied embryo, a monfler in nature. But this
being once fupoofed, he flill maintains his rank, of the
mailer-piecd of the creation ; his latent powers are all
fuitable to the harmony and progreflion of nature ; his
coble afpirations, and the pains of his diflblution, are his
efforts towards a fecond birth, the pangs of his delivery
into light, liberty, and perfection ; and death his dif-
charge from gaol, his reparation from hisfellow-prifoners,
and introduction into the aflembly of thofe heroic fpirits
who are gone before him, and of their great eternal Pa¬
rent. The fetters of his mortal coil being loofened, and
his prifon-walls broke down, he will be bare and open on
every fide to the admiflion of truth and virtue, and their
fair attendant happinefs; every vital and intellectual
fpring will evolve itfelf, with a divine elaflicity, in the
free air of heaven. He will not then peep at the univerfe
and its glorious Author through a dark grate, or a grofe
medium, nor receive the reflections of his glory through
the ftrait openings of fenfible organs; but will be all eye,
all ear, all etherial and divine feeling.—Let one part,
however, of the analogy be attended to ; That, as in the
womb we receive our original conftitution, form, and the
eflential ftamina of our being, which we carry along with
us into the light, and which greatly affeCt the fucceeding
periods of our life; fo our temper and condition in the
future life will depend on the conduCt we have obferved,
and the character we have formed in the prefent life.
We are herein miniature what we fliall be at full length
hereafter. The firll rude Iketch, or out-lines of reafon
and virtue, mull be drawn at prefent, to be afterwards
enlarged to the ftature and beauty of angels.
This, if duly attended to, mull prove not only a guard,
but an admirable incentive to virtue. For he who faith¬
fully and ardently follows the light of knowledge, and
pants after higher improvements in virtue, will be wonder¬
fully animated and inflamed in that puifuit, by a full con¬
viction that the fcene does not clofe with life;-—that his
ftruggles arifing from the weaknefs of nature, and the
ftrength of habit, will be turned into triumphs ;—that
his career in the traCts of wifdom and goodnefs will be
both fwifter and fmoother;—and thofe generous ardors
with which he glows towards heaven, i. e. the perfection
and immortality of virtue, will find their adequate objeCt
and exercife in a fphere proportionably enlarged, ipcor-
ruptible, immortal. On the other hand, what an inexpref-
fible damp muft it be to the good man, to dread the tor
tal extinction of that light and virtue, without which life,
aay immortality itfelf, were not worth a fingle wilh ?
Many writers draw their proofs of the immortality of
the foul, and of a future (lace of rewards and punifhments,
from the unequal diftribution of thefe here. It cannot be
diflembled that wicked men often efcape the outward pu-
nifliment due to their crimes, and do not feel the inward
in that meafure their demerit feems to require, partly
from the calloufnefs induced upon their nature by the
habits of vice, and partly from the diflipatioa of their
I L O S O P H Y.
minds abroad by pleafure or bufinefs ; and fometimes
good men do not reap all the natural and genuine fruits
of their virtue, through the many unforfeen or unavoid¬
able calamities in which they are involved. This, no doubt,
upon the fuppofition of an all-wife and good Providence,
were an argument, and a ftrong one too, for a future
ftate, in which thofe inequalities lhall be corrected. But
unlefs we fuppofe a prepoilent good order in the prefent
fcene of things, we weaken the proof of the divine admi-
niflration, and the prefumption of better order in any
future period of it.
Virtue has prefent rewards, and vice prefent punilhments,
annexed to it; fuch rewards and pumlhments as make
virtue, in molt cafes that happen, far more eligible than
vice : but, in the infinite variety of human contingencies,
it may fometimes'fall out, that the inflexible praCHce of
virtue lhall deprive a man of confiderable advantages to
himfelf, his family, oi friends, which he might gain by
a well-timed piece of roguery, fuppofe by betraying his
truft, voting againft his confidence, felling his country,
or any other crime where the fecurity againlt difeovery
fhall heighten the temptation. Or, it may happen, that a
ftriCt adherence to his honour, to his religion, to the caufe
of liberty and virtue, fliall -expofe him, or his family, to
the lofs of every thing, nay to poverty, flavery, death it¬
felf, or to torments far more intolerable. Now, what
lhall fecure a man’s virtue in circumftances of fuch trial?
What fliall enforce the obligations of confcience againlt the
allurements of fo many interefts, the dread of fo many and
fo terrible evils, and the almolt unfurmountable averfion of
human nature to exceflive pain ? The conflict is the greater,
when thecircumltance* of the crime are fuch as eafily admit
a variety of alleviations from neceflity, natural affection^
love to one’s family, or friends, perhaps in indigence :
Thefe will give it even the air of virtue. Add to all,
that the crime may be thought to have few bad confequen-
ces,—may be eafily concealed,—or imagined poflible- to
be retrieved in a good meafure by future good conduCt.
It is obvious to which fide moll men will lean in fuch a
cafe, and how much need there is of a balance in the op-
pofite fcale, from the confideration of a God, of a provi-
pence, and of an immortal Itate of retribution, to keep
the mind firm and uncorrupt in thofe or like inltances of
Angular trial or diltrefs.
But withont fuppofing fuch peculiar inltances, a fenfe'
of a Governing Mind, and a perfuafion that virtue is not
only befriended by him here, but will be crowned by him
hereafter with rewards fuitable to its nature, vail in them-
felves, and immortal in their duration, mult be not only
a mighty fupport and incentive to the practice of virtue,
but a llrong barrier againlt vice. The thoughts of an
almighty Judge, and of an impartial future reckoning, are
often alarming, inexprelfibly fo, even to the ftoutell offen¬
ders. On the other hand, how fupporting mult it be to
the good man, to think that he aCts under the eye of his
Friend, as well as Judge! How improving, to confider the
prefent Hate as connected with a future one, and every
relation in which he Hands as a fchool of dicipline for his
affections, every trial as the exercife of fome virtue, and
the virtuous deeds which refult from both as introductory
to higher feenes of action and enjoyment! Finally, how
tranfporting
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
tranfporting is it to view death as his difcharge from the
warfare of mortality, and a triumphant entry into a flare
of freedom, fecurity, and perfe&ion ; in which knowledge
and wifdom lhall break upon him from every quarter;
where each faculty (hall have its proper objedt; and his
virtue, which was often damped or defeated here, (hall
be enthroned in undifturbed and1 eternal empire!
On reviewing this (hort fyftem of morals, and the mo¬
tives which fupport and enforce it, and comparing both
with the Chriftian fcheme, what light, and vigour do they
borrow from thence! How clearly and fully does Chrifti-
anity lay open the connexions of our nature, both mate¬
rial and immaterial, and future as well as prefent! What
an ample and beautiful detail does it prefent of the duties
we owe to God, to fociety, and ourfelves; promulgated in
the mod fimple, intelligible, and popular manner; di¬
verted of every partiality of feX or nation; and adapted
to the general ftate of mankind! With what bright and
alluring examples does it illuftrate and recommend the
praXice of thofe duties ;, and with what mighty fanc-
tions does it inforce that praXice! How ftrongly does it
M O R
•MORAL sense, that whereby we perceive what is
good, virtuous, and beautiful in aXions, manners, and
charaXers. See Morals.
MORALITY. See Moral Philosophy.
MORASS, a low, moift land, which receives the wa¬
ters from the higher grounds without having any de-
feent to carry them off.
MORAVIA, a marquifate, or province in Bohemia,
bounded bySilefiaon the north-eart, by Hungary and
Auftria on the fouth, and by Bohemia on the north-
weft.
MORAVIANS, a feX of Protertants, who have been
fettled for a confidorable time part at Hernhuth in
Germany, and have of late years fpread themfelves
over mod of our American colonies, as well as in fe-
veral parts of England, where they are permitted to
fettle by a late aX of parliament. They have a kind
of church-government peculiar to themfelves, and are
commonly known by the name of Unitas Fratrum, or
The Brethren. They profefs the utmoft veneration
for our bleffed Saviour, whom they confider as their
immediate Head and DireXor ; enjoin the moft implicit
obedience to the rulers of their church; and are faid
to praXife much brotherly love amongft one another.
MORBID, among phyficians, fignifies difeafed or cor¬
rupt ; a term applied either to an unfound conftitution,
or to thofe parts or humours that are infeXed by a
difeafe.
MORDELLA, in zoology, a genus of the coleoptera
clafs of infeXs. The antennae are thread-(haped, and
ferrated ; the head is defleXed under the neck; the
pappi are clavated, compreffed, and obliquely blunted ;
and the elytra are bent backwards near the apex.
There are fix fpecies, all natives of different parts of
Europe.
MORE A, the ancient Peloponnefus, is a province of
European Turky, and is a.peninfula about one hun-
S°9
deferibe the corruptions of our nature; the deviations
of our life, from the rule of duty ; and the caufes of
both! How marvellous and benevolent a plan of redemp¬
tion does it unfold, by which thofe corruptions may be
remedied, and our nature rertoied from its deviations, to
tranfeendent heights of virtue and piety! Finally, what a
fair and comprehenfive profpeX does it give us of the ad-
miniftratiop of God, of which it reprefents the prefent ftate
only as a fmall period ; and a period of warfare and trial!
How folemn and unbounded are the feenes which it o-
pens beyond it; the refurreXion of the dead; the general
judgment; the equal diftribution of rewards and pu-
niihments to the good and the bad; and the full comple¬
tion of divine wifdom and goodnefs in the final ertablifh-
mehttif order, perfeXion, and happinefs!—How glorious
then is that fcheme of religion, and how worthy of affec¬
tion as well as of admiration, which, by making fuch
difeoveries, and affording fuch affiftances, has ffilclofed
the unfading fruits and triumphs of virtue, and fecujed
its intererts beyond tfie power of time and chance 1
M O R
dred and eighty miles long, and one hundred and thir¬
ty broad, bounded by the gulphs of Lepanto and En-
gia on the north; by the Egean fea, or Archipelago,
on the eaft; and by the Mediterranean on the fouth
and weft.
MORESK, or morisco, is a kind of painting, car¬
ving, isc. done after the manner of the Moors; con¬
fiding of feveral grotefque pieces and compartments,
promifeuoufly mingled, not containing any perfeX fi¬
gure of a man, or other animal; but a wild refem-
blance of birds, beads, trees, he.
MORGAY, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
MORINA, in botany, a genus of the diandria monogy-
nia clafs. The corolla is unequal; the calix of the
fruit confirts of one dentated leaf; the calix of the flow¬
er is bifid ; and there is but one feed under the flower-
calix. There is but one fpecies, a native ofPerfia.
MORINDA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The flowers are aggregate and mono-
petaious; the ftigma is bifid ; and the drupae are ag¬
gregate. There are three fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
MORINELLUS, in ornithology. SeeCHARADRius.
MORI SON A, a genus of the polyandria monogynia
clafs The corolla confirts of four petals, and the ca¬
lix of two fegments ; the berry is hard, and contains
one feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of A-
merica.
MORLAIX, a port-town of France, in the province of
Britany : W. long. 40, N. lat. 48° 37'.
MORMYLUS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
MORNING, the beginning of the day, the firrt appear¬
ance of light, or the time from midnight till noon.
MOROCCO, the capital of the kingdom of the fame
name in Africa: W. long. 90, N. lat. 320.
MOROCHTHUS, in natural hiftory, an indurated clay,,
called by us French chalk; ferving taylers and others
M O S (3
to mark with. The ancients efteemed it as an aftrin-
gent, prefcribing it in the colic, hsemorrhages and o-
ther fluxes.
MORPETH, a borough-town of Northumberland, four¬
teen miles north of Newcaftle, which fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
MORTALITY, or Bills of Mortality, properly
denote weekly lifts of the perfons who die in any place.
See Annuities.
Briff of MORTANCESTRY, in Scots law ; anciently
the ground of an atftion at the inftance of an heir, in
the fpecial cafe where he had been excluded from the
pofleffion of his anceftor’s eftate by the fuperior or o-
ther perfon pretending right.
MORTAR, a preparation of lime and fand mixed up
with water, which ferves as a cement, and is ufed by
mafons and bricklayers in building of walls of ftone
and brick.
Mortar-piece. See Gunnery.
' MORTGAGE, in law, a pledge or pawn of lands, te¬
nements, ebc. for money borrowed ; fo ca!led,rbecaufe
if the money is not paid at the day, the land'dies to
the debtor, and is forfeited to the creditor.
MORT1ER, an enfign of dignity, borne by the chan¬
cellor and grand prefidents of the parliament of France.
That borne by the chancellor, is a piece of cloth of
gold, edged and turned up with ermine; and that of
the firft prefident is a piece of black velvet edged with
a double row of gold lace, while that of the other
prefidents is only edged with a fingle row. This they
formerly carried on their heads, as they do ftill in grand
ceremonies, fuch as the entry of the king; but, or¬
dinarily, they carry them in the hand.
MORTISE, orMoRToisE, in carpentry, a kind
of joint, wherein a hole of a certain depth is made in
a piece of timber, which is to receive another piece
called a tenon.
MORTMAIN, in law, is the alienation of lands or te¬
nements to any religious houfe, corporation, or fra¬
ternity, and their fucceflbrs.
MORTUARY, in the ecclefiaftical law, is a gift left
by a man at his death to his parifti church, in recom-
pence of perfonal tithes omitted to be paid in his life¬
time: or it is that beaft, or other cattle, which, af¬
ter the death of the owner, by the cuftom of the place,
is due to the parfon or. vicar, in lieu of tithes or of¬
ferings forgot, or not well and truly paid by him that
is dead.
MORUS, in botany, a genus of the moncecia tetrandria
clafs. The calix of the male has four fegments ; it
has no corolla: The calix of the female confifts of four
leaves ; it has no corolla : the ftyli are two, and the
berry contains one feed. There are feven fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
MOSAIC, or Mosaic-work, an afliemblage of little
pieces ofglafs, marble, precious ftones, tec. of various
colours, cut fquare, and cemented on a ground of
flucco, in fuch a manner as to imitate the colours and
degradations of painting.
.Method of performing Mosaic-work of glafs is this :
o ) M O S
They provide little pieces of glafs, of as many different
colours and fizes as poffible.
Now, in order tojapply thefe feveral pieces, and out
of them to form a pidture, they in the ffrft place pro¬
cure a cartoon or defign to be drawn ; this is transfer¬
red to the ground or plafter by calking, as in painting
in frefco. Sec Fresco.
As this plafter is to be laid thick on the wall, and
therefore will continue frefti and foft a confiderable
time, fo that there may be enough prepared at once,
to ferve for as much work as will take up three or four
days.
This plafter is compofed of lime, made of hard ftone,
with brick duft very fine, gum tragacanth, and whites
of eggs : when this plafter has been thus prepared and
laid on the wall, and made the defign of what is to be
reprefented, they take out the little pieces of glafs with
a pair of plyers, and range them one after another, ftili
keeping ftrnftly to the light, ftiadow, different taints
and colours reprefented in the defign before ; prdfing
or flatting them down with a ruler, which ferves both
to fink them within the ground, and to render the fur-
face even.
Thus in a long time, and with a great deal of labour,
theyfinifti the work, which is ftill the more beautiful,
as the pieces' of glafs are more uniform, and ranged at
an even height.
Some of thefe pieces of mofaic-work are performed
with that exaftnefs, that they appear as fmooth as a
table of marble, and as (iniftied and mafterly as a paint¬
ing in frefco ; with this advantage, that they have a
fine luftre, and will laft ages
The fineft works of this kind that have remained till
our time, and thofe by whom the moderns have re¬
trieved the art, which was in a manner loft, are thofe
in the church of St Agres, formerly the temple of
Bacchus at Rome ; and lome at Pifa, Florence, and
other cities of Italy. The moft efteemed among the
works of the moderns are thofe of Jefeph Pine, and
the chevalier Lanfranc in the church of St Peter at
Rome : there are alfo very good ones at Venice.
Method of performing Mosaic-work of marble and
precious ftones is tins : The ground of mofaic-w-orks,
wholly marble, is ufually a maflive marble, either white
or black. On this ground the defign is cut with a
chiffel, after it has been firft calqued. After it has
been cut of a confiderable depth, /. e. an inch or more,
the cavities are filled up with marble of a proper colour,
firft faihioned according to the defign, and reduced to
the thicknefsof the indentures with various inftruments.
To make the pieces thus inferted into the indentures
cleave faft, whofe feveral colours are to imitate thofe
of the defign, they ufe a ftucco,. compofed of lime and
marble-duft ; or a kind of maftie, which is prepared by
each workman, after a different manner peculiar to
himfeif.
The figures being marked out, the painter or fculp-
tor himfeif draws with a pencil the colours of the
figures, not determined by the ground, and in the
fame manner makes ftrokes or hatchings in the place,
with
M O S
where fhadows are to be : and after he has engraven
with the chifftl all the ftrokes thus drawn, he fills them
up with a black m&ftic, compofed partly of burgundy-
pitch poured on hot; taking off afterwards what is
fuperfluous with a piece of foft ftone or brick, which,
together with water and beaten cement, takes away
the maftic, polithes the marble, and renders the whole
fo even that one would imagine it only confided of one
piece.
This is the kind of mofatc-work that is feen in the
pompous church of the invalids at Paris, and the fine
chaple at Verfailles, with which fome entire apartments
of that palace are iacruftated.
As for mofaic-work of precious ftones, other and
finer inftruments are required than thofe ufed in mar¬
ble ; as drills, wheels, <bc. ufed by lapidaries and en¬
gravers on done. As none but the riched marbles and
dones enter this work, to make them go the farther,
they are fawn into the thinned leaves im gmable, ica-ce
exceeding half a line in thicknefs ; the block to be
fawn is fadened firmly with cords on the bench, and
only raifed a little on a piece of wood, one or two
inches high. Two iron pins, which are on one fide the
block, and which ferve to faden it, are put into a vice
contrived for the purpofe; and with a kind of Taw or
bow, made of fine hrafs-wire, bent on a piece of fpongy
wood, together with emery deeped in water, the leaf
is gradually fafhioned by following the droke of the
defign, made on paper, and glued on the piece. When
there are pieces enough fadened to form an entire flower,
or fome other part of the dtfign, they are applied to
the ground.
The ground which fupports this mofaic-work is
sfually of free-done. The matter with which the dones
are joined together, is a madic, or kind of ducco,
laid very thin on the leaves as they are falhioned; and
this being done, the leaves are applied with plyers.
If any contour, or fide of a leaf, be not either
fquared or rounded fufficiently, fo as to fit the place
cxadliy, into which it is to be inferted, when it is too
large, it is to be brought down with a brafs file or rafp;
and if it be too little, it is managed with a drill and
other indruments ufed by lapidaries.
Mofaic-work of marble is ufed in large works, as in
pavements of churches, bafilics, and palaces ; and in
the incrudation and vaneering of the walls of the fame
edifices.
As for that of precious dones, it is only ufed in
fmall works, as ornaments for altar-pieces, tables for
rich cabinets, precious dones being fo very dear.
Manner of performing Mosaic work ofgypfum. Of
this done calcined in a kiln , and beaten in a mortar,
and lifted, the French workmen make a fort of arti¬
ficial marbles, imitating precious dones ; and of thefe
they compofe a kind of mofaic-work, which does hot
come far fliort either of the durablenefs or the viva¬
city of the natural dones ; and wicb befides has this
advantage, that it admiys of continued pieces or paint¬
ings of entire compartiments without any vifible joining.
Some make the ground of plader of I^aris, others of
Vox. HI. N°. 82. 2
M O C
free done. If it be of plader of Paris, they fpread it
in a wooden frame, of the length and breadth of the
work intended, and in thicknefs about an inch and a
half. This frame is fo contrived, that the tenons be¬
ing only joined to the mortifes by.ftngle pins, they
may be taken afunder, and the frame be difmounted,
when the plader is dry. The frame is covered on one
fide with a drong linen cloth, nailed all round, which
being placed horizontally with the linen at the bottom,
is filled with plafter palled through a wide fieve.
When the piader is half dry, the frame is fet up per¬
pendicularly, and left till it is quite, dry ; then it is ta¬
ken out, by taking the frame to pieces.
In this mofaic, the ground is the mod important part.
Now in order to the preparation of this lifted g-ypfum,
which is to be applied on this ground, it is dilfolved
and boiled in the bell Englifh glue, and mixed with
the colour that it is to be of; then the whole is work¬
ed up together into the ufual confidence of plader, and
then is taken and fpread on the ground five or fix
inches thick. If the work be fuch, as that mouldings
iye required, they are formed with gouges and other
indruments.
It is on this plader, thus coloured like marble or
precious done, and which is to ferve as a ground to a
work, either of lapis, agate, alabader, or the like,
that the defign to be reprefented is drawn ; having been
firft pounced or calqued. To hollow or imprtfs the
defign, they ufe the fame indruments that fculptors
do ; the ground whereon they are to work not being
much lefs hard than the marble itfelf. The cavities
being thus made in the ground, are filled with the fame
gypium boiled in glue, only differently coloured, and
thus are the different colours of the original repre¬
fented. In order that the neceffary colours and teints
may be ready at hand, the quantities of the gypfum
are tempered with the feveral colours in pots.
After the defign has been thus filled and rendered
vifible, by half-polifhing it with brick and foft done,
they go over it again, cutting fuch plates as are either
to be weaker or more (hadowed, and filling them with
gypfum; which work they repeat, till all the colours
being added one after the other, reprefent the origi¬
nal to the life.
When the work is finifhed, they fcour it with foft
done, fand, and water; after that, with a pumice-
done ; and in the lad place polifh it with a wooden
mullet and emery. Then, ladly, they give it a lu-
dre, by fmearing it over with oil, and rubbing it a
long time with the palm of the hand, which gives it
a ludre no ways inferior to that of natural marble.
MOSAMBIQUE, the capital of a province of the fame
name in Zanguebar, in Africa, fituated on an ifland
at the mouth of the river Mofambique : E. Ion. aoq.
S. lat. 15Q.
MOSCHUS, a genus of quadrupeds of the order of pe-
cora, having no horns ; the canine teeth of the upper
jaw are exerted. There are three (pccies, viz. 1, The
mofehiferus, or mi fk animal, has a bag or pellicle near
thejiavel, in which the perfume called nuilk is contained.
4 J Tkff
( 311 )
M O S ( 3
This creature, when full grown, is three feet in length,
fiom the tip of the nofe to the rump ; the head is ob¬
long, and the anterior part much like the greyhound ;
the ears are large and eredt, they refem'ole thofe of the
rabbit, and are equal in lengbh to the diameter of the
forehead; the tail is not more than two inches in
length, and the creature always carries it eredt; the
body is tolerably flefhy, and rounded ; the legs about
a foot in length, and very robufl; the feet deeply di¬
vided, each into two claws in the anterior part, and
as many heels behind. The fur on the head and that
on the legs is abou* half an inch long, that on the belly
is an inch and a half, and that which grows on the
back three inches; thefe hairs are thicker than in any
other known animal, and are variegated, from the
bafe to the‘extremity, with diftinft fpac<s of brown
and white. The veflel or bag in which the perfame
called mullc is contained, is three inches long and two
broad, and hangs under the belly, protuberating near
three quarters of an inch beyond the furface. It is a
native of Tartary.—2. The grimmiahas aprotuberant
belt upon its head, and is found in Africa. 3., ^he
pygmasus has feet narrower than a man’s finger, ft is
found in Afia and Guinea.
MOSCOW, the capital of the province of the fame
name in Mufcovy, fituated on the river Mofcowa,
360 miles fou;h-eaft of Peterfburg : E. long. 38°,N.
lat. ss04s'.
MOSCOWA, a river which rifes in the weft part of the
province of Mofcow, and falls into the river Ocka at
Kolomna.
MOSELLE, a river of Germany, which rifes in the
mountains of Vauge, in Lorrain, and, running thro’
that duchy and the electorate of Triers, falls into the
Rhine at Coblentz.
MOSKITO, a country of North America, fituated be¬
tween 85° and 88° of weft longitude, and between
130 and i5°of north latitude ; having the north fea
on the north and eaft, Nicaragua on the fouth, and
Honduras on the weft.
MOSPURG, or Mosburg, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Bavaria, fituated at the confluence of the rivers
Ifer and Amburg, thirty miles north-eaft of Munich.
MOSQUE, a temple, or place of religious worlhip, a-
mong the Mahometans.
All mofques are fquare buildings, generally built
with ftone. Before the chief gate there is a fquare
court, paved with white marble ; and low galleries
round it, whofe roof is fupported by marble pillars.
In thefe galleries the Turks wafh themfelves before
they go into the mofque. In each mofque there is a
great number of lamps; and between thefe hang
many cryftal rings, oftriches eggs, and other curiofi-
ties, which when the lamps are lighted make a fine
Ihew. As it is not lawful to enter the mofques with
ftioes or ftockings on, the pavements are covered with
pieces of.ftufF fewed together, each being wide enough
to .hold a row of men kneeling, fitting, or proftrate.
The women are not allowed to enter the mofque, but
ftay in the porches without. About every mofque
2 ) MOV
there are fix high towers, called minarets, each of
which has three little open galleries, one above ano¬
ther : thefe towers, as well as the mofques, are co¬
vered with lead, and adorned with gilding and other
ornaments ; and from thence, inftead of a bell, the
people are called to prayers by certain officers appointed
for that purpofe. Moft of the mofques have a kind of
hofpital belonging to them, in which travellers, of
what religion foever, are entertained during threedays.
Each molque has alfo a place called Tarbe, which is
the burying-place of its founders ; within which is a
tomb fix or feveri feet long, covered with green velvet
or fattin ; at the ends of which are two tapers, and
round it feveral feats for thofe who read the koran
and pray for the fouls of the deceafed. ,
MOSS, in botany. SeeMuscus.
Moss is alfo a name given to boggy grounds in many
parts of the kingdom. Thefe confift of a turfy furface,
below which is a black, moift, fpongy earth, which
being dug up with fpades fomewhat in the form of
bricks, and dried, is.what they call peats, ufedasfuel
in feveral parts; and the upper feurf, being cut and
dried, makes turfs, another coarfer fort of fuel,
MOSTRA, in the Italian mufic, a mark at the end of
a line or fpace, to ffiew that the firft note of the next
line is in that place: and if this note be accompanied
with a ffiarpor flat, it is proper to place thefe charac¬
ters along with themoftra.
MOTACILLA, in ornithology, a genus of birds, of
the order of the pafferes, diftinguiffied by a ftraight
beak, of a Tubulated figure, and a lacejrated tongue.
There are 49 fpecies belonging to this genus, moft of
which feed upon infetfts, and migrate from the north
to the fouthern countries in order to procure fubfi-
ftence in winter.
MOTE, inlaw-books, fignifies court or convention; as
a ward-mote, burgh-mote, fwain-mote, 'be.
MOTH, in zoology. See Phal/ena.
MOTHER, a term of relation, denoting a woman who
hath born a child.
MOTION, is defined to be the continued and fucceffive
change of place. See Mechanics.
MOTTO, in armoury, a ffiort fentence or phrafe carried
in a fcroll, generally under, but fometimes over the
arms; fometimes alluding to the bearing, fometimes to
the name of the bearer, and fometimes containing
whatever pleafes the fancy of the devifer.
MOVEABLE, in general, denotes any thing capable of
being moved.
Moveable Subjeft, in Scots law, anything that moves
itfelf, or can be moved ; in contradiftindlion to im¬
moveable or heretable fubjedls, as lands, houfes, be.
See Law, Tit. ix. 2.
MOVEMENT, in mechanics, a machine that is moved
by clock-work. See Watch.
Perpetual Movement. Some have attempted to find
a perpetual movement, but withsut fuccefs; and there
is reafon to think, from the principles of mechanics,
that fuch a movement is impoffible : for though in ma¬
ny cafes of bodies afling upon one another, there is a
gam
m o u (a
gain of abfolute motion ; yet the gain is always equal
in oppofite dire&ions, fo that the quantity of chred
motion is never increafed.
To make a perpetual movement it appears neceflary,
that a certain fyftem of bodies, of a determined num¬
ber and quantity, fliould move in a certain fpace for
ever, and in a certain way and manner: and for this
there mufl^ be a feries of aftions returning in a circle,
otherwife the movement will not be perpetual; -fo that
any aftion by which the abfolute quantity of force is
increafed, of which there are feveral forts, muff have
its correfponding counter-a&isn, by which the gain of
force is deftroyed, and the quantity of force reltoted
to its firft date.
Thus, by thefe adlions, there will never be any gain
of direct force, to overcome the fridtion and the re-
liltance of the medium ; fo that every motion being di-
minilhed by thefe refiftances, they mutt at length lan¬
guid! and ceafe.
MOULD, or Mold, in the mechanic arts, a ca¬
vity cut with a deltgn to give its form or impreffion to
fome fofter matter applied therein, of great ufe in
fculpture, foundery, <&c.
Mould, in agriculture, a loofe kind of earth, every
where obvious on the furface of the ground, called al-
fo natural or mother earth ; by fome alfo loam,
MOULDINESS, a terra applied to bodies which cor¬
rupt in the air, from fome hidden principle of humi¬
dity therein; and whofe corruption diews itfdf by a
certain white down, or lanugo, on their furface, which,
viewed through a microfcope, appears like a kind of
meadow, out of which arife herbs and flowers, fome
only in the bud, others full blown, and others de¬
cayed, each having its root, ftalk, and other parts.
MOULDING, any thing caft in a mould, or that feetos
to have been fo, though in re^Jity it were cut with a
chiflel, or the ax.
Mouldings, in architefture, projeittures beyond the
naked wall, column, wainfcot, Sc. the alfemblage of
which forms corniches, door-cafes, and other decora¬
tions of architefture. See architecture.
MOULINET, is ufed, in mechanics, to fignify a roller,
which being citofled with two levers, is ufually applied
to cranes, capftans; and other forts of engines of the
like nature, to draw ropes, and heave up ttones. Sc.
Moulinet is alfo a kind of turnttiie, or wooden crofs,
which turns horizontally upon a ftake fixed in the
ground ; ufually placed in palTages to keep out horfes,
and to oblige paffengers to go and come one by one.
Thefe moulmets are often fet near the outworks of
fortified places af the fides of the barriers, through
which people pafs on foot.
MOUND, a term ufed for a bank or rampart, or other
fence, particularly that of earth
Mound, in heraldry, a ball or globe with a crofs upon
it, fuch as our kings are ufualiy drawn with, hold¬
ing it in their left hand, as they do the fceptre in the
right.
MOUNT, an elevation of earth, called alfo mountain.
See Mountain.
Mount St Michael, a borough-town of Cornwal,
[3 ) M U F
fituated on a bay of the Englifli channel, called Mountf-
' kay> • eighteen miles well: of Falmouth.
It fends two members to parliament.
Mount-sorrel, ama^ket towSof Leicerftelhire, feven
miles north of Leicetter.
Mount p/"Piety, certain funds or eftablifliments inJtaly,
where money is lent out, on fome fmall fecurity. We
had alfo mounts of piety in England, raifed by contri¬
bution for the benefit of people ruined by the extorti¬
ons of the Jews.
MOUNTAIN, a part of the earth, riGng to a confider-
able height above the level of the furface thereof.
MOUSE, in zoology. See Mus.
Mouse-ear, in botany. See Hierach ium.
Mouse-tail. See Myosurus.
ZW-Mouse. See Sorex.
■SVrf-MousE. See Aphrodita.
MOUSEL, or Mosul, a city of Afiatic Turky, in the
province of Diarbec, or Mefopotamia, fituated on the
river Tigris, oppofite the place where Nineveh flood ;
E. long. 430, andN. lat. 36°.
MQUTH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 299.
Mouth is ufed in the courts of princes, for what relates
to their eating and drinking : Hence officers of the
mouth, yeomen of the mouth.
MSCYSLAW, the capital of the palatinate of Mfcyflaw
in Poland, fituated on the frontiers of Mufoovy,: E,.
long. 310 30', and N. Jat. 540 34',
MUCILAGE, in pharmacy, is in general any vifcid and
glutinous liquor.
Mucilage alfo imports the liquor which principally
ferves to moiften the ligaments and cartilages of the
articulations ; and is fupplied by the mucilaginous
glands.
MUCOR, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fungi
clafs. I,t confitts of fmall bladders, containing nume¬
rous feeds. There are twelve fpecies, feven of them
natives of Britain.
MUCRO coRfiis, in anatomy, the lower or pointed end
of the heart.
MUCUS, a mucilaginous liquor feparated by the mucous
glands and the nottrils. See Anatomy.
MUER, a town of Germany, in the circle of Auttria, and
duchy of Stiria, fituated on the river Muer, twenty-
five miles north weft of Gruz.
MUFFLE, in Chemittry. See Chemistry, p. 109.
MUFTI, the chief of the ecclefiattical order, or primate
of the muffelman religion. The authority of the mufti
is very great in the Ottoman empire ; for even the ful-
tan himfelr, if he would preferve any appearance of
religion, cannot, without hearing his opinion, put any
pei fon to death, or fo much as infli<5t ?ny corporal pu-
nilhment. In all affions, efpecially criminal ones, his
opinion is required, by giving him a writing, in which,
the cafe is ftated, under feigtled names; which he
fubfcribes with the wor4s, Hajhall, or /hall ret be
punijhed. Such outward honour is paid to the muf¬
ti, that the grand feignior himfelf rifes up to him,
and advances feven fteps to meet him, when he comes
into his prefence. Fie alone has the honour of kitting
the fultan’s left fhouider,'whilft the prime vizierkiffes
M U L (
only the hem of his garment. When the grand feignior
addrefles any writing to the mufti, he gives him the
following titles, ‘'To the efad, thewifeilof the wife,
inftrufted in all knowtedge, the mod excellent of ex-
cellents, abftaining from things unlawful, thj fpring
of virtue and true fcience, heir of the prophetic doc¬
trines, reiolver of the problems of faith, revealer of
the orthodox articles, 4cey of the treafures of truth,
the ligh t to the doubtful allegories, ftrengthened with
the grace of the fopreme legiflator of mankind, may
the mod high God perpetuate thy virtues.” The elec¬
tion of the mufti is folely in the grand feignior, who
prefents him with a ved of rich fables, &c. If he is
convi&ed of treafon, or any great crime, he is put into
a mortar, kept for that purpofe in the Seven Towers
at Condantinople, and pounded to death.
MUGGLETONIANS, a religious fedt which arofe in
England, about the year 1657 ; fo denominated from
their leader Lodowick Muggleton, a journeyman tay-
lor, who, with his aflbciate Reeves, fet up for great
prophets, pretending, as it isfaid, to have an abfolute
power of faving and damning whom they pleafed;
and giving out that they were the two lad witneifes
of God that diould appear beforethe endofthe wprld.
jMUGIL, in itchthyology, a genus of fifttes belonging to
the order of abdominales. The lips are membranace¬
ous, the inferior one being carinated inwards; they
have no teeth ; the brapchiodege membrane has feven
crooked rays ; the opercula are fmooth and round; and
the body is of a whitilh colour. There are two fpecies
didinguifhed by the number of rays in the back tin.
MUG-WORT, in botany. See Artemisia.
MUID, a large meafure, in ufe among the French, for
things dry. The muid is no real veflel nfed as a mea¬
fure, but an edimation of feveral other meafures, as
the feptier, mine, roinot, buthel, &c,
Mjuid, is alfo one of the nine cades, or regular veflels
ufedin France, to put wine and other liquors in. The
muid of wine is divided into two demi-muids, four
quarter-muids, and eight half-quarter-muids, contain¬
ing 36 feptiers.
MULL, one of the wedern iflands of Scotland, being
part of the thire of Argyle, and lying to the wedward
of it: this ifland is twenty-four miles long, and in fotne
places as many broad.
Mull of Cant ire, the fouth cape or promontory of the
county of Cantire orJMul, in the frith of Clyde, on the
wed of Scotland.
Mull of Galloway, the fouth cape or promontory of
all Scotland, in the county of Galloway, on the Irifh
fea.
MULATTO, a name given in the Indies to thofe who
are begotten by a negro man on an Indian woman, or
an Indian man on a negro woman.
MULBERRY, in botany. SeeMoRus.
MULCT, a line of money laid upon a man who has
committed fotne fault or mifdemeanor.
MULDAW", a of Bohemia, that arifes on the con¬
fines of Audria, and running north, through Bohemia,
unites with the Elbe at Mtlnick.
MULE, in zoology, a mongrel kind of quadruped, ufu-
314 ) M U M
. ally generated between an afs and a mare, and fome-
times between a horfe and a fhe-afs.
MULLERAS, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Brandenburg, fitu-
ated thirty-eight miles fouth-ead of Berlin.
MULLET, in ichthyology. See Mug in.
Mullet, or Mollet, in heraldry, a bearing inform
of a flaf, or rather of the rowel of a fpur, which it o-
., riginally reprefented.
The mullet has but five points ; when there are fix
it is called a dar ; though others make this difference,
that the mullet is, or ought to be, always pierced, which
a dar is not. See plate CVI. The mullet is ufually
the difference ordidinguifhing mark for the fourth fon,
or third brother, or houfe; though it is often borne
alone, as coat armour.
MULSUM, a liquor made of wine and honey, or even
of wine and water.
MULTAN, or Moutan, a city of hither India in Alia,
capital of the province of Multan, fituated on the river
Indus. E. long. 720 15', N. lat. 300.’
MULTIPLE, in arithmetic, a number which compre¬
hends feme other feveral times, thus 6 is a multiple of
2, and 12 is a multiple of 6, 4, and 3, comprehending
the fird twice, the fecond thrice, <bc.
Aftion of Mult 1 plepotnd 1 ng, in Scots law. See
Law, Tit. xxx. 24.
MULTIPLICAND, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic,
P- 371-
MULTIPLICATION, in general, the aft of increafmg
the number of any thing.
Multiplication in arithmetic, is a rule by which any
given number may be fpeedily increafed, according to
any propofed number of times. See Arithmetic,
P- 371-
Multiplication, in algebra. See Algebra, p.
81.
MULTIPLICATOR, or Multiplier, in arithmetic.
See Arithmetic, p. 371.
MULTIPLYING glass, in optics, one wherein objedts
appear increafed in number. See Optics.
MULTURE, in Scots law, the quantity of grain paid
to the proprietor or tackfman of a mill for grinding.
See Law, Tit. xvi. 12.
MULVIA, a river of Barbary, in Africa, which rifes in
the mountains of Atlas, and divides the empire of Mo¬
rocco from the kingdom of Algiers, and then falls in¬
to the Mediterranean, weft of Marfalquiver.
MUM, a kind of malt-liquor, much drank in Germany ;
and chiefly brought from Brunfwick, which is the
place of moft note for making it. The procefs of brew¬
ing mum, as recorded in the town-houfe of that city,
is as follows: Take fixty-three gallons of water that
has been boiled till one third part is confumed, and
brew it with feven bufliels of wheaten malt, onebufhel
of oat-meal, and one bufliel of ground beans ; when it
is tunned, the hoglhead mud not be filled too full at
fird: as foo'n as it begins to work, put into it three pounds
of the inner rind of fir, one pound of the tops of fir
and beech, three handfuls of cardbus benedittus, a
handful or two of the flower of rofa fobs; add burner,
betony,
.MUM ( 315 )
betony, marjoram, avens, penny royal, and wild thyme, a little aloes, and tw^
of each a handful and a half; of eldei-flowers, two fend them to be baked hj.
handfuls or more ; feeds of cardamom bruifed, thirty
ounces; barberries btuifed, one ounce ; when the li¬
quor has worked a while, put the herbs and feeds into
the vdTel; and, after they are added, let it work over
as little as pcffible; then fill it up: laftly, when it is
. flopped, put into the hogfhead ten new-laid eggs un¬
broken; flop itup olofe, and drink it at two years end.
Our Engiifh brewers, inilead of the inner rind of fir,
vife cardamum, ginger, and faflafras ; and alfo add ele¬
campane, madder, and red landers. Mum, on being
imported, pays for every barrel 1 1. 58.
MUMMY, a body embalmed or dried, in the manner
ufed by tfte ancient Egyptians; or the compofition with
which it is embalmed. There are two kinds of bodies
denominated mummies : the firft are only carcafes
dried by the heat of the fun, and by that means kept
from putrefaction: Thefe are frequently found in the
fands of Lybia. Some imagine, that thefe are the
bodies of deceafed people buried there on purpofe to
keep them entire without embalming; others think they
are the carcafesof travellers, who have been overwhelm¬
ed by the clouds of fand raifed by the hurricanes fre¬
quent in thofe defarts. The fecocd kind of mummies
are bodies taken out of the catacombs near Cairo, in
w hich the Egyptians depofited'their dead after embalm¬
ing.
We have two different fubftances preferved for me¬
dicinal ufe under the name of mummy, though both
inffome degree of the fame origin. The one is the
dried and preferved flefh of human bodies, embalmed
with myrrh and fpices ; the other is the liquor running
from fuch mummies, whea newly prepared, or when
affefted by great heat or damps. The latter is fome-
times in a liquid, fometimes of a folid form, as it is
preferved in vials well Hopped, or fuffered to dry and
harden in the air. The firft kind of mummy is brought
to us in large pieces, of a lax and friable texture, light
and fpungy, of a blackifh brown colour, and often
damp and clammy on the furface : it is of a ftrong but
difagreeable fmell. The fecondkindof mummy, in its
liquid ftate, is a thick, opake, and vifcous fluid, of a
blackilh colour, but not difagreeable fmell. In its indu¬
rated ftate, it is a dry folid fubftance, of a fine Ihining
black colour, and clofe texture, eafiiy broken, and of
a good fmell; very inflammable, and yielding a fcent
of myrrh and aromatic ingredients while burning.
This, if we cannot be content without medicines from
our own bodies, ought to be the mummy ufed in the
fho^s; but it is very fcarce and dear ; while the other
Is fo cheap, that it will always be mo ft in ufe.
All thefe kinds of mummy are brought from Egypt.
But we are not to imagine, that any body breaks up
the real Egyptian mummies, to fell them in pieces to
the druggifts, as they may make a much better market
of them in Europe whole, when they can contrive to
get them. What our druggifts are fupplied with, is
the flefh of. executed criminals, or of any other bodies
the Jews can get, who fill them with the common bitu-
men fo plentiful in that part of the w'orld ; and adding
Vol. III. 82. 2
. exhaled, and the emj^lroing'nW 
thoroughly that the fldh will keep and bear trarfrpBrt-
. ing into Europe. Mummy has been efteemed refolvent
and balfamic : but whatever virtues have been attribu¬
ted to it, feem to be fuch as depend more upon the in¬
gredients ufed in preparing tile fiefh, than in the fldli
itfelf; and it would furely be better to give thofe in¬
gredients without fo fhocking an addition.
Mummy, among gardeners, a kind of wax ufed in graft¬
ing and planting the roots of trees, made in the follow¬
ing manner : Take one pound of black pitch, and a
quarter of a pound of turpentine ; put them together
into an earthen pot, and fet them on fire in the open
air, holding fomething in your hand to cover and
' quench the mixture in time, which is to be alternately
lighted and quenched till all the nitrous and volatile
parts be evaporated. To this a little common wax is
to be added ; and the compofition is then to be fet by
for ufe.
MUNGATS, orMuNKATS, a town of upper Hungary:
E. long. 220, N. lat. 4?0 30'.
MUNICH, a large and elegant city, the capital of the
eleftorate and dutchy of Bavaria fituated on the river
Ifer : E. long. 11° 32', N. lat. 48° 5.
MUNICIPAL, in the Roman civil law, an epithet which
fignifies inveffed with the rights and privileges of Roman '
citizens. Thus the municipal cities were thofe whofe
inhabitants were capable of enjoying civil offices in the
city of Rome : Thefe cities, however, according to
Mariana, had fewer privileges than the colonies: They
had no fuffrages or vdtes at Rome; but were left to
b«. governed by their own laws and magiftrates. Some
- fe, v municipal cities, however, obtained the liberty of
votes.
Municipal, among us, is applied to the laws that
obtain in any particular city or province. And thofe
are called municipal officers who are defied to defend
the intereft of cities, to maintain their rights and pri¬
vileges, and to preferve order and harmony among the
citizens ; fuch as mayors, ffierffs, confuls, <6c.
MUNITION, the provifions with which a place is fur-
niffied in order for defence; or that which follows a
camp for its fubfiftence.
MUNSTER, the capital of the bifhoprick of the fame
name, and of the circle of Weftphaha, fituated on the
river Aa : E. long 70 10’, N. lat. 520. ‘
Munster, is alfo a town of Germany, in the Landgra-
viate of Alfatia, fubjeft to France: E. long. 70 d,
' N. lat. 48° 8'.
Munster meinfelt, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the lower Rhine, and eleflorate of Triers : E. Jong
70, N. lat. 50° 15'. 6
MUNSTERBERG, the capital of the duchy of the
fame name in Silcfia : E. long. 160, N lat. 50° 35',
MUNTINGIA, in botany, a genu? of the polyandria
monogynia claf*. The calix confifts of five fegments,
and the corolla of five petals ; and th» berry has one
cell containing many feeds. There is but one fpecies,
a native of America.
4 K
MURjENA,
(
/logy, a genus of fillies
^ues. The head is fmooth;
. life'membrane of the gills; the
are covered with a common (kin ; and the body
is cylindrical, and flimy. There are feven fpecies,
diftinguilhed by their fins, tail, ire.
MURCIA, the capital of the province of the fame name
in Spain : W. long. i° 12, N. lat. 38° 6'.
MURDER, orMuRTHER, in law, is the wilful and
felonious killing a perfon from premeditated malice ;
provided the party wounded, or otherwife hurt, die
within a year and a day after the fa<5t was committed.
See Law, Tit, xxxiii.
Murderers, or Murdering-pieces, in a Ihip, are
fmall pieces of ordnance, either of brafs or iron, which
have chambers, put in at their breeches. They are
ufed at thfe bulk-heads of the fore callle, half-deck, or
fteerage, in order to clear the deck, on the Ihip’s being
boarded by an enemy.
MURENGERS, two officers of great antiquity in the
city of Chelter, annually chofen out of the aldermen,
to fee that the walls are kept in repair, and to receive
a certain toll and cuftom for the maintenance thereof.
MUREX, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging to the
order of vermes tellacea. This animal is of the Inail
kind ; the ffiell confifts of one fpiral valve, rough with
membranaceous furrows ; and the aperture terminates
in an entire canal either ftreight or fomewhat afeend-
ing. There are 60 fpecies, particularly diltinguilhed
by peculiarities in their ffiells,
MURIA, alimentary salt. See Salt.
MURO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
fixty miles fouth-eaft of the city of Naples.
MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious difeafe among
cattle.
The fymptoms of this difeafe are a hanging down
and fwelling of the head, abundance of gum in the eyes,
rattling in the throat, affiort breath, palpitation at the
heart, daggering, a hot breath, and a ffiining tongue.
In order to prevent this difeafe, the cattle ffiould
Hand cool in fummer, have plenty of good water; all
carrionjhould be fpeedily buried; and as the feeding
of cattle in wet places, on rotten grafs and hay, often
occafions this dileafe, dry and fweet fodder ffiould be
given them.
MURRAY, a county of Scotland, bounded'by the German
Sea, on the north ; by Banff, on the eaft; by Mar and
Badenoch, on the fouth ; and by Invernefs, on the weft.
MURREY, in heraldry, a kind of purple colour. See
Sanguine.
MUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds, belonging to
the order of glires ; the generic charafter of which is,
that the fore-teeth of the lower jaws are fubulated.
There are ax fpecies. 1. The porcellus, or guiney-
pig, has no tail; there are four toes on the fore feet,
and three on the hind ones. This animal makes a
grunting noife, is very reftlefs, and ftamps with its
hind-feet when teazed. It loves heat, and feeds up¬
on various vegetables. The female has two dugs.
The colour is very various. It is a native of Brafil.
2. The agati has a fliort tail, four toes on the fore-
316 ) MUS
feet, three on the hind ones, and a yellowiffi belly*
It is a native of Brafil, Surinam, and Guinea. 3*
The leporinUs has the fame characters with the former#
only the belly is white. It is found in Java and Su¬
matra. 4. The citellus has a ffiort tail, an affi-co-
loured body, and no ears. It is found in Bohemia,
ire. belowground. j.Thelemmus, has a ffiort tail,
five toes on both fore and hind-feet, and the body is
variegated with green and yellow. They are found in
the Lapland mountains under little hillocks, and feed
folely on vegetables% 6. The paca, has a ffiort tail,
five toes on each foot, and there are three ycllowiffi
lines on each fide. It is a native of Brafil. 7. The
marmota has a ffiort hairy tail, round ears, and gib¬
bous cheeks. It digs deep holes in the earth with a-
mazing quicknefs ; fleeps profoundly during the win¬
ter; lifts its food to its mouth with the fore-feet; of¬
ten fits erefl; it is eafily tamed, and is found in Swit¬
zerland. 8. The monax has a hairy tail, an affi co¬
loured body, roundiffiears, and four toes on the fore
feet and five on the hind ones. It is a native of Ame¬
rica. (?. The cricetus has a tail of a moderate length,
round ears, abLck belly, and reddiffifides, with three
white fpots. This animal digs deep caverns in the
earth, divided into many different cells, in-which it-
depofites and preferves large quantities-of fruits and
grains. The female brings forth fix young ones twice
in the year, each of which lives in a leparate cel).
They are hunted for food, for their fkins, and even
for the quantity of grain found in their cells. It is a
native of Germany. 10. The terreftris has a hairy
tail, with four toes on the fore feet, and five on the
hind ones, and ears ffiorter than the hair. This ani¬
mal, which is about half the fize of a rat, digs in the
gardens like a mole, and eats the bark off the roots of
trees, ire. It fwims in ditches, and devours young
ducks in the ponds. It is a native of Europe. 11.
The amphibious has a long hairy, tail, with palmated
feet. It digs in the banks of ditches and under Ahe
roots of trees, and feeds upon vegetables. It is found
both in Europe and Africa, 12. The rattus, or rat,
has a long naked tail, four toes on the fore-feet, and
five on the hind ones, and a claw on the large toe.
This animal infefts the houfes every where throt-gh
Europe, and is devoured by cats and •other animals
of the fame clafs. It is reported by feveral authors,
that rats were originally tranfported from America in
a ffiip belonging to Antwerp, ■ 13 . The mufculus, or
common moufe, has a long naked tail, four toes on
the fore-feet and five on the hind ones, but has no
claw on the large toe. This animal is a native of
Europe, feeds upon grain and fLffi of all kinds. . ’ ;
The avellanarius has a long hairy tail, a reddiffi bo¬
dy, a white throat, and the hind toes have no claws.
It frequents the woods of Europe, feeds upon nuts,
•which it lays up in the earth, and fleeps during win¬
ter. 15. The quercinus has a long hairy tail, with a
black ring under the eyes. It is a native of the.fouth
of Europe. 16. The gregarius has a tail about one
third of the length of its body, and fomewhat hairy ;
the body is of a greyiffi-colour, ancUhe legs are white.
YUir CX1V
r A (f . ,9. Mu s Agxtti
Mvs Ax'ei^lo^artus
 V
' / Mrs Marmotta
//'//// ////>/m, .
Plate CXVT
- v. Mils TELA Lptra
Plate CXVI
2. Mus TI>PA FITft o oferret.
' Sty. /■ Mu S T FLA P U T OUHTS /?/’ > A/ewt.
' c/ c A f 4c
M U S (31
It is a native of Germany. 17. The fylvaticus has a
tail of a middling length, four toes on the fore feet,
and five on the hind ones; the body is grey, inter-
fperfed with black hairs, and the belly is white. It
is found in the gardens and woods of Europe. j8.
The ftriatus has four toes on the fore-feet, and five
on the hind ones; it has longitudinal (freaks on the
body, with white fpots. It is a native of India. 19.
The longipes has a long covered tail, four toes on the
fore feet, five on the hind ones, and very long thighs.
It is found in the torrid zone. 20. The jaculus has
a long fleecy tail, with very long thighs, and fhort
fore-legs. It walks on its hind-feet qnly, and has a
' jumping motion. It is found in Arabia, Egypt, &e.
2 i. The volans has a long hairy tail, four toes on the
fore feet and five on the hind ones, and the (kin from
the ears to the tail is extended like wings, by which
it is enabled to fly. It is a native of Virginia and
Mexico,
MU^A, the PLAiNTAiN-TREE, in botany, a genus of
the polygamia monascia clafs. The calix is a fpatha:
the corolla Oonfilts of two petals ; one of them (fraight
and teethed ; and the other is concave, fhort, and
furnifh^d with a nedtarium. It has fix filaments, and
one flylus. There are four fpecies, all natives of
the Indies,
MUSCA, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to
the order of diptera. The mouth is furnirttpd with a
flefliy probofcis, and two lateral lips ; it has no pappi.
There are 129 fpecies, principally diilinguifhed by pe¬
culiarities in their feelers.
MUSCADINE, a rich kind of wine, of the growth of
Provence and Languedoc, in France.
MUSCLE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 192.
Muscle, in natural hiftory. See Mytulus.
MUSEUM, a name which originally fignified a part of
the palace of Alexandria, which took up at lead one
fourth of that city. This quarter was called the Mu-
feum, from its being fet apart for the mufes and the
ftudy of the fciences. Here were lodged and enter
tained the men of learning ; who were divided into
many companies or colleges, according to the fciences
of which they were the profeflbrs; and to each of
thefe houfes or colleges was allotted a handfome reve¬
nue. The foundation of this eftabliftiment is attribu¬
ted to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his li¬
brary. Hence the word Mufeum is now applied to any
place fet apart as a repofitory for things that have an
immediate relation to the arts.
The Mufeum at Oxford, called the Afhmolean Mu¬
feum, is a noble pil<? of building, erefted at the ex-
jtence of the univerfity, at the weft end of the theatre,
) M U S
at which fide it has a magnhlcent portal, fuftained by,
pillars of the Corinthian order. The front, which is
to the ftreet, extends about fixty feet, where there is
this infcription over the entrance, in gilt characters,
Mufeum AJhmoleanum, fcbola naturulis hijior'ue, oflU
cina chymica.
It was begun in 1679, an<^ In 1683. when
a valuable colle<ftion of curiofities was prefented to the
univerfity by Elias Alhmole, Efq. which were the fame
day repofited there. And feveral acceffions have been
fince made to the Mufeum ; among which are hie¬
roglyphics and other Egyptian antiquities, an entire
mummy, Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps,
<bc. and a variety of natural curiofities.
The Britifti Mufeum in London is a large, beautiful,
and magnificent building, and the nobleft cabinet of
curiofities in the world. This edifice was ereCted in
1677, and was called Montague-houfe, from having
been the town refidence of the dukes of Montague.
In the year 1753, the Britifti parliament having paflecf
an aft for purchafing the Mufeum of the late Sir Hans
Sloan, and the collection of manufcripts of the late lord
Oxford, called the Harleian Library, for the ufe of
the public ; 2 6truftees w’ere appointed and incorpora¬
ted, to provide a repoptory for thofe and fome other
collections, which repofitory was to be called the Bri-
ti(h Mufeum. Thefe truftees elected fifteen other tru-
ftees ; and having bought Montague-houfe, fitted it up
for the reception of thefe collections : they alfo ap¬
pointed officers to fuperintend the mufeum; and having
ordained certain ftatutes with refpeft to viewing the
collection contained in it, the public were admitted to,
view it in 1757.
MUSES, certain fabulous divinities amongft the pagans,
fuppofed to prefide over the arts and fciences: for
this reafon it is ufual for the poets, at the beginning of
a poem, to invoke thefe goddefles to their aid. Some
reckon the mufes to be no more than three, viz.
Mneme, Aoede, and Melete; that is, memory, fing-
ing, and meditation: but the moft ancient authors,
and particularly Homer and Hefiod, reckon nine ; viz.
Clio, which means glory; Euterpe, pleafing; Thalia,
flourifhing ; Melpomene, attracting ; Terpfichore, re¬
joicing the heart ; Erato, the amiable; Polyhymnia,
a multitude of fongs ; Urania, the heavenly ; and Cal¬
liope, fweetnefs of voice. To Clio, they attributed
the invention of hiftory ; to Melpomene, tragedy ; to
Thalia, comedy; to Euterpe, the ufe of the flute;
to Terpfichore, the harp; and to Erato, the lyre and
lute; to Calliope, heroic verfe ; to Urania, aftrolo^
gy ; and to Polyhymnia, rhetoric.
MUSHROOM, in botany. See Fungus.
M U S I C K.
MUSICK is one of the feven fciences commonly quantity or number, but not confidering it in the abftraft-
called liberal; and is comprehended alfo among like aritfimetick, but in relation to time and found, in 01-
the mathematical, as having for its object difcrete der to make a delightful harmony : Or it is the art of
difpofing.
3i8 M IT S
difpofing and conducing founds confidered as acute and
grave ; and proportioning them among themfelves, and
ieparating them by juft intervals pleafing to the fenfe.
MrMalcome defines it a fciencethat teaches how found,
under certaim meafures of time, and tune, may be produ-
I C K.
ced ; and fo ordered and difpoled, as either in confonance
(/. e. joint founding,) or fucceflion, or both, they may
raife agreeable fenfations.
From this definition, the fcience naturally divides
into two general parts, viz. theoretical and practical.
PART I. The THEORY of MUSICK.
Chap. I. Of MU SIC AL SOU ND S.
AXiom I. The ear is the foie judge of found. E-
very found is not a mufical found. For to this
two things are required : firrt, That the found pleafe the
ear ; fecondly, That it be within a certain compafs. A
mufical found is clear, uninterrupted, and uniform; and
ought not to exceed the power of the ear to judge of it.
For founds, very deep or very high, are not eafily
cliftingniftied, but^by an ear very ccnverfant in mufrck.
Sound being a fimplc idea, cannot be defined but by an
imperfeA defcription of its caufe ; which is an undulato-
ry motion of the air, communicated by the vibration of
- the parts of bodies to the organ of hearing.
The diverfiti.es of founds, and their proportions, are
. perfectly difcerned by the ear, are the objedt of the
theory of mufick, the grounds and principles of the prac¬
tice, as well as the caufes of pleafure in the fenfe and
imagination.
Thefe divetfities of founds are expreffed by the terms
high and low, acute and grave, or fltarp andflate. Flence,
flrom any given found, we can conceive a fuccefHon of
them ; wherein the laft in order is more acute than the
foregoing; and this feries is called notes afcending.
Or, on the contrary, when, in a fuccelfion of founds,
the laft in order is more grave than the former; this fe¬
ries is called notes defeending.
Axiom II. From this order of notes afcending and
defeending ire deduced all the proportions of founds .; the
properties of the fame proportions ; and the relations
which arife out of their various combinations and fuccef-
fions. Thefe include the whole bufinefs of harmony and
melqdy ; and the knowledge of them is the ground work
or bafis of the fcience of mufick.
Corollary I Hence nothing can be admitted in
mufical compofition which'doth not immediately depend
on the foregoing axiom, and which cannot be demon-
flrated from it.
This feries, though it may be repeated at pleafure,
muft ftill come under the reftriiftion above mentioned;
which is, that it muft not exceed the power of the ear to
judge of it. The greateft compafs of ..the human voice
will fcarcely reach above two oftaves, or fifteen notes.
Inftruments are framed with more, to anfwer the moft
interefting purpofe of mufick, which is variety.
The feven founds in mufic are named from the firft fe-
ven letters of the alphabet, viz. A,B,C,D,E,F,G.
The diftance between any two of thofe, whether im¬
mediate or remote, is called an interval. And everyin-
terval is named from the natural numbers; beginning at
unity.
In naming of an interval, it is alway underftood of the
afcending notes ; and both terms are inclufive. Thus AB
is called a 2d, AE a jth, BE a 4th, EG a 3d, AA an
8th or o&ave ; and fo of the reft.
We proceed now to lay down an exaft defcription of all
the intervals in aiufic. For from the knowledge of thefe
are difeovered all the proportions which conftitute har¬
mony ; and upon which the whole fuperftrudture of mufick
is raifed,
Firft, of the intervals of founds lying in their natural
order. Of thefe there are feven intervals, named either
the greater {one, the lefler tone, and the half-tone or
femitone. See the Mufick Plates, N°. 1,2.
Interval of a
£ g £ g g g w
•iS. 5 3_ 5 tS*. 3.
Interval of a
f. $
Se&. 2. Of the Diversity ef Sounds. jn ^ per;es 0fg notes are’eontained 5 whole tones ;
The diverfity of founds fucceeding in the natural or- three greater, and two lefler ; and 2 feciito-nes. Redu-
Aeris not hovvevfir extended through any number of founds cing them therefore to the loweft denomination, they will
which may be expreff d by a mufical inftrument, or even be found to contain 12 half-tones ; and inclufively 13.
by the human voice. For univerfal experience, conduced Every octave then contains 13 halftones 5 out of the va-
by the judgment of the ear. hath demenftran d and af- rious combinations of which arife the feveral concords and
certained the number feveuvo comprehend all the variety difeords, as will be !hewn in its proper place. The lef-
that mufick is capable of. affording. Therefore, the fer tones are fclike divided into half tones, as are the
number eight is the bound or limit of the materials of greater. We fliall therefore, for brevity fake, hereafter
muf al cornpofiiioa ; and this eighth note or found is ufe the diftinAion only of whole tones and^ half tones: the.
called an o dive. reafon for which fliall be alligned below.
This oftave may be conceived as unity, or the firft From the inequajity indhe order of thefe intervals we
aote of another feries afcending or defeending, ' draw the following corollary.
M
U
Con. II. Harmonica! proportion is of a fpecies diffe¬
rent from ali other proportions, and can be demonftra-
ted only from principles peculiar to itfelf. This will be
fcen when we-come to (hew the method of dividing aline
harmonically; as well as from the proportion hated in
numbers.
The firft of the notes in the examples above is called
the key-note, or key. Notwithftandiqg the intervals may
be reckoned from any given note ; yet it will anfwer our
purpofe better to begin with the key.
In the firft example,
The firft interval, or diftance between the key and
fecond, contains 2
Between the 2d and 3d 2
3d and 4th 1
2 Semitones.
5th and 6th 2
'6th and 7th 2
7th and 8th 1
In the fecond example,
The fiift interval, or diftance between the key and fe¬
cond, contains 2 femitones.
Between the 2d and 3d 1
3d and 4th 2
4t5 an^ f £ 2 Semitones,
jth and 6th 1
6th and 7th 2
7th and 8th 2
From this comparifon of the two feries, it is evident
' there is but one difference, and this arifiag from the or¬
der of the notes, or place of the femitone, For if you
begin to read the fecond feries at the interval between the
3d and 4th, the femitones will be found exactly in the
fame order as in the firft example.
In the firft: example, the firft femitone falls on the 4th
note, or that which is next above the 3d to the key;
which 3d is 5 half tones above the key inclufively. In
the 2d example, the half-tone falls on the 3d note ; and
is therefore itfelf the third to the key, and is four half¬
tones above the key inclufively.
This diftimftion *of the place of the femitone is moft
worthy of ohfervation, it being the only effential diffe¬
rence of tune, the ground-work of all that beautiful va¬
riety which may be introduced in the air or melody, as
well as it is the principle or hinge on which turns the
refolution of every difcord. The key-note of every tune
is that whereon the tune ends ; which though it may
be altered for variety in the upper part, yet the laft note
vf the bafs is ever the key.
When the 3d to the key is 5 femitones to the key, as
in the firft example, that tune is faid to be compofed in
a fbarp key. When the 3d to the key is 4 femitones to
the key, as in the fecond example, the tune is in a flat key.
And this, as wasfaid before, is the only difference in tune.
This diftimftion of flat, and .(harp third holds good,
not only in relation to the key, but likewife to every note
in the fcale of mufick. And in this light it is the foun¬
dation of compofing in different keys ; of changing the
key in the fame tune which introduces the fo much de¬
fined variety in mufick ; and of writing the fame tune in
Vot. III. N°. 82. 2
I C K. 3 [9
divers keys, which is called 'tranfpofition. Hence we
eftablifti the following axioms.
Axiom III. As the difference of the flat and fliarp
third to the key conftitutes the key, and is effential to,
the tune: fo no tune compofed in a fharp key can be
compofed into a flat one, nor a flat into a fltarp ; for
that would be altering the permanent nature of things.
The truth of this axiom will moft. evidently appear,
when wefhall, in the fecond part, or practice, have learn¬
ed the art of tranfpofition.
Axiom IV. Thegreatand conftantobjeeft which muftbe
fought after in mufick, whether in compofition, or perfor¬
mance of thorough bafs, is variety with uniformity. For the
proportions already laid down, and the prodigious variety
emerging from them, as they lie in the order of nature,
before they are modified, divided or combined by art,^
do not only point out this variety to us ; but the concords
and difcords likewife made out of thefe, and arranged by
art, will not only not fuffer us torecede from the eftabiifh-
ed precept, but by a kind of fweet violence conftrain us
to purfue this darling objefl.
On the truth of this axiom is grounded the reafon for
' the mixture of difcord with harmony, and the occafion
of this precept in playing thorough bafs, namely,- that
the hands fhould as much as polEbJe move in a contrary
dire&ion.
As to the place of the other femitone, which in the
flat key is on the 6th, the reafon fhall be told in its
proper place. And moreover, it muft be obferved, that
the greater 7th in the ftiarp key, which caufes the fecoqd
femitone to fall on the 8th in that key, is alfo common
to the flat key in many paffages, but unexceptionably at
the end of the tune, or clofe.
Se<ft. 3. Of the Concords and Discords.
Or the intervals ftanding in their natural order are
compounded the greater intervals, namely, the concords
and difcords.
Thefe are the next things to be coiifidered. Now, to
inveftigate the order of thefe, and their proportions to
each other, we muft have recourfe to the original caufe
of found; that is, to the tremulous motion of the air,
excited by the percuffion of fome folid body, as a bell,
ft ring, or pipe.
This trembling of the air is In proportion quick or How
as the impreffion given it by the voice or an inftrument.
The quicker the trembling is, the more acute the found*
the flower, the more grave or flat. The fame found is
the effe<ft of the fame degree of quicknefs of the air’s
motion continued. Hence a firing founding the fame
note to the end of its vibration, proves, that the vibrations
are in equal times, from the greateft to the leaft ranges
ofits motion.
The ftiorter a mufical firing is, the. quicker are its vi¬
brations, and therefore the more acute the found.
The longer a firing is, the more flow are its vibrations,
and fo the more grave the found.
Therefore, from the divifion of a mufical firing, the
proportions of acutenefs or gravity are computed. Hence
we raife the following axiom.
Axiom V. The quicknefs of the vibrations is rect-
4 k |>roca!
I
320 M U S
froeal to the lengths. Thus in two firings of the fame
matter, and equal diameters; if one be double the
length of the other, it will give half the quicknefs of
pulfes; that is, halt the number of pulfes in the fame
time: or, the lengths being as 2 t-o 1, the vibrations are
as 1 to 2. On this axiom are demonftrated the order
and proportions of the concords, as follows.
Proportion of the Oflave.
I C K.
Proportion of the leffer or flat itk.
C
A B
CB, ^ths of AB, founds the lefler 6th, Therefore
the proportion of the flat 6th is as 8 to £.
If thefe divifions of the firing, whofe numerators are
the fame, or unity, be fet down in fractions, in the na¬
tural order of numbers, thus ^
, &c. and reduced to
A B
Let AB, a mufical firing, be divided equally in C, and
fiopt there: C B will found an o<fiavc to the whole or
open firing AB. Now, CB, AB, are as 1 to 2 : there¬
fore, the vibrations are as 2 to x ; that is, the propor¬
tion of the odtave or diapafon is double, or 2 to 1.
E, D.
Proportion of the $th.
C
A-
-B
Let AB be dirided into three equal parts, and ftopt
in C : C B will found a jth to the whole or open firing.
Now, CB is to A B as 2 to 3 : therefore the vibra¬
tions are as 3 to 2 ; that is, the proportion of the jth,
or diapente, is fefquialteral, or 3 to 2.
Proportion of the iflh.
C
A B
Let the firing be ftopt in C, which is a 4th part of
the whole: C B will found a 4th to the whole A B or o-
pen firing. Now, CB is to AB as 3 to 4 : therefore
the vibrations are as 4 to 3 ; or, the proportion of the
4th,.or diatefiaron, is 4 to 3 . '
Proportion of the floarp yl.
Stop the firing in C, the jth part: CB will found
a greater 3d to A B. But CB is to A B as 4 to 5. There¬
fore the vibrations are as 5 to 4 ; or, the proportion of
the ftiarp 3d is as 5 to 4.
Proportion of the flat 3^.
Stop in C the 6th part: CB will found the lefler or
flat third. But, fac. Therefore the proportion of the flat
third is as 6 to 5.
Proportion of the greater or /harp 6th.
C
A B
CB j-ths of AB will found the greater 6th. Therefore
the proportion of the fharp 6th, is as 5 to 3.
a common denominator, the harmonical proportions will
appear in the fame fueceffion of concords, as inveftigated
by found in the diviflon of the fame line ; and the nume¬
rators, being by this redudhon as whole numbers, will
ftand thus, 60, 40, 30, 24, <fac. For the common deno¬
minator, 120, anfvvering to the whole or open firing; the
relative proportion of the fame to the firft fraftion, and
the relative proportion between each two fucceilive frac¬
tions, will exprefs the proportion of the harmonic chords.
Thus t or 8tli. or 5th. or 4th. 4aT or
fharp 3d. Hence we difeover relative harmonical propor¬
tion in numbers: which is, As the firft is to the third ;
fo is the difference of the firft and fecond to the difference
of the fecond and third. For, reducing the firft three
numbers to the lowefi terms, and inverting, they will be
2,3,6. Now2l6::i!3. Again, reducing the fecond
three, they will be 3, 4, 6. Now 3 '.6 :: 1 '• 2. Where-
ever this proportion obtains, the numbers bear harmonical
or mufical relation. Further, the refhtngle, or quotient
of the firft and third numbers multiplied, being divided
by the excefs of twice the firft above the fecond, finds a
fourth proportional. Thus 3, 4, 6, given as above;
3 multiplied by 6, gives 18 : which divided by 25 the
excefs of twice 3, the firft above 4 the fecond, gives 9,
the fourth mufical proportional. Thus 3, 4, 6, 9 : And
of thefe, the firft is to the fourth, as the difference of the
firft and fecond is to the difference of the third and 4th.
So 3 ’• 9 :: 1:3 *
The harmonic proportion of three numbers in this
natural fucceffion of fraftions, extends as far as the chord
of the flat 3d. Which third, being -$■ of the whole num¬
ber, limits this equality of proportion, feeing that the
number 7 is no aliquot part. But as to the fourth pro¬
portional, it cannot be found even from that number which
exprefles the fharp 3d, which is ftill of ftiorter extent.
This limitation of proportion then explains the extent of
harmony, and likewife becomes the principle of the fame;
as will be feen in the definition of harmony.
Hence it is evident, the remaining concords of the
(harp 6th, which is y> and of the flat 6th, or j-, are not
included in this equality of proportion.
Thefe are the concords, their order and proportions ;
any one of which founded together with the open firing,
is concordant with it, and produces harmony.
Example of the names and order of the intervals in
concord with the open firing or bafs, and the femitones
contained in each, Mufick Plates^ No. 3.
Again, two of thefe concordant intervals, namely, the
jth and 8th
Sharp 3d and 8th
Rat
M
U
S
Flat 3d and 8th
Sharp 3d and  jth
Fiat 3d and 5th
Sharp 3d and Sharp 6th
Flat 3d and Flat 6th
6th and 4th
Flat 6th and   4th
founded with the open firing, orbafs note, are concordant
all together ; and therefore produce harmony.
Example of two concording with the open firing or
bafs. No 4.
Next follows an example of three concording with the
bafs. No. 5.
Having thus difcovered the concords, their order and
proportions ; it is v/orth remarking, that the firfi concord,
or 8th, which arifcs from the molt Ample divifion of a
line, is the moft perfect concord ; the 5th is the next
perfect concord; and fo of the refl-, in the order they
have been found by the divifion of the firing. For the
nature and perfeftion of the 4th, accounted by fome a
very imperfeft concord, fitall be explained in the corolla¬
ries of the demonfiration of the harmony, in Part II. on
praftice.
The Sthsand yths then are called the perfeiSt concords.
The gds and 6ths imperfeifi; concords. The 4th, of a
middle nature between the others, may be called an im¬
proper concord ; for this reafon, that with the 6th, with
which it is always accompanied in harmony, though it
make perfefi harmony with the given note, yet they
change the chord into that of the 4th to that note.
Likewife the 6th, whether joined with the 3d or 4th
to the given note, tho’ it make perfetfi harmony with ei¬
ther, yet they change the chord into that of the 6th or
4th to the fame note.
Hence the reafon why the 6ths are more imperfeft con¬
cords than the 3ds.
From the order and perfeffion of the concords thusdif-
coveredj we deduce the following corollary.
Cor. III. The moft perfedt harmony is that which
will be produced by the perfedl concords, namely, the 3d,
jth, and 8th. Thus No. 6.
From the foregoing corollary, we are able to give a
juft definition of harmony. Harmony confifts in one
certain invariable proportion of diftance of four founds
performed at the fame inftant of time, and moft pleafing
to the ear.
Thefe proportions of the firft feries are called fimple
concords. If the notes of a fecond feries be added to the
firft odiave, the proportion of any two concording notes
compounded with the odtave retains the name and nature
of the Ample concord ; as a tenth, compounded of an oc¬
tave and third, is called a third ; a twelfth, compounded
of an odtave and 5th. is called a fifth ; a fifteenth, com¬
pounded of two odtaves, is called an odtave, or double
odtave. And fo on to a third feries.
Thefe are the compound concords.
All other proportions founded together are harfh and dif-
agreeable to the ear; and are for this reafon called difcords.
From the compounding and dividing the proportions
delivered, not only the harmonica! intervals are computed,
but the difcords lik^wife.
I C K. 32*
And this the following calculations demonftrate.
The proportion of the odtave is the proportion of the
4th and 5th : for, by compounding -f or 4 the
proportion of the odtave.
Again, it is the proportion of the fharp 3d and flat 6th:
for, 4 l —47?'’y 4 '‘n >ts loweft terms.
Again, the flat 3d and fliarp 6th : for, j-4-~4-r or 4
the proportion of the odtave.
Now, fince the 4th and jth, the 3d and 6th, as alfo
the 2d and 7th, compounded, make the odtave ; that is,
any two numbers making 9, the middle term or note
being repeated, or common to both ; it follows, that to
fall a 4th or rife a 5th, as alfo to fall a 3d or rife a
6th, and to fall a 2d 6r rife a 7th, and the contrary, an-
fwers the fame purpofe of harmony; for they meet in the
odtave.
This obfervation will be of great ufe in fetting the
bafs, and figuring the fame, by producing that variety
and contrary motion demonftrated neceflary in the 4th
axiom.
Proportion of the $th.
The proportion of the 5 th is the proportion of the fharp
3d and flat 3d ; for by compounding 4 rZZ or 4 the
feiquialteral and known proportion of the 5th.
Proportion of the Sharp 6th.
The proportion of the fharp 6th is the compound pro¬
portions of the fourth and fharp 3d ; for 4 —4°, ory.
Of the flat 6th, the proportion is of the 4th and flat 3d;
for 4 4H44 or 4,
By the fame manner of compounding are found the
proportions of the concords of the 3ds ; which lhall be
fhewn when we fhali have got the tones and femitones ;
which, as being difcords, arife by dividing the harmonic
proportions as follows.
Proportions of the Discords proved.
Proportion of the Greater Tone.
The proportion of the greater tone is the difference of
the 4th and 5th ; for 4) 4 (“1 tfie' proportion of the
greater tone.
Proportion of the Lejfer Tone.
The proportion of the leffer tone is the difference of
the 5th and lharp 6th; for 4) yZI V° ^ie proportion of the
lefler tone.
Proportion of the Semitone.
The proportion of the femitone is the difference of
the fharp 3d and 4th ; for 4) 4~4r- the proportion of the
femitone.
Having now the propprtions of the tones and femitoncs,
we are enabled to prove the proportion of the femitone,
or flat 2d and fliarp 7th to the 8th ; as likewife all the
remaining proportions, whether difcord or concord : For,
the jth and fharp 3d, 44> fl've V t^ie greater 7th ; and
the fharp 9th and femitone 44-—44-° in its loweft terms
4 the proportion of the oftave.
Togoon; The proportion of the fharp 3d is that of the
greater:
522 M U S
greater and leffer tones ; for, | tt | in its
loweft terms, the greater 3d.
And the proportion of the flat 3d is compounded of the
greater tone and femitone ; for, -f -,4 4f4 41 *n iis
loweft terms f- the proportion of the flat 3d.
The proportion of the 4th is'that of the fharp 3d and
femitone ; for, ^ in its loweft terms the propor¬
tion 4 of the 4th. Or it is the proportions of the flat
3d and leffer tone; for, y ?j- ^ in its loweft
terms f.
The proportion of the difcord of the fliarp 4th is found
by compounding its conftituent intervals, the 4th and
femitone ; for, 4 if yr ciie proportion of the ftiarp
4th.
And laftly, the proportion of the flat 7th is compound¬
ed of two 4ths, or is ; for, 4 f '■/ tiie proportion
cf the flat 7th.
Thefe proportions, in the natural order of the firftferies,
or ftiarp key, ftand thus:
K 2d Sharp 3d 4th 5th Sharp 6th Sharp 7th 8th
1 4 i. t 4 T V VZIt
In the fecond feries, or flat key, thus :
K 2d Flat 3d 4th 5th Flat 6th Flat 7th 8th
1 i t 7 i r V t
Hence we can demonftrate (what before was taken for
:granted) the places of the greater and lefler tones, and
femitone.
Now, the relative proportion or difference is found by
divifion of the two next proportions in the natural order
as above.
The places of the greater and lefler tones and femitones
in the fharp key.
1) 4 (4 the greater tone, or 2d.
4) 4 (4f in its loweft terms the lefler tone, or
fharp 3d.
4) 4 (ir ^ femitohe, or 4th.
4) 4 (4 the greater tone, or jth.
4) 4 ( V° the lefler tone, or fliarp 6th.
4) y (44 or 4 the greater tone, or fliarp 7th.
V) t (i-f the femitone, or 8th.
The places of the greater and lefler tones and femitones
in the flat key.
1) 4 (| the greater tone, or 2d.
4) 4 (44—the femitone, or flat 3d.
4.) 4 (44—tt the lefler tone, or 4th.
4) i (4 the greater tone, or 5th.
4) f (44 the femitone, or flat 6th.
r) Vs (4°— y the lefler tone, or flat 7th.
ys) 4 (44—4 the greater tone’, or 8th.
The ufe of this theory is chiefly on account of afcer-
taining the places of the femitone; the difference of the
major and minor tones, which is as 44> having not been
hitherto reduced to practice.
We fliall therefore hereafter admit no other diftinftion
than that of whole and half tones.
The intervals then contained in the oftave, in both
keys, excluding the firft term, will be more eafily defcri-
fbed thus :
The 2d is one tone.
Flat 3d a tone and a half.
Sharp 3d two tones.
I C K.
4th two tones and a half.
Sharp 4th three tones.
jth three tones and a half.
Flat 6th four tones.
Sharp 6th four tones and a half.
Flat 7th five tones.
Sharp 7th five tones and a half.
8th fix tones.
Having found all the intervals, their order and propor¬
tions ; it will be neceflary to take in one view the feinitoncs
of the odtave, marked by their different names and inter¬
vals. For every femitone hath two names in refpeft to
the preceding and following note in the natural order.
As in the following example. . The knowledge of this is
mofl neceflary to learning the art of compofitiOn. N° 7.
The difcords being, as hath been fhewn, the leffer 2d,
or femitone, and greater 2d, the fharp 4th or faife 5th,
the lefler and greater 7ths, it is to be underftood, that
not any two or three of thefe are to be founded together,
to frame the difcord ; as the members of any concCrd are,
to make the harmony: but each difcordant note hath its dif-
cordant and concordant notes proper to itfelf, which fill
up the difcord; and which are called the accompani¬
ments.
The five difcords, then, being diftindt and unlike each o-
ther ; the definition of difcord muff be this:
Difcord confifls in certain variable proportions of the
diftance of founds, performed at the fame inftant of time,
and difagreeable to the ear.
Chap. II. Of the SCALE of MUSICK.
Having found that the larger combinations of the 13
femitones in the odtave conftitute the concords and difcords;
for the better application of them to our purpofe, we fhall
next confider them fingly and diftindtly,
Diapafon — — — Odfave — 8th.
Semidiapafon ^
Defective 8th, or — — C greaterfharp 7th.
Sept, major j
Sept, minor —■ — — lefler flat 7th.
Hexachordon major — — — greater fharp 6th.
Hexachordon minor — — lefler flat 6th.
Diapente — — — — —1 5th.
Semidiapente, or — — — 7 — fliarp 4th,
Tii one 3 or 5th*
Diateflaron — — — — — — 4th,
Ditone — — — — — greater, or fharp 3d.
Semiditone — — — lefler, or flat 3d.
Tone — — — — — greater — — 2d.
Semitone — — —- lefler — — 2d.
Unifon — — — — — one found.
As they fucceed each other in the natural order of both
keys, as above demonftrated ; this is called the fcale of
mufick.
In this fcale we fliall likewife take a view of the con¬
cords of the fame denomination, as they arife in fucceflion
from the fame natural order of the fimple tones, and alfo
of the difcords as oft as they occur.
There are two feales in ufe : the diatonic fcale, and
the chiomatic.
In the diatonic fcale, the notes arife by two tones, a
femitone,
M U S
feriiitone, and one tone to the 5th; and thence by two
tones and a feniitone to the 8th. This is the order in a
fliarp key; where note, that the femitones are in the 4th
and 8th places. No. 8.
In a fiat key, the notes afcend according to the follow¬
ing example. N° 9.
■One tone, a femitone, and two tones to the 5th ; a
femitone and two tones to the 8th.
In the next example, the fame proportion of the flat
third is illullrated by comparifon with the inftance in the
(harp key. No. 10.
The number of the tones and iemitones in both flat and
fharp key are equal. The difference arifes from the
places of the femitone ; which, in the flat key, are the
3d and 6th. This is that eflential difference of tune al¬
ready mentioned, which creates fuch variety in mufical
ftrains, as well as in the harmony. Thefe are fome ef-
fedls of the femitone ; others we fhall fee in its proper
place.
The Chromatic Scale.
The chromatic rifes by a tone and 5 femitones to the
fth, and thence by 5 femitones more to the 8th. Thus
No. 11.
The chromatic fcale, which is no other than the na¬
tural femitones in their order, except the firft tone, is
only ufed when mixed with the diatonic. That is to fay,
when a fenfitone, not belonging to the harmony of the
key, is introduced in the middle of a tune. And this
may be done by the note afcending by a femitone,
or defcending : in either of which cafes, the key is
changed in that part of the drain. This is the caufe
of great variety in the air; as well as it new-modulates
the harmony. This is another effect of the femitone,
on which turns fo much variety and elegance. It mad
be executed by the compofer with all the addrefs and
art imaginable. For this we'mud refer to the fecond part
or praftice; where will be given the rules for the mixture
of the chromatic. Pieces of tnufick where it is frequently
ufed, are now commonly called chromatic mufick.
The diatonic fcale being that which we are chiefly
eoneerned to underdand, as well as the fird in order,
and before any ufe of the chromatic can take place; we
ihall proceed to view it in another light, whereby we
diall difcover fuch properties of it as will be ufeful to the
compofer. Sharp key. No. 12.
From the key the thirds afcend, as in the above ex¬
ample, by one iharp 3d, two flat 3ds, two ftiarp 3ds, a
flat 3d, and laflly another flat 3d on the 2d to the key.
All the 4ths being perfeA, are like; except that one
which falls on the Iharp 7th ; this is called a Iharp 4th,
or falfe jth. No. 13.
All the jths are perfect, and therefore like ; except
that formed by the Iharp 7th and 4th, which likewife is
a flat jth or fliarp 4th. No. 14.
The 6ths dand thus: two diarp 6ths, one flat 6th,
two fliarp 6ths, two flat 6ths. No. 15.
There are but two greater 7ths which are the fliarp
3d and fliarp 7th to the key : they fland under the two
femitones.
AU,the 8ths are perfect and alike.
Vox. IE. N°. 82. 2
I C K. 323
From thefe theorems, and axioms, the 2d and 4th,
we deduce this practical corollary.
Cor. IV. The 3ds and 6ths are the intervals mod
frequently to be ufed in compofition; the 8ths, yths,
- and qths mod rarely.
The 4th being an improper concord, and the 7th a dif-
cord ; we cannot afcertain their ufe till we come to die
demondration of the harmony and accompaniments of
the difcords in the 2d part.
On this 4th corollary is grounded the reafon of forbid¬
ding two 8ths and two jths in confecution, either in com-
pofition, or performing thorough bafs.
Next follow examples of the fame in a fiat key. No.
16, 17, 18, 19.
There are but two /harp 7<hs which are the 2d and
£th to the key. They fland under the lemitones.
All the oftaves are perfect and alike.
It is evident to fight, that the intervals in the flat and
fliarp key do not in the lead vary; except in the order
they fueceed each other, beginning from the key. And
it is equally evident, that this variation is owing to the
different places of the femitone.
This demondrates what has been faid in page 319.
col. 1. concerning the femitone ; and illuflrates what is
afiertsd in the 4th axiom, that variety, amidfl uniformity,
mud be the great object attended to in mufick, fince that
uniformity and variety both fubfid in the very principles.
Let it he obferved, that this uniformity is preferved by
bringing in the flat 6th and flat 7th to the key. And
this mud of neceflity be fo, fince they are the places of
the femitone and leffer tone in the natural flat key wherein
the example is fet, according to the demonflration ef
the fame.
For, by corollary 1. nothing can be admitted in com-
pofition which doth not immediately depend on the 2d
axiom, and which cannot be demondrated from it ; name¬
ly, that the proportions of founds, and their relations,
mud be deduced from the natural order of the notes.
This is the true reafon for introducing the flat 6th and
flat 7th in every flat key.
The harmonic proportions and difcords having beea
demondrated from the divifion of a line in arithmeti¬
cal progreflion; we /hall, in the next place, try what
are the effedts of a mufical ftring divided in geometrical
proportion. No. 20.
Let A B, a mufical dring, be divided equally in C ;
C B, the half next the bridge, will found an odtave to
the whole or open dring, as we have /hewn in the har¬
monic proportions.
Again, let C B be equally divided in D; D B will
found the odtave to C B, or double odtave to the open
flring, A B.
And thus, by an equal divifion of a dring between ei¬
ther the nut and bridge, or flop and bridge ; the half
next the bridge will give the odtave above continually.
But the fame proportion is not preferved in the equal
divifion between the nut and flop, or between any tw®
flops. For the length of the oftave to the open dring,
which is between the nut and flop, being equally divi¬
ded; the half next the nut gives the found of the 4th to*
the open dring ; and the half next thejtop, or bridge,
4 M , founds
324 M U S
founds the jth, which, tw^o are the conftituent intervals
of the odfave. •
Arid Eire fame divitlan of the founds is coriflantly pre-
ferved, if the length of an octave be equally divided be¬
tween any two (tops.
Again, the length of a 5th between two flop?, or
nut and (top, equally divided ; the half next the bridge
gives the greater'3d, the other half the leffer 3d.
And-gain, the length of the greater 3d, thus divided,
gi ves the greater and. lefler tone. And the greater tone’s
length, equally divided, gives the greater and leffer fe-
mitone. And the length of the greater femitone, equally
divided, gives the founds in proportion as 5 and 4. The
greater interval being next the bridge, and fo continually.
Hence the neceflity of the g! eater and lefler-tones and
femitones in mufic is evident ; and the truth confirmed,
which is aflerted in the 2d corollary.
Now, in the diatonic fcale, wherefoever the femitones
lie, that fs, whether the air be in a flat or (harp key,
the graver part of the tone will be the lefler femitone,
and the acuter the great femitone ; and in the chroma¬
tic, which afcends by femitones, the greater and leffer
femitones will, for the fame reafon, fucceed each other
alternately. Wherefore, if any feries of chromatic notes
be removed a femitone higher or lower ; it mufl; happen,
that the lefler femitone will fucceed into the place o1 the
greater, and the greater into the place of the le/Ter.
Hence diflbnances will happen in the diatonic fcale, as
being compofed of the fame materials with the chromatic,
if the key be injudicioufly changed by tranfpofition. For,
as the diiTonance will be evident, if the tr^nfpofition be
by one femitone ; fo the difproportion will flill appear,
if the removal be by any odd number of femitones within
the compafs of the 4th.
As the proportions of the concords have been demon-
ftrated from the divifion of a line ; fo are they likewife
to be found in the geometrical proportions of fqlid bo¬
dies, and therefore may be illuftrated by the fame.
We fhall begin with the proportion of the 8th.
The proponion of the 8th being the compound pro¬
portions of the yth and 4th, is, by corollary of the 34th
propofirion of Archimedes, as the whole fuperficies of a
right cylinder defended about a fphere, to the whole fu¬
perficies of an equilateral cylinder inferibed as 2 to 1.
For, the circumfcribed is to the fpheric fuperficies as 12
is to 8 (by 32 of this,) but the fpheric is to the infenbed
as 8 is to 6 by this prefent propofition: therefore the
circumfcriht.. -,s to the inferibed as 1 2 is to 6, or 2 to t.
In harmonic terms thus exprefled : the 5th is to a gi¬
ven note or key as t.2 is to 8 ; but the proportion of the
4th is as’8, to 6. Therefore, the proportion of the 8th
*s V I as 2 to 1.
Again, the proportion of the yth, and the next har¬
monica! propprtion arifing out of the 5th, is beautifully
illuftrated in the admirable proportion of the fphere,
right cylinder, and equ lateral cone circumfcribed about
each other. The lad proportion being invented by An¬
drew Facqnet . and '.hat of the two firll by Archimedes,
as demonlliated in his 45th piopofitioa in Tacquet’s Eu¬
clid,
I C K.
We cannot forbear tranferibing at length this wonder¬
ful propofitiod, and demonfiration of the fame •. tor
that on this proportion is eredted the whole fuperftrudture
of harmonic ahords.
ARCHIMEDES’S PROPOSITION 45.
Theorem. An equilateral cone circumfcribed about
a fphere, and a right cylinder in like manner ci.ru.ina-
feribed about the lame fphere, and the lame (phere it-
felf continue the fame proportion, to wit, the ieiquial-
teral, as well inuefpedt of the fohdity, as of die whole
fuper-icies. For, by %ad of this book, the right cylin¬
der ( ) encompafllng the fphere, is to the fphere, as well
in refpedl of folidity, as of the whole fuperficies, as 3 is
to 2, or as 6 to 4. But by the foregoing, the equila¬
teral cone circumfcribed about the fphere, is to the iphere,
in both the fin’d refpeds, as 9 to 4. Therefore, the
fame cone js to the cylinder, both in reipedt of folidity
and furface, as 9 is to 6 Wherefore, the(e three bo¬
dies, a cone, cylinder, and fphere, are, betwixt them-
feives, as the numbers 9, 6 and 4, and confequently
continue the fdfquialteral proportion, E, D.
In.harmonic terms expreffed thus : die yih is to the
key as 3 is to 2, of as 6 to 4 : but the 9th is to the key,
(that is, the jth to the 51.1) as 9 is to 4 ; (for the 2d
and its 8th | vZHf 0 therefore, the fame 9th is to the
jth as 9 is to 6. Wherefore thefe thiee tones, the 9th,
the yth, and the key, are, betwixt themfelves, as the
numbers 9, 6, and 4; and .cdn'equently continue the
fefquiaiteral proportion, Q^E, D.
Therefdre, the proportions of the key, the yth and
its 5th, being the fame fefquiaiteral proportion continued,
are the fame proportions as that of the equilateral cone,
right cylinder and fphere ; the two fir(t detcribed about
the fphere, Q^E, D.
On the proportion of thefe three is eredted every other
proportion of harmony ; which we {hall purfue one llep
further, forafmuch as thefe truths will be moll maniftft
and eftabliflied in the pradltce when we (hall have deliver¬
ed the rules of harmony.
The 5th divided arithmetically, or equally, gives,-aa
hath been fliewn, the greater 3d or next perfedt concord:
the fefquialteral proportion to which gives the greater
yth ; for 4 1 gives y the greater yth, as demonltrated
above.
Hence, from the fefquialteral proportion thrice repeat¬
ed, namely, to the key, its yth and 3d, we are furnifli-
ed with the perfedt harmony, or concords of the key and
yth; to which every harmonic proportion, where ever
found, is analogous ; that is, partaking'of the nature,
proportion, and relation of the key and its yth. It is
worth remarking in this place, that the members of thefe
chords arife out of the proportions, as above dimonflra-
ted, by turns The key being firft fupplied with one
proportion; and then in its turn the yth with the fame.
Wherefore, the mixture of the harmony of the key and
yth is Scarcely feparable : A truth which will abundantly
difeover itfelf in the pradtice, b ih in the ruli s < f har¬
mony, and in every other part of compofition. On this
is founded the following axiom.
Axiom.
M U S
Axiom VI. ThdTe 5 tones therefore, namely, the
fcey, the 3d, 5th, flwp 7 h and 9th, are the founda¬
tion of the whole fuperftrudture of mufick.
We (hall conclude this theory with the harmonical di-
vifion of a line.
To divide a Line harmonically. No. 21.
A right line, AD is fa.d to be divided harmonically,
if, being cut imo three par.s, A B, B C, C D, the caie
be fo, that, as the whole A D (or Z) is to either ex¬
treme a ox c'. \ fo {h.tll the other extreme be to the ia-
-determinate part m ; that is,
Z * ^ | Wherefore Z m 1 c.
And, to divide any given right line thus harmonically,
as fuppofe A D : From either end of it draw a right hn^,
as DQ ; mJes an angle with it, and of any lepgth ; con-
I C K. 325
nedf the end of this line with the other end A, by draw*
ing AG ; and then taking any point, as B, at pleafure,
in the given line, there draw E F paralie! to D G, and
in it ti-ke B E equal to B F; then draw E G, and that
(hall find the po nt C required 1 and then calling,, as a-
b ;ve, the whole line Z, A B a, B C w, and D C~ c,
I lay Z I a I I c I m.
For the triangles A D G, ABF, and B E C, are all
fimilar •. and confequently ADI ABlIDGltBF::
or as D G : to B F~B E. But as D G : B E : C D :
B C; (by working about the equal angles D and E,
B C) wherefore, by equality, A D : A B:: C D:
CB that is. Z :rr:: c\m. Q^E, D,
And from hence it is plain, that the ratio of the whole
line AD, to the legment A B, may be taken at plea-
lure ; bi.t that the intermediate part B C mull be lefs
than either A B or C D.
PART II. The PRACTICE of MUSICK.
THE pradice of mufick is founded on the principles
delivered in the theory. Its feveral parts are,
compofitian, figuring the bals, melody, tranipolition,
and finging by note.
Of the<e we (hall treat feparately in the above order.
Compoimon is the fetting together two or more notes
in harmony, to be founded at the fame time.
When in the fucctlfion of concords, in the parts, the
notes of each part aie of the fame length, or time of
founding, the compoliiion is called counterpoint.
When the fucctflton of concords is by notes of differ¬
ent lengths m the feveral parts, it is called plain defcant.
The mixture of difeord and concord, by notes of the
fame or different lengths or time in the parts, is called
figufate defcant. Of thefe in their order: and firlt of
counterpoint.
In order to attain more eafily the art of compofition,
it is neceffary to premife a few things concerning other
affedions of founds; as the time or lengths of founding
the notes ; the time of mufick, or movement of the air ;
and the.different cliffs wherein the parts of muiick are u-
fuallv eritten.
. T he folio1 ing account of the proportions of the lengths
of notes, the time and cliffs, being well undeiflood by
every one acquainted ever fo little, with mufick, might
well have been emitted in an effay of ihis kind ; (.there,
infltad of ufing repetitioBS, i> is ,hoped we have of¬
fered to the public fomething new; at ieaff in the man
ner of dcn.onftrating the rules of compofi ion, both in
dilcord and harmony ;) but that we would Je .ve nothing
in our power untold, which may contribute to form a
compleat rtuifician.
The longed note, now generally in ufe in indrumental
mufick. is called a ft mibreve. Its time is as long as you
can diflimffly count for.
Out of the divilion and fubdivifion of the fenubreve
are formed the lengths of all other nous ; according to
the Following proportions No 22. •
Afemibreve, whole nine.is as one, tao, tluee, four,
is as long
2 Minums,
[ 4 Crotchets
as ^ 8 Quavers,
I 16 Semiquavers,
j 32 Demitemiquavers.
A dot after any note, fignifits the time of fuch note
muff be lengthened to one-half of the plain note. No. 23.
The proportions are thus;
A dotted femibreve is equal, to 3 minums.
A dotted minvm to 3 crotche s.
A doited crotchet to 3 quave s.
And fo of the reft.
1 hus we are fumiftied with notes according to the odd
and even numbers. And this naturally divides the lime
of any fong or mufic into odd and even time.
COMMON TIME.
When the air moves according to the even numbers«
and every bar is meafured by beating the time into two
equal and even parts, the mufick is compofed in common
time : known by one of the following maiks prefixed to
the une ; as the letter C, having 4 crotchets in a bar ;
or denoting two crotchets in a bar.
TRIPLE TIME,
But when the rrufick moves according to the odd num¬
bers, and every bar is meafured by, beating the time into
two unequal parts, as two and one, the fong is compofed
in tiiple t.me ; whichas known by one of thefe figns pre¬
fixed to the tune.
3, or 4. /of 3 minums in a bar,
4 3 C otchets tn a bar.
3 Quavers in a bar.
-? 9 Crotch, ts in a bar.
9 Quavers in a bar.
Th, up per mo ft number being the numerator of-a vul¬
gar fraction and the lower, or denominator, the aliquot
parv of.the femibreve.
: here is alfo another proportion of the length of notes
ia ufe. And this is, When three quavers are, by dimi-
■ autioai
326 M U 6
nution of their lengths, contradted into the time of 2
quavers, or one crotchet, conftantly noted by the figure
(3) over them.
And laftly, the mod common movement of jiggs,
Avhich is by fix or twelve quavers in a bar, have their
bafs, for the fmoothnefs of the movement, often written
in plain crotchets ; 2 in a bar for the treble and four,
marked thus G, for the treble *-$. It is plain, there¬
fore, that all tune» in thefe movements truly belong to
common time, fince every bar is meafured by the beating,
,or dividing it into even parts, as exprefled in the bafs.
A paufe or reft in mufick, is a ceffation of the found,
in one or more of the parts; or of all the parts together.
Nothing hath a finer effedt in mufick than a paufe of all
the parts judicioufly made; or of one, or more of the
parts, for the fake of imitation. The refts therefore
are written down in the place of notes, and each note
hath its own reft, which is of the fame length with the
note whofe name it bears. Thus,
A femibreve reft is as long as a femibreve.
A minum reft as long as a minum.
And fo of the reft.
The next thing to be confidered is the cliff in which
any part of the mufick is faid to be written ; according as
the cliff is prefixed to each ftave of the writing.
The ufe of the cliff is to afcertain the names of the
notes ; and to denominate that part of the mufick to which
it is prefixed.
There are three cliffs, to anfwer and diftinguifh the
three parts in mufick : The bafs, or F cliff; the tenor,
or C cliff; and the treble, or G cliff. No. 24.
The bafs is fo called, from its being the Joweft part,
or that wherein are fet the graver tones.
The tenor, or middle part, hath its name from hold¬
ing the bafs and upper parts together. This will be clear¬
ly underftood, when we fhall have learned to compofe in
four parts.
The uppermoft part is called the counter tenor in vo¬
cal mufick ; and, in inftrumental, the firft treble.
The bafs and treble cliffs are now conftantly written
in the fame places as in the examples. The tenor cliff
.is often removed, according to the fancy of the compo-
fer ,or writer of mufick; to anfwer the convenience of
the notes ftanding, as much as may be, within the cora-
pafs of the five lines, or ftave. Which convenience is
the reafon for the invention of the diverfity of cliffs, as
well as the ufes already named. For it is eafy to appre¬
hend, that the natural tones, and their proportions, are
invariably the fame, whether expreffed by the voice, or
an inftrument, however they may be diftinguifhed by ar¬
tificial figns. Obferve, that the cliffs, according to
their names, rife above each other by the interval of a
.5th : thus the tenor is equally diftant from each other
part. For C is a 5th to F, as it is alfo a jth below G.
Chap. I. Of COMPOSITION in COUNTER¬
POINT.
Composition in counterpoint is when, in the fuecef-
dion of concords in the parts, the notes of each part are
rtff the fame length, or time of founding.
According to the 2d axiom, we lhall begin with the
I C K.
harmony of the key note ; and proceed to demonftrate the
harmony of the remaining notes of the ottave in their na¬
tural order.
Demonjiratioh cf the harmony of the key.
The harmony of the key is the concord .ef itfelf.
The harmony of the key muft be perfect harmony.
Now, the notes concording in perfedt harmony, are, by
corollary 3d, the 3d, 5th, and 8th: But thefe, with the
key, are the concord of itfelf: Therefore, the harmony
of the key is the concord of itfelf.
This demonftration is grounded on this evident truth ;
namely, that any other concord would, by the term, or
name of it, in effedt change the key; whereby the unity
of the tune would be deftroyed, and by this contradidtien
the author’s meaning rendered unintelligible. The ne-
ceflity of perfedt harmony in the key being evident, noo-
ther fort of demonftration is required, nor indeed can be
admitted.
Prob. Let it be required to fet a bafs to the notes of
an odtave afeending in G (harp. No 2 J.
Any one of the three notes in the bafs is concording,
by corollary 3 ; but the 8th is preferable when it is the
firft or lift note of the tune ; for thusitbeft afeertains the
key. The preference of either of the other two depends
on the following rules.
Firft, The 5th cannot take place when the concord
immediately preceding lhall happen to be a £th, the for¬
bidding the confecution of jths being afferted in corollary
the 4th.
Again, the movement of the bafs ought generally to
be by defeending a jth, or riling a 4th, 6th, or 3th, or
any other great interval; thereby meeting the treble, and
effedUng variety and contrary motion of the parts ; the
eftablilhed rules of harmony by the 4th axiom.
Laftly, The air of the bafs muft be confulted ; and, if
poflible, an imitation of fome foregoing paffage in the
upper part.
The application of thefe rules will decide which of
the two or three notes is preferable in this or any other
concord.
Demonjiration ef the harmony of the-id.
The harmony of the 2d is the concord of the jth.
The harmony of the key having been Ihewn, we muft
conlider it as an immoveable point, in relation to which
we are to order the reft of our computations, confiftent
with the eftablilhed principle of uniformity.
The 2d to the key immediately defeending into the
key, will have, for its next concording note, the greater
yth ; which at the fame time afeends by a femitone into
the key ; to which 7th the 2d is a 3d.
For, by axiom 2, the combination of founds are
deduced from the natural order of notes afeending and
defeending. But the 2d and 7th can admit no other
concordant note but the 5th to the key. For the 3d is
difeord with the 2d; and the 4th, 6th, and 8th dilcord
with the lharp 7th.
Now, the 2d, 7th, and jth are the concord of the
5th ; therefore, the harmony of the 2d is the concord of
the 5th, No. 26^
The
M U S
The Jth muft always be taken at the clofe ; or when
the treble is defcending into the key; for then the bafs
will fall a 5th into the key; which movement is called
the great cadence. Otherwife the 7th or 5th may be
taken indifcriminately ; yet, under the reftriflion of the
rules, (p. 326. col. 2.) for fetting the harmony of the
key.
Dcmonjiration of the harmony cf the 3d.
The harmony of the 3d is the concord of the key.
From the demonftration of the harmony of the key, the
key will have its 3d ; and, by inverting, the 3d will have
the key. Now, the key and its gd will admit no other
concordant note but its jth : For the ad is difcord to
both, the 4th is difcord to the 3d, and the 7th difcord to
the key ; but the key, its 3d and 5th, are the concord of
the key. Therefore, the harmony of the 3d is the con¬
cord of the key.
The 6th indeed, which is a 4th to the 3d, which is
an improper concord, will, with the key, form the con¬
cord of the 6th ; but the demonftration of the concord of
the 6th in a (harp key, depending on another priuciple, as
will be (hewn in its place, can, for the fame reafon, bear
no relation to the harmony of the 3d, which is a member
of the key: No. 27.
The two notes in the bafs may be taken indifcriminate¬
ly; yet complying with the rules, (p. 326. col. 2.)
But, if the 3d in the treble be prepared to defcend into
the key, by its paffage into the 2d, then the 5th is more
eligible ; which falling an 8th for the next note, thence
defcends by a yth into the key. This is the moft ftri
king movement of the bafs; and, at the fame time, the
moft common, at a final clofe in either flat or (harp key.
Demonftration of the harmony of the 4th.
The harmony of the 4th is the concord of itfelf.
In a fnarp key, the places of the’two greater yths are
the (harp 3d and (harp 7th to the key : and, of the femi-
tones, the 4th and 8th, or key; Therefore, the 3d is
to the 4th as the (harp 7th to the key. Now, fince by
axiom 2d, the combinations are deduced from the natu¬
ral order of the notes afcending and defcending ; the har¬
mony of the 4th will be as the harmony bfthe key: But
the harmony ofthe key is (by demonftration 1.) the con¬
cord of itfelf : therefore, the harmony of the 4th is the
concord of itfelf. No, 28.
The notes in the bafs may be taken indifcriminately :
only obferving the foregoing rules. If a clofe on the
4th be prepared from the 4th itfelf, either note will do:
yet the key is preferable, in order to prepare for the great
cadence.
Demonftration of the harmony of the 3th.
The harmony of the jth is the concord of the key.
From the demonftration of the harmony of the key,
the key will have its 5th; and, by inverting, the yth
will have the key. Now, the key audits 5th will admit
no other concordant note than the 3d. For, the 2d and
4th are difcord with the key and 5th ; th$ 6th difcord
with the 5th; and the 7th difcord with the key. But
the key,' its yth and 3d, are the concord of the key:
Vol. III. N°. 82. 3
I C K. 327
therefore, the harmony ofthe $‘th is the concord of the
key. No. 29.
There is no exception in the choice of the bafs notes;
but the difallowance of the confecution of yths. But if
there.be a preparation for a clofe on the key, and the 5 th
ftand in the bafs ; in order to make the great cadence,
the yth will have its own concord. This depends on
the demonftration ofthe 2d.
Demonftration of the harmony of the 6th.
The harmony of the 6th is the concord of the 4th.
From the demonftration of the 4th, its harmony is its
own concord. The 4th, then, will have its 3d; and, by
inverting its 3d (that is, the 6th) will have the 4th.
Now, the 4th and 6th will admit no other concordant
notet han the 8th : For the 2d is, (with the 4th and 6th,)
a difcord, as will.be (hewn in the demonftration of the
difcords. The 3d and yth are difcord to the 4th, and,
the 7th to the 6th. But the 4th, 6th, and 8th, are the
concord of the 4th : therefore, the harmony of the 6th
is the concord of the 4th. No. 30.
Either note in the bafs may be taken at will. But if
there be a preparation for a clofe on the 4th, the fecond
note, or key, is preferable, for the reafons afligned in
the demonftrarion of the 4th, which is, to make the great
cadence, prepared by the bafs, firft defcending an 8th,
and thence a 5th, into the 4th, or clofe.
Demonjiration of the harmony of the 'jth.
The harmony of the 7th is the concorcfof the yth.
The harmony of the 7th is part of the harmony of the
2d, (by demonftration 2.) but the harmony of the 2d is
the concord of.the yth : therefore the harmony of the
yth is the concord ofthe ;th. No 31.
If the 7 th, or treble note, precede a clofe on the key,
the firft note in the example muft be the bafs note, in
order to make the great cadence.
The 8th being the key, hath for harmony its own con¬
cord ; as by 'demonftration 1.
From the foregoing demonftrations, the bafs notes, fet
to the 8 afcending notes in the treble, will (land thus.
General Rule. The cosfecution of 8_ths, yths,
and 4ths, is not allowed, (as by corollary 4.) except
by contrary motion ofthe parts, or in thepaflage of very
quick notes in compofition of many parts. No 32.
From taking in one view the harmony of the feven
notes, we (hall deducefome ufeful corollaries. No. 33.
Key 2d, 3d, 4 th, yth, 6th, 7th,
hath the harmony of the
Key yth, Key 4th, Key and yth, 4th, yth.
Semitone. Semitone.
Cor. I. Every note in the c-itave (except the 2d to
the key) admits in its harmony a 3d.
Cor. II. The key, the 2d and yth, admit in their
harmony a 4th.
Scholia.
When the key admits a 4th, the concord is of the^th. ‘
When the 2d admits a ^th, the concord is of the yth.
When the yth admits a 4th, the concord is of the key.
Hence the interval of that note which admits a 4th, is
in fatft h yth r therefore two 4ths are no more allowed
4 N - in
323 M U S
in confecution than two jths. And hence like wife the
interval of the 4th, which we have called an improper
concord, appears to be of a middle nature between con¬
cord anddifcord; being a fourth in name and appearance
in the natural order of founds ; yet a 5th in name and
effeft in compofition, as'member of that chord wherein
it makes a part of harmony.
Cor. III. The key, the 4th and jth, admit in their
harmony a 5th.
Scholia.
When the key admits a 5 th, the concord is that of
the key.
When the 4th admits a 5th, the chord is of the 4th.
When the 5th admits a 5 th, the concord is of the 5th.
Hence, when a note admits a 5 th, the harmony is the
concord of the fame note.
Cor. IV. Every note but the 4th admits a 6th; for,
the 4th having its concord for harmony, will have only
its 5th.
Every note admits its 8th ; for any note may be fubfHtu-
ted for its odtave. But 8ths are (by corollary 4. of the
theory) to be the moft fparingly ufed, as not producing
th'St variety or mixture of founds requifite to bind the
harmony, efpecially, where it can be bed avoided, in the
compofition of two parts.
From the foregoing demonftrations and corollaries, a-
rifethe following obfervations.
The jdsand 6ths molt frequently occur in compofition.
This then demonllrates what was alferted, by way of pre¬
cept, in' the 4th corollary of the theory as well as part
of the 4th axiom ; namely, that the proportions of mu-
fical founds, and the variety emerging from them, point
out to us this variety, and will not fuffer us to depart
from the eftablifhed precept.
It will be necefl’ary to fee the fame truths comfirmed
in the defcending notes. We fhall therefore fet down in-
ftances of compofition in the defcending notes of the oc¬
tave upon the fame principles, and wherein the fame de-
mondrations and corollaries do take place.
Example of compofition in the defcending notes of the
oftave. No. 34.
In the afcending notes, when the upper part rifes by a
femitone, the bafs generally falls a 5th ; when the upper
part falls by a whole tone to a clofe, the bafs alfo falls a
5th. This fall of the bafs, or great cadence, mud be
effefted when chromatic notes are introduced afcending;
it being the property of the new femitone, thus formed
by the note rifinga half tone, to imitate the key or clofe.
By axiom 2. the proportions of founds, and properties
of the fame, are deduced from the natural order of the
notes. Now, by the new femitone introduced, the note
below imitates the greater 7th to the key: therefore, in
this cafe, as in a clofe on the key, the bafs mud fall a
5th.
Notwithdanding, this mud be underftoood not of the
paffage of quick notes; and chiefly at a clofe.
Sett. 2. Of Compojition in a Yi.a.t1L-£.y.
From the difference between the. flat and the (harp
key which lies in the different places of the femitone,
there will arife a variety in the compofition in a flat key,
I C K.
yet reding on the principles and demondrations delivered
in the lad fettion.
The places of the femitone in the (harp key are the
4th and 8th. In a flat key, the femitone dands in the 3d
and 6th places. The variety in the compofition will hap¬
pen where the femitones are concerned. For, as the mid¬
dle clofe is made in the (harp key on the 4th, which is
the femitone ; or, as the 4th in the fltarp key hath (by
demondration of the harmony of the 4th) its own concord
for harmony: fo the middle clofe in the flat key is made
on the 3d, which is the femitone ; or the flat 3d will
have for harmonyits own concord. Now, as the 4th hath
its 3d and jth for harmony, (which are the 6th and8th
of ihe key;) fo the flat 3d will have its 3d and yth, which,
are the jth and 7th of the key.
Aga:n, the flat 7th of the key being the yth to the 3d,
will, like the yth of the (harp key, have for harmony its
own concord. This will caufe the 2d of the key to ap¬
pear as -the (harp 7th to the 3d, and the 4th of the key
as a 2d (which-it really is) to the 3d. Thus the whole
harmony will be new modulated by the power of the fe¬
mitone. Again, the flat 6th being the femitone, a mid¬
dle clofe may be made on that note ; and then the fame
proportional variety fucceeds, and new harmony, as in
the former cafe.
Laftly, at the end of the mufick, where there mud of
neceflity be a clofe, the flat key will have the greater 7th,
like the (harp one. Of fo great confequence is the fe¬
mitone. Nor indeed can a clofe be made at all, without
the paflage of a femitone in one or other of the parts.
No. sy.
Differences in the flat key noted.
In the firft example the harmony of the 2d is the con¬
cord of the flat yth, as being yth to the third.
The dole is made on the 3d, the bafs falling a yth.
The 4th hath its own concord, as in the (harp key.
The yth (landing in an ottave, may be underdood as
part of the harmony of the 3d, as the 3d to the key, in
a (harp key.
The 6th is part of the 4th’s concord, as in the (harp
key; as above in the remark on the 4th.
At the clofe, there is the (harp 7th, from which the
bafs makes the great cadence.
In this example there happen four 8ths : the fird and
lad are abfolutely neceffary to afeertain the key; by the
fecond there is a ciofe made on the 3d; and that on the
yth, is for the fake of the air in the bafs.
In the fecond example, the harmony of the 4th is the
concord of the flat yth, as yth to the 3d.
The harmony of the flat 6th is it own concord, being
the place of the femitone ; where the bafs rifes a 4th (the
fame as falling a jth) as on a clofe in the treble afcending
by the femitone.
In the 3d example, thefe differences of the flat key are
left out; and the notes fet as if they were part of a (harp
key : that is to fay, there is no clofe made on the 3d ■ the
4th hath its chord for harmony; and the 6th is likcwife
part of the harmony of the 4th.
For, notwirhflanding the propriety of making a clofe
on the 3d and 6th, which are femitones; yet the compofer
M U S
is not under the neceffity of making a clofe in thefe places
in every paffage; and then he is at liberty of fetting the
notes as in the example. This obfervation clearly points
out the difference of compofition in a flat key, and where
it is to be pra<5lifed.
And indeed an author, whofe foie end is to pleafe the
ear, will defignedly introduce a clofe on the flat 3d, and
in as many other paflages as he can, to create the variety
fo much defited. In thefe cafes, the rules delivered for
compofition in the flat key muft undoubtedly take place.
The fourth example is fet to fhew the movement cf the
bafs to the defcending notes. The compofition is the fame
as in the other examples.
Let us now take, in one view, the full harmony of every
note in the flat key, and where the difference between it
and the (harp key lies: from which we may derive fome
ufeful corollaries. No. 36.
The harmony of the
2d, 3d, 3d, 4th,
is the concord of the
Flat 7th, 3d, Flat 6th, Flat 7th.
Cor. I. The 2d admits a 3d; then the concord is of
the flat 7th.
Cor. II. The 3d admits a 5th; the concord is of
the 3d.
Cor. Ilf. Again, the 3d admits a 4th; then the con¬
cord is of the flat 6th.
Cor. IV. The 4th admits a 4th and 6th; the con¬
cord is the flat 7th.
By comparing thefe with the corollaries on the (harp
key, it will be evident, that each note in the flat key ad¬
mits for its harmony that note which was excluded in the
fharp key. And therefore, that all harmony is divided
between the flat and fharp keys; and wonderfully diverfi-
fied by changing the places of the femitone.
From the demonftration of the harmony of theyth, with
corollary 3. on the {harp key, and the fcholium 3. on the
fame, we gather how great a {hare of the harmony belongs
to the 5th. For it is part of the harmony of the key, and
of the 2d (which chord is its own, or that of the 5th) in
both flat and (harp key : and, in the flat key, it is likewife
in the harmony of the 3d.
The nature and properties of the femitone being the
fame in Jpoth keys, we can now more clearly demonfirate
the harmony of it»in the following manner.
The harmony of every femitone is the concord of the
fame.
The key always (lands between the greater 7th below,
and the whole tone, or 2d, above. Now, by axiom 2. of
the theory, the proportions, properties and relations of
founds are deduced from the natural order of the notes
afcending and defcending: The 4th (in a {harp key,) the
flat 3d, and flat 6th, being femitones, are diflant by a half -
tone below, and a whole tone above, as is the key; there¬
fore they have the fame properties with the key. But the
harmony of the key is the chord of the fame : therefore
the harmony of the femitone, or 4th, flat 3d, and flat 6th,
is the chord of the fame. Hence we raife the following
axiom.
Axiom I. The harmony of every member of the
concord of the key, is the concord of the key. And the
I C K. ^29
harmony of every note in the compals of mufick, proved
by the rules of harmony, is part either of the concord of
the key, or of its 5th, or of a {emitone. Hence variety
in mufick is introduced by the contrary motion of the parts,
and by changing the key, by bringing in new femitones.
The better to illuftrate this axiom, we (hall hereafter in
the examples fet harmonical figures over every note, ex-
preffive of the chord.
First Example.
Let it be required to fet a bafs to this treble in G {harp.
No. 37.
Harmony of the
Second Example. No. 38.
Harmony of the
Third Example.
In A flat, No. 39.
Fourth Example.
In G flat, No. 40.
Fifth Example.
In A flat, No. 41.
Sixth Example.
In D (harp, No. 42.
In thefe examples every paffage occurs which hath been
delivered in the precepts of compofition.
Take notice, that in the laft example, the four paffages,
where the harmonic figures are not fet over the notes, are
part of adifcord; which would take place, if the compo¬
fition were in three parts ; and which we cannot explain
till we come to figurate defcant.
Seft. 3. Of Compofition /«,Three Parts.
The harmony, or full concord, of every note being well
underftood, both by reading the foregoing examples, as
well as making application of the rules of compofition on
which the examples are framed, by trial of fetting baffes
to other airs ; the next ftep will be to proceed to compo¬
fition of three parts.
This requireth no other precept than thofe already de¬
livered,, touching the harmony of each note. For the
third part confifts of the remainining notes of each con¬
cord which have not been made ufe of in the compofition
cf tw'o parts. Yet this caution muft be ufed, that the
two upper parts (land in the neareft concord to each o-
ther : that is to fay, in 3ds as much as may be, and is
confiftent with variety and contrary motion of them. For
hereby two points will be gained : firft, it will bind the
harmony; and fecondly, the bafs, being more at liberty
to rife and fall by greater intervals, will meet the upper
parts at every point, and produce variety by his contrary
motion. The following examples are the fame {et in two
parts above.
Prob. Let it be required to fet a bafsand fecond part
to this treble. No. 43.
Prob. Let it be required to fet the afeending notes o£
the oftave in three parts, in a flat key.
In G flat, No. 44.
In A flat, No. 45.
In G flat, No, 46.
The
330 M U S
The harmony of thefeventh bar in the laft example, is
altered in the repetition; though the notes of the firft
treble be the fame.
In the lirfl: indance, the concords are e*f the key and
5th. In the repetition, the concords are of the 3d and
flat yth.
In the firft infhnce, the paffage from the yth into the
key, (in the 8th bar,) being the great cadence, is juft.
But if otherwife a clofe had been made on the 3d, (in
the 8th bar,) the harmony in the fecond inftance muft,
for the fame reafon, be preferred.
Hence it will be eafy to decide in all flat keys, (to
which only this cafe belongs) when the harmony of the 3d
is to be part of the concord of the key, and that of the
2d the concord of the 5th ; or, when the harmony of
the 3d is to be its own concord, and that of the 2d or
4th part of the concord of the flat 7th.
Hence, and from corollary 1. of the theory, and from
the demonftration of the harmony of the femitone, we de¬
duce this general theorem.
The trueft harmony is produced by the whole concords
taken together falling in fucceflion, as frequent as is con-
liftent with the approved rules of harmony, by a 5th.
Welhallput an end to compofition in three parts, with
the following example in a flat key, being one of thefe
above in two parts. No. 47.
The ufe we fhall make of this example is to remark,
that although the bafs be altered from that which is fet
in the fame example in two parts •. yet the harmony is
the fame, as is evident from the harmonic figures fet over
each.
Secondly, The 4th having its own concord, palfes
into the key, or 3d, in the paffage of quick notes, and
where there is not a rlofe. But where, on the 6th bar,
a clofe-is made on the 3d, the bafs making the great
cadence, the 4th in the preceding bar is part of the
concord of the flat 7th. And thus the whole harmony
falls a 5th.
We have altered the bafs alfb to anfwer the purpofe of
the movement of the upper parts in the clofeft harmony.
And likewife to prove, that compofition of many parts
differs from that of two only. A truth which'every com-
pofer fhould always have in view. For it will be found,
upon trial, that, when the mufick is fet in two parts, if
it be required to add a third, it will not be in the power
of the compofer to give that third part an air. A mat¬
ter which ought to be ftudied-by all means ; and which,
t is evident from the example, can be executed, without
injuring the harmony in the leaft, by compofing the three
parts together.
We therefore recommend it to the practitioner to make
himfelf perfect in the compofition of two parts, before he
engages in three ; as he will thereby not only fooner be¬
come mafter of the harmony ; but alfo, by difeovering
more clearly the difference we are pointing put, will ex¬
ecute the compofstion of three parts with more eafe and
propriety.
SeA. 4. Compofition e/Toua Parts.
In compofition of 4 parts, every'note in the concord
is taken ; or to every note there is full harmony.
I C K.
The fourth part, or tenor, now to be added, confifts
of the remaining note of the concord, which was not ufed
in compofition of three. The oAave therefore will take
place in the concord of every note. The eonfecution of
which, as well as of jths and 4ths, is to be avoided be¬
tween the fame parts. The rules already delivered in
the compofition of three parts muft be attended to in this
Example of the afeending notes of the oftave in compo¬
fition of 4 parts. No. 48.
Second Example.
In the defeending notes of the oCtave in compofition of
4 parts. No. 49.
Third Example in 4 Parts.
In A flat, No. 50.
Fourth Example in 4 Parts.
In G flat, No. 51.
In compofition of 4 parts, it was faid, that to every note
there is full harmony. Notwithftanding, in the firft ex¬
ample, the fixth notes of the firft treble and tenor are in
unifon ; each being a 6th to the bafs ; fo that the oClave
hath no part in that concord. This is done to avoid the
confecution of 8ths, by the fucceeding note of the tenor,
whofe place muft be, for the air’s fake, the 8th to the
bafs, as well as to bind the harmony.
In the fecond example, the feventh notes in the firft:
and fecond trebles are in unifon ; both being a 5th to the
bafs. Let not this be underftood to be a confecution of
yths, as they are members of the fame chord ; but is
done for the fake of the air of the fecond treble. Let
this remark ferve for every like inftance which may hap¬
pen hereafter.
In the fifth bar of the third example, the fecond note,
the fecond treble and tenor are in unifon. This is done
to avoid the confecution of 4ths, which, had the tenor
kept his place, would have happened from the foregoing;
note between the firft treble and tenor.
In the fame example, there is a confecution of-jths in
the two next bars, by the tenor falling a 4th, and the
bafs rifing a 5th. This feeming error is tolerated fince
it is effedted by contrary motion of thefe parts. For as
well as it is >y the contrary motion of the parts, that the
confecution of perfedt concords is avoided ; fo for the fame
reafon, the famenefs of the harmony difappears, or efcapes
the ear ; efpecially in compofition of many parts.
By this reafon, the confecution of 4ths is prevented by
the bafs rifmg a.3d, according to the firft obfervation on
this example, at the 5th bar. For that would have hap¬
pened by all the parts defeending ; that is, not having
contrary motion. The fecond note then of the bafs in
that bar is changed from that which is fet in the fame
example in three parts.
A few general remarks occur in this place, from com¬
paring the compofition of four parts with that of three.
Firft, Whereas the perfedt concords have place in fome
part of the harmony of every note in mufick of 4 parts ;
fo the chances of the confecution of Sths and jths being
more frequent, the more Ikill and attention will be requi¬
red Jo avoid them.
Secondly,
c
K.
33;
M U S
Secondly, Corapcfition of 4 parts differs in many par¬
ticular paffages from that of three, though the general
precepts of harmony belong to both, tor, by comparing
the fame example in both cafes, there will be feen a va¬
riation of fome paifages in the lower parts. The neceffuy
of complying with the eftablifhed precept of variety, by
preventing the fuccdHon of perfect concords, hath caufed
this alteration. See the 5th bar of the example in A fiat
in the three different compbfitions.
Hence arifes a new realon for faying the compofition
of many parts differs from that of few, or two only.
Therefore, in whatever number of parts the mufitkis to
be compofed, one defign muft be tirft laid down ; and
to adjutl and petfeA the harmony, and to create as much
variety as po/fible, the whole work muft be planned at
Once, and executed agreeable to that delign.
Laftly, Of the tenor in particular, we have this to re¬
mark, That, whereas in compofition of three parts, there
is often a liberty kft of taking any one of the concordant
»otes to the bafs ; „ in four parts, the fourth or tenor
coming in leaves no room for that liberty ; but obliges
ns to a certain difpofition of each member of the harmo¬
ny, and by this means holds together the parts, the
•dlave every where founding and binding the inner notes
together.
This remark on the tenor is more particularly true at
almolt every clofe, where the tenor note is the 8th to the
iafs on the Jaft note but one of the clofe ; and, by keep¬
ing its place, while the bafs making the great cadence
falls a yth, the fame tenor note becomes its 5th. Thus
the two concords are held together and entire by the te¬
nor’s not removing.
T Sed. 5. Composition 0/'Five Parts.
The four concordant notes anfwering exadtly to four
jparts in compofition ; when a fifth part is to be added, it
is evident one note of the harmony muft be repeated in
every concord. The fifth part therefore confifts of the
notes which are by turns repeated in each of the for¬
mer, in which the avoiding the confecution of the per¬
fect concords is to be obferved as before ; and the air of
this part attended to as far as may be confiftent with the
rules delivered.
Example of compofition of 5 parts in the afeending notes
of the o<ftave. N. 52.
Second Example in 5 parts. No. 53.
The two o.daves between the tenor and bafs on the
fixth and feventh notes of this example, are allowed ;
as the parts do not move into other notes, or make a new
concord.
Third Example in 5 parts. No. 54.
The confecution of yths between the tenor and bafs
is admitted, as they meet by contrary motion of the
■parts.
Fourth Example in 5 parts. No. 55.
It is obfervable from thefe examples, that the moft
difficult compofition is that of 4 parts. The other 4 parts,
confifting of a repetition of one or more of the concordant
notes of the fidt four parts, are more eafily contrived,
nothing more being required than to avoid the confecu-
tian of the perfed concords between any two parts.
Vol. III. N°. 82. 2
I
Sed. 6. Composition c/'Six Parts.
In mufick of fix parts there is a repetition of two con¬
cordant notes. The fixth part therefore confifts .of the
notes which take place in each of the five former, by
turns.
An example or two will fufficiently illuftrate this.
Example of compofition of 6 parts. No. 56.
There is a confecution of 8ths between the fourth line
and bafs, on the 3d and 4th notes ; but it being the effed
of contrary motion is admitted.
Second Example in 6 parts. No 57.
The two 8ths between the tenor and bafs are allowed j
for, as they do not move, -they are in effed but one.
Third Example in 6 parts. No. 58.
The confecution of 8ths is by repetition of the fame
note, and therefore reckoned as one.
Fourth Example in 6 parts. No. 59.
In the 8th bar there is a confecution of 8ths between
the third part and tenor effeded by contrary motion of
thefe parts.
Sect. 7. Composition of Seven Parts..
In compofition of feVen parts, three notes of the har¬
mony are repeated in each concord. The feventh part
therefore confifts of the notes which are taken by turns
from each of the fix former; or, which is the fame thing,
from the firft four 5 under the reftridion of the rules con¬
cerning the confecution of 8ths, yths and 4ths between
any two of the parts, unlefs produced by contrary motion
of the fame, or repetition of the notes, or in the odave,
as faid above. The feventh part is written in the tenor
cliff, and is a fecond tenor to the firft ; fo that, like the
upper parts, it muft ftand in the neareft concord to the
firft tenor, or next part.
Firft example of compofition of 7 parts. No, 60.
Notwithftanding it hath been faid, that three notes of
the harmony are repeated in each concord in feven parts;
yet it-doth not appear in every inftance in the example.
The reafons are, that in every clofe, whether middle
or final, it is preferable that moft of the parts ffiould
end in the concord note of the clofe, and efpecially of
the laft clofe, that the harmony of the key may make
the deeper impreffion on the fenfe.
Secondly, The air of each part ffiould be confulted t
for this will not only juftify, but demand the changing
of one note of the harmony for another.
Again, as the parts next each other ffiould ftand in
the clofeft concord ; fo, in order to effed this fometime
by contrary motion, they will meet in unifon; and
therefore the repetition of the three notes will not take
place in every chord.
Thefe rules will be fufficient to anfwer any doubt, or
determine any choice to be made of any note of the con¬
cord, as well as juftify the meeting of the parts La uni¬
fon, in mufic of any number of pans whatever.
Second example in 7 parts. No 61.
Third example in 7 parts. No. 62.
Sect. 8. Composition c/'Eight Parts.
The eighth and laft part is the fecond bafs; fijneerj-
4 O ffig
332 M U S
ing which the following rules and obfervations mull be
jremifed.
If the mafick be compofed for voices and inflruments
in full choir, it will be elegant and proper that the fe-
eond bafs Hand in the neared concord with the firtt, af¬
ter the example of the trebles and tenors.
The reafon is, that the two choirs finging either toge
ther, or in refponfes, will thus exhibit greater variety.
After this manner we fhall fet the two following ex¬
amples.
If the mufick be for inftruments only, the difference
of the baffes confifts in two things: Firft, The organ
hath the figures of the thorough bafs written. Secondly,
The bafs viol performs the folo parts, while the prgan
reils. And in full concert the two baffes move in unifon.
This is the manner in which the baffes of inflrumental
mufick are fet by the mod approved mailers.
We fhall in this place offer our opinion on the fubjeifl
of two baffes in inflrumental mufick, relating to fome al¬
teration from the ufual method of praffice deferibed a-
bove ; which, as being perhaps new, will be received ac¬
cording to the notice it deferves.
We would have the part for'the organ move in long
notes, and by the lead intervals ; the figures filling up
the harmony and difeord ; while the part for the violon¬
cello moving in quicker notes, and greater intervals, be¬
comes defcant to the other bafs. Of this an example
fhall be given when we come, in the next place, to treat
of plain defcant.
To return : In mufick of 8 parts, the four notes of e-
vtry chord are repeated, (allowing the exceptions re¬
marked above.) Therefore, the full harmony of every
note is double. The <iue mixture of which, according
to the rules delivered, and the contrary motion of the
parts, produce all the variety which harmony without
difeord is capable of affording.
Fird example of compofition of 8 parts. No. 63.
Second example in 8 parts. No. 64.
Having given examples fufficient for indruftion in
compofition of harmony in the feveral parts of mufick,
and having iliudrated in the fame examples what hath been
faid concerning the harmony proper both to flat and fharp
keys; we fhall proceed to make fuch obfervations on com¬
pofition in general, as may affid the pradtitioner in the
application of the rules at the beginning, or fird attempts.
And .fird, concerning the confecution of perfects; which
mud be avoided, except in contrary motion of the parts,
or repetition of the concord in the fame notes in each part,
or in the odlave.
Let the intervals which conflitute the oftave be
remembered, as hath been faid above (in p. 321.)
namely, a 5th and 4th, a 6th and 3d, a 7th and 2d ;
taking care, that when the note of one part rifes or
falls by one of thefe intervals, the note of the other
part fhould not fall or rife by the interval which is the
complement of the ottave.
Thus the confecution of Hths will be eafily avoided,
and much trouble thereby faved in fetting the parts.
Again, by the fame caution, we avoid the confecmion
of jths. For the notes fet in the concord of a 5th,
rifing and failing together in the different parts, by the
I C K.
fame condituent intervals of the o&ave, will likewife
meet in a 5 th ; and, by avoiding fuch movement of the
notes of a 4th, the confecution of the fame is in the fame
manner prevented.
One indance of each will diew this evidently. Nc. 63.
The confecution of perfe&s, it is true, is tolerated,
when effected by contrary motion of the parts. Butthefe
obfervations are made for the fake of a beginner, that he .
may not too often incur the abufe of this liberty.
The next obfervation is concerning the harmony of
the 4th in a flat key.
The 4th in a flat key is either part of the concord of
the flat 7th, or hath for harmony its own chord.
The harmonical figures over the examples point out
this to fight. Notwithdanding, it may be allied in what
cafe either harmony is to be preferred.
We dull endeavour to afeertain this matter upon the
principles on which what hath been already taught is de¬
mon dialed.
In page 430. col. 1. we deduced this general theorem ;
That the truelhharmony is produced by the whole con¬
cords taken together, falling in fuccelfion, as frequent
as is confident with the approved rules of harmony, by
a 5th.
Therefore, when a clofe is made on the femitone, or
flat 3d, the harmony of the 4th or immediately prece¬
ding note, mud be the concord of the flat 7th. For thus
the whole chord, or harmony, according to the foregoing
theorem, falls a 5th.
And this theorem extends to the harmony of every
note whofe interval is a femitone, or which dands a
half tone above and a whole tone below its contiguous
notes, whofe movement into the-next chord mud be fal¬
ling a 5th.
The places bf the femitone in the harmony of the key,
are the key, the flat 3d, the 4th (in a fliarp key,) and
the flat 6th, and not in the harmony of the key, where-
foever a femitone is introduced by the addition of a
fharp or flat, whereby a clofe may be made on the fe-
mitone above.
Thus the truth of the fird axiom of the pradtice is
edablilhed ; where it is faid, That the harmony of every
note in the compafs of mufick, proved by the rules off
harmony, is part of the concord of the key, or its 5th,
or a femitone.' For the flat 7th is to the flat 3d a 5th.
In the other cafe, when a clofe is not made on the flat
3d, or when the harmony need not fall a jth, then the
4th may have for harmony its own chord. AncMiere the
4th dands generally in the bafs. Thus No. 66.
The proof of this depends on the relative proportion
of the flat and (harp keys ; and will be given, by that
analogy, under the article of tranfpofition.
The lad obfervation is in refpedl of the practice of au¬
thors of indrumental mufick, in compofition of many parts>
Whereas in the compofition of 7 and 8 parts, the har¬
mony of the notes are doubled : this is effe&ed by the
common pradlice, after the mod eafy manner, by dou¬
bling whole part* ; that is to fay, by two alternate parts
moving through every note in unifon, when in full con¬
cert; and likewife other two alternate parts. Thus
the firft and third yielins play in unifon; and the fecond
and
M U S
snd fourth. And, when thefe parts are not thus dou¬
bled, the third and fourth parts reft. Or otherwife, in
feme paflages they take part of the harmony from the
other parts, as in the examples above of 7 and 8 parts ;
excepting only in longer notes than the upper parts.
rI'he concertos of Corelli, Gerainiani, and the overtures
of Handel, are inftances of this.
In a word, whatever form the parts of mufick may be
difpofed in, the principles of harmony are the fame.
And when the rules of compofition in counterpoint,
which is the ground work, are well underftood, and con¬
firmed by pra&ice, the remaining part will become eafy
in proportion as the compofer will find himfelf more at
liberty to difpofe of the parts to fuch advantage as he
will judge moil fuitable to the genius of the mufick he is
about to compofe.
Chap. II. Of PLAIN DESCANT.
Th e fecond manner of compofing is when the fucceffion
of concords is by notes of different lengths in the feveral
parts. It differs from counterpoint, not in the principles
of harmony, but only in the form.
The effeff of defcant is variety ; which is produced,
either when two or more notes of one part are fet againft
one note in another, or when a long paffage in one part
is fet againft a fingle note in the other. This laft manner
is properly called d'efcanting on that note. Or laftly,
When a fubjedt is fet in the bafs, and conftantly repeated;
>vhile at every repetition of the fame, there is a variation
in the treble, which diverfifies the harmony, but doth
not deviate from the rules of art.
This bafs, which is the firft written part, is called a
ground bafs ; and the piece of mufick is called a ground.
Again, in defcanting, it is ufual for the parts to relieve
each other ; the bafs fometimes holding the note, while
the defcant is in the treble ; and again, the note is held
in the treble, while the defcant is in the bafs.
The fineft defcant is where the difcords are introduced
in the paffage of the notes. For here the air is lefs con-
ftrained ; and the variety, in refped of the harmony,
greater. This is figurate defcant, which lhall be treated
of in the next chapter.
To return to plain defcant: The movement of every
part is more free than in counterpoint; and not fo eafy
and unconftrained as in figurate defcant. From this then
arife its chief ufes.
In the firft place, it is the heft introdu&ion to the
practitioner, to give an air to every part of his mufick.:
It is alfo the ground-work of inventing variations in the
treble upon a plain fubjeCt in the fame part. The rules
for plain defcant are thefe.
Every note in the defeant muft be one of the harmony
cf each note in the bafs ; as demonftrated in compofition
in counterpoint.
Secondly, If the defcant be variation on a given fub-
jedt, in the treble, the original air muft be prefer.ved as
much as pofiible in imitation of the fame.
The harmony then being the fame as in counterpoint,
the difference being only in the form or length of the
notes, one example, after fo many given in counter¬
point before, will be fufficient to illuftrate this part.
No. 67.
Whatever the fubjedt of defcant may be, whether a
ground bafs, or air in the treble, (the defcant on which
is called variations,) the practice is the fame ; as in the
example, where the bafs is the ground to the four trebles,
the uppermoft line of which may be called the air ; and
the other three defcant on the bafs ; as well as variations
on the fubjedt, or firft line.
For the more eafy execution of botli kinds, take thefe
following rules of practice.
If you are to raife defcant on a ground bafs, then on
this fuppofition the bafs is firft framed. Next let plain
notes in the treble be fet, as in the example, though no
other ufe were to be made of them than to guide the
compofer’s eye, and thereby furnifh matter more readily
for a better air and for the defcant.
If the fubjedt be an air in the treble, on yvhich you are
to mike variations; as, in this cafe, the air is the firft
part written, fo it is the objedt on the book to which
you are to attend conftantly as a pattern for the variations
or defcant.
It would be advifable alfo to fet a plain bafs to the
treble or plain fong, before you begin the variations.
For, as the bafs, or fecond note, in many cafes deter¬
mines the concord of the note ; it thereby aflifts and roles
the defcant to be railed.
In general, when the two parts are fet in plain harmo¬
ny, the defdant ought to imitate, and not depart from
that defign. If otherwife a difcord be introduced in the
compofition of the two plain parts, or a difcordant note
be brought in in the treble or air, the defcant muft take
part of the difcord,
This properly-belongs to figurate defcant. Notwith-
ftanding, it is an elegance common in praftice, to throw in
a difcordant note in the variation, which is not in the
plain fong.
But thefe rules are addreffed only to beginners.
Having done with plain defcant, we lhall here give an
example of what hath been offered (p. 332. col. 1.) re¬
lating to the manner in which we would have the two
baffes fet in compofition of many parts; which is, That
the part-for the organ Ihould move in long notes, and by
the leaft intervals ; the figures filling up the harmony and
difcord; while the part for the violoncello, moving by
quicker notes, and greater intervals, becomes defcant to
the other bafs.
The manner of fetting the two baffes depending on the
principles of plain defcant, and implying nothing more
than what is contained in the laft example, one inftance
of this will fufficieotly anfwer our intention here.
Example of two baffes in compofition of many parts
No. 68.
The variety will be ftill greater if this manner be pur-
fued in figurate defcant. For as undoubtedly that is the
beft and moft perfedt compofition where difcord is inter¬
mixed ; fo there is no variety, which mufick is capable
of, produced from the form or difpofition of the parts,,
that Will not receive improvement from the more perfedl
compofitioa.
The
334 M U S
The laft example therefore, and what hath been faid
of tiie two bafles in plain defcant, is meant as an introduc¬
tion to a trial of the fame in the more perfeft, or figu-
rate defcant, both in the compofition and performance.
Chap. III. Of FIGURATE DESCANT.
Fig urate defcant is the mixture of difcord and con¬
cord, by notes of the fame or different lengths or time,
in the feveral parts.
Every interval in mufick which is not harmony, mull
be difcord.
The difcords therefore are fix : namely, thelefferand
greater 2d ; the fharp 4th, or flat 5th ; the leffer and
greater 7th; and the 9th. The reafon for repeating
the 9th, which is the 8th to the 2d, lhall be Ihewn in its
place.
The ufe of difcord is twofold : To give a better air
to every part of the mufick; and to create variety.'
For the difcords Handing in the natural order of the
notes, between the concords, afford an eafy paffage of
the fame; and, at the fame time, mix with, and bind
the harmony.
Difcords are introduced in compofition feveral ways.
Firll, When the notes pafling in the natural order,
two, three, or more of one part are fet againil one of a-
notherpart. This paffage of the notes is faid to be by
diminution ; as in the following example.
Example of difcords in paffage by diminution. No. 69.
When the treble defcends, the difebrds defcend like-
wife into the concords ; that is, the 9ths pafs into 8ths,
the yths into 6ths, and fo forth. The fame thing happens
when the bafs afcends.
When the treble afcends, or the bafs defcends, the
contrary happens; that is, the ads pafs into gds, and the
yths into 8ths, or the difcords into concords, according
to the natural numbers.
When a Angle difcordant note is fet, the change of that
note into a concord is properly called the paffage of the
dilcord.
When the accompaniments are fet along with the tlif-
cordantnote; that is, when the whole difcord, either in
compofition of many parts, or in figures in the bals, is
expreffed, the change of the fame into a concord is jull-
ly called the refolution of th? difcord. The paffage of
the difcord in Angle notes moving according to the natural
order, as in the laft example, is Evident.
The accompaniments and refolution of the whole dif-
cord depend on certain principles; on which we fhall, in its
place, demonfirate the fame.
To proceed, then, on fingle difcords.
The fecond way in which difcords are ufed in compofi¬
tion is, when the notes of each part move alternately, a
long note between two Ihort ones, fo that the note of
one part breaks off and ends in the middle of the note of
the other part. This is called fyncopation or binding ;
for the frequent mixture of the difcord herefupports and
binds the harmony-,
As in this example. No. 70.
In this manner the air of either part isiefs coaftrained,
by the conftant return of the difcord, and paffage into the
concord. In foine places this happens by the natural fuc-
I C K.
ceffion of the notes by diminution, as in the firfl ess-
ample, though not fo frequently as "in the laft manner
by fyncopation. But there is a paffage of the difcord in¬
to the concord, formed by the notes moving by greater
intervals,
This mufickis preferable on account of the great varie¬
ty produced by this unexpe&ed, and, we may fay, fur-
prifing mixture of the difcord and harmony. For variety
itfelf caufes new pleafure, when it is leaft expefl^d, or
when attended by novelty.
This moving of the notes by greater intervals, is the
third way of introducing difcord ; and is the effeft of
the difcords and concords conftantly meeting by contrary
motion of the parts.
In this manner the variety arifes from the paffage into
concords, different from thofe which muft fucceed, ei¬
ther in the natural order of the notes, or by fyncopation.
The variety alfo is greater by the conftant fucceifion of
difcord and harmony aimoft through every note.
For here the compofer is at liberty to pafs into any
concord he pleafes; and to refume any difcord. For
as the paffage into the perfeft concords, between two
parts, cannot be effefted, but from the neareft difcord,
when the notes move in the natural order ; fo, when
the notes move by greater intervals, there is opportunity
for many paffage*, which could not take place in any o-
ther way.
All this will be-evident, when we come to underftand
the refolution of the difcords.
Example of the more perfeft mixture of difcord and
harmony. No. 71.
In this example are fet forth the two firft ways of u-
fing difcotds; namely, by diminution and fyncopation,
as well as palling by greater intervals ; being fet accord¬
ing to the rules relative to each manner. Where the
difcord and harmony move by greater intervals, there the
paffage is from difcords new and unpra<5tifed in the other
The compofition, where this liberty is taken, does
moft juftly challenge the name of ornameiital or figurate
defcant.
And the rtufick, wherein the difcord is ufed thefe three
feveral ways in their turn, muft be efteemed the beft,
as exhibiting greater variety than could be expreffed the
other ways only. Let it be remarked in this place,
that this new paffage of the difcord is effefted by both
parts generally moving by a femitone; the power of
which will be feeen when we lhall have demonftrated
the accompaniments and refolutions of the whole difcord.'
There is a fourth way wherein difcords are admitted
in compofition. This is when difcords fucceed each 0-
ther ; or, where there is no paffage into a concord.
This is fetting difcords note againft note. It is to be
done two ways. Firft, when the difcord paffes into one
of another denomination, in the natural order of the notes,
by contrary paffage of the notes of each part, of the
fame or nearly equal quantity.
This paffage of the difcord is neceffary, as we cannot
afeend or defcend by the degrees of a great interval; but
the intermediate difcords will take place, and thence oft-
times two will fuccecd each other.
This
M U 3
This liberty is to be ufed chiefly in fliort notes, and by
diminutidn.
Example of difcords fucceeding each other, or fet note
againft note. No. 72.
'Secondly, Difcords are admitted, note againft note,
when the fame difcord is often repeated. This liberty
is taken with the difcord of the flat 7th above all others ;
and is mdft jultly praflifed in mufick of three parts. When
this diicord is brought in fucceffively in two parts, the
complement of the chord ought to be written in the
treble.
Example of the difcord of the flat 7th fucceflively.
No. yj.
Tins example is taken out of the eleventh fonata of
Corelli’s fourth opera.
In this example, it is. remarkable, that the firft and
fecond trebles furnifti by turns the difcord to the bafs;
which conftantly defcends by a yth, while the intervals
of the upper parts are jths and^hsto the bafs alternately.
Obferve, when the note in the bafs is flat, the difcord
will be the {harp yth.
The imitation of this paflage may be learned by in-
fpe&ion of the example. The demonftration depends
on the demonftration of the third refolution of the dif¬
cords following ; which we muft therefore referve for that
plac'e.
An example of this paflage {hall be given when we
•ometo teach the ufc of difcords in mufickof three parts.
Having done with the Angle difcords and their paflages,
we proceed, in the next place, to the complex ones ; by
which are meant the fame difcofds with their accompany-
ments and refolutions.
Now, as, by axiom the fecond of the theory, from the
natural order of notes, the properties, proportions and
x#lations of founds, which arife out of their various com¬
binations and fucceflions, are deduced ; we fhall demon-
flrate the properties of the difcords upon the fame prin¬
ciple.
The firft property of the difcord is the notes which are
to be played irr the thorough bafs, in concert with the
difcord. Thefe notes are called the accompaniments.
On the exa«5t knowledge of thefe depends the fecond
property of the .difcord ; namely, its paffage into a fuc¬
ceeding concord.
This paflage is called the refolution of the difcord, as
mentioned above.
Each difcord hath its own diftin<5t properties. There¬
fore the definition of difcord already given is juft ; where
it is faid, that difcord confifts in certain variable propor¬
tions of the diftance of founds,
As two (ingle notes (landing at a certain interval, form
the difcord, To they may eafily be refolved into the pro¬
per fucceeding concord, as we have already (hewn.
And on inftruments which have not keys, no more than
the two notes can well be performed. Yet, as the refo-
lutions of the difcords cannot be demonftrated without
the knowledge of the accompaniments, we (hall confider
the whole difcord together; and demonftrate the accom¬
paniments of each particular difcord, after the fame me¬
thod we have proved the harmony of each note of the oc¬
tave in counterpoint.
Vol. HI. N°. 83. 2
I C K. 335
Theorem. Since every interval in roufick is difiserd
or harmony, the accompaniments of moft difcords will be
harmony in themielves: for thus they will be difcord to
the given note. But it will alfo happen, that fome note
of the accompaniment in other cafes will alfo be harmony
to the given note, yet the whole accompaniment difcord
in itfelf. For the foul fo accords with harmony, as not
to bear an entire perfedl difcord.
Now, as more or lefs of difcord with the given note
prevails ; fo the difcords are naturally divided into proper
and inharmonic.
A proper difcord is the concord of fome member of
itfelf, and only difcord in part with the bafs or given
note.
An inharmonic difcord is an abfolute difcord in itfelf,
and partly concord to the bafs or given note.
There are five proper difcords ; namely, the leflerafid
greater 2d, the (harp 4th (or flat 5th,) the (harp 7th,
and the 9th.
There is one inharmonic difcord ; which is, the flat 7th.
It hath three places in the compafs of the qtftave; where
it appears in three different for ms.
It is called inharmonic ; not only becaufe it is an ab¬
folute difcord in itfelf, but alfo becaufe it is not the ac¬
companiment to the bafs note, from whence the order of
the difcords is traced in the natural feries ; except in one
place-or form, which is the fecond ; wherein the flat 7th
is the uppermoft note of the chord. This will be feen
moft clearly, when we (hall have gone through the dif¬
cords of each kind in their natural order, in the table of
difcord and harmony. No. 82.
We proceed therefore to the demonftration of the
difcords. And, according to the 2d axiom of the theory,
(hall begin with the demonftration of the accompaniments
of the 2d.
As in the demonftration of the concords we begin with
the key-note, which we confidered as an immoveable
point, from whence our calculations were to proceed ; fo
we (hall here confider the bafs, or lower note of the
difeord, that immoveable point; and the upper difeordant
note the interval in queftioo, whofe properties are to be
found.
Dsnnnjlration of the accompaniments of the 2d,
The accompaniments of the 2d are the 4th and 6th t®
the bafs or given note, or the difcord of the 2d is the
concord of the fame.
The 2d is a proper difcord : Therefore the accom¬
paniments of the 2d are its 3d and 5 th. But the 3d and
5th to the 2d, or difeordant note, are to the given note
the 4th and 6th} therefore, the accompaniments of the
2d are the 4th and 6th.
Example of the firft difcord, or difcord of the 2dc
No. 74.
Proper difcord.
The difcord of the ad muft be a proper difcord : for
the 3d and 5th to the bafs with the 2d would be into¬
lerable difebrd, feeing they are three notes in the natural
order, and the yth and 7th is the harmony of the 2d;
therefore they muft be the 6th and 8th, which is the gt-
4 P vea
3 3 ^ M U S
ven note : But the 6th will hare the 4th ; therefore the
difcord of the 2d is a proper di'fcord.
By the 2d axiom of the theory, the properties, pro¬
portions and relation of founds are deduced from the na¬
tural order of the fame. Which axiom is extended to
the difcords, as they are combined of the natural notes,
and differ from the concords only in form.
On this axiom, then, we are to invefligate the next
fucceeding difcord. The 2d difcord is the 2d, 4th, and
fharp 7th to thegiven note. For thefe are the next fuc¬
ceeding difcordant notes.
Demonjlration of the fecond difcor d.
The 2d and 4th cannot have the flat 7th ; for they are
harmony, or concord of the flat 7th; and the 8th is the gi¬
ven note : therefore it remains, that the fecond difcord
is the 2d, 4th, and fharp 7th to the given note.
Example of the fecond difcord. No. 75.
Inharmonic difcord.
This is an inharmonic difcord ; being an abfolute dif¬
cord in itfelf. It hath but one concording note with the
bafs; which is the 4th. This 4th is the flat 7th to the
given note’s jth : which jth is the bafs to this difcord ;
the given note in this place being confidered only as
a point, or unity, from which we are to inveftigate the
next difcordant notes, according to the 2d axiom.
The property of this inharmonic difcord, or flat 7th,
is, thatits own difcordant interval, or that whiclj is form¬
ed by the accompaniment, is always a fharp 4th, or flat
5th, which diftinguifhes it at fight from every other dif¬
cord. And efrery inharmonic, where-everfound, hath the
fame property. The refolution alfo of every inharmonic
is the fame ; as we fhall fee, when we come, in the next
place, to fhew the refolutions of the difcords.
The next difcord, according to the 2d axiom, is the
fharp 3d, jth, and flat 7th to the given note. This is
alfo an inharmonic, or flat 7th ; and having the fame pro¬
perty with the former, namely, the flat jth, mult not be
accounted a new difcord. No. 76.
Inharmonic difcord.
This is the inharmonic difcord in that form, whofe
accompaniments are relative to the bafs, or given note. .
The third difcord is the 3d, jth, and fharp 7th tothe
bafs, or given note.
Demonf ration of the third difcord.
The fharp 3d, jth, and fharp 7th, muflconflitute the
next difcord. For the flat 3d, jth, and flat 7th, are
harmony, or concord of the flat 3d; and the 8th with
the 3d and jth, are the chord of the bafs note; and the
flat 7th, with the fharp 3d and jth, are the inharmonic
laft mentioned ; therefore, the fharp 3d, jth, and fharp
7th, are the 3d difcord.
Example of the third difcord. No. 77.
Proper difcord.
This is a proper difcord, being the concord of the 3d
to the bafs ; and the fharp 7th the difcordant note.
To proceed then according to our 2d axiom, the next
I C K.
difcordant notes in order, are the 4th, 6th, and 9th :
But thefe being the notes which conlfitute the firfl dif¬
cord, varying only in place and name of the 9th, for the
2d, are in effed: the fame difcord.
The next fucceflive difcordant notes are, according to
our well known axiom, the 4th, fharp 7th, and 9th.
But thefe likewife conllitute the 2d difcord in like manner,
as was faid ia the former cafe ; and therefore cannot be
reckoned a new difcord.
To proceed then by our axiom: The next afeending
notes, by the fmalleft intervals, are the fharp 4th, 6th,
and 8th. This is an inharmonic, or flat 7th; its^ flat
jth being formed by the lharp 4th and 8th; therefore
no new difcord. No. 78.
To go on, the next difcordant notes will be found
the fharp 4th, 6th, and 9th.
Demonf ration of the fourth difcord.
From the proof of the laft inharmonic difcord, the
fharp 4th and 6th can form a proper difcord with no other
interval but the 9th ; for the 7 th would produce three
notes in the natural order, and intolerable difcord.
Therefore the fourth difebrd is the fharp 4th, 6th, and 9th.
Example of the fourth difcord. No. 79.
This is a proper difcord, being a concord in itfelf, and
only difcordant to the bafs note. The difcordant notes
of it are the fharp 4th and 9th.
The next which prefents itfelf, is the jth, fharp 7th, and
9th, by the fame axiom.
Demcnftration of the fifth difcord.
The jth will admit no other difcordant notes but the
fharp 7th and 9th. For the 8ih and 10th make the con¬
cord of the bafs note ; and the fharp 7th and 10th is,
with the jth, the thi.d difcord already proved ; and any
other note would be double difcord, and intolerable :
therefore, the fifth difcord is the jth, fharp 7th, and 9th.
Example of the fifth difcord. No. 80.
Proper difcord.
Thisis a proper difcord, being a concord in itfelf; and
difcordant only with the given note. Its difcordant nates
are the 7th and 9th.
We have purpofely referved the difcord of the leflcr
2d to the fixth and laft place, ift, Becaufe, as the inter¬
val next above the key is always a whole tone, we can¬
not, according to our 2d axiom, eredt this difcord as
relative to the given note, or key; as we have done the
other five. 2dly, The refolution of this difcord will be
found different from that of the greater fecond ; for rea-
fons wfiich will abundantly appear, when we fpeak of the
refolutions. This difcord may properly be called the
difcord of the femitone.
Demonf ration of the difcord of the femitone.
The difcord of the femitone, or lefler 2d, is, like that
of the greater 2d, or whole, tone, the 2d, 4th, and 6th.
The demonftration is the fame as that of the greater 2d, •
and therefore need not be repeated here.
Example of the fixth difcord. No. 81.
This is a proper difcord, like that of the greater 2d*
being
M U S
beino a concord id itfelf. Its note difcordant with the
bafs is the 2d.
It hath beenfaid, that all harmony is divided between
the flat and (harp keys.
The mixture of difcord and harmony enables us to ex¬
tend the like obfervation in this place much further.
Hence the following corollary.
The compofition of all mufick, of any number of parts
whatever, is divided between the harmony of the flat and
fharp keys, and the jult mixture of difcord with it.
' To illuftrate thefe truths, we rtiall fet in one view e-
very concord and difcord, in the whole compafs of muiick,
in their natural order. No. 82.
Hence we (hall derive fome ufeful corollaries, which
will lead us to difcover what is next to be eonfidered,
the fecond property of the difcords, or their refolutions
into the concords.
The manner of reading this is as follows :
This concord is the concord of the key.
This concord is the concord of the 2d to the key, or
given-note.
This concord is the concord of the flat 7th.
This difcord is inharmonic, and fo forth : defcending
Hill from the uppermolt linas of harmony, or difcord, to
the loweft line, or bafs.
In this view is feen the mixture of difcord with har¬
mony, each in the natural order. Wherein, indeed, no¬
thing regular or proportioned appears to fight. The rea-
fon of this is evident from the demonftration of the har-
monical proportions. For, if they be of a fpecies different
from all other proportions, as by coroitary ad of the
theory, and mufl be demonftrated on principles peculiar
to them; then the fucceflion of the difcords, conftantly
taking place between the intervals of harmony, muft be
difproportioned too. This appears t<* fight in the next ex¬
ample, or view of harmony and difcord in the natural or¬
der. No. 82.
However irregular this may feem, an uniformity pre¬
vails through the whole, which fupports that variety in
mufick fo defirable : Without which variety, there could
have been but one concord among founds ; a famenefs
prevailing through the whole; without femitone, and
confequently without difcord. In this cafe, mufick never
could have exifted as an objedt of pleafure to the fenfe ;
much lefs of fcience.
This admirable flrudture is raifed on the power and
property of the femitone, which fhall be the fubjedt of the
following corollaries.
Cor. I. Everyfemitone in the odlave hath either a
concord dr difcord proper and peculiar to itfelf. Yet, the
natural fucceflion of the concords and difcords is not ac¬
cording to the afcending and defcending femitones. For,
it is evident, in the annexed table, that the correfponding
bafs notes conftantly defcend by gds, the variety, at the
fante time, fliining throughout the harmony and difcord in
the upper parts, afcending by femitotses. Yet the bafs ex-
preffes every femitone in its paffage by jds, uniformly to
its period.
This mofl ftrongly illuflrates the truth of the 4th axiom
of the theory ; namely, that the concords and difcords,,
I C K. 337
either in their natural order, or arranged by art, will not
fuffer us to depart from the eltabliflied precept of variety
amidft uniformity.
The fame uniformity, or rather unity, is exhibited ffill
more plainly in the 5th difcord, in the coincidence of dif¬
cord and harmony in the fame individual founds.
For this difcord, which is the difcord of the yth, is alfo
the harmony of the 5 th.
This is truly admirable, and furnifhes us with the moft
interefting remark in the compafs of mufick, as in the fol¬
lowing corollary.
Cor. II. The fcope of mufick, and motion of the
parts, muft at length terminate, and meet in one invariable
thing Harmony.
Thus are we arrived at the full extent, or bounds of
mufick. It it is fit we now return to make foch further
obfervations as will lead us to the knowledge of the re¬
folutions of the difcords, which is the next thing to be
fpoken to.
The divifion of difcords into proper and inharmonic,
we have made for the fake of clearnefs and method. The
difference already pointed out between the difcords muft
be remembered ; which is, that the property of the in¬
harmonic, or flat 7th, (which note does ever, with ano¬
ther note of the chord, frame the (harp 4th, or flat yth) is
the fame, in whatever place or form it is met with ; where¬
as the proper difcords effentially differ from each other,
and in every particular.
The three inharmonic therefore, in the natural order
of the difcords, are not fo properly three, as the fame dif¬
cord in different light; where it is a preparation for a
clofe on the key, and on the 4th and 5th to the key.
The bafs to the difcords moves by jds defcending in a
fharp key.
The notes of the bafs, correfponding to the proportions
of the flat key, Jiave no relation to the difcords in the line
next above; but are the bafs to the concords in the flat
key, as demonftrated in the rules of harmony.
The two difcords, which are a repetition of the firft and
fecond, are fet down in compliance with the 2d axiom, to
purfue the natural order. And hence they ferve to demon-
ftrate there can be no other difcord than thofe exempli¬
fied in the fcheme. For there is no femitone in the odlave
which doth not appear there to have its difcord or har¬
mony connedled with it.
In this fcheme then is comprifed every interval, of mu¬
fick, with the members of each chord refpedtively, both
difcord and harmony, in the natural order.
From the fame order, we fliall .demonftrate the paffage
of the difcords, into the concords or refolutions of the
fame.
In the theory, it hath been faid, that the femitone is
the principle or hinge, on which turns the refolution of
every difcord.
On this principle, then, we ihall now demonftrate the
fame.
The difcords ftand in the natural order between the
concords ; but every note of the chord is not equally near
refpedlively.
From, the idea of harmony, which is fitnefs or propor¬
tion, ,
338 M U S
tion, the paffage of the difcord mufl be to the neared
concord ; therefore, the refolution will be by the fmalleft
interval, that is, by the femitone.
This is the general theorem for the refolution of every
difcord. We will now apply it,
The rifolution of the ditcord of the 2d is into the
concord of the given note.
The 4th, or femitone, will move into the 3d, but the 3d
will have for harmony ns 3d; therefore, the 6 th mud defcend
into the 5th, and the sd’s paflage by the neared interval
will be into the given note. By thefe padages is formed
the chord of the fame; therefore, the refolution of the
difcord of the 2d is into the concord of the given note.
In a flat key, there are two paflages by femitones; that
of the flat 6th into the j h, and of the 2d afcending, by
contrary motion, into the 3d.
Example of the refolution of the difcord of the 2d, or
firft difcotd. No. 83.
Proper difcord.
The refolution of this difcord being into the given note,
the bafs does not move.
The refolution of the fecond difcord is into the concord
of the given note.
The fecond difcord is the 2d, 4th, and fliarp 7th. The
(harp 7th and 4th move by the femitones and contrary mo¬
tion into the 8th and 3d, while the 2d falls a jth into
the 5th. Thefe are the concord of the give note: there¬
fore the refolution of this difcord is into the concord of
the given note.
Example of the refolution of the fecond difcord being
inharmonic. No. 84.
Inharmonic difcord.
The refolution of this difcord being into the concord
of the given note, the bafs afcends by a femitone.
The pafiage of this inharmonic by contrary motion of
two femitones, and the other note falling a 5th, is the
refohuion of every inharmonic, where-ever introduced.
This therefore needs no repetition. But if the fucceeding
concord has a flat 3d, the paflage is by.two afcending fe-
tnitones ; the 2d rifing into the 3d, the 7th into the 8th,
and the 4th by a whole tone into the jth. This move¬
ment can only happen in the refolution into the key.
The other, of much more extenfive ufe, is the true re¬
folution of the inharmonic difcord ; and more interefting,
as, by its contrary motion of the femitones, it better binds
the harmony.
It is neceffary here to explain further the nature of the
inharmonic difcord.
The inharmonic difcord, then, is always the chord in a
fharp 3d, with a flat 7th; which two notes frame the in¬
terval which charadterifes this chord, namely, the fharp
4th, or flat 5th: when the flat 7th is the upper note of
the two, the interval is the flat 5th ; when the fharp 3d
is the upper note, the fame interval is called the fharp
4th. Thefe notes being relative to the fundamental note
cither of them determine the'chord.
As the inharmonic is found in different places of the
odtave, fo ccnfequemly the note of the chord muft vary
accordingly; the fecond inharmonic therefore only, in the
1 C K*
natural order, hath reference to the given note in the
table, as that happens te be the note of the chord. For
the given note there is to be accounted only a poiflt or
unity, from whence we proceeded to trace the difcords in
their natural order, as they lie between the concords.
The chord note, therefore, of the firft inharmonic is the -
yth to the given note ; and of the laft inharmonic, it is
the 2d to the fame. Now, as the whole chord falls 4
5th in the refolution, fo the firfl is a preparation for a
clofe on the key, the fecond for a clofe on the 4th, and
the laft for a clofe on the 5th ; now, as any note of the
chord may ftand in the bafs, fo the third is often prefer¬
red before the chord note, for the fake of the movement
of the bafs by a femitone, as well as becaufe falling a jth in
the bafs is more properly the part of harmony.
The flat 7th is likewife chofen for the bafs note ; for
the fame reafon, the movement of the bafs by a femitone
defeending; which is no inconfiderable ufe of difcords.
For in figurate defcant, as we have faid, all the parts
move more freely.
The next difcord is likewife inharmonic. It is'the fharp
3'd, jth, and flat 7th to the given note; which note is like¬
wife that of the chord. No. 8j.
Note, the refolution of every inharmonic being into
its jth below the chord, the refolution of this will be
into the 4th of the given note!; as rifing a 4th, and fall¬
ing a jth, anfwers the fame thing in eftimating the inter¬
vals of harmony.
Inharmonic difcord.
Example of the fecond inharmonic difcord and its re¬
folution : here the bafs note is the note of the chord ;
therefore, in the refolution it falls a jth, which is the 4th
to the given note.
The flat 7th defeends by a femitone into the 3d, the
3d rifes by a femitone into the 8th, and the jth falls a
jth into the jth of the concord. The refolution therefore
is into the 4th of the key.
This is that form of the inharmonic difcord on which
the compofltion of the paflage taken out of Corelli, (No.
73.) is grounded. Obferve, that in the cited paflage,
and alfo in every like paflage, the two notes of the bafs
move to only one note of,the fecond part, which becomes
the flat yfh by this movement of the bafs.
Thus the flat 7th is given, in the upper parts by
turns, to every note in the bafs, as hath been before re¬
marked.
Refolution of the third difcord.
The third difcord is the 3d, jth, and fliarp 7th, to
the given note ; it is refolved into the 6th to the fame.
For the 7th afcends into the 8th or 6th’s 3d, the jth rifes
a whole tone into the 6th, and the 3d not moving becomes
the jth. The refolution of this difcord therefore is into
the chord of the 6th.
Example of the refolution of the third difeord.-
No. 86.
Proper difcord.
This is a proper difcord ; in the rero!ution of which
the bafs falls a 3d, while the whole difcord falls a fifth.
The
M U S
The next difcord is the {harp 4th, 6th, and 8th. It is
inharmonic. Its refolution is into the chord of the given
cote’s 5th. No. 87. 0
Refolution of the third inharmonic^ difcord.
Of this difcord the bafs note is the flat 7th; it defcends
by a femitone, while the whole-chord falls a jth.
Inharmonic difcord.
Its refolution is the fame as that of every inharmonic,
in what form foever, by the contrary motion of the two
femitones, while the third note falls a 5th.
Refolution of the fourth difeord.
The fourth difcord is the lharp 4th, 6th, and 9th.
Its refolution is likewife into the chord of the note’s 5th.
For the (harp 4th afcends into the facceeding concord’s
8th, the 6th pafles into the 3d, and the 9th not moving
becomes the 5th. Thofe are the chord of the note’s 5th.
Example of the refolution of the fourth difcord.
No. 88.
Proper difcord.
This difcord is a mixture of the proper and inharmonic.
It is a proper difcord, for that the notes of the treble are
concord ; and inharmonic, in refpedt of the bafs, with
which it makes the difcord of the fliarp 4th.
It diflFers from the foregoing, where the flat 7th is ex-
preffed in both treble and bafs ; whereas, in this, it is on¬
ly in the bafs.
The bafs here alfo defeends by a femitone, while the
chord falls a 5th.
Refolutien of the fifth difcord.
The fifth difcord is the..5th, fliarp 7th, and 9th. It is
refolved into the concord of the bafs note.
For the 5th is that note’s 5th ; the fliarp 7th afcends
by a femitone into the 8th ; and the 9th (or 2d) paffes
into the 3d. Thus it is refolved into the chord of the
given, or bafs note.
Example of the refolution of the fifth difcord. No. 89.
Proper difcord.
In this refolution the whole chord falls a 5th, while
the bafs Hands ftill, or defcends into the oftave.
This is plainly the laft difcord in the order ©f founds.
Its refolution is into the given note or key, by the paf-
fage of the great cadence, or defcent by a 5th.. It is
a concord in itfelf; and is in harmony the concord of
the 5th.
In this chord difcord and harmony are united. When
it Hands in difcord with the bafs, the bafs doth not move
in the refolution ; when it founds perfect harmony with
the !*ifs, then the bafs defcends a 5th.
Therefore we conclude, Harmony and difcord are like
two finite lines, whofe beginnings are at a certain di¬
fiance ; and in the natural progreflion converge conflant-
!y, until they meet in a point.
The difcord, which we have referved to the fixth
place, is that of the iefler^d, or femitone.
Its places in a flat key are the 3d and 6th ; and in a
Yor. IK, N°. 83. 2
I C K. 335,
fharp key the 4th and 8th, or where-ever a new ferai-
tone is introduced.
It is a proper difcord, being a concord in itfeif, whofe-
chord hath always a lharp 3d.
Its properties are everywhere alike; but its refolu¬
tion differs from that of the greater 2d, for the reafon
afligned in the refolution of every difcord ; that is, the
paffage by the femitone.
Refolution of the lejfer 2d, or femitone.
The difcord of the leffer 2d is the 2d, 4th, and 6th to
the bafs ; or, the concord of itfelf.
Its refolution is into the concord of its own 3d or jth.
It rifes into the concord of its 3d by the Angle paffage of
the femitone defcending. And into the concord of its
5th by the 4th defcending along with the femitone.
Example of the refolution of the difcord of the femi¬
tone. No. 90.
In the firfi refolution, the chord riles a 3d, and the
bafs falls a jth. In the fecond, the chord rifes a jth,
and the bafs falls a 3d, the reverfe of the former.
From the refolutions of the difcords we derive the fol¬
lowing corollaries.
Cor. I. There is no interval of harmony that is
performed by the bafs in the refolution of one difcord or
another.
Hence we may conceive that harmony regulates even
the difcords, and prefides in every part of mufick.
Cor. II. The inharmonic difcord, or flat 7th, is a
preparation to a clofe on a key, the 4th and jth, flat 3d
and flat 6th ; for into the harmony of thefe it is refolved;
they being the intervals on which clofes may be made ac¬
cording to the eflablilhed rules of melody. And univer-
fally, wherefoever a clofe may be made by introdacing a
new femitone, the preparation may be made by the flat
7th, or inharmonic difcord.
This difcord, being of fuch extenfive ufe, will deferve
fome further remarks, which may render the fetting of
the fame more eafy, and affiff the performer in the taking
and refolution of it.
In the inharmonic difcord, then, are three notes chiefly
concerned, which are the note of the concord ; its 3d,
(which is always fliarp;) and the flat 7th: either of thefe
may be fet in the bafs. Hence there will arife three va¬
rieties.
If the note of the chord be the bafs note,, the figure
is the flat 7th ; the chord is that of the fame note ; and
the bafs falls a jth.
Secondly, When the 3d is the bafs note, the figures
are flat jth and 6th ; the chord is that of the 6th to the
fame 3d ; and the bafs afcends by a femitone.
Thirdly, If the flat 7th Hand in the bafs, the figures
are the Iharp 4th, 6th, and 9th ; the chord is that
of the 2d to the bafs note ; and the bafs defcends by
a femitone.
Example. No. 91.
The jth of the chord may likewife Hand in the bafs;
but as the movement of the fame is by a whole tone de¬
fcending, it is very feldom ufed.
The figures are 6th-
flat 3d.
4 Cor.
34© M If S
Cor. III. Hence the bafs afcending or defcending
by a femitones furnlfhes an opportunity of introducing
notes in the upper parts, which will conditute the inhar¬
monic difcord.
And again, the fharp 3d of any chord in the treble,
or any note having the adiition of a fharp, and thereby
becoming the greater 7th, may be the 3d of an inhar¬
monic; ihe bafs taking the flat 7th. For the fharp 3d
of the chord, (which is the fharp 4th to the flat 7th in
the bafs, or elfewhere,) and the flat 7^h, in whatfoever
part they are fet, in bafs or treble, or both in the tre¬
ble, condantly move each his own way ; the firft a-
fcending, and the latter defcending by a femitone.
Thefe are the Ample difcords as they are found to lie
in the natural order of founds between the concords ;
whofe accompaniments are, for the mod part, harmony
among themfelves. It is evident, from the method in
which we traced them, that there is no other difcord a
mong founds. Notwithdanding, from the combination
of two Ample difcords, a new form of difcord may be
framed, which taketh part of the inharmonic and difcord
of the femitone; which, therefore, we call the com¬
pound difcord.
This difcord is the fharp 3d, flat 7th, and flat 2d, or
femitone to any note whofe chord hath a fharp 3d.
It is refolved, by the paffage of three fendtones, two
defcending, and one afcending, into any concord with a
fharp 3d ; and therefore may be introduced as a prepa¬
ration to any concord, in either flat or fharp key, where
the greater 3d is.
Example of the Compound difcord, and its refoluticn.
No. 92.
The refolution of this difcord, as it is compounded of
the difcords of the flat 7th, and femitone, will partake
of the refolution of the fame. Thus the upper note, or
femitone, defcends into the 5th of the concord; and the
flat 7th and 3d meet by contrary paffage of a femitone
each into the 3d and 8th part of the refolution of every
inharmonic, while the bafs defcends a 5th. Thus the
paflage into every note of the concord is by a femitone ;
fo great % favourite of nature is the femitone.
By changing the form.of this difcord, it will be re¬
folved into a chord with a flat 3d, by one femitone de¬
fcending, and two afcending ; the two extreme notes
of which are the fame as in the example above; but the
middle note is the 5th afcending into the 3d, inftead of
the flat 7th defcending. The upper notes therefore form
the flat 5th, or inharmonic interval. No. 93.
The properties of thofe difcords, and of the inharmo¬
nic, furnifh us with fome practical obfervations ; which
are, that the two difcordant notes of thefe difcords are,
in muflck of two parts, a preparation to, or pafs by con¬
trary motion of the femitones into the concords of the
fharp 3d, flat 6th, and 5th. When the flat 7th is the
wppermoft note, and the lower the fharp 3d, they pafs
into a fharp 3d.
When the upper note is the fharp 3d, and the flat 7th
is below, they pafs into the flat 6th ; fo do likewife the
flat 7th above, and the chord note below.
Laftly, the two extreme notes of the compound dif¬
cord pafs into the concord of the 5 th,
I C K.
Example of the paffage of difcords in mufick of twe
parts. No. 94.
In like manner there is a paffage into the oAave from
a difcordant interval ; the upper note of which is part of
a concord, and the lower the femitone of the compound
difcord. No. 95. Or the contrary.
There is no paflage by two femitones into the flat 3d
and fharp 6th from any difcordant interval, except the
femitone. For, in the paflage of quick notes encoun¬
tering each other by contrary motion, this, or any other
difcordant interval, may fall into the concords. But
fuch, being tolerated only for their quicknefs, need not
be reduced, as indeed they cannot* to any rules of art.
Laftly, the bafs will admit two notes together, each
concording with it, namely, the 5th and 6th, and ma¬
king a difcora between themfelves.
This difcord, which differs from the proper and inhar¬
monic, is rightly called the mixed difcord ; each of
the two notes being in harmony with the bafs, and dif¬
cordant to each other.
The framing of this difcord depends upon the rules of
harmony, and may he fet to any note of the bafs which
hath fbr harmony its owm concord, and is likewife the
member of another.
Therefore, in the fharp,key, the key and 5th, and in
the flat key, the key 3d, 5th, and flat yih, admit a 5th
and 6th.
When wefhall have proved, under the article of tranf-
pofltjon, the 4th in a flat key, and 6th in a fharp key,
to have their own concord ; they will be found, no doubt,
to have the privilege of admitting a 5th and 6th.
For thus it k underflood. The key hath a 5th in its
own right, and a 6th as member of the 4th.
The 5th hath a jth in i s own right, and a 6th as
member of the key.
The flat 3d hath a 5th in his own right, and a 6th
as member of the key.
The flat 7th hath a 5th in his own right, and a 6th
as member of the 3d.
Thus the 5th and 6th will ftand together to the bafs.
The properties of founds in the natural order may be
transferred by art, and improved into all the variety pof-
fible ; as this is no other than an imitation of nature.
Hence we infer, that every note, which aflumes the
nature of the key, by the addition of the greater 7th,
will admit a 5th and 6th.
This jth is eafily diflinguifhed from the Jth of the
inharmonic, which is always an imperfedt one, and ought
conflantly to have a flat prefixed.
Now the chord of the inharmonic with a flat jth is
that of the 6th to the bafs note, as hath been faid. But
the chord of the mixt difcord may be better underflood
to be the chord of the bafs note, with a 6th added.
Sedt. 2. ^/'Figuring the Bass.
Having delivered all that hath fallen under our ob-
fervation concerning the nature," proportion, and ufe of
difcord ; we (hall now make an application of the fame,,
in order to explain the Aguring of the bafs ; the next ar¬
ticle propofed to be fpoken to.
Firft, Of figuring the concords.
Thai
M U S
That the notes whofe harmony is their own chords,
need no figures, is evident from the definition of harmo¬
ny; which confiifs of one certain, invariable proportion
of founds.
Thefe are the key, flat 3d, 4th of a fliarp key, jth,
flat 6th, flat 7th.
They which, as members of other chords, require the
figures of harmony fet over them, are thefe following ;
and are reduced to this general rule:
The 3d of every concord hath a and the jth of
every concord hath a
Therefore, And thefe,
Key 1 f Key 2d 'l
Fiat 3d and (harp ] ] Fiat 3d and (harp j
jth of a flat key have a <{ 4th of a flat key j> have a
Flat 6th and (harp j j jth of a (harp key | £
Sharp 7th J l^Fiat 7th J
Lafiiy, The 4th in a flat key, when it has its own
chord, muft have a jth fet over it, to diftinguilh tho
chord from that of the flat 7th. And the 6th in the
(harp key, when it hath its own chord, mud have a
jth likewife fet over it, to diflinguifh the chord from
that of the 4th.
The proof of the 6th in a (harp key, having for har¬
mony its' own concord, depends on the relative propor¬
tion of the flat and (harp keys; as will be (hewn in the
chapter on tranfpofition. So much for figuring the bafs
in concords.
Let us now inquire into the (horteft and cleareft me¬
thod of figuring the difcords. This will be no difficult
matter, when we confider well the whole difcords, as
they are full figured in every example.
There the figures fet over the bafs exprefs the in¬
tervals which the notes in the upper parts form with
them. Thefe taken together make the whole difcord.
And as thefe, with the harmonic chords in fucceflion, ex¬
prefs the whole compofnion, they are therefore called
the thorough-bafs.
To render the performance of the thorough-bafs eafy
and expeditious being the chief intention of figuring the
bafs ; this will be4>e(t anfwered by diffinguilhing thedif--
cords, which have fome figures in common with each o-
ther, by fuch figures only as will (frongly mark each
difcord. For though all the figures fet down in the ex¬
amples be neceflary to demonftrate the properties of the.
difcords, and truth of the compofition ; the cafe is quite
otherwife in refpetSt to the fight; many marks caufing
perplexity and confufion, when one fingle mark in this,
as in all other cafes, bed difcovers the difference. The
proper difcords then being concords in themfelves, the
figure, or figures, difcording with the bafs note, will di-
ftinguifff each of thefe.
The inharmonic difcords being the fame in different
form, will be diftingaiflied by the difcording figures pe¬
culiar to-each form.
Of the properties of this difcord. and manner of ta¬
king the fame, we have fpoken fufficiently. We (hall
therefore only fet down the difcording figures of eaeh.
form, in the following example.
Example of the proper difcords figured for taking the
fame at fight. No. 96,
I C K. 341
The inharmonic difcords figured for taking the fame
at fight. No. 97.
Moreover, the proper difcords being concords, each
in irfelf; every .difcord will be concord to fome note dif¬
ferent from the bafs, or difeordant note.
To remember this note will render the taking of this
difcord ready at fight, it appearing in this light a chord
of harmony.
The fame is in fome meafure true of the inharmonic
difcord.
Therefore the figures in the examples, under the
bafs lines, exprefs the names of thefe concords rela¬
tive to each.
It remains to be obferved, that the accompaniments of
the 2d are the and of the 9th the (harp -f- , as they ap¬
pear in the natural order of the proportion of the fame,
(No. 82.) It will be neeeflary to demonftrate here the
truth of this.
The 4th and 6th being the accompaniments of the sd,
the fifth and (harp 7th are the accompaniments of the 9’h„
For the proportion of the 9th to the 2d (whofe 8th it
is) is 2 to x. And the proportion of the 4th and 6th -r4-.
Therefore, by the rule of proportion, fay,
as 1 144-: :2:if:
but the 4th number, or -|=§, is the proportion of the jth
and (harp 7th; (for 4 V > therefore the jth,
and.(harp‘7th, are the accompaniments of the 9th. O,
E, D.
The laft ufe we (hall mention of the difcord is the fur-
niffiing the inward parts of mufick, in compofition of many
parts.
As, in harmony, each part of the four takes one of the
concording notes, and hence, by the continual mixture
of thefe by their contrary motion, the compofition is
framed ; fo, in figurate defcant, the notes of the difcord
furnifh the parts in their turn.
And the fame notes, palling by femitones chiefly, form ;
among themfelves that refolution which the bafs performs
alone.
The compofer therefore, when, fetting a bafs, he intro¬
duces a difcord, is as well prepared for the notes of the
other parts in this eafe as in fetting a concord ; and if
he be well (killed in the refolutions, will with great eafe
compofe the fucceeding concord.
For the thorough bafs, being the whole compofition in
one view, the knowledge of the one and of the other
muft.be the fame. As, then, he who undetftands the rules -
of harmony and the difcords, and their refolutions, will
fucceed with eafe in compofition; fo, on the.other hand,
he cannot be a fitilful compofer who is ignorant of the
properties of harmonica! chords and difcords.
One example in three parts, being the fame fet above
in two, will fufficiently illuftrate this.
Example of the ufe of difcord in the compofition of '
many parts. No. 98.
Chap. IV. Of MELODY.
Hitherto we have confidered mufick in its feveral ;
parts taken together, or the art of compofition. Our
next bufinefs will be inquire into the method of framing
a. Angle part, 01 making the melody.
Melody,
342 M U S
Melody is the air of the uppermod or firft part in
Diufick, commonly called the tune. ,
In a plain fong, the air is formed without confidering
the relation which the other parts, which may be fet in
composition vyith it, may bear. For, being firft framed,
and for the foie end of pleafing the ear and fancy ; it mult,
it is evident, be independent of them.
For as to framing the bafs firft, and fetting the treble
to it, there appears no neceflity either in reafon or the
rules of compofition; they equally ferving the purpofe of
beginning with any part, no part being privileged with
any particular member of difcord or harmony ; as is 3-
bundantly manifeft from the various pofitions which the
difcordant notes have been fhewn to ftand in ; as well as
from the 4th axiom of the theory, which eftablifties va¬
riety for conducing and rendering even harmony accept¬
able ; a famenefs in the fuccdfive concords being the on¬
ly thing exceptionable in that part of compofition.
All the parts of mufick then being equally concerned
in the compofition ; to prefer any one part, as a bafis, or
unerring guide, on which to eredt the mufick, or bring
in the parts, is doing injury to that liberty which nature
and the rules of art put us in poffeffion of.
But the air of the firft part fo eftential to the tune, or
rather the tune itfelf, compels us to decide in favour of
framing the treble firft. In which it will be found im-
poflibleto fucceed, when it is confined to what the bafs, if
it be firft framed, muft of neceflity prefcrjbe.
This preference in framing the treble firft, chiefly re-
fpedls a plain fong, or air. For, in more elaborate,
pieces, where the defign of the author is imitation of
paflages in the feveral parts by turns, according to his
choice or fancy making ufe of the fame liberty, he will
take any for the leading part, and accordingly write
the paffage in that part, and finifh the compofition in the
reft.
The air or firft part in inftrumental mufick is called
the firft treble ; the air for a fingle voice is called the
voice part, or fong ; and in mufick for many voices, the
upper part is called the counter-tenor.
In this mufick, the air of the tenor, and of every part
performed by the voice, is ftudied with more exadtnefs
-than the inward parts of inftrumental mufick.
The reafon for this difference is, that in inftrumental
mufick, the firft violin generally prefides, or leads the mu¬
fick by its air : as this is the compofer’s defign, the other
parts muft of neceflity be accommodated to it.
Whereas in mufick for voices, every voice repeating
the fame words, that is, expreiling the fame fenfe, at the
fame time, or immediately fucceeding ; nothing can de¬
feat the end of the mufick fo much, which is the fetting
of words, or rather fentiments, to notes as expreflive of
the fenfe as inarticulate founds can poflibly do, as fot;
one part to excel the otherj fo much in this neceflary point,
as by comparifon to depreciate, weaken, or alter the fenfe
in the others.
The air, therefore, of every part in vocal mufick muft be
confulted ; not only for the fake of harmony, (for a good
air in each part improves even the harmony;} but alfo for
the fentiment fake, without which the mufick muft be
abfurd and dillbnant.
I C K.
Notwithftanding the liberty which every one may juftly
challenge of framing an air agreeable to his own fancy ;
yet it cannot be faid, that this liberty is uncontroulable,
or beyond the power of art to prefcnbe bounds to : For
then indeed every (train compofed by even a bad and in¬
judicious ear might ftand in competition with the moft
finiflied pieces. But as this will not be allowed on any
hand, even an undiftinguifhing ear conceiving a degree of
pleafure in hearing good mufick ; fo there is no doubt
but that there mult be fome precept or manner found out
by experience, to afcertain and condudt the air or (train,
and which will render it to a good and judicious ear plain¬
ly preferable.
The rules therefore whiqh we (hall lay down for me¬
lody, are fuch only as are founded in truth and reafon ;
the refult of experience, joined to (kill ; and which are
admitted in every liberal art: Thefe are unity, imitation,
and order. If it (hall be faid, that perf ns unlkilled in
mufick, but otherwife very capable from a natural good
ear, will fing an air which an artift cannot find fault with,
we confefs it may be in fome fort true.
But the drains of fuch compofers are always very (hort;
and as they feldom or never depart from the key, fo they
afford not that variety fo defirable in mufick : Nay, what
is this but faying that the rules of art are conclufions taken
from nature, as in truth they are ; fo then they muft be
alfuredly right ? This muft be fo, when the appeal is made
from art to nature.
As to thofe effays called voluntaries, there was never
a good one performed but by a good mafter. The mu¬
fick was always good in proportion to the mafter’s (kill in
the art; in proportion to the variety he introduced ac¬
cording to the rules of art. Therefore even voluntaries are
the effedts of knowledge and deliberation.
But to return. The firft rule of melody is unity.
The unity of tune is faid to be in refpedt of the key,
and of the fubjedt.
Every tune muft be written in fome key, in which it
muft begin and end.
As every air is faid to be in fuch a key as is the laft
note, efpecially the laft note of the bafs ; fo there is the
fame neceflity for the firft and laft note of every air to be
fome member of the concord of the key. This difcovers
the defign of the author. Having thus fixed the attention
of the hearer to this particular, the ear and imagination
can no other way be fatisfied than by holding to and ex¬
ecuting the fame defign.
The unity of tune is as neceflary in this refpedt, as
confiftency in the words and fentiments of an orator
is requifite to difcover the fcope and meaning of his dif-
courfe.
Secondly, the unity of tune, in refpedl: of the fubjedt,
fignifies, that there (houid be one fubjedt of every piece of
mufick repeated and infifted on, as often as conveniently
can be, throughout the Whole piece.
And this repetition will be in proportion to the length
of the tune, and defign of the compofer. Even in a mi¬
nuet, or any other exadl piece confined to a certain
number of bars, the repetition of the fubjedt may be ef-
fedled. Now, the fubjedt of every air, or piece of mu¬
fick, is the firft paflage of the fame, for any number of
bars,
M U . S
bars, be they more oi; lefs, as it (hall happen ; every
tune being (lamped with Tome prevailing idea or fancy
peculiar to itfelf, and therefore diftinguilhing it from e-
very other.
The fubje&s of grand pieces of inftrumental mufickare
contrived with care and (tudy ; and invented with defign
to enlarge or defcant upon at will; not being confined to
any length, or certain number of bars. Such pieces, be¬
ing the efforts of great and mafterly genius, afford all the
pleafure thatdefign andinvention, carri d on by everyma-
(terly (Iroke of art, can give.
The fecond rule of melody is imitation. As in the
executing other arts, a fimilitude and proportion of the
members ought to be preferred ; fo imitation, or a re
petition of the moft'ftriking paffages, anlwers to this in
mufick.
Imitation may be performed many ways. Firft, when
the repetition of the paffage is made, beginning on the
note above the leading note of the paffage ; or on the
third, fifth, eighth, or any other interval.
A paffage alfo may be imitated in any of the defcending
notes. A repetition on the o&ave below is frequent in e-
very good author.
In the repetition of paffages, there are two varieties.
The firft is, when the paffage is repeated in notes be¬
longing to the harmony of the key. It will feldom hap¬
pen in this cafe, that the paffage will in the repetition be
precifely the fame, in refpeft of the intervals of the notes,
though the movement be an exadt imitation.
The reafon of this will be evident, if we corifider that
the intervals in both flat and (harp keys refpe&ively a-
fcend by different degrees ; the femitone changing the in¬
tervals almoft continually.
See example, No. 12. in the theory.
In thefe examples no more than two flat or (harp thirds
fucceed each' other. And where they do fucceed, the
femitone is in a different place in the two like intervals
of flat thirds; it being the third of one interval, and 2d
of the next afcending 3d, or the contrary.
' In the (harp key, two (harp gds afcend from the 4th
and 5th, and is the flat key from the 6th and 7th. The
inequality-of the flat 3ds, and of the few inflances of
their fucceflion, is owing to the places of the femitone.
To the inequality of the 3ds is owing the inequality of
the 4ths, jths, and every other unequal interval in the
courfe of the notes; the greater neceffarily partaking
of the inequality of the. Idler, which is included in it.
Ail this is evident.
Therefore, the repetition of a paffage will not be pre¬
cifely as the paffage, except in the places abovemencion-
ed ; that is to fay, a repetition of (harp thirds from the
4th and 5th of the (harp key ; and of the fame, on the
6th and 7th of the flat key. And in the (harp key,
there may be an imitation in the compafs of fix notes a
fcending; namely, from the key audits 5th. We have
been particular in remarking the want of exadtnefs in
imitation on notes belonging to the key. Not that we
mean to mark it as a defetft; for it is beyond doubt, that
every paffage in the harmony of the key mult be pleafing
whether it be a perfedt imitation or not.
Befides, this diflimilitude, arifing frcm the place of
Vox. III. N°. 83. 2
I C K. 343
the femitone being changed, is fo far from beitrtg charge¬
able with a defedt, that, as hath been often faid, it pro¬
duces that fweet variety which is founded in the principles,
and which every artifl purfuing will fucceed in ; as in this
he doth no other than copy aiter nature.
Thefe remarks on the imitation of a paffage in the notes
of the harmony of the key, will lead us to the fecond
manner of imitation ; which is fuch, as that every note
in the repetition (lands exadlly in the fame interval re-
fpedtiveiy as the notes of the fir A paffage.
This then is a perfedt imitation. Which, as it cannot
take place in the harmony, of the key, except in the few
cafes abovementioned, it mud be effedted by art ; that
is, by altering the places of the femitones in the key, fo
as to correfpond with thofe in the original paffage, by
marking a (harp for the femitone afcending, if,the repe¬
tition be in notes above the paffage1; and a flat for the
femitone removed lower, if the repetition be in the de¬
fcending notes.
In this manner there can be a perfedl imitation of any
paffage of any length whatfoever, and of any compafs :
in every inftance of which, the key is changed, by in¬
troducing notes not belonging to the harmony of the
fame.
As every interval of the firft paffage muft bepreferved
in the repetition : it willfometimes happen, that many flats,
or (harps, muft be added to the notes in die repetition. The
rule of this pradlice will be well underftood, when we
(hall have learned the art of tranfpofition; the repeti¬
tion of any paffage in this manner being no other than a
tranfpofition of the fame into another key. In regard to
this perfedt imitation, we have one remark: which is,
that if a repetition be made on the note next above, and
repeated again the note ftill higher, it will have a good
effedt; for this will create fncb a novelty in the drain as
is furprifing; befides that it affords the author an op¬
portunity both of making new defcant or enlarging on the
fubjedt in this new key, as well as of (hewing thegreateft:
(kill by returning from that digreflion into the original
key with art and propriety.
This will be no difficult matter to one who underftands
well the art of tranfpofition. Now, the repetition of the
fubjedl tranfpofed into a key different from the original
belongs to this fecond rule of melody ; as the repeating
the fubjedt in its own key refpedts the rule of unity. ?
The repetition of the fubjedt after thefe two manners,
and throughout the feveral parts, as treble, bafs, tenor,
and fo on fucceifively and cqnftantly, each part taking
it up immediately, or as foon as the repetition is finiffied in
ahother, whereby the feveral parts feem to move in pur-
fuit of each other, is called a fugue.
Mufick compofed on this defign is juftly efteemed a-
bove all other, not only on account of its excellent con¬
trivance, but for the fake of the pleafure alfo which it
affords.
In a juft fugue is reprefented all the variety poffible ;
at the fame time that ap uniform progreflion of the parts
is preferred throughout the whole, without the leaft dif-
covery of the figns of art.
The reafon fo this may be, that the repetition of fo
interefting a paffage as the fubjedl is, is fo natural to the
4 R imagination
344 M TJ S
imagination and ear, as not to be eafily diftinguiflied as
the effefl of art. The conftrutSion of a fugue will be
nnderflood, from this defcription, to be in the following
manner.
The fubjeft being firft written in that part which the
compofer intends to be the leading part, the fame mud
be fet down again in the next part wherein the repetition
is appointed to be made, either in unifon, or on the 4th
or jth to the key or fubjedf,'the 2d, or any other inter¬
val ; in which matter the compofer is at liberty.
Yet the repetition on the 4th fjeems more natural to the
flat key; as, on the 5th, it is to the (harp key.
If the mufick be in two parts only, the fubjeifl being
written in each part in fucceflion ; the next ftep will be
to frame defcant to that part where the repetition is, and
which therefore will be written in the leading part.
Henceforward the parts move on at liberty, that is, no where
repeating the fubjed, but exprelEng all the variety in
•defcant each to the other, which the fancy, invention,
and Ikill of the author fugged, until the fubjed is again
repeated, either in the key, or fome interval of the har¬
mony of the key, 01 perhaps in a new key.
The imitation of this mud immediately follow in. the
other part, in uniton, or otherwife.
If the mufick be of three or four parts, let the fubjed
be fird written in every part, in fucceffion ; and in the
order you intend. Then fill up with defcant the fecond
bar, or more, of the leading part; that is, as far as the
fubjed reaches in the other part; and proceed likewife
on the next repeating part with other new defcant; and
fo on through every part, until all the daves are equally
full.
After which the parts move at liberty, as before in
a two-part fugue, until another repetition of the fubjed.
But where, or how frequent, the repetition of the fub¬
jed may be made; or on yhat interval, whether above
or below ; or by what fucceffion of the parts, (for they
need not preferve the order they began in;) is neither
the bufinefs, nor in the compafs of the rules of art to
prefcribe.
In thefe matters, the compofet is as much at liberty
as his genius and invention can furniffi matter and variety.
So that in fome places the fubjed may be repeated con¬
tinually, in the different parts, on intervals and in a key
different from the original key or otder.
Sometimes, the movement of the fubjed being the
fame, the notes are changed from afcending to defcending,
or the contrary. Sometimes even the movement to the
contrary. At other times, a new fubjed is introduced ;
and then it is called a double fugue. And ladly, for the
fake of v«riety, the fubjed is repeated backwards, or in¬
verted; fo that the parts feemto pals each other by con¬
trary motion, indead of purfuing.
In i word, there is nopaffage which'expreffes variety,
which may not be introduced in a jud fugue ; while the
uniformity is preferved in the imitation of the fame, and
refuming the original fubjed, and key, towards the con-
clufjon or clofe of the piece.
We lhall only add, that if the defcant which fills up
the bars be condantly written in all the parts fucceffive-
iy and in order throughout the whole piece, the fugue
I C K.
is, from the exadnefs of this repetition, called a canon.
In framing of which, obferve, that if the canon corifid
of three or more parts; when the third part takes up the
fubjed, the defcant in the leading part mud be part of the
harmony of the other two.
What remains to be fpoken to on >his fecond rule of
melody, or imitation, is the method of returning into the
original key, after a paffagc in a remote one. This will
lead us to confider the half-tones not belonging to the
harmony of the key, or chromatic notes.
For if a paffage, or repetition of a paffage, be in a new
key, which is the imitation we lire now fpeaking of, the
tefuming the key immediately will be bychromatic notes;
defcending if the repetition were above; and if the repe¬
tition was in nptes below the paffage, we mayafcend in¬
to the key by chromatics like.vife, or half-tones afcend-
ing.
This is evident. For every key, flat or ffiarp, having
its femitones in their proper places, a paffage is not in the
key, when the femitones are out of their places.
Therefore the returning into the key, from a paffage
not in the harmony of the fame, mud be by removing the
new half-tones.
This depends on the knowledge of tranfpofition.
The new femitones introduced in a paffage, or imita-
ttOK of one, we have called chromatic notes; becaufe e-
very femitone not belonging to the harmony of the key
are to be found only in the chromatic fcale.
Yet this is but improperly. For two, three, or more
femitones fucceeding each other are properly called chro¬
matic notes; which, to mufick wherein the frequent ufc
of thefe is made, gives the name of chromatic mufick.
The ufe of chromatic notes is to raife the attention by
the uncommon and unexpeded variety they produce.
For every new half-tone afcending, being underdood
by the ear as the greater 7th, implies a new key. Thr.ee
or more femitones afcending after each other, do there¬
fore raife the expedation of fo many new keys: whereby
the curiofity is greatly excited ; and the expedation of the
ear being gratified, in the imitation of a clpfe, by every
new feraitone, the mufick becomes, as in all other cafes
where novelty takes place, truly the objed of admiration.
In a feries of femitones afcending, the lad is in the place
of the key. When chromatic notes defcend, the lad but
one is the key, for the fame reafon ; namely, the femi¬
tone below founding as the greater 7th, every key be¬
ing a femitone to its greater 7th or half-tone below re¬
latively.
Chromatic notesafeending, by alarming the ear and
imagination, elevate the foul, thereby imitating the fub-
lime.
Chromatic notes defcending, exprefs the pathetic,
which is free from any alarm or terror. The performance
of thefe notes fhould always be with foftnefs, which natu¬
rally removes the apprehenfionof terror. Afcending and
defcending femitones partake of the nature of the ffiarp
and flat keys; as hath been faid concerning the power of
mufical founds to touch the paffions.
Chromatic notes may be introduced in many places.
If, in a paffage, the femitcces of the key occur among
others, they are to be accounted as chromatic. There¬
fore
M U S
for* fit and {harp keys are equally capable of improve¬
ment by them.
Notwithftanding chromatic notes create fo much variety
and elegance, it muft not be underltood that they are to
be introduced injudicioufly, or without any addrefs; for
then they would not only be ufelefs, but injure the mu-
■ lick. Chromatic notes being fo affedHng and expreffive,
as we have (hewn, their place in vocal mufick will eafily
be determined by the fentiment.
As, on the other hand, to introduce lively or pathetic
founds, where the fenfe is difibnant from either, is intro¬
ducing contradiction and confufion.
Neither is it natural in indrumental mufick to break in
upon a lively drain by flowly moving chromatic notes.
Though at the end of a brifk movement, the tranlition is
good. For mufic which moves in femitones, though quick
notes, muft appear flow to the ear, which expefts the
greater intervals of the diatonic fcale, or whole tones.
Yet inftrumental mufick does properly admit the mix¬
ture of chromatic notes, when they are accommodated to
the genius of the ftrain or fubjeCh Neither will it be
difficult to judge of this propriety. For mufical founds
having a natural tendency to exprefs our ideas, the place
of chromatics will readily be found J>y this mark ; it be¬
ing in the power of the compofer to imagine ideas with-
■ out the help or intervention of words, and (o fubftitute
thefe ideas in the place of words, and make them the
fubjeCt of his ftrain. Thus he may fill his mind with the
imaginary paffions of love, forrow, anger, dejeCtion, pity,
and the like ; the expreftions of which will be moft eafily
• diftinguiftied by mufical founds, and varied as the fubjeft
requires. Thus, if two or more of the paffions, efpeci-
ally contrary ones, be reprefented by turns, it will form
in the imagination a kind of converfation between perfons,
' which never fails to ftrike the attention ftronger, and make
a dCep impreffion on the hearer.
Befides this, the imagination of the compofer will be
sffifted in the invention of variety; and the different paf-
fages of the piece will be furniffied with notes proper and
natural to each ; for the fame reafon that choice and ex-
preffive words flow in upon a good writer who is mafter
of his fubjeft. We {hall only add, that if fometirnes the
different paffages be allotted to the bafs and tieble by
turns, it will greatly diverfify the fubjedf, mark the
fentiment ftronger, and thereby caufe new pleafure. So
' much for chromatic notes. Notwrthftanding, what hath
been faid in this place doth not refpedt chromatics only;
' but in general the whole procefs of an elaborate piece,
in every form and tranfition of the melody; wherein on¬
ly there is opportunity for application of what we have
here fuggefted.
The reafon why we have given place to chromatics
• under this fecond rule of melody, or imitation, we have
' already afligned ; namely, that the ufe of half-tones is
neceflary where there is a repetition of a paffage in
another key. For, whatever proportion of founds is
found in the natural order, the'fame may be transfer¬
red by art, and improved upon every occafion, as
thereby imitating nature. And this, by the way, is like-
wife the true reafon for the refolution of difeords by fe- •
mitones; being taken from the original pattern, or refo-
C K. 345
lution by the two femitones in the natural ft lies of found3
in the oftave.
The third rule of melody is order.
Order in mufick is the conducing the melody or air,
according to a certain rule, through feveral intermediate
clofes, from the beginning to the final clofe or end of the
tune.
A clofe is the termination of a paflage in a .concord ;
which, like a period in fenfe, is framed with defign, and
from the preparation from the notes immediately prece¬
ding, which are the whole tone above, the half tone be¬
low, and the jth (generally the bafs note) is expe&ed
by the ear. This is the defeription of a full clofe, which
is ever the final clofe, efpecially of quick movements.
This preparation is the concord of the 5th to the note on
which the clofe is made ; the bafs' making the great ca¬
dence, as we have taught in the rules of compofition.
This preparation is in full harmony. But it muft be
remembered, that there is a preparation alfo from dif-
cord; chiefly the difeord of the flat 7th, of which we
have faid enough In the chapter of difeord or figurate
defcant. In flow movements there is a preparation tora
full clofe ; which {hall be deferibed prefently.
Every intermediate clofe hath its preparation in imita¬
tion of the final clofe, more or lefs. For there is no
neceflity for the parts taking invariably the fame member
of the chord; fo that the treble oft times makes the ca¬
dence from the 5th, particularly in quick paffages; in
which likewife, in the middle of a ftrain, many imperfe£t
clofes may occur, the parts taking the notes indiferimi-
nateiy as they happen, without any preparation defign-
ed. It is enough to mention thefe.
But in order to conduct the air in each ftrain, if there
be more drains than one, with propriety and method,
there muft be a full clofe in feveral places in the harmo¬
ny of thq key. Thefe are called proper clofes.
Thefe are alfo clofes made by the introdu&ion of a
new femitone, by the addition of a fnarp, making the
greater yth not belonging to the harmony of the key.
Thefe are rightly called improper clofes.
The places and order of both thefe we {hall now aflign.
The firft proper clofe falls naturally on the key. This
is not meant of the final clofe; for a clofe may be made
on the key, within a few bars of the beginning : yet
this clofe is feldom made, as not affording variety. A-
gain, the firft {train fometimes clofes on the key: yet
the clofe of that ftrain is more properly on the 5th ;
and the clofe next after that on the yth falls naturally
on the key.
When a clofe is made on the jth, the 4th of the key
being removed a femitone higher, becomes the greater
7th by the addition of a fharp. For, in imitation of
the final clofe on the key» there muft be a femitone
afeending.
Notwithftanding, a clofe made on the yth, with a {harp
3d always, from the chord of the 4th in a flat key,
without altering the 4th, or bringing in the greater 7;:h,
is accounted an elegance: in which paff ge the bafs
takes the flat 6th or 3d to the 4th, and thence defeends
by the femitone into the 5th.
This is never praftifed but in very flow niove;^eots„
Eroui
346 M U S
From the neceflity of a femitone afcending to every full
clofe, except this laft inflince, we draw this inference,
That a clofe may be made oil every femitone in the key.
This afcertains the places in both flat and (harp keys:
in the clofes of both which the key is a femitone ; in a
(harp key, the 4th alfo; andin. the flat key, the 3d and 6th.
Thefe are the places of proper clofes, or fuch as are
made in the harmony of the key.
The order of clofes is now to be confidered, which,
in a (harp key, may be thus. The key, the jtlj ; the
key, the 4th; the 5th, the key.
Notwithftanding, every compofer, being at liberty to
'purfue his own defign, will prefer that order which will
fait beft with the manner of the air, or anfwer his in¬
tention. Ou[ bufinefs is only to point out the places
where clofes may be made, and give a general idea of
the order. For we have obferved mu.h difference in
practice among the bed authors; and indeed it cannot be
otherwife in long and finiflied pieces, confidering that
liberty infeparable from every compofer who invents ;
and therefore every manner which may increafe variety,
is to be recoimtiended.
The order of clofes, then, in the flat key may be, The
key, the 3d the 5th, the key.
Or, the key, the 5th the 3d the jth, the key.
Or again, the 5th the key, the 3d the 5th, the 3d
the 6th, the jth the key.
In pieces of a confiderable length, clofes may be re¬
peated in thefe feveral places, and the fucceffion of them
altered from that wherein we have fet them down above.
Improper clofes, or fuch as are made on any other note
than the key, flat 3d, 4th, in a (harp key, 5th or 6th in
a flat key, are made by bringing in a femitone not in the
harmony of the key, by the addition of a flat or fharp,
the note below the new-made femitone being always the
greater yth, and which thereby determines the note on
which the clofe is to be made.
By this art a clofe may be made on any note ; as on
the 2d, 3d, 6th, or yth of a fharp key ; on the 2d, 4th,
and flat 7th of a flat key. A clofe on the 6th of a fharp
key is much in ufe, though no femitone : this depends on
the 6th having for harmony its own chord, which will be
proved in the next chapter.
It remains to be remarked, that as every new key is
formed by the addition of a fharp or flat; fo the return
into the former key, whether the original, or otherwife,
is efledted by taking off the flat or fharp from that note,
the next time it occurs in the courfe of the ftrain.
In mufick of two parts, the greater 7th, or that which
makes the new femitone, will not in every paflage be ex-
preffed ; the treble fometimes defeending from the 3d a-
bove into the clofe. Yet, if the bafs falls the jth, thefe
two members of the chord do properly lead to the clofe.
However, it muft not be underftood that in every clofe
the bafs muft move the fame way, by defeending from
the jth, as was faid before ; no part having any member
of a chord proper to it by any neceffary or natural de-
pendance ; for otherwife the fecond treble, or tenor,
could never afeend above the firft, nor the bafs above ei¬
ther ; than which nothing is more common. Cuftom in¬
deed has appointed to the bafs this movement at a clofe,
I C K.
for the mofl part, and efpecially at a full or final clofe :
and juftly; the defeending from the jth, being fo intereft-
ing a movement, is better exprefled, as well as more
fuitable to the grave notes of an inflrument performing the
bafs.
There is another pafiage in praftice, which, though not
a clofe, yet comes properly in this place to be fpoken of.
It is a fudden or unexpe&ed flop of all the parts made on
a difeord.
As this is generally pra&ifed in quick movements ; fo
it is often, though not always, fucceeded by a flow move¬
ment: during this flop, the ear is held in fufpenfe by the
difeord, and waits for the refolution into the concord.
The fuddennefs and novelty of this paflage recommend
it. It feems contrary to a clofe : for as, being a difeord,
it hath no preparation, and, not being refolved as foon as
the ear expeifls, feems to lofe its connexion with the fol¬
lowing chord; its meaning therefore is undetermined, and
the fenfe confufcd : yet it hath a good effedt by alarming
the imagination, refembling an affeAed perturbation in the
order of the words and fentences of an oration.
Chap. V. Of TRANSPOSITION.
Transposition is the removing a tune from one key
into another. The ufe of tranfpofing is to bring a tune
within the cornpafs of fome inftrument, or for the more
eafy performance on an inftrument; fome keys being more
difficult to perform in than others ; efpecially in wind in-
ftruments, as the German flute, <b'e. For as to inftru-
ments that are flopped, as the violin and bafs-viol ; and
inftruments with keys, as the organ and harpfichord ; all
keys are eafy to a good performer, who is faid to be
mafter of the fcale of the inflrument.
Secondly, Tranfpofnion is abfolutely neceffary in mu¬
fick for voices and inftruments, when it happens that the
key in which the mufick is written is too high or too
low for one or more of the voices. In this cafe, the mu¬
fick muft be tranfpofed for the inftruments into the key
which is neareft to and will beft fuit the pitch and com-
pafs of the voice. For as to the vocal performer, it mat¬
ters not in what key the mufick be written for his part,
provided he can fing in the cliff, (or indeed, if he can
tranfpofe, as (hall be taught in the laft chapter. Of find¬
ing by note, whether he can .fing in the cliff before him,
or not,) if the inftrument be accommodated to his voice.
There are two ways of tranfpofing. Th^ firft is, when
the tune is written in another key, at any diftance above
or below the original, with the proper flats or fharps pre¬
fixed. When this is done, the performance on the in¬
ftrument is eafy ; the half-tones of the key, and every
other, keeping their due places expreffed in the writing.
This may be called tranfpofition by writing
The other method of tranfpofing i's by the cliff; that
is to fay, when the cliff is removed, or fuppofed to be
removed, from the place wherein it ftands prefixed to the
tune.
This removal of the cliff at once tranfpofes the whole,
without alteration of the writing the ufe of the cliff
being, as hath been faid, to afeertain the names of the
notes. We fliall (hew both thefe methods of tranfpofition;
and firft of tranfpofition by writing.
Tranfpofition
M U S
Tranfpofmon, In general, is writing or playing a tune in
a different key from that wherein it is written, preferving
the places of all the femitones.
If the notes in the fcale of mufick expreffed no other
than whole tones, tranfpofuion would be evident to
light. For a feries of tones at equal intervals would,
when removed to any diftance or interval, preferve their
places of themfelves (fo to (peak,) or without the help of
art. And the performance of the fame on an inflrument
would be equally eafy in all keys; ^so alteration happen¬
ing thereby, but changing the names of the notes. And
even this would be unneceflary.
The femitones therefore are the caufes of any obli¬
quity in the fcale of tranfpolition ; and therefore the
keeping them in their due places is the art we are now
fpeaking of. As it is faid in the theory, they are the
foundation of writing the fame tune in divers keys, which
is tranfpofition.
We muff have reccurfe therefore to what hath been
faid in the theory concerning the effential difference of
tune, or the different places of the femitone.
When the firft femitone abo ve the key is on the 4th, or
6 femitones to the key; the 3d, which is 5 femitones, is
the greater, or (harp 3d; and the tune is from hence
faid to be in a fharp key.
Again, when the firft femitone above the key is on
the 3d, oris 4femitones to the key, that beingthe leffer
or flat 3d, the tune is in a flat key. Again, the next
femitone in the fharp key is the 8th ; and in the flat key
on the 6th.
In every fharp key, the femitone muft ftand in the fame
places, that is, the 4th and 8th; and in the flat key, in
the 3d and 6th.
The name of the (harp key in the fcale, whofe femi¬
tones are in their places without the addition of flat or
fharp, is C. Hence C is called the naturally fharp key.
Its femitones are F and C.
This is the pattern for tranfpofing in all fharp keys:
chiefly by remembering the letters or names of the fe-
mitodes.
The key in the fcale, whofe femitones are in their
places without the addition of flat or fharp, is A. Hence
this is called'the naturally flat key. Its femitones are C
and F. This is the pattern for tranfpofingin all flat keys;
remembering the names of the femitones.
It may be required to tranfpofe from any key with a
fharp 3d, into any other of the fame; or likewife from
any flat key refpefhvely. Notwithftanding, wa fhall pro¬
ceed, according to our method, to fhew what are the
keys in the natural fuccefficn into which a tune will be
tranfpofed, beginning at C the naturally fhafp key. As
the properties of.every key will be difcovered by this me¬
thod; fo.it will anfwer every thing that can be required
in tranfpqfition; or (hew how a tune may immediately be
tranfpofed from any key into any other interval or key
that may be required.
For inftance, let it be required to tranfpofe from the
key of C into that which is next in the natural order of
tranfpofition. F is the firft femitone in the key of C;
which, by the addition of a fharp, becomes F fharp, and
confequently the greater.yth to the femitone above it,
Voi,. III. N°. 83. 2
I C K. . 347
which is G. Therefore G is the new key into which the
tune is tranfpofed. No. 9.9. For,
Again, let it be r-equired to find the next key to be
tranfpofed into, from the former, or G.
The firft femitone in life key of G is C : which by the
addition of a (harp, which is removing the femitone, be¬
comes C fharp, or the greater 7th: therefore the new
key is D No. 10c. For,
Obfervethat every former fharp which isfet down for
the tune tranfpofed, is included in every fucceeding tranf-
pofition. That is to fay, C, for inilance, cannot be mark¬
ed fharp, unlefs alfo F be marked.
The reafon of proportion demonftrates this to fight.
Thefe are the two femitones of the open keys, as they
are termed ; the obfervation will hold true of ail others,
as will be feen in the following inflances.
To tranfpofe out of D into the next key ; the firft fe¬
mitone in the key of D isG. But G fharp is the greater
7th to A. Therefore A is the new key. No. 101.
Take notice, that the firft femitone, or 4th in the fharp
key, being removed by the addition of a fharp; the tune
is hereby tranfpofed into the yth to the key.
This removal into the 5th, by changing the firft femi¬
tone, being the fame in all fiiarp keys, it need not be re¬
peated in more examples. For the next to A willconfe-
quently be E, with the addition of A fharp to D.
The next B with A fharp.
The next will be F fharp with E fharp ; never ufed.
The next would be C fharp with B fharp ; never ufed.
The next would be G fharp with F having two fliarps;
never ufed.
The next is D fharp, with C having two (harps; which
laft is D natural. This key is in frequent ufe : but the
name of the key is changed, and marked with its equiva¬
lent E flat: and the name of its greater 7th is likewife
changed ; and, inftead of C having two fliarps, is left, as
in truth it is, D natural.
The next is B flat; its greater 7th A natural.
The next is F natural; its greater 7th E natural.
From this weafcend, according to the rule, by a yth into
C where we began.
Hence it is evident, that of the twelve femitones in the
oftave, nine are in ufe as keys with a (harp 3d.
Of which the following are examples in their order.
No. 102.
The laft three examples marked with flats may be de-
monftrated in another manner; which is, by changing
the place of the other femitone, or 8th, by removing the
fharp 7th, by prefixing to it a flat. The tranfpofition
will, by this alteration, happen in an inverted order from
that in the foregoing examples. For, as the 4th or firft:
femitone in the former manner, being removed by the
addition of a fharp, became the greater 7th ; fo in this
cafe, the greater 7th being removed by prefixing a flat to
it, becomes the 4th of the next key. No. 103.
This manner of demonftrating the laft "three keys is
preferable. For, by changing the firft femitone, as in
the former manner, it doth not fo plainly appear, as that
depends upon the foregoing key, which never was in ufe.
Belides, the number of (harps to be prefixed to thefe keys
might perplex a beginner is trarifpofiag ; whereas the
348 M U S
flats, as prefixed in the example, do more methodically
follow the removing the greater 7th by a flat.
The denaonflration is equally certain and clear in both
manners. Let it be remembered, that in tranfpofing,
by altering the greater 7th, the key is removed to the
4th above.
Let us proceed to tranfpolition in a flat key : the ge¬
neral rule of wh'ch is the fame as for thefliarp, to remove
thefemitones, and thereby preferve the proportion of the
key.
The different places of the femitone will caufe fome
variation in the effedf, or interval of tranfpoiition.
Let it be required, according to our method, to tranf-
pofe out of the open or naturally flat key A, into that
which is nex-t by natural fucceflion.
The firftfemitone in the key of A is|the 3d, or C ; which,
by the addition of a (harp, becomes the greater 7th :
wherefore, the new key, or that into which the tune
will be tranfpofed, is D. No. 104. For,
Let it be remarked, that the greater 7th which de¬
termines the new key in this as well as in the (harp key,
is never prefixed to the tune; which to the fharpkey al¬
ways is.
The reafoa is, that the flat 7th is the property of the
flat key. To prefix therefore a (harp to the place of this
note-on the (lave, or beginning of the tune, would be a
conflant contradiftion to all the flat yths that may occur
throughout the whole air. But the fharp 7th, when
brought in at a clofe, middle or final, or elfewhere where
there is no clofe, is marked particularly as occafion re¬
quires.
Another reafon for not prefixing a fhafp on the ftave
to the place of the 7 th of a flat key is, that, in fome keys,
the 6th muft have its flat fet on theflave, or beginning of
the writing: a fharp, then, on the place of the 7th would
appear a contradi<hion to fight, and ought therefore to
be avoided.
The removal by tranfpofitioa in the fiat key being al¬
ways to the 4th above, as in the laft example, there
needs no other example at length of tranfpofition in this
key, the fame proportion obtaining throughout every key
with a flat 3d refpe&ively.
According, then, to this proportion, the next key after
D will be G; the 3d of the former, or F natural, be¬
coming F fharp the greater yth, E flat its 6th.
The next will be C. Its greater 7th is B natural,
with the addition of a flat to A its 6th.
The next will be F, with the addition of a flat to D
its 6th.
The next would be B flat, with the addition of aflat
to G its 6th, never ufed.
The next would be E flat, with the addition of C flat
its 6th, never ufed.
The next would be A flat, with the addition of a flat
to F its 6th, never ufed.
The next would be D flat, with the addition of two
flats to B, never ufed.
The next would be F fharp, its 6th D, never ufed.
The next is B, its greater 7th A (harp.
The next is E, from whence v/e afcend by a 4th into
the firlt key A.
I C K.
Hence it is plain there are feven flat keys an- ufe, -cut
of the twelve lemitones in the oftave. Of which the fol¬
lowing are examples, with their proper figns prefixed.
No 104.
It may be obferved, that by changing the place of the
Other femitone or 6th, by adding a fharp, the tranfpofition
is by two degrees of the former at once ; as from A into
G, and fo on. But this is do more that what hath been
done in the fecond ftep of this example; yet by putting
this fharp to the 6th, it is a fhort way of tranfpofing into
the whole tone below.
It appears from hence, that there are in all fixteen keys
in ufe ; a fund for great variety : among which you will
obferve, that fome fharp keys have flats prefixed, ^and
fome flat keys have (harps ; which cannot by this time
appear flrange to one who perceives the neceflity of pre¬
ferring the proportion of each, and who muft now un-
derftand the truth of the 3d axiom of the ptaflice, That
no tune compofed in a fharp key can be tranfpofed into
a flat one, nor a flat one into a fharp ; for that would be
altering the permanent nature of things.
From comparifon of the examples, will be feen what
is moft worthy of remarking ; which is, That whatever
ftiirps or flits belong to any flat key, the fame are like-
wife the property of that iliarp key, which is on the fame
flat key’s 3d : for inftance, A with a flat 3d, and C
with a fharp 3d ; fo D and F, G and B ; and fo of all
others refpetftively having the fame figns belonging to and
prefixed to each.
Hence we colled, that the effential difference of tune
confifts in the form, that is, the pofition of the femitone,
and not in the materials of mufick.
A truth which.appeared before in the comparifon of
difeord with harmony; and which will be of great fervice
hereafter, in the art of learning to fing by note.
This inference furnifhes us with a proof of the 4th of
a flat key, and 6th of a fharp key, having for harmony
each his own concord.
A proof which was wanting ; as it could n<<t be Fad
from the rules of harmony, neither of thefe intervals be¬
ing in the place of a femitone. The general theorem is
this : As by axiom 2d the proportion of one fingle found,
is to another according to the natural order of founds ;
fo the proportion of one chord to another will be accor¬
ding to the natural fucceflion of chords. For a chord is
no other than an unity of founds. But it appears that
the fucceflion pf chords by tranfpofition in the flat key, is
by 4ths, that is, the chord of a note, with a flat 3d ; and
that of the note’s 4th is the fame, Now, the harmony of'
the key or given note is the concord of itfelf: there¬
fore the harmony of the 4th in a flat key is the concord
of itfelf.
In like manner we demonftrate the harmony of the 6th
of a fharp key to be the chord of the fame.
And in this the proof lies nearer the truth than in the
former cafe.
For the cho/d or proportion here is aot only the fame,
but the individual founds.
For as by comparifon, as above, of any flat key with
the key of its 3d (which muft ever be a fharp key, the
flat and fharp 3ds being the compound intervals of the 5th),
the
M U S
the properties ani proportions are not only like, but the
fame, the difference confiding in the form or place of
the femitone; fo the chord of one key will be to the chord
of the other, not only like, but the fame. Now the
harmony of every flat key is, by the the rules of harmony,
the concord of itfelf: but the concord of the flat key is
the relative fltarp key’s 6th; therefore the harmony or
chord of the fliarp key’s 6th is the concord of itfelf.
Let us now apply thefe rules of tranfpofition to the fe-
cond rule of melody, or perfeft imitation, which is the
repetition of a paflage in notes not belonging to the har¬
mony of the key ; by which notes we underdand all that
have a (harp or flat added, which was not prefixed to the
beginning of the Uave or tune.
The general rule of which is, Fird name the key in
which the paffage is written, whether the fame be the
original key, or that of the tune, or fome other; then
name the interval of the fird note of the‘paffage to the
fame key.
Whatever interval the imitation begins on, whether a
2d, 3d, 4th, yth, or any other above or below the paf-
fage, it bears the fame proportion to the key of the imi¬
tation as the fird note of the paflage to its key. Thus
G is to C as A is to D, or
G 1 C i '• B i E, or again
d : A :: B : F, or .
d : B :: e : c.
The leading note and key being thus exprefled, both
of the paffage and imitation, fhews the proportion of the
imitation above or below paffage.
If the paffage be in a fliarp 3d, as the imitation mud
be fo too, the figns, as prefixed to one of the examples
of the Iharp keys, will be required tp. be added to the
notes of the imitation ; and if the pa’ffage move with a
flat 3d, the examples of the flat key difcover the marks
wanting in the repetition.
Thus G, the leading note of a paffage in C, with aiharp
3d, repeated in the note above ; as A and D require two
‘{harps, namely on F and C, the property of D with a
ffiarp 3d.
And the fame paffage in C with a flat 3d, will in the
note above require B marked flat, the property of D with
a flat 3d :
And G C fharp 3d; tranfpofedr into a 3d, or BE,
requires four (harps, on F, C, G, and D, the properties
of E with a {harp 3d.
The fame paffage with a flat 3d, or any other paf¬
fage, will, when tranfpofed into E, require but one (harp
on F :
And D B, with a fliarp 3d repeated in E C the natural
(harp key, require neither fliarp nor flat.
But.thefame, or any other paffage with a flat 3d, will,
when tranfpofed into C, have three flats on B,,E, and A,
the property of C with a flat 3d : and if there be no
leading note, as it may often happen, nothing more is to
be confidered than the key.
Thus the ule of tranfpofitipn in perfefl imitation is e-
vident.
The fecond method of tranfpofition is by the cliff.
The ufe of the cliff is to afeertain the names of the
I c K. m
notes. Therefore, the names of the notes-will he chan¬
ged by removal of the cliff.
Now as, in tranfpofing, it is neceifary that every inter¬
val be preferved, or that the femitones keep their due
places .; fo by altering the name of the fird nofe of the
tune, by removing the cliff, all the other notes are altered
in proportion.
Thus the removal of the cliff effefls at once what was
done in the other' method by the tranfpofition of every ,
Angle note of the tune by writing.
This way is eafier to the writer, but much more dif¬
ficult to the performer.
Inafmuch as a confirmed habit in any thing is harder to
be changed for a new method, than it is to learn by a
certain rule at fird.
Therefore the performance in tranfpofition by the cliff
can no otherwife be attained, than by condant and re¬
peated pra&ice in all the cliffs, and in all fedi places as
they are ufed to be fet for convenience.
Every .one therefore who defires to become a mafler in
performance, after he is well acquainted with the three
cliffs in their ufual places, ought to accudom bimfelf to
perform in every cliff, in whatever place it may be fet.
This knowledge will not only render the performance
convenient to his private amufement, by the variety with
which he can fnrnifli himfelf, by playing the fame air in-
whatever key he pleafes ; but will alio make him an ufe-
ful member in a concert, by tranfpofing at light, when¬
ever it may be required to accommodate the ioflrument
to the voice. For let it be underflood, that to him who
is fo well acquainted with the places of the cliff’s, as to
perform in any of them at fight, nothing more is wanting
to his tranfpofing by the cliff at fight than to imagine the
cliff is prefixed to fuch or fuch a place, and commit to his
memory the name of the key n which he is to perform,
by tranfpofing according to the removal of the cliff which
may be mod convenient.
This will fix the places of the femitones, or aflign the
(harps or flats belonging to the new key, as they are .fet
in the example in the fird method of tranfpofing by the
writing.
Any of the cliffs may be removed; yet the C cliff or
tenor is mod commor.lyin ufe for this purpofe.
The general rule for tranfpofition by the cliff is this.
To tranfpofe into any interval above the key, re¬
move the cliff by the fame interval defeending. And
if the indrument be too high for the voice, to tranfpofe
into a lower key, remove, the cliff to a convenient inter¬
val higher.
For, raifing the cliff depreffes the notes-, and, contrary,
fetting the cliff lower raifes the notes, or tranfpofes them-
into a higher key, in proportion.
Chap. VI. Of SINGING by NOTE.
The art of fignging by note’is founded on the principles
and praftice of mufick. Therefore we have referved this
fubjeid to the lad.
To fyig by note feems in fome refpefts more difficult to
attain than performance on fome indrumer.ts. In other re-
fpefts, it is eafier and fooner acquired.
The
35®- M U S
The more time is laid eht on the practice on fome in-
ftruments, the more difficult the execution grows, in fome
fenfe, that is, according to the conftruftion and compafs
of the inftrument. On the contrary, all the difficulties
in learning to fing by note prefent themfelves in the be¬
ginning, in appearance greater than they really are; and
■which a knowledge of the principles of mufick, and a little
of the practice, with a tolerable good ear, will with eafe
overcome.
Befides, a little time and experience will convince any
one of what compafs his voice is, and what degree of
performance he is capable of attaining. The principles
of finging therefore being well underftood, there re¬
mains no further difficulty ; no one having a right to
expett he can.execute more than what is within his na¬
tural powers.
If this art is not fo commonly underflood, or the
knowledge of it fought, it may be owing to this, that
the precepts for learning, or the manner invented, and
conflantly ufed, are more perplexed than the fubjeft de¬
mands.
How far this may be true, will appear from an obfer-
vation or two which we fuall make on the method now
in ufe.
The art of finging by noterells on thefetwo principles;
the finding the places of the femitones, and tuning them
and the whole tones of the o&ave aright.
The firft of thefe has been delivered in the theory;
and alfo in the practice, under the lafl article Tranfpofi-
tion. The tuning the notes is the fubjeift we are now
engaged in.
Let us firfl examine how far thefe have been profecuted
in the prefent method.
The notes of the oftave, befides their names in the
fcale, have been ufed to be diflinguifhed by thefe four
fyllable, Sol, la, mi, fa; acommodated to the purpof#
of finging by note, in the following order.
Fa fol, la, mi, fa, fo!, la.
Whereof Sol being thrice repeated in the o&ave, La
twice, Fa twice, and Mi once ; four fyllables exprefs the
8 notes.
The art of tuning by thefe, or afiigning the places of
the femitones, is by appointing to Mi the place of the
greater 7th; and then Fa immediately following expref-
fes the femitone or key, and the other Fa the 4th.
Flow well fbever this may anfwer the purpofe of tuning
the half-tones in a fharp key; yet in a flat key, the places
of the half-tones being the 3d and 6th, will, according to
to this order, be expreffed by La, the femitone fyllable
Fa confequently expreffing whole tones.
To obviate this difficulty, and reduce things to order,
another place of Mi mull be affigned, which is the 2d of
a flat key: for this Fa will exprefs the femitones on the
3d and 6th.
It is evident then, that before any half-tone or whole-
tone can be tuned, the firft bufinefe muft be to find out
the place of this mi: now how this can be done by vir¬
tue of the found, or name, or order of thefe fyllables, is
not lo eafy to comprehend.
But admitting the place of mi, or the key, to be known
by forae previous precept, as indeed ought to be ; yet
I C K.
tuning the key as the firft femitone in a ffiarp 3d, and the
3d as the firft femitone in a flit key, is beginning at the
wrong end in the firft cafe, and thereby not marking the
eftential difference of tune, which confifts ia the flat and
fharp 3ds, the order of which is difturbed by this varia¬
tion of the place of mi.
From this want of marking the effential difference in
tuning by thefe fyllables, and wherein the beginning and
ending is not on the key, fome confufion and much
trouble and untunablenefs muft arife. And indeed it
cannot be imagined, that this or* any other effential dif¬
ference of things can be marked by the fame invariable
artificial figns, if they be not exadlly accommodated to
the nature of things. An invention that fails in this,
however ingenious it may be in fpeculation, not being
a juftreprefentation of nature, doth not merit the name of
art.
Forinftance, if'you tune eight notes, whofe key hath
a (harp 3d beginning on the 5th, your feventh note,
which is the 4th of the key, and therefore a whole tone
from the fucceeding note, will found like the fiat yth.
Again, if you begin to tune on the 2d, your 3d, which
is the 4th of the key, is flat; and the found in this fuc-
ceffion will appear as if you were tuning in a flat key.
And again, if you tune from the 6th, the deception of a
flat 3d is the fame as in the laft cafe.
Secondly, ifyoutuneS notes whofe key hath a flat 3d,
and begin on the 7th, your 3d, which is the 2d of the
key, is {harp, and your tuning will be as if in a ffiarp
key.
The fame deception will appear if you begin to tune on
the 3d or 6th.
In a word, whatever other interval you begin on, to
tune either with flat or ffiarp 3d except the key, fome
femitones will be out of their places t This is rendering
what is at firft fight attended with fome difficulty, more
perplexed and obfcure.
The ear, the judge of founds, is deceived, and the
judgment milled.
But on the other hand, the ear will naturally and
eaflly diftinguifh the flat and ffiarp key, when the key
and its 3d are afcertained by beginning and ending on the
key.
But otherwife, and where thefe mark§,are promifcu-
oully ufed, the difference of tune, or infallible fign, will
appear neither to the ear nor underftanding.
We ffiall end thefe remarks with one general abferva-
tion ; which is, that by affigning the place of mi to the
greater 7th or 2d, in order to find out the key, is refol-
ving one difficulty by a greater, and requiring to do a
thing without any means of information offered to com¬
pafs it.
For as it is true that when the greater 7th or 2d is
known, the key is known alfo, and again, the key being
given, you have confequemly the 7th or 2d ; yet to do
either of thefe, without fome intermediate helps, is taking
for known the thing fought, which is diretftly contrary to
reafon.
Proceed we now to our method of finging by note. .
The firft principle of finging, is the finding the places
of the two femitones in the oftave, in any given key.
This
M U S
This hath been pointed out in general, in the theorjr,
•where are {hewn the places of the femitones in the {harp
key to be the 4th and 8th, and in the flat key the 3d
and 6th.
But the particular names of-the notes, on which the
femitones fall in any key whatfoevef, and which it is e-
vident mutt depend on the name of the key, are demon-
■{(rated, and examples given, in the pra&ice, under the ar¬
ticle of Tranfpofition.
We fljall therefore transfer only the examples into
this place, in a concife order, which will fully anfwer our
inquiry into the names and places of the fetnitones.
The nine {harp keys. No. 106..
The feven flat keys. No. 107.
By thefe .examples the particular names of all the fe-
mitones are known at fight ; as they depend on the name
of the key.
Therefore in the example of the {harp keys ; the fitft
key being C, the fijmitOBes are F and C.
The fecond G ; the femitones C and G.
The third D; the femitones G and D, the 4th and
8th of each refpedively.
In the example of the flat keys ; the firft being A, the
femitones are C and F,
The fecond D; the femitones are F and B flat.
The third G ; the fetnitones B flat and E flat. And
f* on, the 3ds and 6ths refpeiftively.
To apply this to thepurpofe of tuning the notes by the
'voice : At fight of the {harps or flats prefixed to the tune
to be fung, and looking at the key-note, you have of
courfe the places of the femitones, by referring thefe to
the original in the examples fet above.
Having thus difeovered the difference of tune, you are
at the fame time determined whether you are to tune the
notes of the oftave with a-flat or fharp 3d.
This tuning of the eight notes, tones and femitones, in
their due order, is the firft ftep or principle of tuning all
other intervals, or offinging by note.
It will moft readily be learned by imitating another voice,
or following the,notes of an inttrument; this is the only
«afe wherein there is need of any foreign afliftance to fing-
ing by note.
The inftrument we would recommend for this purpofe
is the organ or harpfichord ; as the 4 or 5 femitones,
which afeertain the flat or fharp 3d, fucceeding each 0-
thqr, being vifible on the keys of that inftrument in any
part, the learner can in this cafe aflift himfelf, by ftri-,
king the notes of the oftave in either flat or fliarp key, on
any part ofpthe inflrument which will heft fuit the pitch
of his voice, and diftindily repeating them by turns, until
his ear is become a perfect judge of the difference of the
flat and fharp 3d, as well defeending as afeending, and his
voice perfedf in tuning both.
As mufical founds will be beft expreffed in tuning by
articulate ones ; we fhall, to anfwer this convenience,
take the four fyllables already in ufe.
As we {hall apply them to.another purpofe than they
ferve at prefent; fo the order or manner we {hall difpofe
them in, will be altogether different from that.
In tuning, then^the notes of the odhve with the inftru-
Voi». III. N°. 83. 2
ment, let the fyflables be exprefled with the notes, in the
order of the following examples.
In G {harp. No. 108.
Now, fince the flats or {harps adjufting the femitones of
any {harp key are exadfly the fame which belong to the
flat key refpeaively on the 6th, as we hav%faid before
in comparing the examples of flat and fliarp keys in tranf¬
pofition ; therefore the eight notes afeending in a flat
key will have the fyllables annexed to each, as in the
following example on the 6th, without difturbing or de¬
parting from the order of the {harp.
In E flat. No. 109.
The femitones and the tones belotf them being diftin-
guiftied by the fyllabies fa and mi, in their refpedive places
in both keys, for defeending as well as afeending notes,
is the foie ufe we intend by thefe fyllables; the tuning of
the notes, which is to be learned by the inftrument, being
entirely independent of them.
For tuning the defeending, notes then, there need no
othqr examples than the two above written j for reading
the fame backwards will ferve this purpofe.
When the ear becomes well acquainted with tuning the
notes of the odave by the inftrument, it will then be
proper to fing the fame looking on the notes written on
the book; and thisfhould be done in every example of both
keys. And let it be remembered, that tuning the notes
thus in the natural order, fhould be to a beginner the
prelude to finging any fong propofed.
The next ftep will be, before the learner attempts to
fing any part of a fong, to tune by the notes the greater
intervals, both concord and difeord.
The general rule for which is. Tune all the notes of
the interval in the natural order, afeending if the interval
afeend, and defeending if the intervale defeend. Then
immediately tune both notes of the interval, beginning
with the concords.
Thus. No. no.
Concords in fucceflion.
The difeords are. No. nr.
The femitone being the diftance between the 3d
and 4th, is already known by tuning the notes of this
interval.
Note, The name of every greater 7th introduced by a
{harp prefixed, is mi.
Next tune the concords of the thirds in fucceflion. In
this manner. No. 112.
The 4ths and jths being all perfeft and like, except
one of each, need no repetition.
The 6ths in fucceflion are tuned thus. No 113.
Laftly, mix the difeords and concords as they ftand
in the natural order ; than which nothing will better con¬
firm the juft tuning of the intervals, when thefe rules are
to be applied to future practice.
In this manner. No. 114.
This line may be tuned various ways; as, fecond-
ly, beginning ftill on the left hand, tune the 3d and 2d
notes, reading backwards ; and fo on, each two under
the flur.
Again, beginning on the right hand, tune the uppermoft
note and fecond downwards ; then the firft and third : and
4 T fo
352 M U S
fo oa, Hill miffing one, and omitting conftantly the G, or
key not below.
And laftiy, beginning (iill on the right hand, tune the
fecond and firft, the third and firft, the fourth and fit ft,
and fo on, omitting the G or key note conftantly.
The practice of tuning the notes defeending of all thgfe
examples, is by reading the fame backwards.
The tuning the greater intervals in the flat key depend¬
ing in like manner on tuning the eight notes in fucceffion,
according to that feries ; it is unneceflary to fet examples
of the fame.
The fame method of pra&ice equally ferying this key,
except that the fyiiables annexed to this key muft be re¬
peated, as in the proper example 109.
As in this example of the intervals of the'jd, 6th,
and 7th, wherein this key differs from the fiiar'p. No.
ii5-
The general rule of tuning the intermediate notes of
each interval firft likewife taking place here.
In order to eftablifti thefe rules in the memory, and
render them of immediate fervice to the practitioner,
cfpecial notice muft be taken of the flat and fharp thirds,,
as alfo of the flat and (harp fixths, in what places they
Hand, or how they fucceed each other in the order of
the key.
The not attending to thefe differences being the only
obftacle that can ftand in the way of Tinging at fight, fee
them fet down at-large in the theory, and in the examples
of this chapter, fto. 112, 113.
When thefe are well recorded in the memory, together
with the (harp 4th or flat jth, the art of finging by note
will not appear fo myfterious. This-knowledge of the in¬
tervals at fight will render the fyllablesof little or no ufe,
as hath been obferved, and efpecially if words be fet to
the airs you intend to practice ; which we would advife.
When the interval of each note is known at fight by
eonftant practice, and the found of every interval become
familiar to the ear, and thereby diftinguilhed immmedi-
a,tely upon hearing the lame, the learner may make an
effayto ling by note forae plain fong; which is no more
than tuning the fame intervals, with which he is fuppofed
to be well acquainted in the foregoing leffons.
For as to any other article of knowledge requifite to
the performance of the fong ; as the time of the move-
ateni, and lengths of the notes, and the like; if the
practitioner hath not been acquainted with them by prac¬
tice on fome inftrument beforehand, the principles of
them have been delivered in few words in the introduction
to this effay.
But befides that this is not the place for fpeaking of
thefe matters, fo neither is there occafion for this know¬
ledge in the very beginning, in ftriCtnefsof fpeaking ; it
being advifable for a beginner to ftudy the tuning the in¬
tervals of the fong, without refpeCt to any other affeCtion
of the founds; and when he is mafter of this, to add the
practice of the lengths of the notes, as a fecond confide-
ration.
We fnall here fet the notes of a plain fong, in order
to make inch application of the rules as may be an in-
I C K.
troduflion towards the further execution of them. No.
116.
Firft, find out the key, by looking at the kft or keynote;
then fee whether it hath a flat or-fharp 3d. -
The key of this example being G, with eyre {harp pre¬
fixed, is a fharp key; being the fecond.inftance in the ex¬
amples of the nine iharp keys.
Therefore tune the notes of the oCtave afeending, and
defeending, in a fharp 3d. Immediately after tune the
concords in fucceffion. After that, tune the concords of
the 3ds, afeending and defeending. This wil) be prelude
enough for fixing your attention and ear to the 3ds of the
key, and for pitching your voice. Having repeated this
two or three times, begin the fong in the fame pitch or
key wherein you fung the prelude. For nothing contributes
more to fingmg in tune, than frequent repetition of notes
in one key. Therefore, if your voice.be rightiypitched ia'
the prelude, feek not to change it in the fong.
The two firft notes in the example are Fa, Mi: whicii
interval, it is prgfumed, you can tune at fight. If other-
wife, you muft have recourfe to the general rule, and
tune the intermediate note of that interval afeending,
thus. Fa, fol, mi; immediately repeating the interval
you want to found, thus,. Fa, Mi.
The next note is the 2d, or Sol, which may be tuned
from Mi, the laft note, by defeending; or from the key,
as it hath an equal reference to both. We have laid be¬
fore you this choice in confideration of your firft attempt.
But when from experience you are become more perfeCt
in tuning the intervals, the moft approved way will be,* to
make the laft note you fung relative to the fucceeding one,
whofe interval you are to tune. Whereby your finging an
air will be no other than tuning the intervals as they fuc¬
ceed each other in the movement of the fong; which yott
praftifed often before in the natural order, and with
which you are fuppofed to be well acquainted.
The fourth note in the example being Sol, and a 4th
to the laft note you fung, you will now tune a perfedl 4th ;
not confidering this note in relation to the key, to which
it is a 5th ; but in relation to the laft founded note So!,
to which it is a 4th.
This is the method you will purfue in every interval
after fome improvement gained bypradlice. Notvvitftand-
ing, it will be convenient fometimes to have recourfe to
the key, by founding it, and taking the interval from the
fame; whereby'you will fing better in tune by keeping to
the pitch or key you began in; particularly if the interval
from the laft note be a great one, or difeord, or lie near
the key, above or below. *
To fum up all ; every new note introduced; or not be¬
longing to th» harmony of the key, bearing the propor¬
tion of fome concord or difeord, to the preceding note
or to the key, will come within the rules laid down, and
therefore needs no repetition.
On the principles of the theory and pmftice of mufick,
we, (hall now demonftrate the art of tranfppfing with the
voice, or finging in any cliff at fight, wherewith it may
happen a perfon is not acquainted; and this from the
knowledge of finging in any other cliff.
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a b ~c~ <r~ T ^ ar b c a
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- f2Q ^ So ^ ^ji
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2 A—^ a——£ Z-Ar.—-k—k £ £ k 2 £ £_
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 a £ 3 .3 3 Ji_
V
I //at? or thus C1XXI1I , ,
, :K ^4% TT by 3 A K- 4 J
K ^  '>—•■ ^ ^ 6 Q..  -    . ..r.ttO o ■
p
3 & 6 3= 3 3
8 3 8 6 8 3 3 8
-Q -0-
3 3 3 3 3 8 53 3 5 3 3 4 8 5. 8
FgE
i
KK3 K 3 3lr7 3(?7 3 3E: 5 K3 K.^KKJCTtfa h 3 K ^ K 1 "K
865 8 6 6 3 8 5 3:3 8 54 3
P
^|iiyie|.l..^^-y \ \ ,!cj4l^! ^ 1J l ^
383 8 3i">8 663 3 3 6 58
„.h''ji»T4jl.irtJl jh HT -o]: 111 ihi I
[5'' k ig~xv^ ^'^'Tc k j r J 41^4. 4. 3 ^b6 3b?
^^5i4g^llc^i;)r rli r r| V rfe
4 A 4 3 ^b6 3b? 3
fa 1 1,1 iru^chfrjrjffirr
gx^ffrrfrri
“O'
Crravn
Plate cxxxx;
5ii
<54 An-dante
; 1
/-(f ^ir'l.^ "djl J ij) I* ^|J ^
m
-e-e-
ipm
BE?
■<
1 If
M U
Theorem. The intervals of the notes of all (harp
keys and flat keys refpeaively, are proportional. There¬
fore, the finging at fight in an unknown cliff will be by
tranfpofing out of the given cliff, into that you are ac¬
quainted with.
This is done by naming the key in the cliff you are to
tranfpofe into, and diftinguifhing whether the fong hath a
flat or fharp 3d, compared to the examples of the nine
Jharp and feven flat keys in ufe, knowing the name of
each cliff. Now, the name of the bafs cliff is F, at the
tenor C, and of the treble G.
Let it be required to fing the notes in the following
example in the bafs cliff unknown ; tranfpofed into the
treble with which you are acquainted. No. 117.
The notes in the uppermolt line, in the bafs cliff, are
in G.
In the fecond line and treble cliff, they are in E.
Demonstration. By the rules of tranfpofition they
are the fecond and fifth inftances in the fliarp key ; then
they are proportional: if proportional, the femitones are
preferved in their proper places: but keeping or finging
the femitones in their places, is tuning the notes of the oc¬
tave right.; therefore this tranfpofition from the bafs cliff
into the treble is finging by note right.
The fame example in the tenor. No. n8.
The notes, of the tenor are in F ; thofe of the treble
in E. But they are the ninth and fifth inftances of
lharp keys, therefore proportional; and if proportional,
<&c.
Again, let the treble be the unknown cliff. No. 119.
I € K. 35V
The notes of the treble are in D. of the tenor in C-
they are the third and firft inftances of fliarp keys ; there¬
fore proportional, <bc.
Tins demonftration from proportion Extends to all
poffible cafes, and therefore makes the propofition uni-
verfal.
The laft example fhall be in the tenor cliff, fet in the
ufual places, and in aflat key. No. 120.
In the upper ftave the key is G.
In the fecond, B.
In the third, D. But thefe keys are the third, the
fixth and fecond inftances of the feven flat keys; hence
they are proportional: therefore finging them in this pro¬
portion is preferving the femitones ; and therefore finging
them right.
On thefe principles, it is apprehended, the art of fing¬
ing by note is rendered intelligible, and the performance
tolerably eafy ; and this efpecially by removing the diffi¬
culties which have taken their rife from the manner of
delivering the precepts, and from the ufage of variety of
cliffs: difficulties, which are the effeds, we may fay,
of too much art, and for this reafon perhaps the more
perplexing ; for whatever of this kind may arife from the
nature of the fubjed of any fcience, the fame may by at¬
tention and ftudy in time be furmounted, fuch cafes
lying open to every one’s inquiry; it being the bufinefs
of every fearcher into nature to contemplate the things
themfelves, and to make the belt ufe of fuch difcoveries
as offer themfelyes- towards the further improvement of
fcience.
M -U S'
MUSK, a dry, light, and friable fubftance, of a dark
blackifli colour, tinged with purple; it is a kind of
perfume of a very ftrong feent, and only agreeable
when in a very fmall quantity, or moderated by the
mixture of fome other perfume. It is found in a kind
of bag or tumour which grows under the belly of the
mofehus mofehiferus. See Moschus.
Hulk is brought to us fewed up in a kind of bladders
or cafes of (kin of the bignefs of a pigeon’s egg, or
larger, each containing from two or three drams to an
ounce of mufle. Thefe are covered with a brownifti
hair, and are the real capfules in which the mufk is
lodged while on the animal. That which is unadul¬
terated appears in %afies, of loofe and friable gra¬
nules, which are foft to the touch, and eafily crumble
between the fingers, feeling fomewhat fmooth and unc¬
tuous.
Muflc taken inwardly produces eafe from pain, quiet
fleep, and a copious diaphorefis: hence it has been
found of great ufe in fpafmodic diforders, petechial,
malignant, putrid fevers, the jail diftemper, hiccoughs,
tec. and Dr Wall obferves, that it has been found ufe-
*“ ful in fpafmodic diforders, given by way of clyfter.
The operation of muflc in fome refpedls refembles that
of opium; but it does not leave behind it any ffupor or
ianguidnefs, which the latter often does. Muflc like-
’vife feems likely to anfwer in thofe low cafes where
M U S
fleep is much wanted,- and opiates are improper. It is
laid to be heft given in a bolus, in which form thofe
who are moft averfe to perfumes may take it without
inconvenience. Fifteen grains or more are now given
in a dofe with great fuccefs.
MUSKET, a fire-arm born on the flioulder, and ufed in
war. The length of a mufleet is fixed at three feet
eight inches from the muzzle to the pan, and it carries
a ball of fixteen to the pound.
MUSKETOON, a kind of fliort thick mufleet, whofe
bore is the thirty-eighth part of its length : it carries
five ounces of iron, or feven and a half of lead, with
an equal quantity of powder. This is the, fliorteft fort
of biunderbuffes.
MUSLIN, a fine fort of cotton cloth, which bears a
downy knap on its furface. There are feveral forts of
muflins brought from the Eaft-Indies, and more parti¬
cularly from Bengal; fuch as doreas, betelles, mul-
muls, tanjeebs, tec.
MUSSALNDA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
rnonogynia clafs. The corolla is funnel-ffiaped ; it has
two thickifti ftigtjiata; the berry is oblong, and the
feeds are difpiofed into four feries: There is but one
fpecies, a native of India.
MUSSELBOROUGH, a port-town of Scotland, in the
fliire of Lothian, fix miles eaft of Edinburgh.
MUSTARD, in botany. See-SiNAPi.
MUS-
M U T ( 354 ) M ? R
I.TUSTELLA, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds of the
order of ferse. There are fix ere<5t, (harp, diftin<5i
teeth id the upper jaw, and an equal number in the under
jaw, but blunter'and clofer together, and two qf them
are fitnated a little farther within the mouth ; and the
tongue is fmooth. There are 11 fpecies, viz; i. The
lutris, with the hind-feet palmated, and the tail about
one fourth of the length of the body. It is found in
Alia and North America. 2. Thelutra, or otter, has
palmated feet, and a tail about one half of the length
of the body. This animal is exceedingly voracious;
but is fonder of filh than of flelh. He feldom quits
the banks of rivers, and can remain a confiderable time
below water. The female comes in feafon in the win¬
ter, and brings forth three or four young in March.
This animal is found in moft countries of Europe and
Noith America, 3. The lutreola has hairy palmated
feet, and a white mouth. It is a native of Finland,
and feeds upon frogs and fifties. 4. The barbata, is
of a reddiih colour; and the toes are not connected
with a membrane. It is a native of Brazil. 5. The
gulo is of a duflty red colour, and blackifh on the
middle of the back. It is found on the woody mouh
tains of Lapland, Ruftia, and Siberia. The gulo is a
very voraceous animal, and devours hairs, birds,
He has an abominabTe odor ; but his fur is very precious.
6. The martes, or marten, is of a blackifti yellow co¬
lour, with a pale throat, and the toes are not webbed.
This animal is a native of the fouthern parts of Europe ;
it frequents the woods, and feeds upon fquirrels, mice,
and birds. 7. The putorius, or pole-cat, has uncon-
netted toes, is of a dirty yellow colour, with a white
mouth and ears. This animal is very deftructive to
birds and poultry. He conceals himfelf during the
day; but fteals into barns, dove-cotes, hen houfes.
&c. in the night, in order to catch his prey. He is
a native of molt parts of Europe. 8. The furo, or
ferret, has red eyes, and unconne&ed toes. This ani¬
mal is eafilytamed, and frequently employed to hunt
rabbits out of their holes. The female is lefsthan the
male, and brings forth twice in the year, 5 or 6 at a
litter. It is a native of Africa. 9. The zibellina has
divided toes; the body is of a dufky yellow colour, with
a white forehead, and an aflvcoloured throat. It is found
in Tarrary, and the northern parts of Alia. 10. The
erminea has divided toes; and the point of the tail
is red. The Ikin of this animal is a valuable fur, and
of a fine white colour. It is a native both of Europe
andAfia, and-particularly of the northern climates. It
feeds upon mice, eggs, &c. and has a very ofFenfive
fmell. 12. The nivalis has divided toes, and a white
body. It is very fimilar to the ermine, but about one
half lefs in fize. It is found in Ruffiaand the northern
paits of Europe, See Plate CV. fig. 3. and Plate
CVI. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4.
MUTE, in a general fenfe, fignifies a perfon that cannot
fpeak, or has not the ufe of fpeech.
Mute, in grammar, a letter which yields no found
without the addition of a vowel. The fimple confo-
nants are ordinarily diftinguiftiedinto mutes and liquids
■or femi vowels.
MUTILATION, the retrenching or cutting away any
member of the body.
Mutilation, in Scots law. Scc^Law, Tit. xxxiii.
MUTULE, in archite&ure, a kind of fquare modillion
fet under the corniche of the Doric Order.
MUTUUM, or Loan, in Septs Law. See Law.
Tir. xx. 7.
MUZZLE of a gun or mortar, the extremity at which
the powder and ball is put in ; and hence, the muzzle-
. ring is the metalline circle, or moulding, that fur-
rounds the mouth of the piece.
MYAGRUM, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria fili-
culofa clafs. The pod is terminated with a conical
ftylus, and generally contains but one feed. There
are nine fpecies, only one of which, viz. the fati-
vum, or gold of pleafure, is a native of Britain.
MYCONE. one of the iflands of the Archipelago, about
twenty-five miles in circumference, fituated in E long.
250. o, N. lat. 370.
MYLOGLOSSUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 304.
MYLOHYOIDAlUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy.
p. 304
MYOLOGY, that part of anatomy which treats of
the mufcles of the human body. See Anatomy,
Part II.
MYOPIA, fhort-fightednefs, a fpecies of vifion, wherein
objefts are feen diftinftly only at fmall diftances. See
OvTICS.
MYOSOTIS, in botany, a genus of the pentandm rao-
nogynia clafs. The corollary confifls of 5 emargin-
ated fegments. There are four fpecies, only one of
which, viz. the fcorpioides, or moufe-ear fcorpion-
grafs, is a native of Britain.
MYOSURUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria po-
lygynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves con-
nefted at the bafe; it has five fubulated, petal-fhaped
ntftaria ; and the feeds are numerous. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the minimus, or moufe-tail, a native
of Britain.
MYRIAD, a term fometimes ufed to denote ten thou-
fand.
MYRICA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia tetrandria
clafs. The amentum of the male has alunulatedfcale;
the corolla is wanting both in the male and female ;
the female has two ftyli; and the berry contains only
one feed. There are five fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
M YRIOPHYLLUM, in botany , a genus of the monce-
cia polyandria clafs. The calix of both male and fe¬
male confifts of four leaves, and none of them have a-
ny corolla : themalehas eightftamina, and the female
four piftilla ; and there are four naked feeds. There
are two fpecies, both natives of Britain, viz the fpi-
catum, or fpiked water-millfoil; and the verticillatum,
or verticiliated mill-foil.
MYRMECOPHAGA, in zoology, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of bruta ; the characters
of which are thefe t There are no teeth in the mouth ;
the tongue is long and cylindrical ; the head terminates
in a long fnout or muzzle ; and the body "is covered
with
m ¥ m t d 1 m w ir
"wHh pretty'long ihair. "Tliere are 4 'fpecies, -viz. t.
'The didady]a, or white American eoati of Seba, has
nwo toes on the fore feet and four on the hind feet.
This animal is about ,7 inches long ; the head is two
inches in length ; the fnout is not fo long as that of
the other fpecies ; the tail is about an inch longar than
the body, and covered with pretty long hair; the legs are
'not made for walking, but jumping. He climbs trees,
and hangs on the branches by the extremit^ of his tail.
In this fituatibn he thrufts his long tonguein the holes
ror fiffures of trees, and brings it out covered with ants or
other in feds. He can live long without nourilhment
of any kind, fieeps generally in the day, and fearches
for food in the night. 2. The tridadyla, tansandua-
guaca, or tamanoir, has three toes on the fore feet,
and five on the hind-feet, and long hair on the tail.
This animal is about four feet long, and the head and
fnout about fifteen inches : It is a native of the Eaft
Indies, and feeds upon ants, &c. in the fame manner
as the didadyla. See'Plate CXVI. fig. 4.-3. The ju-
bata, has four toes on the forefeet and five on the bind
ones, and a very hairy tail. This animal refembles the
■tridadyla, and is found at the Cape of Good Hope.
4. The tetradadyla, has four, toes on the fore feet
and five on the hind, with a tail naked at the extre¬
mity. It is a native of fouth America.
^MYRDBALANS, a kind of medicinal fruit brought'from
thelndies, of which there are five kinds: 1. The citrine,
-of a yeriowifii-red, hard, oblong, and the fize of an
dive : 2 The black, ordndian myrobalan, of the big-
nefs of an acorn, wrinkled, and without a (lone : 3.
Chebulic myrobalans, which are of the fize of a date,
pointed at the end, and of a yellowilh brown. 4 Em-
biic, Which are round, rough, the fize of a gall, and
a dark-brown : and, 5. Belleric, which are hard,
round, of the fize of an ordinary prune, lefs angular
than the reft, and yellow. Each of thefe kinds are
(lightly purgative and aftringent; but Quincy obferves,
that the beft of them are not worth regarding, fince
they rather clog than aflift any compOfition.
MYRRH, a vegetable produdtion of the gum or refin
kind, iffuing by incifion, and fometimes fpontaneoufty,
from the truiik and larger branches of a tree growing
in Egypt, Arabia, and Abyffinia. The incifions are
made twice a-year, and the myrrh ouzing out is re¬
ceived on ruflr-mats difperffed underneath.
Myrrh is fent over to us inloofe granules of various
fizes, from that of a pepper-corn, fo the bignefs of a
walnut. The generality of them, however, are from
the fize of a pea, to a little more than that of a hoffe-
bean : thefe are fometimes roundifh, but often irregu¬
larly long and contorted. The colour of myrrh is a
reddifti-brown, with more or lefs of an admixture of
, yellow, and in the-pureft pieces it is fomewhat tranf-
parent. Its tafte is bitter and acrid, with a peculiar
aromatic flavour, but v.ery naufeous : but its fmell,
though ftrong, is not difagreeable. It is to be chofen
in clear pieces, light, friable, and of the bittereft tafte.
^yrrh is of great ufe in medicine ; it powerfully re-
folves and attenuates thick and vifeid blood, and con-
-.creted bile, and glutinous humours, and is good in ob-
Yol. HI. N°. 83. 2
fftrufltons-qT the menfes, .and in infarftions'dRthewfP-
•cera.
MYRSINE, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five fegments; anci
the berry has five cells and five feeds. There is but
one fpecies, a native of Juhiqpia.
MYRTIFORM, in anatomy, an appellation given to fe-
veral parts, from their relembling myrtle berries.
MYRTLE, in botany. SeeMvRTus.
MYRTUS, the Myrtle, in botany, a genus of theien-
fandria monogynia clafs. The calix confifts of five
fegments, and the corolla of five petals ; and the ber¬
ry contains two or three feeds. There are 13 fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
MY SI A, the ancient name of a province in Afia, being
the north-weft part of Natolia or Afia Minor.
MYTHOLOGY. The word mythology is a Greek com¬
pound, that fignifies a difeourfe on fables; and compre¬
hends, in a celleftive fenfe, all the fabulous and poetic
hiftory of pagan antiquity. It follows therefore, that
this fcience teaches the hiftory of the gods, demi gods,
and fabulous heroes of antiquity; the theology of the
pagans, the principles of their religion, their myfteries,
metamorphofes, oracles, <be. By this definition, it ap¬
pears fufficiently what are the obje<fts of which we are to
treat in this article.
If we well confider the matter, we fhall find, that
there were, in pagan antiquity, three different religions.
Firft, That of the philofophers, v/ho treated metaphyfi-
cally of the nature, the attributes, and of the works of
the Supreme Being. They endeavoured to difeover the
true God, and the manner in which he ought to be war-
(hipped. It is not Wonderful, that thefe men of exalted
genius (hould in fome degree ridicule, in their works, the
two other pofitive religions, and thofe gods on whom they
were founded ; at the fame time that they outwardly pro-
Feffed the eftablifhed religion, in order to preferve the
peace of fociety, and to avoid the perfecutions of the le-
giflature, and the infults of the populace. For in faift,
was it poflible for them to believe the pagan fables ? Muft
they not forefee, that their religion would one day give
place to another, while their own works would pals with
their names to the lateft pofterity ? And could they fuf-
fer the thought, that their reputation would be tarnifhed
in the eyes of that pofterity, by having it imagined they
believed fuch idle tales as were broached by the priefts of
their times ? CouldPlato, Socrates, Seneca, and Cicero,
be unconcerned for their fame among future generations,
and future philofophers ? And what ftrould we at this day
have faid of thofe great men, had they been fo political,
or hypocritical, as to have entirely concealed their fenti-
ments with regard to thefe matters ?
The fecond religion was that of paganifm, which was
the eftablifhed religion of all’the ancient nations except
the Jews. This was the dodtrihe that was taught by the
priefts, and protefted by the fovereigns. Its dogmas were
demonftratively falfe, but not always fo abfurd as may at
firft appear, efpecially if we annex to the divinities, and
to the religious ceremonies of the pagans, a ftnfe that is
frequently myftic, and always allegorij; if we remember,
4 U that
M Y T ( $$6 ) M Y T
Aat the fir ft heathens deified thofe great men to whom
the reft of mankind were indebted for any fignal benefits,
as Jupiter, Apollo, Ceres, Bacchus, Hercules, iEfcula-
pius, ire. in order to induce others, as well of the pre-
fent as future ages, to reverence and to imitate them,
Y\fould not an ancient pagan, if he were to return upon
the earth, have fpecious arguments, at leaft, to fupport
his religion} when he faw weak mortals beatify or ca¬
nonize, merely by their own authority, other weak mor¬
tals (frequently mere pedants,) and place them in heaven,’
without the permiffibn or approbatkm of the Supreme
Being ? Happy is it for mankind, when at different times
fagacious pontifiFs purge the calendar, and the brains
of the people, from a herd of pretended faints, and pre¬
vent them, at leaft after their death, from doing injury
to foclety, by interrupting the induftry of the laborious
inhabitants with keeping their feftivals.
The third religion was idolatry, or the religion of the
populace. For the common people, born to be deceived
in every thing, confounding in their imaginations the fta-
tues of the gods, the idols of their divinities, the em¬
blems of their virtues and of relrgious worfhip, with the
gods, divinities, virtues and worfhip -th?mfelves, adored
thefe images, and proceeded to extravagancies the moft
ridiculous, and frequently moft criminal, in their cere¬
monies, feafts, libations, faciifices,. It is to be fear¬
ed, that, as long as there are upon the earth men of our
limited capacities, this triple religion will conftantly fub-
fift under different forms ; and vve are much deceived, if
it may not be found under the empire of Chriftianity it
felf, notwithftanding the purity of its do£trine; It will
fee eaftly conceived, that it is not of the religion of phi-
lofophers, nor that of the populace, of which we are to
treat in this article of Mythology; but of that which
fiibfifted under the authorityof the magiftracy and theprieft-
hood, and confequently of paganifm in general.
As far as we are able to judge by all the ancient au¬
thors we have read, the pagans adored the fovereign Lord
of the univerfe under the name of Fate or Deftiny, which
we muft not confound with Fortune, who was regarded
as a fubaltern divinity, Jupiter himfeif, all the gods,
every animated being, the heavens, the earth, the whole
frame of nature, was fubfervient to Deftiny, and nothing
could reverfe its decrees. This divinity was fo highly
adorable, as to be above all rank; and was regarded as
too fupreme to be reprefented under any fenfible image or
ftatue, or to have any temple ere&ed for its worfhip. We
do not remember to have read, that any facrifice was e-
ver offered to this Deftiny, or that any temple or city was
ever dedicated te its name. We are almoft inclined to
think, that the pagans were fenfible, that the temple and
the worfhip of the God of gods ought to be in the heart
of man. Mention is made, indeed, of a temple that was
dedicated to the Unknown God, but we are ignorant whe¬
ther or not Deftiny were thereby meant. We mqft not
confound this Deftiny, moreover, with the goddefs of
chance, of which there are fome antique ftatues that re-
prefent her in a recumbent pofture, and playing with lit¬
tle bones ; for this was nothing more than an invention
of fome ftatuary.
After this general and philofophical idea of the Su¬
preme Being, comes the pofitive religion of the pagans.
This was entirely founded on fable, which took its rife ei¬
ther from ancient traditions, or hii'lorical events, altered
or augmented by the imaginations of the poets, by fuper-
ftition, or by the credulity of the people; or elfc it con?
lifted of allegoric or moral fiffions. A crowd of writers,
and among the reft Noel U Comte, (Natalis Comes,) the
abbots Bannier and Pluche, .drc. have made many re-
fearchet info the origin of fable: and they think they
have difeovefed its fource,, i. in the vanity of mankind ;
2. in the want of letters and chatafters; 3. in the delu-
five eloquence of orators; 4. in the relations of travel¬
lers; 5. in the fictions of poets, painters, ftatuaries, and.
dramatic writers; 6. in the diverfity and uniformity of
names ; 7. in the ignorance of true philofophy ; 8. in the
foundation of colonies, and the invention of arts; 9. in
the defire-of having gods for our anceftors; 10. in the
imperfect or falfe interpretation of the holy feriptures;
11. in the ignorance of ancient hiftory; 12. in a.like ig¬
norance of chronology; 13. in that of foreign languages;
14. in the tranflation of the religioo of the Egyptians and
Phoenicians into Greece; 15. in the ignorance of geo¬
graphy ; and, 16. in the belief that the iirft people had of
the intercourfe of gods with men. It is certain, that all
thefe matters taken together are fufficient to produce ma¬
ny thoufands of fables ; are more than fufheient to enable
•us to deceive ourfelves and others, and to give rife to in¬
finite reveries. But we fhould take care how we draw
from thefe fources demonftrations that might be ufed, by
infidels, as arguments tooverthrowthe hiftory of the Jews;
a people the moft ftupid, moft credulous, and oftentatious
of all others. In the mean time, the pagan philofophers
themfelves afferted, that it was a gocPwho invented the
fable: fo much they were convincined of its ingenuity,
and of its ftrong tendency to inftruft mankind in their
duty.
Mythology therefore, when properly treated, begins
with making learned refearches into the real origin of fa¬
ble, of paganifm, and of that idolatry which was its con-
fequence. It recurs for this purpofeeven to.the beginning
of the world : and after finding that Laban, the father-
in-law of the patriarch Jacob, was a maker of idols; and
that he had his little images, or houlhold-gods, which he
formed of baked earth, and which (hews that idolatry,
exifted in the greateft antiquity; it then explains cofmogo-
ny, and theogony, or the belief that the-fir ft inhabitants of
the earth entertained of the creation of the univerle, and
what the pagan theology taught of the genealogy of their
falfe gods. It begins wish the tradition of the Chaldeans, a.
people fo ancient, that Nimrod was their firft king; but at
the fame time fo-credulous and fuperftirious, that we may
regard them as the authors of all thofe fables, and the
propagators of all thofe vifions, that have fince blinded
human reafon. According to this tradition, a monfter
named Oannes, or Oes, half filhand half man, fprang from
the fea, before the chaos was completely difperfed, and.
gave laws to the Chaldeans. A woman called Omorka,
reigned over all the earth. ZW cut her in two, and made of
one moiety the heavens, and of the other the earth. They,
likewife invented the two primitive beings, of which the
good one, who was named Orafmafdesy had the direc-
M Y T ( 357 ) M Y T
tion of heaven ; and the other, called Arimanius, that of the religious cerEmonies cbferved at laying the founda .
' tions of cities, tic.
The fcience of mythology then teaches the theogony
of the Phoenicians; concerning whom it draws great
lights from Sanchdniathon, a prieft of Beryte, who lived
before the Trojan wars, more than four hundred years
before Hefiod and Homer, and of whom Eufebius has
preferved confiderable fragments. From thence it palTes
to the theogony of the Egyptians; of whom That or Tkaut,
the founder of that nation, was likewife, they fay, their
iirfl: hiftorian; that Sanchoniathon even copied from him;
and of whom we find many relations in the Greek hifto-
rians, efpecially in Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and in
Eufebius of Caefarea. It then examines the theogony of
the Atlantides, who dwelt on the weftern part of Africa,
and of whom Diodorus alone has preferved any account,
From thence it proceeds to the theogony of the Greeks,
which is far better known to us, as we find accounts of
it, more or lefs particular, in numberlefs Greek and La¬
tin writers. This theogony had the fame foundation as
that of the Romans; the latter having only extended it,
by adding to the Greek divinities certain gods or demi¬
gods, formed of their heroes, and certain fymboiic and
allegoric divinities, which mythology explains at the fame
time: and it U on this occafion that it enters into a parti¬
cular explication of the cofnsogony and theogony of O-
vid ; whofe book of metamorphofes contains as copious
deferiptions as we could defire of the fables of the anci¬
ents : what was their belief concerning the habitations of
the bleffed after their death, or of the Elyfian fields ; as
well as of their hell or tartarus ; of the dog Cerberus;
cf the ferryman Charon ; of the furies ; of the four ri¬
vers, Cocytus, Lethe, Phlegethon, and Styx, which wa-
ttfr the tartarian regions, tic. The learned have likewife
made many iaquires, and many "ingenious difeoveries; con¬
cerning the theogony of the ancient Germans, Celts, the
Scythian and Hyperborean nation. In the lali place, this"
fcience furnilhes great lights on the theogony of the Bra-
mins, the Troglodytes, the Indians, the Chinefe, and e-
ven the Americans; all which it concludes with a regular
and minute examination of the pagan theology, and par¬
ticularly that of the poets.
All thefe matters being, well digefled in the minds of
thofe who would make a regular ftudy of pagan theolo¬
gy, they continue their refearches into the time, the epoch
and place1 of the real origin of paganifm and idolatry; and
they prove that the pagans began by adoring the heavenly
bodies, the ftars and planets. They next examine into
the progrefs of idolatry : what were the temples of the pa¬
gans, their altars, their inclofures, their facred groves,
their afylums, the idols and ftatutes of their deities ; in
what manner they were reprefented; what were their fa-
crifices, the vidlims that were offered; what were the fa¬
cred veffels, the cenfers and other inftruments that were
ufed in the facrifices, libations, and other religious cere
nlonies: coacerning the priefts, prieftefTes, and other at¬
tendants on the fervice of each divinity : what v/ere the
feftivals that were celebrated among the Greeks and Ro
mans, as well as among the orientals; what the days of
penitence and fupplication, the feafts or the gods of lec-
*iflexnia,. their invocations or incantations, and exorcifms,
Divination, or the prediAion of future events, a weak-
nefs that has at all times pofleiTed the human -mind,
forms alfo an important article of pagan theology. It is
therefore in this place, that mythology confiders the na¬
ture of Oracles-, and in particular, i. The oracle of Do-
dono, the moft ancient of Greece; 2. That of Jupiter,
* Mammon or Ammon, in Libya; 3. That of Jupiter Phi-
lius; 4. That of Apollo,Toth of Heliopolis; 5. That of
Apollo of Delphos; d. That of Trophonius in Bceotia;
7. That of Venus of Aphaca, a country between Byblos
and Heliopolis, fituate on a fmall lake; and a great num¬
ber of other oracles of lefs note, difperfed over Greece
and other countries. It alfo examines in what manner thefe
oracles gave their anfwers, the ceremonies that were ob-
ferved in confulting them, the frantic emotions of.the
prieftefs Pythia on her tripod ; and thofe of other priefts.
It then endeavours to determine if there ever were in fail
any Sibyls, which, whatever has been faid, is ftiil very
doubtful; it draws, however, from all the fources of anti¬
quity, a kind oFhiftory ,af thefe Sibyls, and of thfir pro¬
phecies. It next paffes to the examen of the nature of augu¬
ries, aufpices, harufpices, prefages, prodigies, and pheno¬
mena, of expiations and ablutions, of the magic and aftro-
logyof the ancients, tic. Whoever has throughly ftudied
all thefe objedts, is fully provided with the preliminary
knowledge that is neceflary to enable him to proceed
fteadily and fecurely through the darknefs of ancient my¬
thology, and he may thereby advance more confidently to
the examination of the nature of the pagan divinities them-
felves.
The celebrated treatife of Cicero De natura Dec rum
will here furnifh great lights : but modern authors who
have treated on thefe matters, have not been contented
with this alone: they have, fo to fay, extra&ed the effence
of all antiquity, of which they have formed fyftems ; but
unluckily thefe fcarce ever agree with each other. As
philofophers, it is of very little importance for us to know
what was the nature of thefe gods, feeing we know that
they.were merely fabulous: but as hiftoriansand antiqua¬
ries, it concerns us"to know what was the nature that
was attributed to them in general; and, in particular,
what were the origin, genealogy, rank, functions, autho¬
rity, and operations, that were attributed to each divini¬
ty; and it is ffh thefe matters that we have ftill-fome re¬
marks to make.
The gods of the ancient Greeks and Romans were all?
eitherD/i majorum gentium, or Dii minorum gentium ;
that is, of the firft or (econd order. The former were al¬
fo called confentes, magni confultores, &e. According to
Ennius they were twelve in number, and are included in
thefe verfes:
Juno, Vefta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercurius, Jovis,- Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
To thefe were added eight others under the title of fg-
letti, which were Sol, Luna, Tellus, Genius, Janus, Sa-
turnus, Liber, and Pluto. The fecond order, ox minorum-
gentium, were called Adfcriptitii, Medioximi, Minufcu-
larii, Putatitii, Indigetes, Semones, tic. the principal of
which were JtXculagius, Bacchus, Caftor, Fauna, Hercu¬
les*,
m T TT (T as® )) M ¥ T
U«, (heXnres or'Penates, ■Pdilu^/Quir'.nus, 'Semo Saneue
ior Dius Fidius, &c.
According to the Fecond divifion, all their divinities
■were claffed into, i. Celeftial gods, 2. Terreftrial gods.
Sea gods, and 4. The Infetna! deities, ox inferi. The
celedialgods^vere Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Aurora, Cupid,
Cybele, the Graces, Bobe, Iris, Tuna, Mars, Mercury,
Minerva, Nemefis, Saturn, Themis, Venus, &c. The
lerreftrialgods were iEolus, Aftraeus, Aftraea, Geres, Dia¬
na, the Fauni, Feronia, Flora, Janus, Momus, the Mufes,
■Pales, Pan, Pomona, Priapus, the Satyrs, Silenus, Sil-
vanus, the god Terminus, Vefta or Rhea, Berecynthia,
Vulcan, Harpocrates, ebc. The fea'-gods were Neptune,
Amphittite, Thetis, Canopus, Glaucus, Ino, the Nereids,
Nereus, Oceanus, Paiscmon, Triton, The infernal
gods were Pluto,. Proferpine, Charon, Minos, Abacus,
Rhadamanthus, the Furies, Death, Night, the Fates,
Plutus, &
The third divifion ranged the divinities according as
they prelided, 1. Over the pregnancy of women (^Prag-
nantium ;) 2. At parturitions (Parturtentium ;) 3.
At births; {Nafccntiump) 4. At adulteries ; 5. At mar¬
riages: To which they added, 7. Dii morales, or mo¬
ral gods j and ,7. Funeral gods. The gods of pregnan¬
cy were Pilumnus* Intercidona, and Deverra : the gods
of parturition, Juno, Lucina, Diana, Egerio, Profa,
Poflverta, Menagenata, Latona, the gods that were cal¬
led Nixi, er of labour, <&e. The gods of birth were Ja¬
nus, Opis, Nafcion, Cunina, Carmema, Vaginianus, Le-
vana, Rumia, Potina, .Educa, Oflilago, Carnea, Nqndina,
Siatilinus, Fabulinus, Paventia,. lire. The gods of adultery
were Juventus, Agenoria, Strenua, Stimnla, Horta, Quies,
Murcia, Adeona, Abeona, Voluptas, Orbona, Pellonia,
Numeria, Camoena, Sentia, Angerona, Heres, Martea,
Laverna, the god Averruncus, Confus, Catius, Volumnus
and Volumna, Honorius, Aius Locutius, ire. The nup¬
tial gods were Diana, Domiduca, Domitius, Hymenaeus
or Hymen, Jugatinus, Jupiter perfe&us, Juno perfeda,
Juno cinxia, Juna unxia, Lucina, Manturna, Mutinus,
Dea Mater pritna, Suada, Thalallius, Venus, ire. The
moral gods were called Virtus, Honor, Tides, Spes, Juf-
titia, Pietas, Mifericordia, dementia, Pudicitia, Veritis,
Mens, Concordia, Pax, Salus, Eelicitas, Libertas, Pecu-
nia, Rifus, Invidia, Contumelia, Impudentia, Calumnia,
Fraus, Difcordia, Furor, Fama, Fortuna, with all their
epithets good or bad, Febris, Pavor and Palor, Pauper-
tas, NepelFitas, Tempeftas, Silentium, ire. The funeral
gods were Pluto, Libitina, Naenia, Death, the Fates,
etc.
Hefiod indeed pretends that all thefe gods derived their
origin from chaos; but we have already pointed out more
julF’'octrees. It is almoft incredible to what a prodigious
number the fuperftition and weaknefs of the Greeks and
Romans tnultiplied thefe divinities; there have been thirty
•houfand of them enumerated. It will not be expe&ed
that we fhould here attempt to deferibe them, nor will it
be remarkable if we have forgot to mention even fome of
the firft rank : Although, vaft as this company of gods
is, mythology does not omit to trace the hiftory of the
greateft part of them, as is taught by paganifm; and they
-who are .dduons of particular information in thefe mat-
rtevs may xonTuit-with .advantage’.the’theogony -oTHeSoft,
*the catalogue of Apollodorus, the metamorphofes of ©-
vid, the fables of Hygina, Lylii Gregorii Gyraldi Syn-
tagmade DiisGentilium, the mythology of Natalis Comes,
the books of Gerard Voflius de Idolatria Gentilium, Jo-
hannis Boccatii Genealogia Deorum, the Pantheon of
Pomey, the hiftory of heaven by Abbe Pluche, the hi-
ftoric explanation of fables by Abbe Banier, and number-
lefs other works of the fame kind in all languages.
There were ftiil many other diftinftions, of which the
pagans made ufe to mark the rank, the funiftions and
nature of their feveral divinities. For example, the god-
defs Vefta, or the mother of all the gods, was adored by
all people in general. Mars, Bellona, Vidforia, Fortu-
nata, affifted all parties. The topical gods, on the
contrary, were adored in particular countries only; as Aftar-
te in Syria, Derceto andSemiramis among the Aifyrians,
Ms and Oftris by theEgyptians, Quirinus at Rome,
The title Semones, which was given to a certain clafsoF
divinities, was doubtlefs derived from Semi-homines,
that is, demi-men; and fignified the fame as femi-dii, or
demi-gods. Thefe were moharchs and illuftrious heroes,
or thofe great men who were the founders of cities and
nations, that were deified by way ofapotheolis. Pythagoras
had taught the Chaldeans the dodtrine of tranfmigration.;
and that, after their death, thofe who were virtuous
would be elevated to the rank of divinities. This doc¬
trine was adopted by all she pagan world. The apotheo-
fis, after they had eredhd temples and altars to the new
gods, was celebrated with much folemnity. In the laft
ceremony, an eagle was fixed on the eatafalk, or funeral
pile, on which was. placed the image of the hero ; and
when the pile began to burn, the eagle was let loofe, who,
mounting into the air with the flames, feemed to carry
the foul of the departed hero up to heaven.
Mythology informs us alfo, who thofe perfons were
that antiquity regarded as the children of the gods, fuch
as Thefeus, Hippolytus, Paris, &c.; what the pagans be¬
lieved with regard to the nature of their Genii and De¬
mons, of their Dryades, Haraadryades,Nymphs,Tritons,
Sirens, Fauns, Sylvans, Centaurs, and other fubaltern
divinities ; and in this manner it explains all the fyftems
of the pofitive religion of the Greeks and Romans. They
who are defirous of extending their knowledge of paga¬
nifm ftill further, of knowing the dogmas of each parti¬
cular people, what were their gods, and the various man¬
ners in which they were worlhipped, fuch as Apis, Tfis,
Ofiris, &e. the adoration of crocodiles and onions, t&i\
among the Egyptians, muftftudy the different theogonies
of thefe people; and notwithftanding all the informations
which ancient and modern authors afford, this ftudy is yet
boundlefs, and attended with many difficulties and uncer¬
tainties : Though it appears demonftrative, that fheorigin
of paganifm, and of idolatry in general, was derivedfrom
the Chaldeans, from whom the Egyptians drewthatdoc-
trine which they after tranfmitted to all other nations;
and confeq.uently that the primordial divinities were the
fame, under different denominations, among all the ido¬
latrous nations of the earth.
The nature of this work will not permit us to defeend
to further particulars. But to give our readers an idea
of
M Y T ( 3i
of the manner in which mythology treats its fubjefts, and
of the method that ihould be o.bferved in fiudying fable.,
or the hiltory of the gods of antiquity, we fliall here.give,
by way of example, a cttrfory defcription of ParnafTus and
its inhabitants.
ParnalTus was a mountain of Phocis, that had two
funtmits, one of which w^s called Tithoreus, and the o-
ther Hyampeus. Others fay^ that one of thefe hills was
named Helicon, and the other Cytheron ; and that it is
an error to imagine, that Helicon was a mountain of Boe-
^otia. However that be, this double hill was confecrated
to Apollo andtheMufes, who there held their ufual refi-
dence. According to fable, there had been a remarkable
combat on this hill, between' Helicon and Cytheron.
Whoever flept on ParnaiTus, when he waked, became a
poet. Apollo had there a temple. There alfo was the
fountain Caftalia, into which Apoilo had metamorphofed
a nymph that he loved, and had given to its waters the
..power of making all who drank of them poets. At the
foot of Parnaffus flowed the river Hippocretie, that had
the fame virtue; and the fourceof which was opened by a
ftroke of the foot of the horfe Pegafus. This river nou-
rifhed a great number of fwans, that were regarded as
Tacred. Pegafus was a winged horfe, that belonged to
Apollo, and grazed on the fummit of Parnaffus. He
fprangfrom the blood of Medufa, when PerfeuscutofFher
head, which was placed among the ftars. Such was the
delicious abode of Apollo, thefon of Jopiter and Latona,
who was born, with his twin filler Diana, in the ifland
Delos. He killed the Cyclops-, who forged the thunder¬
bolts with which Jupiter had overthrown his foniElculapius;
but for that prefumption, he was forced to leave heaven,
.and become an inhabitant of the earth. He guarded the
oxen of Admetusbe aided Neptune to build the walls of
Troy, and Alcotheus in forming thelabyrinth. He kil¬
led the dragon or ferpent Python. He invented Mufick
*nd phyfick; and was honoured as the god of poets and
phyficians. He was reprefented as a young man without
.albeard, his Ijead furrounded with rays, and bearing in
his hand a bow, or a lyre. As the ancients denoted the
An by the name of Apollo, they fometimes reprefented
him alfo as feated in a chariot, drawn by two white hor-
fes, preceded by Aurora and theflar Venus : Phaeton his
fon, being defirous of conducing thefe horfes, wasthrown
hno the fea. Apollo was alfo called Phoebus, Titan,
and Sol. He is known to have had amours with Arfi-
npe, Corycia, Meloene, Cyrene, Mantho, Sinope, Cal¬
liope, aind others ; by whom he had'Delphe, Naxe, Mi-
Jetus, Arabe, Garamas, Sirus, Linus, Orpheus, and o-
ther children. He had peculiar honours paid him in the
.Pythian games at Delphos, and in the fecular games at
itome.
The Mufes were the companions of Apollo in his rural
abode. They were llkewife called the learned fillers ;
as alfo the Cameenion, Heliconian, Parnaflian, Aonian,
-Pierian, Pegafiap, Aganippian, Thefpian, Libethrian, and
bCaltalian fillers. They were the daughters of Jupiter
and Mnemofyne, and were regarded as the goddefles of
Sciences and arts in general. There were nine of tbefe
Vol. III. N°. 84. 2
9 ) M Y U
mufes; to whom they attributed, 1. to Clio, hiftbry, 2. te
Melpomene, tragedy, 3. to Thalia, comedy, 4. to Eu¬
terpe, flutes and other pneumatic inllruments of mufick,
5. to Terpfichore, the harp and the dance, 6. to Erato,
the lyre and the lute, 7. to Calliope, heroic verfe, 8. to
Urania, allronomy, and 9. to Polyhymnia, rhetoric and
eloquence. The Graces aifo fometimes quitted Venus to
pay their court to Apollo.
Such was the idea they entertained of Parr.afTus and its
inhabitants. There is no doubt but that, under thefe fa¬
bulous reprefentations, thefe fenfible images, were con¬
cealed allegoric and moral meanings ; nor can it be denied
but that their method of cultivating the arts and fciences,
by this manner of expreffing their ideas, was as ingenious
and pleafing as it is. poflible to imagine. > Every other
lubjeft that.paganifm embraced, it treated with the fame
genius, and in a manner equally.pleafing; and though that
religion was altogether fallacious, yet we mull allow.that
it was extremely .well calculated to promote the polite
arts, by thofe refined, noble, graceful, brilliant images,
by thofe charming fubjedts, which it conftantly prefented,,
and which it Hill offers to the poet,'painter, fculptor, and
every other art iff,
•But this was not a power fitfEciently flrong to fecure
paganifm againff that viciflijiide, that decline and diffolu-
tion, which finally atteqds all the produflions of this
world. This religion, which had fubfilled near five
thoufand years, and almolt from the origin of the human
race, gradually declined in proportion as the lights of
Chrillianity and phiiofophy illumined the minds, of man¬
kind. For though the pagan religion, and the fables on
which it was founded, were pleafing and favourableto the
polite arts, they were not however calculated to fatisfy
the minds of philofophers, nor to promote the real good
of mankind, by fecuring their temporal and eternal hap-
pinefs. It is even furprifing that fo great a ,genius as the
emperor Julian Ihould attempt to revive the embers of
paganifin, which infenfibly declined, and had received a
mortal blow at the beginning of the fourth century by
the emperor Conflantine the great. Julian employed all
the refources of his imagination, of his eloquence, of his
power, and even of his own fatal example, to revive it;
but in vain. The fatal period of paganifm was arrived,
and nothing could fave it from deftruftion. ' The furious
Theodofius, to whom bigotted priefts and hiftorians have
afligned the name of Great, totally overthrew it toward
the clofe of the fame century, deftroyed thofe temples
and altars which yet fpbfifted, difperfed its colleges, and
exterminated its priefts. From that dire epoch, nothing
of paganiffn has. remained, except fome mins difperfed in
the remote parts of the earth, and among people wretched
and alnjoft unknown ; where this religion, once fo flou-
rilhing and univerfal, is now degenerated into grofs and
difguftful idolatry.
MYURUS, in medicine, an epithet for a fort of finking
pulfe, when the fecondffroke is lefs than the firff, the
third than the fecond, and fo on.
( 3^> )
N.
N A M
■?V T AF>OB, a viceroy or governor of one of the. pro-
JL '4 vinces of the Mogul’s empire, in India.
NABONASSAR, or JE/-a of Nabonassar. See
Astronomy, p. 493.
NADIR, in aftroiomy, that point of the heavens which
is diametrically oppofite tothe zenith, or point direftly
over otir heads. See Astronomy, p. 435.
NfEVI, in forgery, marks or excrefcertces made on the
ficin of an infant before its birth, vulgarly fuppofed to
be occaOoned by the imagination of the mother.
NAHUM, or tb: prophecy o/'Nahum, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament.
Nahum, the feventh of the twelve leffer prophets,
w'as-a native of Elkofnai, a little village of Galilee.
The fubjeft of his prophecy is the delfruftion of Ni¬
neveh,'which he t^efcribes in the moll lively and pa¬
thetic manner; his Ilyie is bold and figurative, and
cannot be exceeded by the moll perfect mailers of
oratory. This prophecy was verified at the fiege of
that city by Altyages, in the year of the world 3378,
622 years before Chrift.
NAIADS, in mythology, the nymphs of the fountains.
See Mythology. ,
NAIANT, in heraldry, a term ufed in blazoning fifhes,
when borne in an horizontal pofture, as if fdimming.
N A} AS, in botany, a genus of‘the monoecia monandria
clafs. The calix of the male is cylindrical and bifid ; the
corolla confillsoffourfegments; and there are no fila¬
ments: The female has neither,calix nor corolla, but one
piflil and an ovated capfule. There is only one fpecies,
vlz. the marina, found in the European feas.
NAIL, unguis, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 256.
Nails, in building, &c. fmal! fpikes of iron, brafs, he.
which being drove into wood, ferve to bind feveral
pieces together, or to fallen fometjiing upon them.
Nail, is alfo a meafure of length, containing the fix-
teenth part of a yard.
NAIRN, a borough and port town of Scotland, eighteen
miles call of the town of Invernefs.
NAISSANT, in heraldry, is applied to any animal if-
fuing out of the midll of fome ordinary, and Ihewing
only his head, Ihoulders, forefeet and legs, with the
tip of his tail ; the reft of his body being hid in the
Ihield, or fome charge upon it ; in which it differs
from' iffuant, which denotes a living creature arifing
out of the bottom of any ordinary or charge.
N^AKED seeds, in botany, are thofe that are not in-
clofed in any pod or cafe. u
NAM A, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The calix coniifts of five leaves, and the corol-
NA P
la of five fegments ; and the capfule Has one ceil and
two valves. There are two fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed to
exprefs fome idea ; or which ferves to fignify a thing
or fuhjeft fpoken of. See Grammar. ,
NAMUR, a ftrong city of the Auilrian Netherlands,
capital of the province of Namur, (ituated at the con¬
fluence of the Sambre and Maefe : E. long. 40 ycr,
N. iat. 50° 30'.
NANCY, the capital of Lorrain in Germany, fituated
in E. long. 6°, N. lat. 48° 44 .
NANFIQ, one of the iflands in the Archipelago, fix-
teen miles round, and iituated in E. long. 26°, N.
. hit. 3;0. .
NANKING, the capital of the province of Nanking,
and formerly of the Empire of China, is fituated in E.
long. 1180 3o\ N. lat. 320.
NANSAMUND, a coupty of Virginia, inNorth Ame¬
rica, fbuth of the Ifle of-V/ight county, through which
the river of Nanfamiend runs.
NANTZ, a city of France in the province of Brittany,
fi'tuated on the river Loire, in W. long. x° 30', N.
laE47° G-
NANTWICH, a market town of Chelhire, fituated.fe-
venteen miles fouth-weft of Chefter. •
NAPZEA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia pbly^
andria clafs. The calix is limele and cylindrical ; and
the capfule contains one feed. There are two fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
NAPHTHA, in natural hiftory, a fluid mineral Body,
of a thin confiftence, bright and pellucid, of a ftrong
fme'll, very readily inflammable, and, when pure, burn¬
ing away without leaving any refiduum.
The naphtha is found in chnfiderable quantities float¬
ing on the waterof certainfprings, principally breaking
out at the fides of hftls in Perfia, Tartary, and fome
parts of the empire of China; where if a lighted candle
be held near the furface, it takes fire and overfpreads
the furface of the water for a great extent, with a
ftrong white flame, and emits a verydifagreeable fmell.
The genuine naphtha is very rare in Europe; it is not
known to be any where naturally produced here, and
what we fee of it is generally fophifticated. Dillilied
by the retort, it yields an oil fomewhat thinner than
it was originally, and of a weaker fmell. The fub-
ftance remaining at the bottom of the retort, has much
the refemblance of amber; and Dr Hill thinks it highly
probable, that the origin of all the amber is from the
fame fort of principle ; nay, he tells us that he has fuc-
ceeded
N A K { 3
eeeded to far in an attempt to make amber by this fluid
and an acid drawn from the crude pyrites, that he has
produced a friable fomewhat ptiiucid matter, having
ail the properties of amber except its hardneis and
clearnefs, and yielding a true fait and oil of amber on
diflillation.
The medicinal virtues of the naptha are the fame
with the common petroleum, but in a more remifs de¬
gree. It is ufed externally on many occafions in Per-
ha; and is taken inwardly, a few drops for a dole, in
colics. The principal ufe mada of it, however, is
burning in lamps, for which purpofe it is very proper.
MAPIER’s, or Neper’s Bones. SeeNfiPER.
NAPLES, the capital of the kingdom of Naples: fitu-
atedjn E. long, ij^, N. lat 410.
The kingdom of Naples is one of the Sicilies ; it is
the fouth-ead part of Italy, and is fituated between
140 and-i90 E. long, and between 3S and 340 N.
lat. being bounded by the gulph of Venice on the
north-eafi:, by the Mediterranean fea cn the fouth-
eaft, by Sicily and theTufcan fea on the louth weft,
and by the Pope’s territories on the north-well; and
divided from the iflands^of Sicily, only by the narrow
(traight of Pharo-or-Medina.
.NARBARTH, a town of Pemhrokefhire, in fouthWales,
fituated ten miles north eaft of Pembroke.
NARBONNE, a city of France, in the province of Lan-
? 'guedoc: fituated in E. long. 20 40', N. lat. 430 iS'.
NARBOROUGH, an ifland of South-America, in tile
Pacific Ocean, fituated on the coaft of Chili, in W.
long. §5°, S. lat. 45'. . .
NARCISSUS, the daffodil, in botany, a genus of
the hexandria monogynia clafs. The corolla conlifts
of fix leaves, and the r.edlarium of one entire funnel-
{hapcd leaf; and the ftamina are fituate within the nec-
tarium. There are 13 fpecies, only two of which are
■ natives of Britain, viz, the poeticus, common pale
daffodil, or primrofe peerlefs ; atid the pfeudo-narcif-
fns or wild EngHih daffo_dil.
NARCOTICS, r in medicine, foporiferbus medicines,
which excite a ftupefablion. -
Narcotics, called alfo hypnotics,'anodynes, or ftu-
pefa&ives, are faid, by Hoffman, to be fuch kind of
remedies as, by their fubtle, noxious, and deleterious
exhalations, diminifli, or quite deftroy, the fenfe and
motion of the folid parts. Among'narcotics, the molt
eminent are thofe which are ufually prepared for me¬
dicinal ufes of the whole poppy, efpecially opium ; as
alfo all thofe prepared of mandragoras, hyofcyamus,
ftramonium, and datura.
NARDO, a port town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples: E. long. 190, N. lat. 40'? 33'.
NARDUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria mono¬
gynia clafs. It has no calix, and the corolla confifts
of two valves. There are five fpecies, only one of
which, viz. the fhidla, or malt-grafs is a native of
Britain.
NARRATION, in oratory and hiftory, a recital or re-
hearfal of a faft as it happened, or when it is fuppofed
to have happened. See Description.
NARWAL, in ichthyology. See Monodon,
>1 ) N A T
NARVAR, a city of the hither India, the capital of the
province of Marvar : E. long. 790, Jst. lac. 25'.
.NASIAS, in anatomy, a thin bone, making the eyptr-part
of thenofe. See Anatomy, p. t,6o.
NASSAU, the capital of the county of the fame nr.tt.e in
Germany: E. long. 70 25', N. lat. 50° 21'.
NASSUS, in ichthyology, See Cyprinus.
NATES, in anatomy, a verm eXprdimg thofe nvo flcihv
exterior parts of the body vulgarly called" the but¬
tocks.
Nates cerebri. See Anatomy, p. 286.
NATION, a coilcftive term, ufed for a confiderable
number or people inhabiting a certain extent of land,
confined within fixed limits, and under the fame go¬
vernment. 1
NATIVE, a perfofi confideted as born in a certain place
which was the proper refidence of his parents, and
where he received his education.
NATIVITY, or Natal day, the day of a perfbn’s
birth : The word nativity is chiefly ufed in fpeaking
of the -fains, as the nativity of St. John the Baptiff,
But when we fay the Nativity, it is underltood
of that of Jefus Chrift, or-the fealt of Chriftmas.
NATOLIA, the modern name of the Leffer Alia, being
the moft wefterly part of Turkey in Alia, and confiding
of a large peninlula, which extends from the river Eu¬
phrates, as far as the Archipelago, "the feas of Marmo¬
ra, the limits of Gaiipoli and of Conflantinople, which
feparate it from Europe on the weft. It is bounded on
the north by the Black-Sea, and on the fouth by the
Mediterranean fea.
NATRIX, in Zoology. See Coluber.
NATRUM, the nitre of the ancients, in natural hiftory,
is a genuine, pure and native fait, extremely different
from our nitre, and indeed from all the other native
fairs it being a fixed "alkali, plainly of the nature of
thofe made by fire- from vegetables, yet capable of a
regular cryftallization, which thofe fahs are not. It is
found oa the furface of thb earth, or at very fmail
depths within it; and is naturally formed into thin and
flat cakes or crufts, which are of a fpungy or cavernous
fu’bftance, very light and friable, and, when pure, of a
pale brownifh-white"; but as its fpungy texture renders
it very fubjeA to be fouled by earth received into its
pores, it is often met with of a deep dirty brown, and
not (infrequently reddifh.
Natrum, whether native or purified, diffbives in a
very final! quantity of water; and this foluticn is, in
many parts of Afia, ufed for waffling ; where it is alfo
made into foap, by mixing it with oil. Natrum reduced to
powder, and mixed with fand or flints, or with any 0-
ther ftone of which cryftal is the bafis, make them rea¬
dily run into, glafs. Gold heated red hot, and fprinkled
with a fmail quantity of this fait, melts immediately;
filver ignited and fprinkled with it, melts in the fame man¬
ner; as does alfo iron, copper, and the regulus of anti¬
mony, which melt much more eafily than they btherwife
would do. Mercury will not be mixed with it by any
art, and indeed will not amalgamate with metals if only
a little of this fait be added. It is foqnd in great abun¬
dance in many parts of Afia, where the natives fwcep
NAT C 362 } NAT
it tip from the furface of the ground* and call it foap-
earth. The,eaflieft account we have of it is in the
Scriptures, vthere we find that the fait called nitre in
thofe times would ferment with vinegar, and had an
abfterfive quality,, fo that it was ufed in baths and in
jwafliing things. Solomon compares the finging of
NATURAL
NAtural History, is that fcience which not only
gives compleat defcriptions of natural produdtions
in general, but alfo teaches the method of arranging them
into ClafTes, Orders, Genera, .and Species. This defi¬
nition includes Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, .&c.
But, in a work of-this kind, we thought it would be
. eafier, and more advantageous to the reader, to treat thefc
branches of natural hiftory feparately under their refpec-
tive names. See Botany, <bc. Under the tide of
Natural History, therefore, wefliallconfineourfelves
to Zoology, or that.part,of it which relates to Jni-
vials. It is likewife neceflary to mention in this place, that
we have given the defcriptions and characters of animals
under their proper names. The fcientific pan of the fub-
.jeCt, therefore, or the method of invedigating the genera
or fpecies of animals, by means of natural or artificial
arrangement, only remains to be explained.
In order to abridge the ftudy-of zoology, many me¬
thods of reducing animals to clalfes, genera, and fpecies,
have been invented. But, as that of Linnaeus is undoubt¬
edly the beft, the mod extenfive, and the lead underdood,
we (hall give a brief account of it.
Linnaeus divides the whole animal kingdom into 6 clafles.
The characters of thefe-6 clades are taken from the in¬
ternal druCture of animals, in the following manner;
Class I. MAMMALIA, includes all animals that
fuckle their young. The characters of this clafs
are thefeThe heart has two ventricles and
two auricles ; the blood is red and warm ; and
the animals belonging to it are viviparous.
Class II. AVES, or Birds.—The characters
are the fame with thofe of Clafs I. excepting
'that the animals belonging to it arc oviparous.
Class III. AMPHIBIA, or Amphibious A-
ninials.—The heart has but one ventricle and
one auricle ; the blood is red and cold ; and the
animals belonging to this clafs have the command
of their Lungs, fo that the intervals between in-
fpiration and expiration are in feme meafure vo¬
luntary.
Class IV. PISCES, or Fishes.—The heart
has the fame druCture, and the blood the fame
qualities with thofe of the Amphibia ; butthe a-
nimals belonging to this clafs are eafily didinguifh-
ed from the Amphibia, by having no fuch volun¬
tary command of their lungs, and by having exter¬
nal bronchia or gills.
Cl as s V. INSECTA, of Insects.—The
fongs with a heavy heart, to the contrariety of vinegar
and nitre; and Jeremiah fays, that if the finner wafh
himfelf with [nitre,, bis fin is not cleanfed off. Thefe
are propertiesdhat 'perfectly agree with this fait, but not
at all with our fait petre.
HISTORY.
has one ventricle, but no auricle ; the blood is
cold and white ; and the animals are furoifhedi
with antenna, or feelers.
•Class VI. VERMES, or Worms.—The cha¬
racters are the fame with thofe of Clafs V. only
•the animals have no antenna:, and are furnilhed
with tentacula.
The FirftClafs, MAMMALIA, is fubdivided into y
Orders; the characters of which are taken from the
number, druCture, and fituation of the Teeth.
Order I. The Primates, have 4 incifores, or
fore-teeth, in each jaw, and one dog-tooth. N. B.
By one dog-tooth) Linnatus means one on each
fide of the fore teeth fn both jaws.—This order
includes 4 genera, viz. Homo, Simla, Lemur,
Vefpertilio See thefe articles.
Order II. The BiCuta, have no fore teeth in ei¬
ther jaw —This order includes 6 genera, viz.
Elephas, Trichechus, Bradypus, Myrmecophaga,
Manis, Dafypus. See thefe articles.
-OrderIII. The Fera:, have, fer the mod part,
6 conical fore-teeth in each jaw.—This order in- '
eludes 10 genera, f/z. Phoca, Canis, Felis,-Vi-
verra, Mudela, Urfus, Didelphis, Talpa, Sorex,
Erinaceus. See thefe articles.
Orber IV. The Glires, have 2 fore-teeth in
each jaw, and no dog-teeth.—This order includes
6 genera, viz. Hydrix, Lepus, Cador, Mus,
Sciurus-, NoCtilio. See thefe articles.
Order V. The Pecora, have no fore teeth in
the upper jaw, but 6 or 8 in the under-jaw.—
This order includes 6 genera, viz. Camelus,
Mofchus, Cervus, Capra, Ovis, Bos. See thefe
articles.
—Order VI. The'B-ELLU^E, hzxt obtufefore-teeth
in each jaw.—This order includes 4 genera, viz.
Equus, Hippopotamus, Sus, Rhinoceros. See
thefe articles.
Order VII. The Gets, or'whale kind, baveno
uniform character in their teeth, being very dif¬
ferent in the different genera ; but are diffident¬
ly didinguifhed from the other orders of Mamma¬
lia, by living in the ocean, having peCtoral fins,
and a fidula or fpiraeulum upon the head.—This
order includes 4 genera, viz. Monodon, Balasna,
Pbyfeter, Delphinus. See thefe articles.
The generic characters of the Mammalia are, like thofe
of the orders, almod entirely taken from the Teeth,
excepting
NATURAL
excepting the Vefpertilio, which, befides the charafler of
of the order derived from the teeth, has this further mark,
that there is a membrane attached to tire feet and fides,
by means of which the creature is .enabled to fly ;—the
Hylirix, whofe body is covered with lharp fpines;—and
the whole order of Pecora, whofe genera, beiides the
characters taken from the teeth, are diftinguifhed into
thofe which have horns., thole which no horns, and
fey peculiarities in the horns themfelves.
The fpecific characters are very various, being taken
from any part of the body which poflefles a peculiar uni¬
form mark of diftinCtion. As examples of thefe charac¬
ters are to be found under the proper name of each genus,
it is unneceffary to fay any thing further concerning them
tn this place.
The Second Clafs, AVES, is fubdivided into fix Or¬
ders, the characters of which are taken chiefly from the
structure of the Bile.
Order I. The Accipitres, have a hooked
bill, the fuperior mandible, near the bafe, be¬
ing extended on each fide beyond the inferior; and
in fome, the fuperior mandible is armed with ieeth.
—This order includes 4 fpecies, viz. Vultur,
Falco, Strix, Lanius. See thefe articles.
Order II. The P1 c je , h ave a convex, com prefled
bill, refembling a knife.—This order contains
22 genera, viz. Buphaga, Certhia, Corpus, Cu-
culus, &c. ' See thefe articles.
Order III. TheANSEREs, have an obtufe bill,
gibbous at the bafe, broadefl at the point, cover¬
ed with a fmooth fltin, and furnilhed with teeth :
The tongue is flelhy ; and the toes are palmated,
or webbed.—This order includes 12 genera, viz.
Alca, Anas, Colymbus, Diomedia, &c. See
thefe articles.
Order IV. TheGRALL^E, have a long, obtufe,
and fomewhat cylindrical bill : The tongue is
undivided, and flelhy ; and the thighs are naked.
This order contains 18 genera, viz. Ardea, Fu-
lica, Tringa, Charadrius, <bc. See thefe articles.
Order V. The GallinjE, have a convex bill ;
the fuperior mandible is vaulted over the inferior,
and the margin of the fuperior mandible folds over
the inferior one : The nojlrils are half covered
with a convey cartilaginous membrane : The res-
trices, or principal quill-feathers of the tail, are
always more than twelve in number ; and the feet
are divided, but connected at the inmort jbint.
—This- order contains 7 genera, viz. Didus,
Phafianus, Meleagris, Pavo, <bc. See thefe ar¬
ticles.
Order VI. ThePAssERES, have a conical lbarp-
pointed bill ; and the nojlrils are oval, wide,
afld naked.—This order contains 15 genera, viz.
Caprimulgus, Alauda, Columba, fcc. See thefe
articles.
The generic characters of this clafs are taken from
peculiarities in the bill, the nojlrils, the tongue, the feet,
She feathers, the face, x\\t figure of the body, 8cc
The characters which ferve to diflinguifli the fpecies
Vol. IH. N°. 84. 2
HISTORY. 3*3
are very various : For example, the colour of particular
feathers or parts of feathers ; crejls of feathers on the
headi dilpoled in different manners ; the colour of the
cere or wax', the colour of the feet; the fliape and length
of the tail; the number, fituation, the. of the toes ; the
colour and figure of the bill; &c.
The Third Clafs, AMPHIBIA, is divided Into four
Orders.
Order I. The Reptiles, have/<?^r, and breathe
by the This order Contains 4 genera,
viz. Teftudo, Draco, Lacerta, Rana. See thefe
articles.
Order II. The Serpentes, have no legs, and
breathe by the mouth.—This order contains 6
genera, viz. Crotalus, Boa, Coluber, Angujs,
Amphifbaena, Coecilia, See thTe articles.
Order III. The Nantes, are furnifhed with
lungs, and at the fame time breathe by lateral
gills ; and the rays of their fins are cartilaginous,
—This order contains 14 genera, viz. Accipenfer,
Baliftes, &>c. See thefe aitides.
Order IV TheMEANTEa, have bothand
gills ; and the feet are furnifhed with toes and
, claws.—This order contains but one genus, viz.
the Siren SeeSiREN.
rY\\z generic characters of this clafs are taken from the
general figure of the body ; from their having tails or no
tails ; being covered with a Jhelh, having teeth or no
teeth in the mouth; being furnifhed with wings ; having
covered ox naJted bodies ■. from the number, fituation, and
figure of thz fouta znd jeales; from the number and fitua¬
tion of the fpiracula; from the fituation of the mouth, &c.
The fpecific characters are fo very various, that it
would be fuperfluous to enumerate them.
The Fourth Clafs, PISCES, is fubdivided into four
Orders, the characters of which are taken from the fitua¬
tion of the belly-fins.
Order I. The Apodes, have no belly-fins.—
This order contains 8 genera, viz. Ammodytes,
Anarrhicas, Muraena, he. See thefe articles.
Order II. The Jugulares, have the belly-fins
placed before the pettoral fins.—This order in¬
cludes 5 genera, viz. Callionymus, Blennius, Ga-
dus, he. See thefe articles.
Order III. The Thoracici,-have the belly-fins
placed under Xbz p eft oral fins.—This order com¬
prehends 17 genera, viz. Gabius, Labrus, Spa¬
ms, he. See thefe articcles.
Order IV. The Abdominales, have the belly-fins
placed behind the peFloral fins. This order
contains 17 genera, viz. Fiflularia, Efox, Clu-
pea, Cyprinus, he. See thefe articles.
The generic characters of this clafs are taken from
peculiarities in the head, the mouth, the teeth, the no¬
jlrils, the rays in the membrane of the gills, the eyes,
the genera] of the body, the figure of the tail, the
fixuatioa of the fpiracula, &c.
The fpecific characters are taken from peculiarities ia
all the parts above enumerated, and many others.
4 Y The
3^4 NATURAL
The Fifth Clap, INSEGTA, is fubdivided.ipto 7 Or¬
ders, the charadters of which are taken from the wings.
Order I. The Coleoptera, have four >wingst the
two fuperior ones being cruftaceous, andfurnifhed
with a ftraight future.—This order comprehends
40 genera, viz. Attelabus, Scorabseus, Cocci-
nella, Melee, &c-. See thefe articles.
OAder II. The Hemiptera, have four uoings,
the two fuperior ones be.\ng. femicrufiaceous, and
incumbent, i. e. the interior edges lie above one
another.—This order includes 12 genera, viz.
Blatta, Gryllus, Cicada, (be. See thefe articles.
Order III. TheLEPtDOPTERA.have four •wings,
alTof them imbricated wnhfcales.—This order
contains^ genera, viz. Papilio, Sphinx,Phalaena.
See thefe articles.
Order IV. The Neuroptera, have four •wings
interwoven with veins, like a piece of network,
and'no_/?//?£ in the anus.—This order includes 7
genera, viz. Libella, Ephemera, Hemerobius, be.
See thefe articles.
Order V. The Hymenoptera, hare the fame
charafters with the former, only the anus is arm¬
ed with a Jiing. But this mark is peculiar to the
females and neuters; for the males have no
Jiing.—This order comprehends 10 genera, viz.
Apis, Formica, Vefpa, be. See thefe articles.
Order VI. The Diptera have"/ws wings, and
two clavated halteres or balances behind each
wing,—This order contains 10 genera, viz. Com-
bylius, Afilus, Tipala, be. See thefe articles.
Order VII. .The Aptera, have no wings.
This order contains 14 fpecies, viz. Acarus,
Aranea', Pediculus, be. See thefe articles.
NAT
Natural philosophy, that which confiders the pow¬
ers and properties of natural bodies, and their mutual
adtions on one another. See Mechanics, Optics,
Astronomy, Hydrostatics,Pneumatics.
NATURALIZATION. See Law, Tit. x, 6.
NATURALS, among phyficians, whatever naturallybe-
longs to an animaj, in oppofition to non-naturals. See’
Non-naturals.
NATURE, according to Mr. Boyle, has eight different
fignificatipns ; it being ufed, 1. For the Author of na¬
ture, whom the fchoolmen call Natura Naturans,bomg
the fame tvith God. 2. By the nature of a thing, we
fometimes mean its effence; that is, the attributes
which make it what it is, whether the thing be cor¬
poreal or not ; as when we attempt to define the na¬
ture of a fluid, of a triangle, be. 3. Sometimes tt'e
confound that which a man has by nature, with what
accrues to him by birth ; as when we fay, that fuch a
man is noble by nature. 4. Sometimes we take nature
for an internal principle of motion ; as when we fay,
that a done by nature falls to the earth. 5.’Sometimes we
underftand, by nature, the eftablifhed courfe of things,
6. SQmetimes we take nature for an aggregate of$ow-
H I S T O II r.
The Sixth Clafs, VERMES, is divided into five Or.
ders.
Order I. The Intestina, are the modJtmple
animals, being perfectly naked, and without
limbs of any kind.—This order contains 7 ge¬
nera, viz. Lumbricus, Spinuhcuius, Fafcioia,
Gordius, Afcaris, Hirudo, Mycine. See thefe ,
Articles. •
Order II. The Mollusca, are WktmfeJimple
naked animals, without any Jloell; but they are
brachiated, or furnilhed with a kind of limb!.—
This order comprehends 18 genera, viz. Afcidia,
Limare, Doris, Tethys, Aphrodita, Sepia, viz.
See thefe articles.
Order III. The Testacea, have the fame
charafters with thofe of Order II. but are co¬
vered with a jheil.—This order includes 39 ge¬
nera, viz. Anbmia, Cardium, Argonauta, Bulla,
Buccinum, be.
Order IV. The Lithophyta, are compound
animals, fixed upon a calcareous bafe condrudted
by the creatures thernfelvcs, — This order includes
the corals, of which there are 4 genera, viz.
Tubipora, Madrepora, be. See thefe articlesl
Order V. The Zoophyta, are compound animals,
furnifhed with a kind of flowers, and having a
vegetating root and Jlem.—This order contains
ij geneia, viz. Spongia, Gorgonia, Tubularia,
Hydra, be. See thefe articles.
This fliort explanation will enable any perfon who
underftands the Latin language to perufe the Syftema Isia-
turae of Linnaeus without the afliflance of amafler; which-
was the principal objedt of this article.
NAT
powers belonging to a body, efpecially ax living one;
in which fenfe phyficians fay, that nature is ftrong,
weak, or fpent; or that, in fuch or fuch difeafes,
nature left to herfelf will perform the cure. 7. Some¬
times we ufe the term nature for the univerfe, or
whole fyftem of the corporeal works ^pf God ; a! when
it is faid of a phoenix, or chimera, that there is no
fuch thing in nature. 8. Sometimes too, and that molt
commonly, we exprefs by the word nature a kind of
femi-deity, or other ftrange kind of being.
If, fays the fame philofopber, I were to propofe a
notion of nature, lefs ambiguous than thofe already
mentioned, and with regard to which many axioms re¬
lating to that word may be conveniently underftood,
I fliould firft diilinguifli between the univerfal and the
particular nature of things. Univerfal nature I would de¬
fine to be the^aggregate of the bodies that make up the
world, in its prefent ftate, confidered as a principle ;
by virtue whereof they aft and fuffer, according to the
laws of motion preferibed by the Author of-all things.
And this makes way foe the other fubordinate notion ;
fince the particular nature of an individual confifts in
the general nature applied to a diftinft portion of the
univerfal
N A V ( 365' ) NAY
tiniverfe ; or, which is the fame thing, it is a particular
affemblage of the mechanical properties of matter, as
figure, motion, &c.
MAVARINO, a port-town of European Turkey in the
Morea, ninety-miles fouth-welt of Gorinth.
NAVARRE, a province of Spain, bounded by French
Navarre on the north-eaft, by Arragon on the fouth-
eali, by Old Caftile on the fouth-welT, and by Guip^f-
coa on the weft: it is a mountanious country.
French Navarre, feparated from Spanijh Navarre
on "the fouth-weft by the Pyrenees: it is only thirty
miles long, and fifteen broad ; being one of the molt
barren provinces, in France.
NAVE, in architedture, the body of a church where the
N A V I G
■NTAvigation, is the art of conducing or carrying a
Ihip from one port to another. In order to under-
ftand this fcience, particularly the theoretical parts of it, it
is neceffary that the ftudent be acquainted with the general
principles of Geometry, Astronomy, andTaiGONO-
metry. See thefe articles.
Sed. I. Of the Log-line and Compass.
1. The method commonly made ufe of for meafuring
a fhip’s way at fea, or how far Ihe runs in a given fpace
of time, is by the log line, and half-minute glafs.
2. The log is a flat piece of wood, in fhape like a floun¬
der, having a piece of lead faftened to its bottom, which
makes it ftand or fwim upright in the water: to this log
is tied or faftened a long line, which is called the log-line;
and this is commonly divided into certain fpaces, each of
which is, or ought to be, fuch a proportional part of a
nautical mile (60 of which make a degree of a great circle
on the earth) as-half a minute (the time allowed for the
experiment) is of an hour.
3. Thefe fpaces are called knots, becaufe at the^end of
each of them there is a piece of twine with knots in it,
inreeyed between the ftrands of the line, which Ihews how
many of thefe fpaces or knots are run out during the
half minute. They commonly begin to be counted at the
diftance of about 10 fathom or 60 feet from the log; that
fo the log, when it is hove over board, may be out of the
eddy of the (hip’s wake before they begin to count; and
for the more ready difcovery of this point of commence¬
ment, there is commonly faftened at it a piece of redrag.
4 The log being thus prepared, and hove over board
from the poop, and the line veered out (by the help of a
reel, that turns eafily, and about which it is wound) as
faft as the log will carry it away, or rather as the (hip fails
from it, will (hew, according to the time of veering, how
far thefhip has run in a given time, and confequently her
rate of failing.
5. A degree of a meridian, according to the exa&eft
meafures, contains about 69.545. Englifti miles ; and each
mile by the ftatute being 5280 feet, therefore a degree
people are difpofed, reaching from the b^llnfter, or
rail of the choir, to the chief, door.
NAVEL, in anatomy, the centre of the lower part-of
the abdomen; being that part where the umbilical vef-
fels pafled out rf the fcetus to the placenta of the mo¬
ther. See Midwifery,
Navel-wort, in botany. See Cotyledon.
NAVEREINI, a town of Gafcony, in France, 'fixteea
miles focth eaft of Bayonne.
NAVEW, in botany, See Brass.ica, of which it is a
fpecies.
NAVIClfLARE os, in anatomy. See Anat. p. 186.
NAVIDAD, a port-town of Mexico, in the province of
Mechoachan : W. long. iio°, and N. lat. 190.
A T I O N.
of a meridian will be about 367200 feet ; whence the^g.
of that, viz. a minute, or nautical mile, muft contain
6120 ftandard feet; confequently, fince 4- minute is the
T4g part of an hour, and each knot being the fame part
of a nautical mile, it follows, that, each knot will contain
the -s4g- of 6120 feet, viz. 51 .feet.
6. Hence it is evident, that whatever number of knots
the (hip runs in half a misaute, the fame number of miles
(he will run in one hour, fuppoiing her to run with the
fame degree of velocity during that time; and therefore
it is the general way.to heave the log every hour to knot'/
her rate of failing : but if the force or direftion of the
wind vary, and not continue the fame during the whole
hour; orif there has been more fail fet, or any fail handed,
that fo th^ ftiip has run fwlfter or flower in any part of
the hour than (he did at the time of heaving the log ;
then there muft be an allowance made accordingly for it,
and this muft be according to the difcrption of the artift.
7. •Sometimes when the ftiip is before the wind, and
there is a great fea fetting after her, it will bring home
the log, and confequently the ftiip will fail fafter than is
given by the log. In this cafe it is ufual, if there be a very
great fea, to allow, one mile in ten, and lefs in proportion,
if the fea be not fo great. But for the generality, the
(hip’s way is really greater than that given by the log ;
and therefore, in order to have the reckoning rather before
than behind the (hip, (which is thefafeft way,) it will be
proper to make the fpace on the log-line between knot
and knot to confift of 50 feet inftead of 51.
8 If the fpace between knot and knot on the log-line
(hould happen to be too great in proportion to the half¬
minute glafs, viz. greater than 50 feet, then the diftahce
given by the log will be too ftiort ; and if that fpace be
too fmall, then the.diftance run (given by the log) will be
too .great ; therefore to find the true diftance run in ei¬
ther cafe, having meafured the diftance between knot and
knot, we have the following proportion, viz.
As the true diftance, 50feet, is to the meafured diftance;
fo are the miles of diftance given by the log, to the true
diftance in miles that the (hip has run,
Example
3 66 N A V I G
Example I. Suppofe afhiprutisattherate of -knots
in half a minute; but meafuring the fpace between knot
and knot, I find it to be 56 feet: Required the true di-
ftance in miles.
Making it, As 50 feet is to 56 feet, fo is 6.25 knots to
7 knots; I find that the true rate of failing is 7 miles in
the hour.
Example II. Suppqfe a fhip runs at the rate of 6i
knots in half a minute; but meafuring the fpace between
knot and knot, I find it to be only 44 feet: Required the
true rate of failing.
Making it, As 50 feet is to 44 feet, fo is 6.5 knots to
5.72 knots; I find that the true rate or failing is 5.72
miles in the hour.
9. Again, fuppofing the diftance between knot and
knot on the log line to be exaflly 50 feet, but that the
glafs is not 30 feconds; then, if the glafs require longer
time to run than 30 feconds, the dillance given will be
too great, if eftimated by allowing 1 mile for every knot
run in the time the glafs runs ; and, on the contrary, if
the glafs requires lefs time to run them 30 feconds, it
will give the diftance failed too fmall. Confequently, to
find the true diftance in either cafe, we muft meafure the
time the glafs requires to rrn out (by the method in the
following article;) then we hsve the following proportion,
viz.
As the number of feconds the glafs runs, is to half a
minute, or 30 feconds; fo is the diftance given by the log,
to the true diftance.
Example I. Suppofea (hiprunsat therate of yl-knots
in the time the glafs runs ; but meafuring the glafs, I find
it runs 34 feconds: Required the true diftance failed.
Making it, As 34 feconds is to 30 feconds, fo is 7.5
to 6.6 ; I find that the Ihip fails at the rate of 6.6 miles
an hour.
Example II. Suppofe a fhip runs at the rate of 6i
knots; but meafuring the glafs, I find it runs only25 fe¬
conds : Required the true rate of failing.
Making it. As 25 feconds is to 30 feconds, fo is 6.5
knots to 7.8 knots; I find that the true rate of failing
is 7.8 miles an hour. ,
10. In order to know how many feconds the glafs runs,
you may try it by a watch or clock, that vibrates feconds;
.but if neither of tbefe be at hand, then take a line, and to
the one end faftening a plummet, hang the other upon a
nail or peg, fo as the diftance from the peg to the centre
of the plummet be 39!-inches: Then this put into motion
will vibrate feconds; i. e. every time it paftea the perpen¬
dicular, you are to count one fecond ; cenfequently, by ob-
ferving the number of vibrations that it makes during the
time the glafs is running, we know how many feconds the
glafs runs.
11. If there be an error both in the log line and half¬
minute glafs, viz. if the diftance between knot and knot
and the log-line be either greater or lefs than 50 feet,
and the glafs runs either more or lefs than 30 feconds;
then the finding out the Ihip’s true diftance will be fomc-
what more complicate, and admit of three cafes, viz.
Case I. If the glafs runs more than 30 feconds, and
the diftance between knot and knot be lefs than.50 feet,
then the diftance give by the log-line, viz. by allowing
A T I O N.
t mile for each knot the ftiip fails while the glafs Is rua*
ning, will always be greater than the true diftance, fince
either of thefe errors give the diftance too great. Confe¬
quently, to find the true rate of failing in this cafe, we
muft firft find (by xArt. 8.) the diftance, on the fuppofition
that the log-line is only wrong, and then with this (by
Art. 9-)we fhall find the true diftance.
Example. Suppofe a <hip is found to run atlhe rate
of 6 knots; but examining the glafs, I find it runs 3J
feconds; and meafuring the log-line, I find the diftance
between knot and knot to be but 46 feet: Required the
true diftance run.
Firft, (by Art, 8.) We have the following proportion,
viz. As 50 feet: 46 feet :: 6 knots : 5.52 knots. Then
(by Art. 9,) As 35 feconds: 30feconds :: y.52 knots :
4.73 knots. Confequently the true rate of failing is 4.73
miles an hour.
Case II. If the glafs be lefs than 30 feconds, and the
place between knot and knot be more than 50 feet; then
the diftance given by the log will always belefs than the
true diftance, fince either of thefe errors leflen the true
diftance.
Example. Suppofe a Ihip is found to run at the rate
of 7 knots; but examining the glafs, I find it runs only 25
feconds ; and meafuring the fpace between knot an knot
on the log line, I find it is 54 feet: Required the true
rate of failing.
Firft, (by Art. 9.) As 25 feconds : 30feconds :: 7 knots:
8 4 knots. Then (by Art. 8.) As 30 feet: 54 feet : : 8 4
knots: 9.072 knots. Confequently the true rate of fail¬
ing is 9.072 miles an hour.
Case III. If the glafs runs more than 3ofeconds, and
the fpace between knot and knot be greater than 30feet;
or if the glafs runs lefs than 30 feconds, and the fpace
between knot and knot be lefs than 30 feet: then, fince in
either of thefe two cafes the effefts of the errors are con¬
trary, it is plain the diftance will fometimes be too great,
and fometimes too little, according as the greater quantity
of the error lies ; as will be evident from the following
examples.
Example I. Suppofe a fttip is found to run at the
rate of 94- knots per glafs ; but examining the glafs, it
is found to run 36 feconds ; and by meafuring the fpace
between knot and knot, it is found to be 58 feet: Requi¬
red the true rate of failing.
Firft, (by Art. 8.) As 50 feet ’. 38 feet I '. 9.5 knots
1 11.02 knots. Then (by Art. 9.) As 38 feconds 1 30
feconds ’. 1 11.02 knots 8.7 knots. Confequently the
{hip’s true rate of failing is 8.7 miles an hour.
Example II. Suppofe a fhip runs at therate of 6 knots
per glafs ; but examining the glafs, it is found to run only
20 feconds ; and by meafuring the log line, the diftance
between knot and knot is found to be but 38 feet: Required
the true rate of failing.
Firft, (by Art. 8 ) As 30 feet 1 38 feet '. I 6 knots I
4.56 knots. Then (by Art 9.) As 20 leconds I 30 fe¬
conds 4.36 knots '. 6 84 knots. Confequently the
true rate of failing is 6.83 miles an hour.
But if in this cafe it happen, that the time the glafs
takes to run be to the diftance between knot and knot,
as 30, the feconds in half a minute, is to 50, the true
diftance
N A V I G
-dutance between knot and knot; then it is plain, that
whatever number of feconds the glafs coiififts of, and
whatever number of feet is contained between knot and
knot; yet the diftance given by the log line, will be the
true diftance in miles.
12. Though the method of meafuring the fhip’s way
by the log-line, defcribed in the foregoing articles, be
that which is now commonly made ufe of;»yet it is fub-
je£t to feveral errors, and thefe very confiderable. For
firft, the half minute or quarter-minute-glaffes (by which,
and the log, the (hip’s way is determined) are feldom or
never true, becaufe dry* and wet weather have a great
influence on them ; fo that at one tirue they may run
more, and at another time fewer than 30 feconds, and
it is evident that a fmall error in the glafs will caufe a
fenfible one in the (hip’s way. Again, the chief property
of the log is to have it fwim uptight, or perpendicular to
thf horizon : but this is too often wanting in logs, becaufe
few feamen examine whether it is fo or not, and generally
take it upon truft, being fatisfied if it weigh a little
more at the ftern than the head : and from this there
jflows an error in the reckoning; for if the log does not
fwim upright, it will not hold water, nor remain (leady
in the place where it is heaved, fince the lead check in
the hand in veering the line will make it come up fe¬
veral Feet: this repeated will make the errors become
fathoms, and perhaps knots, which, how infigniffcant fo-
ever they appear, are miles and parts of miles, and amount
to a good deal in a long voyage. Another inconvenience
attending the log-line is its ftretching and fhrinking; for
when a new line is firfl ufed, let it be ever fo well (1 retch¬
ed upon the deck, and meafured as true as poflible, yet
after wetting it (brinks confiderably ; and confequently to
bethebetter affured of the (hip’s way by the log-line, we
ought to meafure and alter the knots on it every time be¬
fore we ufe it; but this is feldom done oftner than once
a week, and fometimes not above once or twice in a
whole voyage ; alfo when the line is meafured to its
greateft degree of (hrinking, it is generally left there ;
and when, by much ufe, it comes to ftretch again, it is
feldom or never mended, though it will ftretch beyond
what it firft (hrunk. Thefe, and many other errors, too
well known, attending that method of meafuring the
/hip’s way by the log-line, plainly anfwers for a great
many errors committed in reckonings. So it is to be
wiftied, that either this method were improved'or amend¬
ed, or that fome other method lefs fubjedt to error were
found out.
13. The meridian and prime vertical of any place cuts
*he horizon in 4 points, at 90 degrees diftance from one
another, viz. North, South, Euji, and; that part
of the meridian which extends itfelf from the place to
the north point of the horizon is called the north line;
that which tends to the fouth point of the horizon, is
called thefsuth line; and that part of xheprhne vertical
which extends towards the right hand of the obferver,
when his face is turned to the north, is called the <?<?/?
line; and laftly, that part of the prime vertical which
tends towards the left hand, is called the •weft line ; the
four points in which thefe lilies meet the horizon, are
called the cardinal points.
Vox, III. N°. 84. 2
A T I O N. 367
14. In order to determine the courfe of the winds,
and to difeover their various alterations orfliiftings; each
quadrant of the horizon intercepted between the meridian
and prime vertical, is ufually divided into eight equal
parts, and confequently the whole horizon into thirty-
two ; and the lines drawn from the place on which the
obferver ftandeth, to the points of divifion in his horizon,
are called rumb lines, the four principal of which are
thofe defcribed in the preceding article, each of them
having its name from the cardinal point in the horizon
towards which it tends ; the reft of the rumb lines have
their names comounded of the principal lines on each
fide of them, as in the figure ; {fee Navigation Plates,
No. 1.) and over which-foever of thefe lines the courfe
of the wind is directed, that wind takes its name ac¬
cordingly.
15. The inftrument commonly ufed at fea for dire&iag
the (hip’s way, is called the mariner’s compafs; which
confifts of a card and two boxes. The card is a circle
made to reprefent the horizon, whofe circumference is
quartered and divided into degrees, and alfo into thirty-
two equal parts, by lines drawn from the centre to the
feveral points of divifion, called points of the compafs.
On the back fide of the card, and juft below the fouth
and north line, is fixed a fteel needle with a brafs cupola,
or hollow center in the middle, which is placed upon the
end of a fine pin, upon which the card may eafily turn
-about; the needle is touched with a load (tone, by which
a certain virtue is infufed into it, that makes it (and con¬
fequently the fouth and north line on the card above it)
hang nearly in the plane of the meridian, by which means
the fouth and north lines on the card produced would
meet the horizon in the fouth and north points; and con¬
fequently all the other lines on the card produced would
meet the horizon in the refpe&ive points.
16. The card is reprefented in No. 1. in which you
may obferve, thatthe capital letters N, S, E, W, denote
the four cardinal points, viz. N the North, S the South,
&c. and the fmall letter b fignifies the word by : the
Rhombs in the middle between any two of the cardinals
are expreffed by the letters denoting thefe cardinals, that
which denotes the point lying in the meridian having the
precedence ; thus the rhomb in the middle between the
north and eaft is exprefled N E. which is to be read
North-Eajl ; alfo S W denotes the South-WeJl .rhomb,
drc. the other rhombs are exprefled according to theirfi-
tuation with refpeft to thefe middle rhombs, and the
neareft cardinals, as is plain from the forefaid figure.
17. The card is put into a round box, made for it,
having a pin erefted in the middle, upon which the hollow
centre of the needle is fixed, fo as the card may lie ho¬
rizontal, and eafily vibrate according to the motion of the
needle: the box is covered over with afmooth glafs, and
is hung in a brafs hoop upon two cylindrical pins, diame¬
trically oppofite to one another ; and this hoop is hung
within another brafs circle, upon two pins at right angles
with the former. Thefe two circles, and the box, are
placed in another fquare wooden'box, fothat theinnermoft
box, and confequently the card, may keep horizontal
which way foever the (hip heels.
j8. Since the meridians do all meet at the poles, and
4 ^ there
363 N A V I G
there form certain angles with one another* and fince, if
we move never fo little towards the eaft or weft, from one
place to another, we thereby change our meridian, and in
every place the eaft and weft line being perpendicular to
the meridian; it follows, that the eaft and weft line in the
firft place will not coincide with the eaft and weft line in
the fecond, but be Inclined to it at a certain angle : and
confequently all the other rhomb lines at each place will
be inclined to each other, they always forming the fame an¬
gles with the meridian., Hence it follows, that all rhombs,
except the four cardinals, muft be curves or helifpherical
lines, always tending towards the pole, and approaching
it by infinite gyrations or turnings, but never falling into
it. Thus let P(No. 2.) be the pole, EQjm arch of the
equator, PE PA, <bc, meridians, and EFGHKL any
Sedt. 2. 0/Plain Sailing.
1. This method of failing fuppofes the earth to be a
plane, and the meridians parallel to one another ; and
fikewife the parallels of latitude at equal diftance from one
another, as they really are upon the globe. Though this
method be in itfelf evidently falfe ; yet in a ftiort run,
and efpecially near the equator, an account of the flip’s
way may be kept by it tolerably well.
2. The angle formed by the meridian and rumb that
a {hip fails upon, is called the (hip’s courfe. Thus if a fhip
fails on the NNE rhomb, then her'courfe will be 22° 30',
and fo of others.
3. The diftance between two places lying on the fame
parallel counted in miles of the equator, or the diftance
of one place from i!he meridian of anbther counted as a-
bove on the parallel palling over that jilace, is called me¬
ridional diftance; which, in plain failing, goes under the
name of departure.
4. Let A (NQ 3.) denote a certain point on the earth’s
furface, AC it’s meridian, and AD the parallel of lati¬
A TIG N.
rhomb: then becaufe the angles FEF, PFG, be. are by
the nature of the rumb line equal, it is evident that it
will form a curve line on the furface of the globe, always
approaching the pole P, but never falling into it; for if
it were poffible for it to fall into the pole, then it would
jfollow, that the fame line could cut ah infinite number of
other lines at equal angles, in the fame point; which is
abfurd.
19. Becaufe there are 32 rumbs, (or points in thecom-
pais) equally diftant from one another, therefore the angle’
contained between any two of them adjacent will be 110
15', viz. -yV part of 360° ; and fo the angle contained
betweeofthe meridian and the N5E, will be ii° 15',
and between the meridian and the NNE will be 220 3c/
and fo of the reft, as in the following table.
tude palling through it ; and fuppofe a (hip to fail from
A on the NNE rhomb till fhe arrive at B; and through
B draw the meridian BD, (which, according to the prin¬
ciples of plain failing, muft.be parallel to CA.) and the
parallel of latitude BC ; then the length of AB, viz.
how far the (hip has failed upon the NNE rhomb, is called
her diftance; AC or BD will be her difference of lati¬
tude, or northing; CB will be her departure, or eafting ;
and the angle CAB will be the courfe. Hence it is plain,
that the diftance failed will always be greater than ei¬
ther the difference of latitude or departure; ii being the
hypothenufe of a right-angled triangle, whereof the other
two are the legs ; except the fhip fails either on a meri¬
dian, or a parallel of latitude : for if the ftiip fails on a
meridian, then it is plain, that her diftance will be juft
equal to her difference of latitude, and (he will have no
departure ; but if (he fail on a parallel, then her diftance
Will be the fame with her departure, and (he will have no
difference of latitude. It is evident alfo from the figure,
that if the courfe be lefs than 4 points, or 45 degrees,
its complement, viz. the other oblique angle, will be
greater
A Table of the Angles which every \ Point of the Compafs makes with the Meridian.
N A V I G
greater than 45 degrees, and fo the difference of latitude
wiili be greater than the departure ; but if the couri'e he
greater than 4 points, then the difference of latitude will
be lefs than the departure ; and iallly, if the courfe be
juft 4 points, the difference of latitude will be equal to the
departure.
5. Since the diftance, difference of latitude, and de¬
parture, forma right-angled triangle, in which the oblique
angle oppofite to the departure is the courfe, and: the
other its complement; therefore, having any two of thefe
given, we can (by plain trigonometry) find the reft ; and
hence arife the cafes of plain-failing, which are as follow.
Case I. Courfe and diftance given, to find difference
of latitude and departure.
Example. Suppofe a fltip fails from the latitude of
30° 25' north, NNE, 32 miles, (No. 4.) Required
the difference of latitude and departure, and the lati¬
tude come to. Then (by right angle trigonometry,) we
have the following analogy, for finding the departure,
viz.
As radius — — — — 10.00000
to the diftance AC — 32 — — — 1.50515
fo is The fine of the courfe A 226 30' —- — 9.58284
to the departure BC — — 12.25 — 1.08799
fo the Ihip has made 12.25 miles of departure eafterly,
or has got fo far to the eaftward of her meridian. Then
for the difference of latitude or northing the fhip has
made, we have (by re&angular trigonometry) the follow¬
ing analogy, viz.
As radius — — — — 10.00000
is to the diftance AC — 32 — 1.50515
fo is the c6_lineof courfe A —■ 220 30/ — 9.96562
to the difference of lat. AB — 29.57 —* 1.47077
fo the fhip.bas differed heflatitude, or made of northing,
29-57 minutes.
And fince her former latitude was north, and her dif-
ferencemf latitude aifo .north ; therefore.
To the latitude failed from — — 30°, 2 5/N
add the difference of latitude — — oo°, 29 57
and the fum is the latitude come to 30°, 54.57 N
By this cafe are calculated the tables of difference of
latitude, and departure, to every degree, point, and quar¬
ter-point of the compafs.
Case II. Courfe and difference of latitude given, to
find dift. nee and departure
Example. Suppofe a Ihip. in the latitude of 450 25'
north, fails NE£N f eafterly (No 5.) till Ihe come to the
latitude of 46° 55'north. Required the diftance and
departure made good upon that courfe.
Since both latitudes are northerly, and the courfe alfo
northerly ; therefore,
From the latitude come to — — — 46°, $5'
fubtradt the latitude failed from —- 45^ 25'
and their remains — — — 01°, 30’
the difference of latitude, equal to 90 miles.
And (byre&angular trigonometry) we have the follow¬
ing analogy, for finding the departure BD, viz.
As radius — — — — 10.00000
b to the diff. of latitude AB .— 90 1,95424
A T I O N. 369
fo is the tangent of ccurfe A — 39V 9 91404
to the departure BD — — 7384 1S6828
fo the ftiip has got 73 84 miles to the eaftward of her for¬
mer meridian.
Again, for the diftance AD, we have (by reftangular
trigonometry) the following proportion, viz.
As radius — — — — 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe 390, 22' 10.11176
fo is the difference of latitude AB 9a -— 1.95424
to the diftance AD — — 116.4 2.06600
Case III. Difference of latitude and diftance given,
to find courfe and departure.
Example. Suppofe a fhip fails from the latitude of
56° 5Q/north, on a rhomb between fouth and weft, 126
miles, and fhe is then found by obfervation to be in the
latitude of 550 40' north. Required the courfe fhe failed
on, and her departure from the meridian. No 6.
Since the latitudes are both north, and the fhip failing
towards the equator ; therefore.
From the latitude failed from — 56° 50’’
fubtradt the obferved latitude — — 55° 10'
and the remainder — — — oi°, 40'’
equal to 70 miles, is the difference of latitude.
By redtaogular trigonometry we have the following pro¬
portion for finding the angle of the courfe F, viz.
As the diftance failed DF — 126 — 2.10037
is to radius — — — 10.00000
fo is the drff. of latitude FD 70 — 1.84510
to the co-fine of the courfe F 56°, 15' 9.74473
which, becaufe fhe fails between fouth and weft, will be
fouth 56° 15 weft, or SW6W. Then, for the departure,
we have (by ^edlangulal trigonometry) the following pro¬
portion, viz.
As radius — — — -— 10.00000
is to the diftance failed DF — 126 — 2.10037
fo is the fine of the courfe F — 56°, 15' 9 91985
to the departure DE — — 104 8 — 2 02022,
confequently fhe has made 104.8 miles of departure weft*
erly.
Case IV. Difference of latitude and departure given,,
to find cqurfe and diftance.
Example. Suppofe a fhip fails from the latitude of
44° 50' north, between fouth and eaft, till fhe has made
64 miles of eafting, and is then found by obfervation to be
in the latitude of 420 56' north. Required the courfe
and diftance made good.
Since the latitudes are both north, and the fhipfailing
towards the equator ; therefore,
From the latitude failed from — — 440, 50'N
take the latitude come to — — 420, yd'
and their remains — — — oi°, 54'
equal to 114 miles, the difference of latitude or fouth-
ing.
In this cafe by (reftangular trigonometry) we have the
following proportion to find the courfe KGL (No. 7.)
viz.
As the diff. of latitude GK ir4 — 2.05690
is to radius — — — — io.ooqoo
jfo is the departure KL — 64 — 1.80618
370 N A V I Cx
to the trahgent of courfe G — 290, 19' — 9 74928
which, becaufe the (hip is failing between fouth and call,
will be fouth 290 19' eaft, or SSE 4-salt nearly.
Then for the diftance, we fhall have (by reftangular tri¬
gonometry) the following analogy, viz.
As radius — — — —* ro.o®ooo
is to the diff. of latitude GK 114 — 2,05690
fo is the fecant of the courfe — 290, i<)' 10.05952
to the diftance GL — — 130.8 — 2.11642
eonfequently the ftiip has failed on a SSE i eaft courle
130 8 miles.
Case V. Diftance and departure given, to find courfe
and difference of latitude.
Example. Suppofe a fhip at fea fails from the
latitude of 340 24' north, between north and weft 124
miles, and is found to have made of wefting 86 miles.
Required the courfe fleered, and the difference of latitude .
or northing made good.
In this cafe (by fedtangular trigonometry) we have the
following proportion for finding the courfe ADB, (No,
8.) viz.
As the diftance AD — 124 — 2.09342
is to radius — — — — 10.00000
fo is the departure AB — 86 — 1.93450
to the fine of the courfe D 430, 54' — 9.84108
fo the fhip’s courfe is north 33 0 54' weft, or NW£N j-
weft nearly.
Then for the difference of latitude, we have (by rec¬
tangular trigonometry) the following analogy, viz.k
As radius — — — — 10 00000
is to the diftance AD — 124 —- 2.09342
fo is the co fine of the courfe 43°, 54' — 9 85766
to the diff. of latitude BD — 89.35 —# 1.95108
which is equal to 1 degree and 29 minutes nearly.
Hence, to find the latitude the fhip is in, fince both lati¬
tudes are north, and the fhip failing from the equator;
therefore,
To the latitude failed from — — 34°, 24'
add the difference of latitude — — i°, 29'
the fum is — — — — 3S°>53
the lathude the fhip is in north.
Case VI. Courfe and departure given, to find diftance
and difference of latitude.
Example. Suppofe afhipat fea, in the latitude of 24°
30, fouth, fails SEiS, till fhe has made of eafting 96
miles. Required the diftance and difference of latitude
made good on that courfe.
In this cafe, by Reftangular Trigonometry, and by
Cafe 2. we have the following proportion for finding the
diftance, (No 9.) viz.
As the fine of the courfe G 330, 45' — 9.74474
is to the departure HM — 96 — 1.98227
fo is radius — — — — 10.00000
to the diftance GM — 172.8 — 2*23753
Then, for the differenceof latitude, we have (by rec¬
tangular trigonometry) the following analogy, viz.
As the tangent of courfe — 33°> 4/ — 9.82489
is to the departure HM — 96 — — 1.98227
ibis radius — — — — 10.00000
to the difference of latitude GH — 143.7 — 2.15738
A T I O N.
equal to 2SV 24'nearly. ConfeqQently, fince the latitude
the fhip failed from was fouth, and fhe faifing ftill towards
the fouth,
To the lat'uude failed from — — 240, 30'
add the difference of latitude — — — 20, 24'
and the fum — — — — 26°, 54
is the latitude fhe is come to fouth.
6. When a fhip ftems feveral courfes in 24 hours, then
the reducing all thefe into one, and thereby,finding the
courfe and diftance made good upon the whole, is com¬
monly called the refolving of a traverfe.
7. At fea they commonly begin each day’s reckoning
from the noon of that day, and from that time they let
down all the different courfes and diftances ftemmed by
the fhip till noon next day upon the log-board ; then
from thefe feveral eourfes and diftanees had from the
compafs and log line, they compute the difference of
latitude and departure for each courfe (by Cafe .1. of
Plain Sailing-,) and thefe, together with the courfes and
diftances, are fet down in a table called the traverfe
table,* which confifts of five columns: in the firft of which
are placed the courfes and diftances; in the two next the-
differences of latitude belonging to thefe courfes, accord¬
ing as they are north or fouth; and in the two laft are
placed the departures belonging to,thefe courfes, accord¬
ing as they are eaft or weft. Then they fum up all the
northings, andall the fouthings; and taking the difference
pf thefe, they know the difference of latitude made good
by the fhip in the laft 24 hours, which will be north or
fouth, according as the fum of the northings or fouthings
is greateft: The fame way, by taking the fum of all the
callings, and likewife of all the weftings, and fubtradling
the leffer of thefe from the greater, the difference will
be the departure made good by the fhip laft 24 hours,
which will be eaft or weft according as the fum of the
eaftiogs is greater or lefs than the fum of the weftings;
then from the difference of latitude and departure made
good by the fhip laft 24 hours, found as above, they find
the true courfe and diftance made good upon the whole
(by Cafe 4. of Plain Sailing), as alfo the courfe and
diftance to the intended port.
Example. Suppofe a ftiip at fea, in the latitude of
48° 24^ north at noon any day, is bound to a port in the
latitude of 430 4c/ north, whofe departure from the fhip
is 144 miles eaft; confequently the diredt courfe and dif¬
tance of the fhip is SSE \ eaft 315 miles; but by reafon
of the fhifting of the winds (he is obliged to fleer the
following courfes till noon next day, viz. SEiS 56
miles, SSE 64 miles, NW£W 48 miles, SiW 4 weft
54 miles, and SEiS I- eaft 74 miles. Required the courfe
and diltance made good the laft 24 hours, and the bearing
and diftance of the fhip from the intended port.
The folution of this traverfe depends entirely on the
1 ft and 4th cafes of Plain Sailing; and firft we muft (by
Cafe x.) find the difference of latitude and departure for
each courfe. Thus,
1 Courfe SE£S diftance 56 miles.
For departure.
As radius — — — — xo.oooco
is to the diftance —1 ^ ' 1.74819
fo
N A V I G
Co is theftne of the courfe 330, 45' — 9-74474
to the departure  3r.11 — 1.49293
For difference of latitude.
As radius — 10.00000
is to the diflance — 56 — 174819
fo is the co fine of the courfe 330, 45' — 9-9I98j
to the diff. of latitude — 46.57 — 1.66804
2. Courfe S.SE and diftance 64 miles.
For departure.
As radius — — — 10.00000
is to the diliance —• 64 ' — x.80618
fo is the fine of the courfe 220, %o' — 9.58284
to the departure — 24.5 — 1.38902
For difference of latitude.
As radius — — — 10,00000
is to the diftance — 64 — 1.80618
fo is the co-fine of the courfe 220, 30* — 9.96562
to the difference of latitude 59.13 — 1.77180
3. Courfe NWiW and diltance 48 miles.
For departure.
As radius — — — 10.00000
is to the diffance — 48 — 1.68124
fo is the fine of the courfe 56°, I5/ — 9.91985
to the departure — 39 91 — 1.60109
For difference of latitude.
As radius — — — ID.00000
is to the diffance — 48 — j.68124
fo is the co-fine of the courfe 56°, 1 y — 9.74474
to the difference of latitude 26.67 -r- . 1.42598
4. 'Courfe SiW 4-weft and diftance 54 miles.
For departure.
As radius — — — Io 00000
is to the diftance — 54 — 1-73239
fo is the fine of the courfe 160, 52' — 9.46262
to the departure — 15 67 — 8.19501
H For difference oi latitude.
As radius . — — r — 10.00000
is to the diftance — 54 — 173239
fo is the co fine of the courfe 16°, 52' ,— 9.98090
to the difference of latitude 51.67 — 1.71329
5. Courfe S££S 4 eaft and diftance 74 miles.
For departure.
As radius — — — 10.00090
is to the diftance — 74 1.86923
fo is the fine of the courfe 390, 22' — 9 80228
to the departure — 46'94 — x .67151
For difference of latitude.
As radius — — — 10.00000
is to the diftance — 74 — 1.80923
fo is the co-fine of the courfe 39°, 22’ — 9.88824
to the difference of latitude 57.21 — I -75747
Now thefe feveral courfes and diftances, together with
the differences of latitude and departures deduced from
them, being fet down in their proper columns in the
traverfe table, will ftandason next column.
From that table it is plain, fince the fumof the northings
is 26.67, and r^e fsuthings 214.58, the difference be¬
tween thefe, r/z. 187.91. will be the fouthing made good by
the fhip the laft 24hours; alfo the fum of the callings being
502.55, and of the weftings 55.58, the differen. e 46 97
Will be the t afting or departure made good by the ihip’s
A T I O N.
The Traverse Table.
Courfes . Dijiane-es Diff. of Lat. | Departure
SEbS — 56
S S E — 64
NWiW — 48 26.67
SMV4Weft — 54 
SE^S4Eaft — ^4 
_Dff. of Lat. 187 .9 ij 46/97 Pep.
laft 24 hours ; confequently, to find the true.courfe and
diftance riiade good by the (hip in that tune, it will be,
(by Cafe 4. of Plain Sailing,)
As the difference of latitude •— 18 7 91 2.27393
is to radius — — 10.00000
fo is the departure — — 46.97 1.67182
to the tangent of the courfe 140, 03' — 9-39789
which is S£E4 eaft nearly. Then for the diftance, it will be.
As radius — — xo.00000
is to the difference of latitude 187.91 2.27393
fq is the fecant of the courfe 140, of jo.01319
tothediftance -— — 193 7 2.28712
confequently the (hip has made good the laft 24 fiours,
on a S^E \ eaft courfe, 193,7 m'les: And fince the (hip
is failing towards the equator; therefore,
From the latitude failed from — 48°, 24* N
take the diff. of latitude made good — 3 , 08 S
45 , 16 N
1 becaufe the port
there remains —
the latitude the (hip is in north. And b
the (hip is bound for lies in the latitude of 43° 40' north,
and confequently fouth of the (hip ; therefore,
From the latitude the (hip is in — 45°, 16’ N
take the latitude (he is bound for — 43 , 40 N
and there remains — — 1 > 36
or 96 miles, the difference of latitude or fouthing the (hip
has to make. Again, the whole eafting the (hip had to
make being 144 miles, and (he having already made
46.97 or 47 miles of eafting; therefore the departure or
eafting (he ftill has to make will be 97 miles: conlequently,
to find the direct courfe and diftance between the (hip
and the intended port, it will be (by Cafe 4. of Plain
Sailing)
As the difference of latitude — 96 — 198227
is to radius — — 10.00000
fo is the departure — 97 — 1.98677
to the tangent of the courfe — 45°, 1.9’ 10.00450
And
As radius — — x0.00000
is to the difference of latitude 96 — 1.98227
ib is the fecant of the courfe 45°, 19’ — 10.15293
.tothediftance — 136.5 — 2.13620
whence the true bearing and diftance of the intended pos t
is SE, 136.5 miles.
372
N
V I C A T I O N.
Sefl. 3, Qf Parallel Sailing.
1. Since the parallels of latitude do always decreafe
the nearer they approach the pole, it is plain a degree on
any of them mud be lefs than a degree upon the equator.
Now in order to know the length of a degree on any of
them, let PB (No. 10.) reprefent half the earth’s axis,
PA a quadrant of a meridian, and confequently A a point
on the equator, C a point on.the meridian, and CD a per¬
pendicular from that point upon tho axis, which plainly
will be the fine of CP the didance of that point from the
pole, ortheco-fineef CAits didance from the equator; and
CD will~^e to AB, as the fine of CP, or co-fine of CA,
is to tho radius. Again, if the quadrant PAB is turned
round upon the axis PB, it- is plain the point A will de-
fcribe the circutpference of the equator whofe radius is
AB, and any other point C uponthe meridian will defcribe
the circumference of a parallel whofe radius is CD.
Cor. L Hence (becaufe the circumference of circles
are as their radii) it follows, -?hat the circumference of
any parallel is to the circumference of the equator, as
the co fine of its latitude is to radius.
Cor. II. And fince the wholes are as their fimilar
parts, it will be, As the length of a degree on any parallel
is to the length of a degree upon. the.equator, fo is the
co fine of the latitude of that parallel to radius.
Cor. III. Hence, as radius is to the co fine of any la¬
titude, fo are the minutes of difference of longitude be¬
tween two meridians, or their didance in miles upon the
equator, to the didance of thefe two meridians on the
parallel in miles.
Cor. IV. And as the co-fine of any parallel is to radius,
fo is the length of any arch on that parallel (intercepted
between two meridians) in miles, to the length of a fimilar
arch on the equator, or minutes of difference of longitude.
Cor. V. Alfo, as the co fine of any one parallel is to the
co fine of any other parallel, fo is the length of any arch on
the firft, in miles, to the length of the fame arch on the
other in miles.
2. From what has been faid, arifes the folution of the
feveral cafes of parallel failing, which are as follow.
Case I. Given the difference of longitude between
two places; both lying on the fame parallel; to find the
didance between thofe places.
Example I. Suppofe a ihip In the latitude of 20'
north, fails direidly wed on that parallel till (he has dif-
fered-her longitude 120 45A required the didance failed
on that parallel.
Eird, The difference of longitude reduced into minutes,
or nautical m les, is 76/, which is the didance between'
the meridian failed from, and the meridian come to, up¬
on the equator; then to find the didance between thefe
meridians on the parallel of 540 20 , or the didance fail¬
ed, it will be, by Cvr* 3. of the lad article,
As radius — — — 10.00000
is to the co-fine of the lat. 540, 20./   9 76572
fo are the minutes of diff. long,    765 2.88366
to the diftance on the parallel 446.x 2,6493^
Example II, A degree on the equator being 60
minutes or nautical miles ; required the length of a de¬
gree on the.parallel of 510 32'.
By Cor. 3. of the lad article, it will be
As radius       to.00000
is to the co-fine of the latitude 510 32’ ——r 9-79383
fo are the minutes in 1 degreexm the equa. 60 1.77815
to       37.32 157198
the miles anfvvering to a degree on the parallel of 51° 32
By this problem the following table is condrudted,
fhewing the geographic miles anfwering to a degree on any
parallel of latitude ; in which you may obfer-ve, that the
jcolumns marked at the top with D.L. contain the degrees
of latitude belonging to each parallel; and the adjacent
columns marked at the top, Miles, contain the geographic
miles anfwering to a degree upon thefe parallels.
A Table fhewing how many Miles anfwer to a Degree of Longitude, at every Degree of Latitude.
Though
N A V I G
Though this tatJe does only fhew the miles anfwenng
to a degree of any parallel, whofe latitude confifts of a
•whole number of degrees ; yet it may be made to ferve
for any parallel whofe latitude is fome number of
degrees and minutes, by making the following proportion,
viz. -
As i degree, cr 60 minutes, is to the difference be¬
tween the miles anfwering to a degree in the next greater
and next lefs tabular latitude than that propofed; fo is
the excefs of the propofed latitude above the next tabular
latitude, to a proportional part; which, fubtra&ed from
the miles anfwering to a degree of longitude in the next
lefs tabular latitude, will give the miles anfwering to a
degree in the propofed latitude.
Example. Required to find the miles anfwering to a
, degree on the parallel of 56° 44 .
Firll, The next lefs parallel of latitude in the table
than that propofed, is that of 56°, a degree of which (by
the table) is equal to 33.5$ miles ; and the next greater
parallel of latitude in the table, than that propofed, is
that of 570. a degree of which is (by"the ruble) equal to
32 68 miles; the difference of thefe is 87, and the
diftance between thefe parallels is 1 degree or-60 minutes;
alfo the diftance between the parallel of 36°, and the
propofed parallel of is 44 minutes : then by the
preceding proportion it will be, As 60 is to 87> fo *s
44 to 638, the difference between a degree on the paral¬
lel of 56° and a degree on the parallel of 56° 44^; which
therefore taken from 33.53, the miles anfwering to a de¬
gree on the parallel of 56°, leaves 32.912, the miles
anfwering to a degree on the parallel of 56° 44 ,, as was
required.
Case II. The diftance failed in any parallel of lati¬
tude, or the diftance between any two places on that pa¬
rallel, being given; to find the difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a ftiip in the latitude of 550 36'
north fails dire&ly eaft 685 6 miles ; required how much
fhe has differed her longitude.
By Cor. 4. Art. 1. of this fe&ion, it will be
As the co fine of the lat.    550 36’   9.75202
is to radius       To 00000
fo is the diftance failed   6856 2 83607
to min. of diff. of long.   1213   3.08405
which reduced into degrees, by dividing, by 60, makes
20° I3/, the difference of longitude the ihip has made.
This may alfo be Iblved by help of the foregoing
table, viz. by finding from it the miles anfwering to
a degree on the propofed ptfYallel, and dividing with
this the given number of miles, the quotient will be
the degrees and minutes of difference of longitude re¬
quired.
Thus in the laft .example; I find, from the foregoing
table, thara degree on the parallel of 55° 36' is equal
to 33 89 miles ; by this I divide the propofed number of
miles 685.6 and the quotient is 20.13 degrees, 20°
13', the difference of longitude required.
Case III. The difference of longitude between two
places on the fame parallel, and the diftance between
them, being given ; to find the latitude of that parallel.
Example. Suppofe a (hip fails on a certain parallel
direfily weft 624 miles, and then has differed her longi-
I
N.
373
tude 180 46' or 1126 miles : Required the latitude of
the parallel (he failed upon.
By Cor. 3. Art. 1. of this fe&ioij, it will be,
As the min. of diff. long. — 1126 — 3 °5I34
is to the diftance failed — 624 — 2.79518
fo is radius — — id.00000
to the co fine of theiat. 56° 21 — 9.74364
confequenlly the latitude of the ftiip or parallel {he failed
upon was 56° 21 .
From what has been faid, may be folved the following
problems.
Pros. I. Suppofe two ftiips in the latitude of 46° 30'
north, diftant afunder 654 miles, fail both dire&fy north
256 miles, and confequently are come to the latitude
of 50° 46'north : Required their diftance on that parallel
By Cor. 6. Art. 1. of this Seftion, it will be.
As the co fine of — 46° 30' — 9.83781
is to the co-fine of — 50° 46' — 9.80105
fo is — 654 — 2.81558
to — — 601 — 2.778,82
the diftance between the fhips when on the parallel of
50° 46'. . _
Pros. II. Suppofe two ftiips in the latitude of 450 48''
north, difhnt 846 miles,- fail direftly north till the dif¬
tance between them is 624 miles : Required the latitude
come to, and the diftance failed.
By Cor. 5. Art. 1. of this Setfion, it will he,
As their firftdiftance — 846 — 2 92737
is to their fecond diftance — 624 — 2.79518
fo is the co-fine of — [450 48' — 9.84334
to the co-fine — 59 , 04   9.71115
the latitude of the parallel the ftiips are come to.
Confequemly to find their diftance failed,
From the latitude come to —• 59°,
fubtra<ft the latitude failed from, — 45 , 48
and there remains — — 13 , 16
equal to 796 miles, the difference of latitude or diftance
failed.
Sefh 4. (y Middle-latitude Sailing,
When two places lie both on the fame parallel, we
(hewed in the laft fe&ion, how, from the difference of
longitude given, to find the miles of calling or wefting
between them, ^ e contra. But when two places lie not
on the fame parallel, then their difference of longitude
cannot be reduced to miles of eafting or wefting on the pa¬
rallel of either place : for if counted on the parallel of that
place that has the grCateft latitude, it would be too final!;
and if on the parallel of that place having the leaft latitude,
it would be too great. Hence the cbrnmcn way of reducing
the difference of longitude between two places, lying on
different parallels, to miles of eafting or wefting, 6" e
contra, is by counting it on the middle parallel between
the places, which is found by adding the latitudes of the
two places together, and taking half the fum, which will
be the latitude of the middle parallel required. And
hence arifes the folution of the following cafes.
Case I. The latitudes of two places, and their dif¬
ference of longitude, given; to find the direft courfeand
diftance.
Example,
374 N A V I G
Example. Required the direft eourfe aud difknce
between tbeLizard in the latitude of 50° oc/ north, and
longitude of 50 14' weft, and St Vincent in the latitude
of 170 ic/N. and longitude of 24 20 W.
Firft, To the latitude of the Lizard — 50°, 00 N.
add the latitude of St Vincent — x? , 10
The funs is — — 67 , 10
Half the fum or latitude of
the middle parallel is 3 33 >3>'
Alfo the difference of latitude is — 33 , 50
equal to 1970 miles of fouthing. Again,
From the longitude of St Vincent — 24 , 20 W,
take |he longitude of the Lizard —- 05 , 14
there remains — — 16 , 06
equal to 1146 min. of diff. of long. .weft.
Thep for the miles of wefting, or departure, it will be,
by Cafe of Parallel Sailing,
As radius — — 10.00000
is to the co-fine of the 7 . '  
middle parallel 3 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
fo is min. diff. of long. — 1.146 — 3.05918
to the .miles of wefting — '954-7 — 2.97987
And for the co.urfe it will be, by Cafe 4. of Plain
Sailing,
As the diff. of lat. — 19.7° — 3'29447
is to radius — — lo. ooooo
fo is the departure — 954-7   2.97987
to the tang, of'the courfe 250, 51’   9 68540
■which, becaufe it is between fouth and weft, it willbc
SSW 4 weft nearly. ,
For the diftance, it will be, by the fame cafe,
As radius       10.00000
is to the diff. of lat. 197°   3.29447
fo is the fecant of the courfe 250, 51’ 10.04579
to the diftance — 2189   3.34026
whence the direft courfe and diftance from the Lizard to
St Vincent is SSW 4 W, 2189 miles.
'Case II. One latitude, courfe, and diftance failed be-
ing given, to find the other latitude and difference of
longitude.
Example. Suppofe a Ihip in the latitude of 50° oo*
north, fails fouth 50° o6, weft, 150 miles : Required
the latitude the fliip has come to, and how much ftiehas
differed her longitude.
Firft, For the difference of latitude, it will be, by Cafe
I . of Plain Sailing,
As radius     10.00000
is to the diftance   150   2.17609
fois the co fine of the courfe 50°, 06^ 9.80716
to the diff. of latitude   96.22   1.98325
equal to i°, 36r. And fince theftiipis failing towards the
equator ; therefore,
From the latitude ftie was in    50°, oo'
take the diff. of latitude     1 > 36
and there remains     48 , 24
the latitude fhe has come to north. Confequently the
latitude of the middle parallel will be 490 i2/.
A T I O N.
Then for departure or wefting it will be, by the fame
cafe.
As radius     10.00000
is to the diftance — 150 • — 2.17609
fo is the fine of the courfe 50° 06’ — 9 88489
to the depaiture   115.1 — 2.06098
As for the difference of longitude, it will be, by Cafe
2 of Plain Sailing.
As the co fine of the middle parallel 490 12’ 9.81519
is to radius    10.00000
fo is the departure   115.1 — 2 06098
t» the min. diff. of longitude 176.1 — 2.24579
equal to 20 56, which is the difference of longitude the
ftnp has made wefterly.
Case III. Courfe and difference of latitude given ; to
find the diftance failed, and difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a (hip in the latitude of 530 34'
north, fails SE£S, till by obfervation file is found to
be in the latitude of 510 12’, and confequently has dif-
Tered her latitude 20 22r or 142 miles: Required the
diftance failed, and the difference of longitude.
Firft, for the departure, it will be (by Cafe 2. of Plain
Sailing,')
As radius    r- 10.00000
is to the diff, of latitude — 142 — 2.15229
fo is the tang, of courfe — 33° 45’ — 9.82489
to the departure — 94.88 — 1.97718
And for the diftance it will be, by the fame Cafe,
As radius      xo.ooood
is to the diff. of latitude — 142 — 2.15229
fo is the fecant of the courfe 33 ° 45; — 10.08015
to the diftance — 170.8 — 2.23244
Then, fince the latitude failed from was 530 34' north,
and the latitude come to 5 i 0 12’north; therefore the
middle parrallel will be 52 0 23*; and confequently, for the
difference of longitude, it will be (by Cafe 2. tf Parallel
Sailing)
As the co-fine of the mid. parallel 520 23’ 9,78560
is to the departure   — 94 88 1.97718
fo is radius     10.00000
to min. of diff. of longitude — 155-5 2.19158
equal to 20 35’ the difference of longitude eafterly.
Case IV. Difference of latitude and diftance failed,
given; to find the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a Ihip in the latitude of 430 26’
north, fails between foath and eaft, 246 miles, and then
is found by obferration to be in the the latitude of 410
06’ north: Required the direft courfe and difference of
longitude.
Firft, For the courfe. it will be, by Cafe 3. of Plain
Sailing.
As the diftance    246   2.39094
is to radius —;—     10.00000
fo js the diff. of latitude   140   2.14613
to the co-fine of the esurfe 550 19'   9-755
which, becaufe the fhip fails bdtween fouth and eaft, will
be fouth 550 19' eaft, or SEiE nearly.
Then for departure, it will be, by the fame Cafe,
As radius     10.00000
is to the diftance    246 *  2.29094
fo
1? A V 1 G
fo re the line oF tlie courfe 550 19'    9.91504
to the departure   202.3   2.30598
Laftly, For the difference of longitude, it will Be, by
'Cafe 2. of Parallel Sailing,
As the co-fine of the mid. par. 420 16’   9 86924
is to the departure   302.3   2.30598
To is radius       10,00000
to min. of diff. of longitude 273.3   2.43674
icqual to 40 33’, the difference of longitude eafterly.
Case V. Courfe and departure given, to find dif¬
ference'of latitude, difference of longitude, and diftance
jailed.
Example. Snppofe a fhip in the latitude of 48° 23’
north, fails SW^S, till file has made of wefting i23tuiles:
Required the latitude come to, the difference of,longitude,
and the diffance failed.
Firft, For the diffance, it will be, by Cafe 6. of Plain
Sailing,
As the fine of the courfe — 33°> 45’    9-74474
is to thedeparture   123    2.08991
‘fo is radius        10.00000
to the diftance —-— 221.4   2.34517
And for the difference of latitude it will be, by the fame
Cafe,
As the tang, of courfe —•—- 330, 45’   9,82489
is to the departure   123   2.08991
fo is radius     —— 10.00000
to the diff. of latitude   184   2.26502
equal to 30 04’:' And fince the fhip is’failing towards the
equator, the latitude come to will be 450 19’ north; and
confequently the middle parallel will be 46° 51’.
Then to find the difference of longitude, it will be, by
Cafe 2. of Parallel Sailing,
As the co-fine of mid. par. 46°, 51’    9.83500
is to departure   123   2.08991
fo is radius       10.00000
to min. of diff. of longit.   180   2.25491
which is equal to 30 00’, the difference of longitude weft-
erly.
Case VI. Difference of latitude.and departure given,
to find courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a fhip in the latitude of 46° 37’
north, fails between fouth and eaft, till fhe has made of
catting 146 miles, and is then found by obfervation to be
in the latitude of 430 24’ north ; required the courfe, dif-
tance, and difference of longitude.
Firft, By Cafe 4. of 'Plain Sailing, it will be for the
courfe,
Asthe diff of latitude 193    2.28556
is to departure 146   2 16137
fo is radius —:—     10.00000
to the tang, of the courfe   36°, 55’ 9.87581
which, becaufe the fhip is failing between fouth and eaft,
will be fouth 36° 55’ eaft, or SE5S ^ eaft nearly.
For the diftance, it will be, by the (amt .Cafe,
As radius      10.00000
is to the-diff. of latitude   193   2.28556
fo is the fecant of the courfe 36°, 55’  10.09718
to the diftance —— 241.4   2.38274
Then for the difference of longitude, it will be, by Cafe
.2. Parallel Sailing,
Vol. III. No. 84. 3
O N.
375
As the co-fine of the mid. par. 450, od’ 9.84949
is to the departure ——    146   2.16137
fo is radius     jo.ooooo
to min. of diff. of longitude   205   2.31188
equal to 30 25’, the difference of longitude eafterly.
Case VII. Diftance and departure given, to find dif-
ference of latitude, courfe, and difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a fhip in the latitude of 330 40’’
north, fails betweenfouth and eaft 165 miles, and has then
made of eafting 112.5 miles ; required the difference of
latitude, courfe, and difference of longitude.
Firft, For the courfe, it will be, by Cafe 5. of Plain
Sailing,
As the diftance — 165    2.21748
is to radius —+ — —■ — 10.00000
fo is the departure    102.5' 2.05115
to the fine of the courfe 42°, 59’    9-83367
which, becaule tbe^ fhip fails between fouth and eaft, will
be fouth 420 59’ eaft or SEiE £ eaft nearly.
And for the difference of latitude, it will be, by the fame
Cafe,
As radius — — — — ip 00000
is to the diftance — 165 — 2.21748
fo is the co fine of the courfe 420 5y/ — 9.86436
to the difference of lat. — 110.7 — 2.08184
equal to 20 oo’; confequently the latitude come to will
be 310 40’ north, and the latitude of the middle parallel
will be 32° 40’. Hence, to find the difference of longitude,
it will be, by Cafe 2. of Parallel Sailing,
As the co-fine of the mid. par. 320, 40’ — 9.92523
is to the departure   112.5 2.05115
fo is radius — — — — 10.00000
to min. of diff. of long.   133-6 — 2.12593
equal to 20 13’ nearly, the difference of longitude eaft¬
erly.
Case VIII. Difference of longitude and departure
given, to find difference of latitude, courfe, and diftance
failed.
Example. Suppofe a fhip in the latitude of 50° 46'’
north, fails between fouth and weft, till her difference of
longitude is 30 12’, and is then found to have depar ed
from her former meridian 126 miles ; requited the dif¬
ference of latitude, courfe, and diftance failed.
Firft, For the latitude fhe has come to, it will be, by
Cafe 3. of Parallel Sailing,
As min. of diff. of long.   192   2.28330
is to departure   126   2.10037
fo is radius       10.00000
to the co fine of the mid. par. —48°, 59’ — 9.81707
Now fince the middle latitude is equal to half the fum
of the two latitudes (by Art. 1. of this SeA.) and fo the
fum of the two latitudes equal to double-the middle lati¬
tude ; it follows, that if from double the middle latitude
we fubtraa any one of the latitudes, the remainder will
be the other. Hence from twice 48° 59’, viz. 970 58’
taking 50° 46’ thie latitude failed from, there remains
47° 12’the latitude come to; confequently the difference
of latitude is 30 34’, or 214 minutes.
Then for the courfe, it will be, by Cafe 4. of Plain
Sailing,
As diff. of lat.   214 — 2-33041
i £ if
NAY
375 N A V I G
is to radius     io.oco©o
fo is the departure   126   2.10037
to the tang, of the courfe 30°, l(j   9.76996
which, becaufe it is between fouth and weft, will be fouth
• 30° 29/ weft, or SSW weft nearly.
And for the diftance, it will be, by the hmt Cafe,
As radius — — — — io.oooco
is to the difF. of lat.   214   2.33041
fo is the fecant of the courfe 30°, 29' — 10.06461
to the diftance   248.4 — 2.39502
2 From what has been faid, it will be eafy to folve a
traverfe, by the rules of Middle Latitude Sailing.
Example.-Suppofe a (hip in the latitude of 430 25’
north, fails upon the following courfes, viz. SW£S 63
miles, SSW-jweft 45 miles, S£E 54 miles, and SWbW
74 miles: Required the latitude the fttip has come to>
and how far Ore has differed her longitude.
Tirft, By Cafe 2. of this Seft. find the difference of
latitude and diffirence of longitude belonging to each
courfe and diftance, and they will ftand as in the follow¬
ing table.
Courfes Difances
SWiS — 63
SSWiW — 45
S£E — 54
SW £W — 74-
Diff. of Lat.
N
Diff of Longit.
Biff, of Lat.
52 4
39 7
53 0
41.1
186.2
Biff, of Long. 143,80
47.85
28.62
81 08
157-55
13-75
Hence it is plain the fhip has differed her latitude 186.2
minutes, or 30 6' and fo has come to the latitude of
40° \q north, and has made of difference of longitude
143.8 minute's, or 20 23' 48// wefterly.
3. This method of failing, though it be not ftriftly
true, yet it comes very near the truth, as will be evident,
by comparing an example wrought by this method with
the fame wrought by the method delivered in the next
SeRion, which is (Iridtly true; and it ferves, without any
confiderable error, in runnings of 4^0 miles between the
equator ands parallel of 30 degrees, of 300 mftes be¬
tween that and the parallel of 60 degrees, and of 150
miles as far as there is any occafion, and confequently
jauft be fufficiently exaft for 24 hours run.
Seft. 5. f?/Mercator’s Sailing.
1. Though the meridians do all meet at the pole,
and the parallels to the equator do continually decreafe,
and that in proportion to the co-fines of their latitudes;
yet in old fea charts the meridians were drawn parallel
to one another, and confequently the parallels of latitude
made equal to the equator, and fo a degree of longitude
on any parallel as large as a degree on the equator: alfo
in thefe charts the degrees of latitude were ftill represented
_(as they are in shemfelve*) equal to each other, and to
A T I O N.
thofeof.the equator. By thefe means the degrees of lon¬
gitude being iricreafed beyond their juft proportion, and
the more fo the nearer they approach the pole, the de¬
grees of latitude at the fame time remaining the fame, it
is evident places muft be very erroneoufly marked dawn
upon thefe charts with refpeft to their latitude and lon¬
gitude, and confeqnently their bearing from on.e another
very falfe.
2. To remedy this inconvenience, fo as ftill to keep
the meridians parallel, it is plain we muft protract, or
lengthen, the degrees of latitude in the fame proportion
as thofe of longitude are, th.-.t fo the propoition in calling
and welling may be the fame with that of fouthing and
northing, and confequently the bearings of places from
one another be the fame upon the chart as upon the
globe itfelf.
Let ABD (No. 11.) be a quadrant of a meridian, A
the pole, D a point on the equator, AC half the axis, B
any point upon the meridian, from which draw BF per¬
pendicular to AC, and BG perpendicular to CD; then
BG will be the line, and BF or CG the co fine of BD
the Jatitudeof the point B; draw D the tangent and CE
the fecant of the arch CD. It has been demonllrated in
jSedl. 3. that any arch of a parallel is to the like archof the
equator as the.co fine of the latitude of that parallel is
to radius. Thus any arch.as a minute on the parallel de*
feribed by the point B, will be to a minute on the equa¬
tor as BF or CG is to CD; but fince the triangles CGB
CDE are fimilar, therefore CG will be to CD as GB is
to CE, i. e. the co-fine of any parallel is to radius as
radius is tp the feeant of the latitude of that parallel.
But it has been juft nowlhown., that the co fine of any-pa-
rallel is to radius, as the length of any arch as a minute
an that parallel is to the length of the like arch on the
equator: Therefore the length of any arch as a minute
on any parallel, as to the length of the like arch on the
equator, as radius is-to the fea.nt of the latitude of that
parallel; and fo the length of any arch, as a minute on
the equator, is longer than the like arch of any parallel
in the fame proportion, as the fecant of the latitude of
that parallel is to radius. But fince in this proje&ion the
meridians are parallel, and confequently each parallel of
latitude equal to the equator, it is plain the length of any
arch as a minute on any parallel, is increafed beyond its
juft proportion, at fuch rate as the fecant of the latitude
of that parallel is greater than radius ; and therefore to
keep up the proportion of northing and fouthing to that
-of eafting and welling, upon this chart, as it is upon the
globe itfclf, the length of a minute upon the meridian at
any parallel muft alfo be increafed beyond its juft propor¬
tion at the fame rate, i. e. as the fecant of the latitude
of that parallel is greater than radius. Thus to find the
length of a minute upon the meridian at the latitude of
75 degrees, fince a minute of a meridian is every where
equal on the globe, and alfo equal to a minute upon the
equator, let it be reprefented by unity: then making it
as radius is to the fecan.t of 75 degrees, fo is unity to a
fourth number, which is 3.864 nearly . and confequently,
by whatever line you reprefent one minute on the equator
of this chart, the length of one minute on the enlarged
meridian
N A V I G
.'meridian at the latitude of 75 degrees, or the diftance
between the parallel of 75° 00' and the parallel of 750
- oi', will be equal to 3 ef thele lines, and one of
them. By making the fame proportion, it will be found,
that the length of a minute on the meridian of this chart
at the parallel of 6o°, or the diftance between the paral¬
lel of 6o° oo'and thatof 6o° ot', is equal to two of thcfe
lines; After the fame manner, the length of a minute on
•the enlarged meridian may be found at any latitude ;
and confequently beginning at the, equator, and compu¬
ting the length of every intermediate minute between that
and any parallel, the fum of all thefe lhall be the length
of a meridian intercepted between the equator and that
parallel; and the diftance of each degree and minute ofla-
titude from the equator upon the meridian of this chart,
computed in minutes of the equator, forms what is com¬
monly called a table of meridional parts.
If the arch BD (No. 11.) reprefent the latitude of any
point B, then (CD being radius) CE will be the fecant
of that latitude : but it has been (hown above, that radius
is to rhe fecant of any latitude, as the length of a
minute upon the equator is to the length of a minute
-on the meridian of this chart at that latitude; therefore
CD is to CE, as the length of a minute on the equator
is to the length, of a minute upon the meridian, at the
latitude of the point B. Confequently, if the radius CD
be taken'equal to the length of a minute upon the equa¬
tor, C&, or the fecant of the latitude, will be equal to
the length of a minute upon the meridian at that lati¬
tude. Therefore, in general, if the length of a minute
upon the equator be made radius, the length of a minute
upon the enlarged meridian will be every where equal to
the fecanrof the arch contained between it and the equator.
Cor. 1. Hence it follows, fince. the length of every
intermediate minute between the equator and any parallel,
is equal to the fecant of the latitude (the radius being e-
qual to a minute upon the equator) the fum of ail thefe
lengths, or the .diftance of that parallel on the enlarged
meridian from the equator, will be equal to the fum of
gll the. fecants, tp every minute contained between it and
the equator-
Cor. 2. Confequentlythediftance between any two paral¬
lels on the fame fide of the equator is equal to thedifference
of the fums of all the fecant contained between the equa
tor and each parallel, and the diftance between any two
parallels omcontrary fides of the equator is equal to the
fum of the fums of all the feeants contained between the
equator and each parallel.
5. By the tables of meridional parts, which may be
feen in Baton, and other writers on this fubject, maybe
:conftru<fted the nautical chart, commonly called Merca¬
tors chart. Thus, for example, let it be required to
make a chart that (hall commence at the equator, and
reach to the parallel of 60 degrees, and fhall contain 80
degrees of longitude.
Draw the line EQjeprefenting the equator, (fee No.
12.) then take, from any convenient line of equal parts,
4800 (the number of minutes contained in 80 degrees,)
which fet off from E to and this will determine the
breadth of the chart.
Divide theliae EQJnto eight equal parts, in the points
A T I O N. 377
10, 20, 30, 6 c. each containing 70 degrees, and each
of thefe divided into 10 equal parts will give the ftngle
degrees upon the equotor ; then through the points E,,
10, 20, 6c. drawing lines perpendicular to EQ, rhefe
Hull be meridians.
From the fcale of equal parts take 4527.4 (the meri¬
dional parts anfweringto 60 degrees,) and fet that off from
E to A and from Qjo B, and join AB ; then this line
will reprefent the parallel of 60, and will determine the
length of ihe chart.
Again, from the fcale of equal parts take 603.1 (the
meridional part? anfweringto rodegrees,) andfet that off
from E to 10 on the line EA; and through the point xo
draw io, 10, parallel to EQ ; and tins will be the parallel
of 10 degrees. The fame way, fetting off from E on the
line EA, the meridional parts anfwering to each degree,
6c. of latitude; and through the feveral points drawing
lines parallel to EQ^ we (hall have the feveral parallels of
latitude.
If the chart does not commence from the equator, hut
is only to ferve for a certain diftance on the meridian
between two given parallels on the fame fide of the equa--
tor ; then the meridians are to be drawn as in the laft ex¬
ample : and for the parallels of latitude you are to pro¬
ceed thus, viz. from the meridional parts anfweringto
each point of latitude in your chart, fubtradt the merio-
dinal parts anfwering totheleaft latitude, and fet off the
differences feverally, from the parallel of lead latitude,
upon the two extreme meridians; and the lines joining
thefe points of the meridians fhall reprefent the feveral
parallels upon your chart.
Thus let it be required to draw a chart that fhall ferve
Trom the latitude of 20 degrees north to 60 degrees
north, and that fhall contain 80 degrees of longitude.
Having drawn the lioeDC to reprefent the parallel of
20 degrees (fee No. 12,) and the meridians to it, as in
the foregoing example; fet off 663.-3 (the difference be^
tween the meridional parts anfwering to 30 degrees, and
thofe of 20 degrees) from D to 30, arid from C to
30 ; then join the points 30 and 30 with a right line,
and that fhall be the parallel of 30. Alfo fet 0(^1397.6
(the difference between the meridional, parts anfweringto
40 degrees, and thofe of 20 degrees) from D 1040, and
from C to 40, and joining the points 40 and 40 with a
right line, that fhall be the parallel of 40. And pro¬
ceeding after the fame way, we may draw as many of the
intermediate parallels as we have occafion for.
But if the two parallels of latitude that bound the
chart, are on the contrary fides of the equator; then
draw a line reprefenting the equator and meridians to it,
as in the firft example ; and from the equator fet off on
each fide of it the feveral parallels contained between it
and the given parallels as above, and your chart is fi-
nifhed.
If Mercator’s chart, conftrufted as above, hath its e-
quator extended on each fide of the point E 180 degrees,,
and if the feveral places on the furface of the earth be
there laid down according to their latitudes and longitudes,
we fhall have what is commonly called Mercator’s ma.p
of the earth. This map is notto be confidered as a fimilar
and juft reprefentation of the ear th’s furface; for in it the
figure®
37^ NAYIC-
figures of comitnes are Sirtorted, efpecia'Hynear the poles:
foot fince the degrees of latitude are every where increa¬
sed in the fame proportion as thofe of longitude are, tire
foearings between the places will be the fame in.this chart
as on the globe ; and the proportions between the lati¬
tudes, longitudes, and nautical diftances, will alfo be the
fame on this chart, as on the globe itfelf; by which
means the feveral cafes of navigation are folved after a
■moft eafy manner, and adapted to the meanelt capacities.
N. B. Here you mult take notice, that in all charts,
the upper part is the north fide, and the lower part or
bottom is the fouth fide ; alfo that part of it towards the
right hand is the eaft, and that towards,the left hand the
•weft fide of the chart.
6. Since, according to this projedfion, the meridians
ure parallel right lines ; it is plain, that the rhombs which
form always equal angles with the meridians, will be
■flreight lines ; which property renders this projection of
the earth’s futface much more eafy and proper for ufe
than any other.
7. This method of projecting the earth’s furface upon
a plane, was firft invented.by Mr Edward Wright, but
firft publilhed by Mercator ; and hence the failing by the
-chart, was called Mercator’s failing.
8. In No. 13. let A and E reprefcnt two places upon
Mercator’s char^, AC the meridian of A, and CE the
parallel of latitude paffing through E; draw AE, and fet
off upon AC the length AB equal to the number of mi¬
nutes contained in the difference of latitude between the
two places, and taken from the fame fcale of equal parts
the chart was made by, or from the equator, or any
graduated parallel of the chart, and through B draw
BD parallel to CE meeting AE in D. Then AC will
be the enlarged difference of latitude, AB the proper
difference of latitude, CE the difference of longitude, BD
the departure, AE the enlarged dillance, and AD the
•proper diflance, between the two places A and E ; alfo
the angle BAD will be the courfe, and AE the rhomb ’
line between them.
9. Now fince in the triangle ACE, BD is parallel to
one of its fides CE ; it is plain the triangles ACE, ABD,
will be fimilar, and confequently the fides proportional.
Hence arife the folutionsof the feveral cafes in this failing,
which are as follow.
Case I. The latitudes of two places given, to find
the meridional or enlarged difference of latitude between
them.
Of this cafe there are three varieties, viz. either one
of the places lies on the equator, or both on the fame fide
of it; or laftly, on different fides.
x. If one of the propofed places lies on the equator,
then the meridional difference of latitude is the fame
with the latitude of the other place, taken from the
table of meridional parts.
Example.. Required the meridional difference of la¬
titude between St Thomas, lying on the equator, and
-St Antonio in the latitude of 17° 20 north. I look in
the tables for the meridional parts anfwering to 17P 20 ,
and find it to be 1056.2, the enlarged difference of lati¬
tude required.
If the two propofed places be on the fame fide of
A T I C N.
the equator, then the meridional difference of latitude
is found by fubtrafting the meridional parts anfwering to
the lead latitude from thofe anfwering to the greateft, and
the difference is that required.
Example. Required the meridional difference of
latitude between the Lizard in the latitude of 50'' oc/
north, and Antigua in the ktitade of 17° 30'north.
From the meridional parts of — jo°, oc/ — 3474.5
fubtrafi: the meridional parts of xy'*, 30' — 1066.7
there remains — — 2407.8
the meridional difference of latitude required. *
3. If the places lie on different fides of the equator, then
the meridional difference of latitude is found by adding
together the meridional parts anfwering to each latitude,
and the fum is that required.
Example. Required the meridional difference of
latitude between Antigua in the latitude of 170 30*
north, and Lima in Peru in the latitude of 12° 30'
South.
Tothemerid. parts aufwering to 170, 3o, ,1066.7
add thefe anfweringjto — 120, 30' — 756.1
the fum is — — — 1822.8
the meridional difference of latitude required.
Case II. The latitudes and longitudes of two places
given, to find the direft courfe and diftance between them.
Example. Required to find the direff courfe and
diftance between the Lizard in the latitude of 50° 00'
north, and Port-Royal in Jamaica in the latitude of 17?
40'; differing in longitude 70“ 46’, Port-Royal lying fo
far to the weftward of the Lizard.
Preparation.
From the latitude of the Lizard -— 50°, oo*
fubtraff the latitude of Port-Royal —• 17 , 40
and there remains — — 32 , 20
equal to 1940 minutes, the proper difference of latitude.
Then from the meridional parts of 50°, 00’ 3474.5
fubtraff thofe of — — 17, 40 1077.2
and there remains — — 2397'3
the meridional or enlarged dfference of longitude.
Geometrically. Draw the line AC (No 14.)
reprefenting the meridian of the Lizard at A, and fet off
from A, upon that line, AE equal to 1940 (from any
fcale of equal parts) the proper difference of latitude, alfo
AC equal to 2397 3 (from the fame (calc) the meridional
or enlarged difference of latitude Upon the point C
raife CB perpendicular to AC, and make CB equal to
4246 the minutes of difference of longitude.
Join AB, and through E draw ED parallel to BC : fo
the cafe is conftruded; and AD applied to the fame fcale
of equal parts the other legs were taken from will give
the dire<£t diftance, and the angle DAE meafured by the
line of chords will give the courfe.
By Calculation.
For the angle of the c’ourfe EAD, it will be, (by Reft-
angular Trigonometry,)
AC : CB :: R : T, BAG, i. r.
As the meridional diff. of lat. 2397 3 — 3 3797°
is
N A V I G
is to the difference of long. — 4246.0 — 3.62798
fo is radius       j 0.00000
to the tang, of the direct courfe 6o° 33' — 10.34828
which, becaufe Port Royal is fouthward of the Lizard,
and the difference of longitude wederly, will be (outh
60° 33' wed, or SWbW 4 weft nearly.
Then for the diftance AD, it will be, {by redlangular
trigonometry)
R : AE : : Sec. A : AD, i. t.
As the radius — — — — 10.00000
is to the proper diff. of lat. — 1940 — 3.28780
fois the fecant of the courfe — 6o° 33/ — 10.30833
to the diftance     3945-6 — 3-59613
confequently the direff courfe and diftance between the
Lizard and Port-Royal in Jamaica, is fouth 6o° 33',
3945.6 miles.
Case III. Courfe and diftance failed given, to find dif¬
ference of latitude and difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a fhip from the Lizard in the lati¬
tude of 50° oo’ north, fails fouth 350 40’ weft 156 miles.
Required the latitude come to, and how much (he has al¬
tered her longitude.
Geometrically, i. Draw the line BK (No. 15.)
reprefenting the meridian of the Lizard at B ; from B
draw the line BM, making with BK an angle equal to
350 40’, and upon this line fet off BM equal to 156 the
given diftance, and from M let fall the perpendicular MK
upon BK.
Then for BK the proper difference of latitude, it will
he, (by rectangular trigonometry,)
R : MB : : S, BMK : BK,
i. e. As radius — — — 10.00000
is to the diftance   156   2.19312
fo is the co-fine of the courfe 350 40’ — 9.90978
to the proper difft ence of lat. 127   2.10290
equal to 2° oj’; and fince the (hip is failing from a.north
latitude towards the fbuth, therefore the latitude come to
will be 470 53’ north. Hence the meridional difference
of latitude will be'i93.4.
2. Produce BK to D, till BD be equal to 193 4;
through D draw DL parallel to MK, meeting DM pro¬
duced in L ; then DL will be the difference of longitude:
to find which by calculation, it will be, (by re&angular
trigonometry,)
R : BD : : T, LBD : DL,
i. e. As radius        10.00000
is to the meridional diff. of lat. 193.4 — .2.28646
fo is the tangent of the courfe 350, 40’ — 9-85594
to minutes of diff. of long. — 138.8   2.14240
equal to 20 18’ 48” the difference ©f longitude the fhip
has made wefterly.
Case IV. Given courfe and both latitudes, viz. the
latitude failed from, and the latitude come to.; to find the
.diftance failed, and the difference of longitude.
Example. Suppole a fhip in the latitude of 54° 20’
north, fails fouth 33°45’ eaft, until by obfervation (he is
found to be in the latitude of 510 45’ north ; required
-the diftance failed, and the difference of longitude.
Geometrically. Draw A,B (No. id ) to repre-
fent the meridian of the fhip in the firft latitude, and fet
off from A to B 155 the minutes of the proper difference of
Vox. III. N° 84. 2
A T I O N. 379
latitude, alfo AG equal to 25 7.9 the minutes of the enlarged
difference of latitude. Through B and G, draw the lines
BC and GK perpendicular to AG ; alfo draw AK mak¬
ing with AG an angle of 330 45’, which will meet the two
former lines in the points C and K ; fo the cafe is con-
ftruded, and AC and GK may be found from the line of e-
qual parts: To find which,
By Calculation:
Firft, For the difference of longitude, it will be, (by
rectangular trigonometry,)
R 1 AG :: T, GAK : GK,
i. e. As radius        10.00000
is to the enlarged diff. of lat. — 257-9 — 2.41145
fo is the tang, of the courfe — 330, 45’ — 9.82489
to mm. of diff. of longitude — 172 3 — 2.23634
equal to 20 52’'iS”, the difference of longitude the fhip
has made eafterly.
This might alfo have been found, by firft finding the
departure BC (by Cafe 2. of Plain Sailing,) and then it
would be
AB : BC : : AG : GK, the difference of longitude
required.
Then for the direct diftance AC, it will be, (by rect¬
angular trigonometry,)
R : AB : : Sec. A : AC,
i. e. As radius   ——   10.00000
is to the proper diff. of lat. — 155 — 2.19033
fo is the fecant of the courfe — 330, 45’ — 10.08015
to the direCt diftance    186.4 — 2.27048
confequently the fhip has failed fouth 330 45’ eaft
186,4 miles, and has differed her longitude 20 52’ 18”
eafterly.
Case V. Both latitudes, and diftance failed, given;
to find the direCt courfe, and difference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe a fhip from the latitude of 45®
26' north, fails between north and eaft 195 miles, and
then by obfervation fhe is found to be in the latitude of
48° 6’ north ; required the direCt courfe and difference
of longitude.
Geometrically. Draw AB (No. 17.) equal t®
160 the proper difference of latitude, and from the point
B raife the perpendicular BD ; then take 195 in your
compaffes, and fetting one foot of them in A, with-theo-
ther crofs the line BD in D. Produce AB, till AC be e-
qual to 233.6 the inlarged difference.of latitude. Thro’
C draw CK parallel to BD, meeting AD produced in K:
fo the cafe is conftruCted; and the angle A may be mea-
fured by the line of chords, and CK by the line of equal
parts : To find which.
By Calculation:
Firft, For the angle of the courfe BAD it will be, (by
redangular trigonometry)
AB:R::AD: Sec. A. i. e.
As the proper diff. of lat. — 160 —— 2.20412
is to radius •— — 10.00000
fo is the diftance   195   2.29003
to the fecant of the courfe —> 34®, 52’ — 10.08591
which, becaafe the fbip is failing between north and
eaft, will be north 34® 52’ eaft, or NEZ-N i° 7’ eafterly.
Then for the difference of longitude, it will be, (by
rectangular trigonometry,)
5 C R;
g8o N A V I G
R : AC : : T, A : CK.
i e. As radius      * 10.00000
is to the merid. diff. of ht. — 233 6 — 2.36847
fo is the tang, of the courfe — 34°, 52’ — 9.84307
to min. of diff. of longitude — 1628 — 2 2 1154
equal to 29 42’ 48”, the difference of longitude eaft-
erly.
Case VI. One latitude, courfe, and difference of
longitude, given; to find the otherdatitude, and diftance
failed.
Example. Suppofe a fhip from the latitude of 48°
50’ north, fails fouth 340 40’ weft, till her difference of
longitude is 2Q 44’; required the latitude come to, and
the diftance failed.
Geometrically, i. Draw AE (No. 18 ) to repre-
fent the meridian of the fhip in the lirft latitude, and make
the angle E AC equal to 34® 40’, the angle of the courfe;
then draw FC parallel to AE, at the diftance of 164 the
minutes of difference of longitude, which will meet AC
in the point C. From C let fall upon AE the perpen¬
dicular CE ; then AE will be the enlarged difference of
latitude. To find which by Calculation, it will be, (by
reftangular trigonometry,)
T, A : R : : CE : AE,
i. e. As the tang, of the courfe 34", 40’ — 9 83984
is to the radius   10.00000
fo is min. of diff. longitude   164 — 2.21484
to the enlarged diff. of latitude — 237.2 — 2.37J00
and becaufe the fliip is failing from a north latitude fouth-
erly, therefore,
From the merid. parts of7 ' nr, > //
the latitude failed from 3 ^ ^ ^ ^
take the merid. difference of latitude   237.2
and there remains   — 3129.7
the meridional parts of the latitude come to, viz. 46°
09’.
Hence for the proper difference of latitude,
From the latitude failed from •—■— 48°, 5o’N
take the latitude come to   —— 46 , 09 N
and there remains     2 , 41
equal to 161, the minutes of difference of latitude.
2. Set off upon AE the length AD equal to 161 the
proper difference of latitude, and through D draw DB
parallel to CE : then AB will be the direct diftance. To
find which by Calculation, it will be, by reftangular tri¬
gonometry,
R : AD : : Sec. A : AB.
*. e. As radius-     10.00000
is to the proper diff. of latitude 161 2.20683
fo is the fecant of the courfe 344°’ 10 08488
to the direct diftance   195.8 2.29171
Case VII. One latitude, courfe, and departure,
given ; to find the other latitude, diftance failed, and dif¬
ference of longitude.
Example. Suppofe aftiip fails from the latitude of
540 36’ north, fouth 420 33’ eaft, until fhe has made
of departure 116 miles. Required the latitude fhe is in,
her direft diftance failed, and how much fhe has altered
her longitude.
A T I O N.
Geometrically., i. Having drawn the meridian
AB, (No. 19.) make the angle BAD equal tor420 33’.
Draw FD parallel to AB at the diftance of 116. which
will meet AD in D. Let fall.upon AB the perpendicu¬
lar DB.. Then AB will be the proper difference of la¬
titude, and AD the direft diftance: To find which by
calculation, firft, for the diftance AD it will be (by rect¬
angular trigonometry )
S, A : BD : : R : AD.
i. e. As the fine of the courfe 420, 33’ 9.83010
is to the departure   116 206446
fo is radius   -■■■ — 10.00000
to the direCt diftance 2 23436
Then for the proper difference of latitude, it will be,
by rectangular trigonometry.
T, -A : BD : : R : AB.
/.-<?. As the tang, of .he courfe 420, 33’ 9.96281
ft to the departure   1 r6 2.06446
fo is radius     lo oocoo
to the proper difference of latitude 126 4 2.10165
equal to 20 6’ . confequently the fhip has come to the la¬
titude of 520 30’ north, and fo the meridional difference
of latitude will be 2 12.2.
2. Produce AB to E, till AE be equal to 212.2 ; and
through E draw EC parallel to BD, meeting AD produ¬
ced in C ; then EC will be the difference of longitude ; to
find which by calculation, it will be, (by rectangular tri¬
gonometry)
R :-AE : : T, A : EC,
i. e. As radius —   . 10 oooqo
is to the mertd diff. of latitude 212.2 2.32675
fo is the tang, of the courfe 420, 33’ 9.96281
to the min. of diff. of losgitnde 194.8 2.28956
equal to 30 I4’48”, the difference of longitude eafterly.
This might have been found otherri ife, thus: becaufe
thetriangles ACE, ADB,-are fimilar; therefore it will be,
AB : BD : : AE : EC.
/. t. As the proper diff. of latitude 126 4 2.10165
is to the departure   116 2.06446
fo is the enlarged diff. of latitude 212.2 2.32675
to min diff. of longitude   194.8 2.28956
Case VIII. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find courfe, diftance. and difference oflongitude.
Example. Snppofe a fhip from the latitude of 46®
2Q/ N. fails between fouth and weft, till fhe has made
of departure 126.4 m'les» at)ft 's tlien found by ob-
fervation to be in the latitude of 430 7^' north Re¬
quired the courfe and diftance failed, and difference of
longitude.
Geometrically. DrawAK (No. 20.) to reprefent
the meridian of the fhip in her firft latitude; fet off upon
it AC, equal to 165, the proper difference of latitude.
Draw BC perpendicular to AC. equal to 126.4 the de¬
parture, and join AB. Set off from A, AK equal to
233.3, l*ie enlarged difference of latitude ; and through
K draw KD parallel to BC, meeting AB produced in D ;
fo the cafe is conftrutfted, and DK will be the difference
of longitude, AB the diftance, and the angle A the
courfe ; to find which
By Calculation:
Firft, For DC the difference of longitude, it will be,
AC 2
I
G
N A V
AC : CR: : AK : KD,
i t. As the proper diff. of iatitude 165 2.21748
is to the departure — — 1264 2.10175
fo is the enlarged difF. of latitude ■— 233.3 2.36791
to min. of diff. longitude — 178-7 2.25218
equal to 20 58' 42”, the difference oflongitude welterly.
Then for the courfe it will be, (by rectangular trigo¬
nometry,)
AC : BC : : R : T, A.
i. e. As the proper diff. of latitude 165 2.21748
is to departure — — 126.4 2.10175
To is radius — — 10.00000
to the tangent of the courfe 37°j 27' 9.88427
which, becaufe the fhip fails between fouth and well,
will be fouth 370 27’welt, or SW£S 6° 30'wefterly.
Laltly, For thediltance AB,' it will be, (by rectangular
trigonometry,)
S, A:BC :: R: AB.
i. e. As the fine of the courfe 370, 27' — 9-78395
is to the departure — 126.4 1— 2.10175
fo is radius — — 10.00000
to the direCt diftance — 207.9 — 2.31780
Case IX. One latitude, diftaoce failed, and depar¬
ture given ; to find the other latitude, difference oflongi¬
tude, and courfe.
Example. Suppofe a (hip in the latitude of 48° 33/
north, fails between touth and eaft 138 miles, and has
then made of departure 112 6. Required the latitude
come to, the direCt courfe, and diffe ence of longitude.
Geometrically, ;it, DrawBD (No. 21.) for the
meridian of the ihip at B; and parallel toil draw FE, at
the diftance of 112.6, the departure Take 138, the
diftance, in your compaffes, and fixing one poin. of them
in B, with the other crofs. the line Fc. in the point E ;
then join B and E, and from E let fall upon BD the
perpendicular ED; fo BD will be the proper diffeience
of latitude, and the angle B will be the courfe; to find
which, by calculation,
Firff, for the courfe it will be, (by rectangular trigo¬
nometry,)
BE : R : : DE : S, B.
i. e. As the diftance — 138 — 2.13988
is to radius — — 10.00000
fo is the departure — 112.6 — 205154
to the fine ol the courfe — 540 41' 9.91166
which, becaufe the Ihip fails between fouth and eait, will
be fouth 540 41’ eaft, or SE 90 41’ eafterly.
Then for the difference of latitude, it will be, (by rec¬
tangular trigonometry,)
R : BE : : Co S, B : BD.
i. e. As radius — — 10.00000
is to the diftance — 138 — 213988
fo is the co fine of the courfe 540 41’ 9.76200
to the difference of latitude 79.8 — 1 90188
equal to i° 19’. Confequently the Ihip fr;s come to the
latitude of 47° 1^’. Hence the meridional difference
of latitude will be 117 7.
2dly, Produce B to A, till BA be equal to 117.7; and
through A draw AC parallel to DE, meeting BE produ¬
ced in C; then AC will be the difference of longitude ;
to find which by calculation, it will be,
A T I O N. S8f
BD : DE :: BA : AC.
/. e. As the proper diff. of latitude, 79.8 1.90'! 80
is to the departme — 112.6 2.05154
fo is the enlarged diff. of latitude 117 7 2.07078
to the diff of longitude — 166.1 — 2.22044
equal to 2C 46’ 06”, the difference of longitude ea¬
fterly.
9. From what has been faid, it will be eafy to folve a
travcrfe according to the rules of Mercator’s lading.
Example. Suppofe a Ihip at the Lizard in the lati¬
tude 50° 00’ north, is bound to the Madent in the la¬
titude of 32T 20’ north, the difference oflongitude be¬
tween them being ii° 40’, the welt end of the Madera
lying fo much to the weftward of the Lizard, and con-
lequently the direct courfe anti-diftance (by Cafe, 2. of
this Seft.) is fouth f weft 1181.9 m’les but by
reaibn of the winds Hie is forced to fad on the following
courfes (allowance being made for lee-way and variation,
fyc.)viz. SSW 44 miles, S£W weft 36 miles, SW3S
56 miles, and SiE 28 miles. Required the latitude the
Ihip is in, her bearing and diftance from the Lizard, and
her direct courfe and diftance from the Madera, at the
end of thefe courfes.
The geometrical conftru&ion of this traverfe is per¬
formed by laying down the two ports according to con-
ftru&ion of Cafe 2. of this Seel, and the feveral courfes
and diftances according to Cafe 3. by which we have the
following folution by calculation.
1. Courfe SSW, diftance 44 miles.
For differenceoflatitude:
As radius -— — 10.00000
is to the diftance — 44 — 1 64345
fo the is the co-fine of the courfe 220, 30’ 9.96562
to the difference of latitude — 40-65 — 1.60907
and fince the courfe is foutherly, therefore the latitude
come to will be 49° 20’ north, and confequently the
meridional difference of latitude will be6i.8. Then
For difference oflongitude,
As radius . — — 10.00000
is to the enlarged diff. of lat. 618 — 1.79099
fo is the tang of the courfe 22°, 30’ — 9.61722
to min. of diff. oflongitude 256 — 1.40821
2. Courfe SiW-|- weft, diftance 36 miles.
For difference of latitude :
As radius —- — 10.00006
is to the diftance — 36 1.55630
fo is the co-fine of the courfe 160, 52’ 9.98090
to the difference of latitude 34-46 1.53720
and fiace the courfe is foutherly, therefore the latitude
come to will be 48° 45’. Hence the meridional diffe¬
rence of latitude wiH be 53.4. Then,
For difference of longitude :
As radius     I o 00000
is to the enlarged diff. of lat. 53.4   1 *72754
lo is the tan. of the courfe 160, 52’ 9 48171
to the difference of longitude 16.19   1.20925
3. Courfe SW£S, diftance 56 miles.
For difference of latitude:
As radius     10 0000a
is to the diftance   56 1.74819
fo is the co-fine of the courfe 330, 45’ 9.91985
to
382 N A V I G
to the difference of latitude   46 56 1.66804
confequently the latitude come to is 47° 59, and there¬
fore the enlarged difference of latitude will be 69.2.
Then,
For difference of longitude :
As radius     10.00000
is to the enlarged diff. of lat. 69.2 1.84011
fois the tang, of the courfe 330 45' 9.82489
td the difference of longitude 46.24 1.66500
4. Courfe S5E, diftance 28 miles.
For difference of latitude :
As radius ——   10.00000
is to the diflance   28   1.44716
fo is the co fine of-the courfe n0, ij’ 999 •J?
to the differenct of latitude 27.46   143873
confequently the latitude come to will be 470, 31’; and
hence the meridional difference of latitude will be 43.2.
Then,
For difference of longitude:
As radius     lo.00000
is to the enlarged diff. of lat. 43.2 1.63548
fois the tang, of the courfe ii°, 15’ 9.29866
to the diff. of longitude 8-59 0.93414
Now thefe feveral courfes and diflances, together with
the difference of latitude and longitude belonging to each
of them, being fet down in their proper columns in the
7'raverfe Table, will 'Hand as follow.
Courjes Dijlances DtJf .oJ Lat. Diff. of Longit.
1 N
SSW — 441 
SAV^W — 36 
SW£S — 56 
SbE — — 28 
40.65
34.46'
46.56
27.46
Diff of Lat. 149.13
8.59
8.59
25.6
16.19
49.24
88.03
I 8.59
Dff. of long. -79.44
Hence it is plain that the fhip has made of fouthing
149.13 minutes, and confequently has come to the lati¬
tude of 47° 3 \ north, and fo the meridional difference
of latitude between that and her firfl latitude will be
226.1 ; and fince fhe has made of difference of longitude
79.44 minutes wefterly; therefore for the direft courfe
and diffance between the lizard and the /hip it will be,
{by Cafe 2. of this Scflion )
For the diretff courfe:
As the merid. diff. of latitude 226.1 *— 2.35430
is to radius     lo.ooooo
fo is the difference of longitude 79-44 1.90004
to the tang, of Ithe courfe — 190 22r 9-54593
which becaufe the difference of latitude is foutberly, and
the difference of longitude wefterly, will be fouth 190
22' weft, or S£W 8° 7' wefterly. Then,
For the dirett diftance :
As radius   —- ■ io.oocoo
A T I O N.
is to the proper diff. of lat 149.13
fo is the fecant of the courfe 190 22
to the dire# diftance — 158
From the latitude the Ihip is in —
fubtradt the lat. of the Madera —
and there remains     15 , 11
equal to 911 minutes, the proper difference of latitude
between the Ihip and the Madera.
Again, from the merid. parts anfwering^
to the latitude the (hip is in y 324®-4
Take the meridional parts anfwering to 7
the latitude of the Madera y 2052.0
2 17349
10.02530
2.19879
47°. 3i'N
32 , SON
and there.remains     1196.4
the enlarged difference of latitude between the ftiip and
the Madera.
Alfo, from the.diff. of long, between
the Lizard and the Madera
Take the difference of long, between
the Lizard and the Ihip —
^ ii°, 40' W
| 19-rVoW
and there remains     10 , 20-r/oW
equal to 620. 56 min. of difference of longitude between
the (hip and the Madera wefterly.
Then for the dired courfe and diftance between the fhip
and the Madera, it will be.
For the diredl courfe :
As the merid. diff. of latitude 1196.4 3.07788
is to radius     10.00000
fo is the difference of longitude 620.56 2.79278
to the tang, of the courfe — 27°, 25' 9-71493
For the diredt diftance :
As radius     10.00000
is to the proper diff. of latitude 911 2.95952
fo is the fecant of the courfe 270, 25' 10.05174
to the dired diftance 1027 3.01126
10. It is very common, in working a day’s reckoning
at fea, to find the difference of latitude and departure to
each courfe and diftance; and adding all the departures
together, and all the differences of latitudes for the whole
departure, and difference of latitude made good that day,
from thence (by Cafe 8. of this Sell ion) to find the dif¬
ference of longitude, fyc. made good that day. Now that
this method is falfe, will evidently appear, if we confider
that the fame departure reckoned on two different paral¬
lels will give unequal differences of longitude ; and con¬
fequently, when feveral departures are compounded toge-'
ther and reckoned on the fame parallel, the difference of
longitude refulting from that cannot be the fame with
the fum of the differences of longitude refulting from the
feveral departures on different parallels; and therefore
we have chofen, in the lad example of a traverfe, to find
the difference of longitude anfwering to each particular
courfe and diftance, the fum of which muft be the true
difference of longitude made good by the Ihip on thefe
feveral courfes and diftances.
11. We (hewed, ax. Art. 5. of this Seftion, howto
eonftruft a Mercator's chart-, and no.v we (hall proceed
to its feveral ufes, contained in the following problems.
Prob. j. Let it be required to lay down a place upon
the
IN A T I Q
^he cliart, its latitude, and the difference of longitude
between it and feme known place upon the chart being
given.
Example. Let the known place be the Lizard ly¬
ing on the parallel of 50° oo’ north, and the place to be
laid down St Katharines on the eaft coaft of America,
■differing in longitude from the Lizard 420 36’, lying fo
much to the weftward of it.
Let L reprefent the Lizard on the chart, (fee No. 12.) ly¬
ing on the parallel of 500oo’ north, its meridian. Set off AE
from E upon the equator EQ^a0 36', towards Q^which
will reach from E to F. Through F draw the meridian FG,
and this will be the meridian of St Katharines; then fet
off from Q^to H upon the graduated meridian QB, 28
-degrees; and through H draw the parallel of latitude
HM, which will meet the former meridian in K, the place
upon the chart required.
Pros II. Given two places upon the chart, to find
their difference of latitude and difference of longitude,
Through the two places draw parallels of latitude; then
the diftance between thefe parallels numbered in degrees
and minutes upon the graduated meridian will be the dif¬
ference of latitude, required ; and through the two places
drawing meridians, the diflance between thefe, counted in
degrees and minutes on the equator or any graduated
parallel, w:ll be the difference of longitude required.
Prob. Ill To find the bearing of one place from ano¬
ther upon the chart.
Example. Required the bearing of St Katharines at
K. (fee No. 12.) from the Lizard at L.
Draw the meridian of the Li-zard AE, and join K and
L. with the right line KL ; then by the line of chords
meafuring the angle KLE, and with that entering the
tables,' we (hall have the thing required.
This may alfo be done, by having compafTes-drawn on
the chart (fuppofe pt two of its corners ;) then lay the
edge of a ruler over the two places, and let fall a perpen¬
dicular, or take the neareft diflance from the centre of
the compafs next the firft place, to the ruler’s edge; then
with this diflance in your compaffes, Aide them along by
the ruler’s edge, keeping one foot of them clofe to the
ruler, and the other as near as you can judge perpendi¬
cular to it, which will deferibe the rhomb required.
Pros. IV. To find the diftance between two given
places upon the chart.
This problem admits of four cafes, according to the
fituation of the two places with refpedl to one another.
Case I. When the given places lie-both upon the e-
iquator.
In this cafe their diftance is found by convertir/g the
degrees of difference of longitude intercepted between
them into minutes.
Case II. When the two places lie both on the fame
meridian.
Draw the parallels of thofe places ; and the degrees
mpon the graduated meridian, intercepted between thofe
parallels, reduced to minutes, give thediftance required.
Case III. When the two places lie on the fame paral¬
lel
Example, Required to find the diftance between the
points K And N, (fee No. 12.) both lying on the parallel
Vot. III. No. 85. 2
A TICK. 383
of 28° oc/ north. Take from your fcale the chord of bo®,
or radius in your compafies, and with that extent on KN*
as a bafe make the ifofceles triangle KPN; then take
from the line of fines the co-fine of the latitude, or fine
of 720 and fet that off from P to S and T. Join S andT
with the right line ST, and that applied to the graduated
equator will give the degrees and minutes upon it equal
to the diftance; which, converted into minutes, will be
the diftance required.
The reafonof this is evident from the feffion of Paral-
lebSailing: for it has been there demonftrated, that radius
is to the co-fine of any parallel, as the length of any arch
on the equator, to the length of the fame arch on that
parallel. Now in this chart KN is the diftance of the
meridians of the two places K and N upon the equator;
and fince, in the triangle PNK, ST is the parallel toKN,
therefore PN'.PTl INKITS. Confequently TS will be
the diftance of the two places K and N upon the parallel
of 28°.
If the parallel the two places lie on be not far from
the equator, and they not far afunder; then their di¬
ftance may be found thus.. Take the-diftance between
them in your compafles, and apply that to the graduated
meridian, fo as the one foot may be as many minutes a-
bove, as the other is below the given parallel ; and the
degrees and minutes intercepted, reduced to minutes, wifi
give the diftance.
Or it may alfo be found thus. Take the length of a
degree on the meridian at the given parallel, and turn that
over on the parallel from the one place to the other, as
oft as you can ; then as oft as that extent is contained be¬
tween the places, fo many times 60 miles W'ill be con¬
tained in the diftance between them.
Case IV. When the places differ both in longitude and
latitude.
Example. Suppofe it were required to-find the di¬
ftance between the two places a and e upon the chart.
By
Prob. II. Find the difference of'latitude between them;
and take that in your compaffes from the graduated equa¬
tor, which fet off on the meridian of a, from a to 6; then
through b draw be parallel to de ; and taking ec in your
compaffes, apply it to the graduated equator, and it will
fhew the degrees and minutes contained in the diftance
required, which multiplied by 60 will give the miles of
diftance.
The reafon of this is evident from Art. 8. of thisbV<'?.„
for it is plain ad is the enlarged difference of latitude, and
ab the proper ; confequently «i? the enlarged diftance, and
ac the proper.
Prob. V. To lay down a place mpon the chart, its
latitude and bearing from fome known place upon the
chart being known, or (which is the fame) having the
courfe and difference of latitude that a fhip has made, to
lay down the running of the fhip, and find her place upon
the chart.
Example. A fhip from the Lizard in the latitude of
50° oo' north, fails SSW till fhe has differed her lati¬
tude 36° 40'. Required her place upon the chart.
Count from the LizardatL on the graduated meridian
downwards (becaufe the courfe is foutherly) 36° 40’to^
5 through.
384 N A V I G
through which draw a parallel of latitude, which will be
the parallel the (hip is in ; then from L draw a SSWline
L/, cutting the former parallel in f, and this will be the
ihip’s place upon the chart.
Pros. VI. One latitude, courfe, and diftance, failed,
given; to lay down the running of the ihip, and find her
place upon the chart.
Example. Suppofe a fhip at a in the latitude of 20°
00 north, fails north 370 20', eaft 191 miles: Required
the fhip’s place upon the chart.
Having drawn the meridian and parallel of the place a,
fetoff the rhomb line «<?, making v/ith ab an angle of 370
20’; and upon it fet off 191 from to c; through c draw
the paralleled; and taking ab in your compaffes, apply it
to the graduated equator, and obferve the number of de¬
grees it contains ; then count the fam$ number of degrees
on the graduated meridian from C to b, and through h
draw the parallel he, which will cut ac produced in the
;'oint e, the fhip’s place required.
Prob. VII. Both latitudes and dillance failed* given;
to find the fhip’s place upon the chart.
Example. Suppofe a fhip fails from a, in the latitude
of 200 00’ north, between north and eaft 191 miles, and
is then in the latitude of 45° 00’north: Required the
fhip’s place upon the chart.
Draw de the parallel of 45°, and fet off upon the me¬
ridian of a upwards, ab equal to the proper difference of
latitude taken from the equator or graduated parallel.
Through b draw be parallel to de\ then with 191 in your
compaffes, fixing one foot of them in a, with the other
crofs be in c. Join a and c with the right line ac; which
produced will meet de in e, the fhip’s place required.
Prob. VIII. One latitude, courfe and difference of lon¬
gitude, given; to find the fhip’s place upon the chart.
Example. Suppofe a fhip from the Lizard in the la¬
titude of 50° 00’ north, fails SW£W; till her difference
of longitude is 420 36’: Required the fhip’s place upon
the chart.
Having dfawn AE the meridian of the Lizard at L,
count from E to F upon the equator 420 -36’; and through
E draw the meridian EG; then from L draw the SWbW
line LK, and where this meets FG, as at K, will be the
fhip’s place required.
Prob. IX. One latitude, courfe, and departure, given;
to find the fhip’s place upon the chart.
Example. Suppofe a fhip at a in thellatitude of 26°
00’ north, fails north 370 20’ eaft, till fhe has made of
departure 116 miles: Rqeuired the fhip’s place upon the
chart.
Having drawn the meridian of a, at the diftance of
116, dr^w parallel to it the meridian i . Draw the
rhomb line itc, which will meet ^ / in feme point c ; then
through c draw the parallel c b, and a b will be the pro¬
per difference of latitude, and b c the departure. Take
ab in your compaffes, and apply it to the equator or gra¬
duated parallel ; then obferve the number of degrees it
contains, and count fo many on the graduated meridian
from C upwards to b. Through h draw the parallel he,
which will meet a c produced in fome point as e, which
is,the fhip’s place upon the chart.
A T I O N.
Prob.X. One latitude, diftance, and departure, given ;
to find the fhip’s place upon the chart.
Example. Suppofe a fhip zia in the latitude of 20°
oo' north, -fails 191 miles between north and eaft, and
then is found to have made of departure 116 miles: Re¬
quired the fliip’s place upon the chart.
Having drawn the meridian and parallel of the place <7,
fet off upon the parallel a 171 equal to 116, and through
m draw the meridianE /. . Take the given diftance 191
in your compaff.s ; fetting one foot of thepi in a, with
the other crofs kl in c. Join a c, and through c draw the
parallel ^fo £ £ will be the departure, and ab the
proper difference of latitude ; then proceeding with this,
as in the foregoing problem, you will find the fhip’s place
to be e.
Prob XL The latitude failed from, difference of la¬
titude, and departure, given; to find the fhip’s place upon
the chart.
Example. Suppofe a fhip from a in the latitude of
200 oor north, fails between north and eaft, till fhe be
in the latitude of 45° 00 north, and is then found to
have made of departure'116 miles : Required the fhip’s
place upon the chart.
Having drawn the meridian of a, fet off upon it, from
a\o b, 25 degrees, (taken from the equator or gradua¬
ted parallel,) the proper difference of latitude ; then thro’ -
b draw the parallel be, and make b c equal to 116 the
departure, and join a c- Count from the parallel of a
on the graduated meridian upwards to >6 25 degrees, and
through h draw the parallel h e, which will meetar produ¬
ced in feme point e, and this will be the place of the fhip
required.
12. In the fedtion of Plain Sailing it is plain that the
terms meridional dijlance, departure, and difference cf
lojigitude, were fynonymous, conftantly fignifying the fame
thing: which evidently followed from the fuppofition of
the earth’s furface being projeded on a plane, in which
the meridians were made parallel, and the degrees of lati¬
tude equal to one another and to thofe of the equator.
But fince it has been demonftrated (in this fedion) that if,
in the projedion of the earth’s furface upon a plane, the
meridians be made parallel, the degrees of latitude muft:
be unequal, ftill increafing the nearer they come to the
pole. It follows that thefe terms muft denote lines real¬
ly different from one another.
Sed. 6. (?/Obliq_ue Sailing,
The queftions that may bepropofed on this head being
innumerable, wefhall only give a few of the moft ufeful.
Prob. I Coafting along the fhore, I faw a cape bear
from me NNE ; then I flood away NW£W 20 rfiiies,
and I obferved the fame cape to bear from me NE£E.
Required the diftance of the fhip from the cape at each
ftation.
Geometrically. Draw the circle NWSE (No,
22 .) to reprefent thecompafs, NS the meridian, and WE
the eaft and weft line, and let C be the place of the fhip
in her firft ftation ; then from C fet off upon the NWMV
line, CA 20 miles, and A will be the place of the fliip
in her fecond ftation.
From
N
V I
9-74473
1.30103
9.96562
1.5 2191
9.74474
1.30103
9.99157
1.54786
From C draw tlis NNE line CB, and from A draw
AB parallel to the NEiE line CD, which will meet CB
in B the place of the cape, and CB will be the diltanceof
it from the Ihip in its firft ftation, and AB the diftance
in the fecond : to find which, ,
By Calculation;
In the triangle ABC are given AC, equal to 20 miles;
the angle ACB, equal to 78° 45/, the diftance between
the NNE and NW7>W lines; alia the angle ABC, equal
to BCD, equal to 330 45', the diftance between theNNE
and NBiE lines; and confequently the angle A, equal to
67° 30'. . ' _
Hence for CB, the diftance of the cape from the fhtp
In her firft ftation, it will be (by oblique trigonometry)
s. ABC : ac :: s. bag : cb,
i. e. As the fine of the angle B 330 45'
is to the diftance run AC ,— 20 —
fo is the fine of BAG — 67 , 30
to CB — — 33-26
the diftance of the cape from the flrip at the firft ftation.
Then for AB, it will be, by oblique trigonometry,
s. abc : ac :: s. acb : ab.
i. e. As the fine of B — 330, 45'
is to AC — — 20 —
foisthe fineof C . — 78-45
to AB — — 35-3I
the diftance of the fitip from the cape at her fecond fta¬
tion .
Pros. II. Coafting along the ftiore, I faw two head¬
lands, ; the firft bore from me NE£E 17 miles, the other
SSW miles. Required the bearing and diftance of thefe
heacjlands from one another.
Geometrically. Having drawn the compafs NW SE
(No. 23.) let C reprefent the place of the ihip ; fet off
upon the NE£E line CA 17 miles from C to A, and upon
the SSW line CB 20 miles from C to B, and join AB :
then A will be the firft headland, and B the fecond ; alfo
AB will be their diftance, and the angle A will be the
bearing from the NE£N line : to fin'd which
By Calculation;
In the triangle ACB are given, AC 17, CB 20, and
the angle ACB equal to ioi° 15’, the diftance between
the NE£E and SSW lines. Hence (by oblique angular
trigonometry) it will be
As the fum of the fides AC and CB 37 1.56820
is to their difference — 3 0.47712
fo is the tang, of 4 the fum 7 „ ,
of the angles A and B 3 ^ > 22 t 9-9i4i7
to the tang, of half their diff. 3 , 49 8.82309
confequently the angle A will be 430 ji', and the angle
B 350 34/; alfo the bearing of B from A will be SiW
i° 49 wefterly, and the bearing of A from B will be
N£E i° 49' eafterly.
Then for the diftance AB, it will be, by oblique-angular
trigonometry,
S. A : CB
i. e. As the fine of A
is to CB —
fo is the fine of C —
a AB
: s. c : ab.
43°. 11' '
20 —
15 ~
— — 28.67
the difl;ance between the two headlands.
9.83527
1.30103
9.99157
1-45733
A T I O N. 335
Pros. III. Coafting along the fliore", I faw two head¬
lands; the firftdiore from me NW£N, and the fecond
NNE ; then (landing away E^N 4 northerly 20 miles;
I found the firft bore from me WNW 4 wefterly, and
the fecond NiW 4 wefterly. Required the bearing and
diftance of tbefe two headlands.
Ge o m e t r-i c all y . Having drawn the compafs N WSE
(No. 24.) let C repref m the firft place of the drip ; from
which draw the NW£N lin£ CB, and the NNE line CD,
aifo the EiN 4 N lin^ CA, which make equal to 20.
From A draw AB parallel to the WNW 4 W line, and
AD parallel to the N7>W 4 W meeting the two firft lines
in the points B and D; then B will be the firft and D
the fecond headlands. - Join the points B and D, and BD
will be the diftance between them, and the angle CDS
the hearing from the NNE line : to find which
ByCALCULATION ;
1. In the triangle ABC are given the angle BCA, e-
qual to 104° 04', the diftance between the NW£N line,
and the ENE^E line; the angle BAC, equal to 36° 34',
the diftance between the WSW4W line and the WNW
4W line; the angle ABC equal to 390j22,> the diftance
between the ESE4E line; and the SWbS line, alfo the
fide CA equal to 20 miles; whence for CB, it will be (by
oblique trigonometry)
As the fine of CBA   ,39°, 21' — 9.80228
is to AC     20   |.30103
fo is thp fine of CAB    36°, 34' — 9 77507
to CB      18.79 — 1.27382
the diftance between the firft headland and the (hip in her
firft .ftation.
2. In the triangle ACD, are given the angle ACD, e-
qual to 470 49', the diftance between the ENE^E line,,
and the NNE line; the angle CAD, equal to 920 49',
the diftance betweeathe WSW^W line; and the N£W4
W line, the angle CDA equal to 390 22', the diftance
between the SSW line and the S5E4E line ; alfo the leg
CA equal to 20.
Hence for CD, it will bs (by oblique trigonometry)
As the fine CAD   390, 22' — 980228
is to AC      20   1.30103
fo is the line of CAD   920, 34' —■/ 9.99960
to.CD     31.5 — 1.49835
the diftance between the fecond headland and the fliip in,
her firft ftation.
3. In the triangle BCD are given BC 18.79, CD
31.5, and the angle IfCD equal to 56° 15', the diftance
between the NWAN line and the NNE line.
Hence for the angle CDB, it will be (by oblique tri¬
gonometry)
As the fum of the fides — 50-29 1.7014$
is to the difference of fides 12.71   1.10415
fo is tangent of 4 fum7 z o '
ofthe unknown angles 5 1 5 ^ 10.27189
to tang, of half their diff. 25,18 — 9-67458
confequently the angle CBD is 87° 10', and the angle
CDB 36° 35'. Hence the bearing of the firft headland
from the fecond will be S 590 8', W or SWTW4W
nearly; and for the diftance between them, it will be,
As the fine ofBDC   36°, 35' — 9.77524
is to BC      18.79 — 1,27382.
N A Y ! G
fo is the fine of'BCD   56°, 15' — 9.9198J
to BD '    26 21 141.843
the diftance between the two headlands.
This, and the firft problem, are of great ufe in
drawing the plot of any harbour, or laying down any fea
•coalt.
Suppofe a Ihip that makes her way good within 6 i
points of the wind, at north, is bound to a port bearing
eaft86 miles dillance from her: Required the courfe and
diftance upon each tack, to gain the intended port.
Geometrically. Having drav/n the compafs NE
SW, (No. 25 ) let C reprefent the (hip’s place, and fet
off upon the eaft line C A 86 miles, fo A will be the in¬
tended port. Draw CD and CB on each fide of the
north line at 6 4- points diftance from it, and through A
draw AB parallel to CD meeting CB in B ; then-the
ENE 4- E line CB, will be the courfe of the ihip upon
the (larboard tack, and CB its diftance on that tack ;
alfo the ESE f E 1 ne Ah, will be the courfe on the
larboard tack, and BA the diftance on that tack: to find
which
By Calculation;
In the triangle ABC are given, the angle ACB, equal
to 16°, 53', the diftance between the eaft and ENE 4
E line; the angle CBA, equal to 146° 14', the diftance
■between the ENE 4 E an<^ lhe WNW 4 W lines; the
angle BAG equal to 160 53', the diftance betwaren the
.eaft and ESE 4 E lines; alfo AC 86 miles.
Hence fince the angle at A and C are equal, the legs
CB and BA will likewife be equal; to find either of
which (fuppofe CB) it will be (by oblique angled tri¬
gonometry.)
As the fine of B — 146°, 1/ — 9 74493
is to AC — 86 — i-9345°
fo is the fine of A — 16,53 — 9-46303
to CB   44-94   1.65260
the diftance the (hip muft fail on each tack.
There is a great variety of ufeful queftions of this na¬
ture that may be propofed; but the nature of them being
better underftood-by praftice at fea, we fhall leave them,
and go on to Current Sailing.
Seel. 7. Concerning Currents, and hoiu to make
proper allowances.
1. Currents are certain fettings of the Jlream, by
-which all bodies (as (hips, tec.') moving therein, are
compelled to alter their courfe or velocity, or both ;
and fubmit to the motion imprefled upon them by the
current.
Case I If the current fets juft with the courfe of the
(hip, (»• e ) moves on the fame rhomb with it ; then the
motion of the (hip is increafed, by as much as is the drift
-or velocity of the current.
Example. Suppofe a (hip fails SEiS at the rate of
6 miles an hour, in a current that fets SE£S 2 miles an
hour : Required her true rate of failing.
Here it is evident that the (hip’s true rate of failing
will be 8 miles an hour.
Case II. If the current fets dire&ly againft the (hip’s
.courfe, then the motion of the (hip is leffened by as much
as is the velocity of the current.
A T L C N.
Example. Suppofe a (hip fails SSW at the rate of
10 miles an hour, in a current that fets NNE 6 miles an
hour. Required the (hip’s true rate of failing.
Here it is evident that the (hip’s true rate of failing
will be 4 miles an hour. Hence it is plain,
Cor. I. If the velocity of the current be lefs than
the velocity of the (hip, then the (hip will get fo much a-
head as is the difference of thefe velocities.
Cor. II. If the velocity of the current be greater than
that of the (hip, then the (hip will fall fo much a ftern as
is the difference of thefe velocities.
Cor. HI. Laftly, If the velocity of the current be e-
qual to that of the (hip, then the (hip will (land (till ; the
one velocity deftroying the other.
CaseHII If the urrent thwarts the courfe of the (hip,
then it not only leffenS or augments her velocity, but
gives her a new diredion compounded of the courfe (he
fleers, and the fetting of the current, as is manifeft front
the following
Lemma. If a body at A (No. 26.) be impelled by-
two forces at the fame time, the one in the diredion AB
capable to carry that body from A to B in a certain (pace
of time, and the other in the-diredion AD capable to
carry it from A to D in the fame time ; complete the
parallelogram ABCD, and draw the diagonal AC ; then
the body at A agitated by thefe two forces together, will
move along the line BC, and will be in the point C at
the end of the time in which it would have moved along
AD or AB with the forces feparately applied.
Hence the folution of the following examples will be
evident
Example I. Suppofe a (hip fails (by the compafs)
diredly fouth 96 miles in 24 hours, in a current that fets
eaft 45 miles in the fame time. Required the (hip’s true
courfe and diftance.
Geometrically. Draw AD (fee No. 26.) to t«-
prefent the fouth and north line of the (hip at A, which
make equal to 96 ; from D draw DC perpendicular to
AD, equal to 45; and jo;n AC. Then C will be the
(hip’s true place, AC her true diftance, and the angle
CAD the true courfe. To find which
. By Calculation :
Firft, For the true courfe DAC, it will be, (by red-
angular trigonometry,)
As the apparent diftance AD — 96 — 1.98227
is to the current’s motion DC — 45 — 165321
fo is r..dius - ■■ —     I0.00000
confequently the (hip’s true courfe is S 250 07’ E, or
SSE 20 37’, eafterly.
Then for the true diftance AC, it will be, (by redan-
gular trigonometry,)
As the fine of the courfe A    250, 07’ 9 62784
is to the departure DC 45 — 1.65321
fb is radius   ——— —  10.00000
to the true diftance AC   106 — 2.02537
Example. Suppofe a (hip fails SE 120 miles in 20
hours, in a current that fets W£N at the rate of 2 miles
an hour: Required the (hip’s true courfe and diftance fail¬
ed in that time. .
GtOME'
N A V I G
Geometricaily. Having drawn the compafs
NESW (No 27.) let C reprefent the place the ftiip fail¬
ed from ; draw the SE line CA, which make equal to
120 ;»then will A be the place the (hip caped at.
From A draw AB parallel to the WiN line CD, e-
qual to 40, the motion of the current in 20 hours, and
join CB ; then B will be the (hip’s true place at the end
of 20 hours, CB her true diftance, and the angle SCB
her true courfe. To find which
By Calculation;
In the triangle ABC, are given CA 120, AB 40, and
the angle CAB equal to 340 45’, the diftance between
the EbS and SE'lines, to find die angles B and C, and
the fide CB„
Firft, For the angles C and B, it will be, (by oblique
trigonometry)
As the fum of the fides CA and AB 160 — 2.20412
is to their difference   80 — 1.90309
fo is the tang, of half the fum ? ^ 0 ,
of .be angle, B and C - J ” ’ °7 IO-5'783
to the tang, of half their diff. — S9 > 4J 10.21680
confequemly the angle B will be 131 , 52, and the
angle ACB 140 23’. Hence the true courfe is S 30°,
37’ E, or SSE 20 07’ eilfterly.
Then for the true diftance CB, it will be, (by oblique
trigonometry)
As the fine of B   1310, 52’ — 9 87198
is to AC     120 2.07918
fo is the fine of A   33°. 45* — 9-74474
to the true diftance CB   89.53 —• 1.95194
Example III. Suppofe a (hip coming out from fea in
the night, has fight of Scilly light, bearing NE£N dif¬
tance 4 leagues, it being then flood tide fetting ENE 2
miles an hour, and the (hip running after the rate of 5
miles an hour. Required upon what courfe and how far
(he muft fail to hit the Lizard, which bears from Scilly
EfS diftance 17 leagues.
Geometrically. Having drawn the compafs
NESW (No. 28.) let A reprefent the (hip’s place at fea,
and draw the NE£N line AS, which make equal to 12
miles, fo S will reprefent Scilly.
From S draw SL equal to 51 miles, and parallel to the
E-|S line; then L will reprefent the Lizard.
FromL draw LC parallel to the ENE line, equal to
2 miles, and from C draw CD equal to 5 miles meeting
AL in D ; then from A draw AB parallel to CD meet¬
ing LC produced in B; and AB will be the required dif¬
tance., and SAB the true courfe. To find which
By Calculation;
In the triangle ASL are given the fide AS equal to 12
miles, the fide SL equal to 41, and the angle ASL e-
qual to 118° 07’, the diftance between the NEiJN and
W4N lines ; to find the angles SAL and SLA.T Con-
fequently, (by oblique trigonometry,) it will be,
As the (urn of the* fides AS and SL — 63 1.79934
is to their difference   — 39 1.59106
fo is the tang, of half the fum? o ✓> ✓
of the angles SAL and SLA 5 ^ 9-77763
to the tang, of half their diff. —• 20°, 21* 9.56935
Ycl. III. N°. £5. 2
A T I O N. 387
confequently the angle S2\L, will be 51® 17% and fo the
dired bearing of the Lizard from the (hip will be N 85®
02’ E, or E£N 6° 17’ E; and for the diftance AL, it
will be (by oblique trigonometry,)
As the fine of SAL — 51°, 17’ — 9.89223
is to SL     51 — 1.70757
fo is the fine of ASL — ii8°, 07’ — 9.94546
to AL     S7-65   1.76080
the diftance between the (hip and the Lizard.
Again, in the triangle DLC, are given the angle L e-
qual to 17° 32’, the diftance between the ENE and N
85° 02’ E lines ; the fide LC, equal to 2 miles, the cur¬
rent’s drift in an hour; and the fide CD, equal to 5 miles,
the (hip’s run in the fame time. Hence for the angle D,
it will be (by oblique trigonometry,)
As the (hip's run in 1 hour DC — 5 — 0.69897
is to the fine of L   17°, 32’ — 9.47894
fo is the current’s drift LC — 2 — 0.30103
to the fine of D     6°, 55’ — 9.08100
eonfequently fince by conftruftion the angle LAB is equal
to the angle LDC, the courfe the (hip muft (leer is S 88®
03’ E.
Then for the diftance AB, it will be (hy oblique tri¬
gonometry,)
As the fine of B   I55°> 33’ — 9 61689
is to AL   ——» .57.65   1.76080
fo is the fine of L   17-32 ———947894
to AB     41.96   1.62285
confequently, fince the (hip is failing at the rate of 5 miles
an hour, it follows, that in failing 8h 24m S 88° 03’ E,
(he will arrive at the Lizard.
Example IV.. A (hip from a certain headland in the
latitude of 34® 00’ north, fails SE6S 12 miles in three
hours, in a current that fets between north and eaft; and
then the fame headland is found to bear WNW, and the
(hip to be in the latitude of 33° 52’ north. Required the
fettin£ and drift of the current.
Geometrically. Having drawn the compals
NESW (No. 29.) let A reprefent the place of the (hip,
and draw the SE^S line AB equal to 12 miles, alfo the
ESE line AC.
Set off from A upon rhe-meridian AD, equal to 8 miles,
the difference of latitude, and through D draw DC pa¬
rallel to the eaft and weft line WE, meeting AC in C.
Join C and B with the right line BC ; then C will be the
(hip’s place, the angle ABC the fetting of the current
from the SE6S line, and the line BC will be the drift
of the current in 3 hours. To find which
By Calculation:
In the triangle ADC right angled at D, are given the
difference of latitude AD equal to 8 miles, the angle
DAC equal to 67° 30’ Whence for AC, the diftance
the (hip has failed, it will he
As radius       10.00000
is to the diff. of latitude AD — '8 — 0.90309
fo is the fecant of the courle ? , n , ,
DAC — — ~ 67°- 3° 10.41J16
to the diftajice run AC   20.9— 1.32025
Again, in the triangle ABC, are given AB equal to
5 E 12
388 N A V I G
12 miles, AC equal to 20.9, and the angle BAG equal
to 330 45’, the didance between the SE£S and ESE
lines. Whence for the angle at B, it will be,
As the fum of thje fides AC and AB 32.<) 1.51720
is to their difference   — 8.9 — 0.J94930
fo is the tang, of half the? _ ,
fum of the angles B and C, » ’ ~
to tang, of 4 their diff. — 410, 43’ 4 — 9-95°25
confeqqently the angle B is 1140 51’, and fo the fetting
of the current will be N 8i° 06’ E or E£E 20 21’ E.
Then for BC the current’s drift in 3 hours, it will bef
As the fine of B — 1140, 51’   9.92700
is to the dillance run AC 20.9    1.32025
fo is the fine, of A — 33°. 4S’   9-74474
to BC      12.8   1 10719
the current’s drift in 3 hours, and confequently the cur¬
rent fets EiN 20 21’ E 4.266 miles an hour.
Seft. 8. Concerning the Vakiation of Compass,
and how to find it from the true and obferved Ampl 1-
TUDES or Azimuths of the fun.
1. The variation of the compafs is how far the north
or fouth pyint of the needle Hands from the true fouth or
north point of the horizon towards the eaft or weft; or
it is an arch of the horizon intercepted between the me¬
ridian of the place of obfervation and the magnetic me¬
ridian.
2. It is abfolutely neceflary to know the variation of
the compafs at -fea, in order to corrett the fhip’s courfe ;
for fince the (hip’s courfe is directed by the compafs, it is
evident that if the compafs be wrong the true courfe will
differ from the obferved, and confequently the whole
reckoning differ from the truth.
3. The fun’s true amplitude is an arch of the horizon
-comprehended between the true eaft or weft point thereof,
and the centre of the fun at rifing or fetting ; or it is the
number of degrees, ?5rc. that the centre of the fun is di
ftant from the true eaft or weft point of the horizon, to¬
wards the fouth or north,
4. The fun’s magnetic amplitude is the number of de¬
grees that the centre of the fun is from the eaft or weft point
of the compafs, towards the fouth or north point of the
fame at rifing or fetting.
5. Having the declination of the fun, together with the
latitude of the place of obfervation, we may from thence
find the fun’s true anaplitude, by the following aftronomic
propofition, viz.
As the co-fine of the latitude
is to the radius
So is the fine of the fun’s declination
to the fine of the fun’s true amplitude
which will be north or fouth according as the fun’s declina¬
tion is north or fouth.
Example. Required the fun’s true amplitude in the
latitude of 41° 50'north, on the 2 3d day of April 1731.
Firft, I find (from the tables of the fun’s declination)
that the fun?s declination the 23d of April is I5054, north;
then for the true amplitude, it will be, by the former ana-?
logy*^.
As th6~co fine of the lat, 41° 50’ — 9.87221
is to radius — io.cqooo
A T I O N.
fo is the fine of the decl. 15®, 54', — 9-4376$
to the fine of the amplit. 21 , 35 , — 9.56548
which is north, becaufe the declination is north at that
time; and confequently, in the latitude of 410 50’ north,
the fun rifes on the 23d of April 21° 35’ from the eaft
part of the horizon towards the north, and fets lomuch
from the weft the fame way.
6. The fun’s true azimuth is the arch of the horizon
intercepted between the meridian and the vertical circle
palling through the centre of the fun at the time of ob¬
fervation.
7. The fun’s magnetiq azimuth is the arch of the ho¬
rizon intercepted between the magnetic meridian and the
vertical, paffing through the fun.
8. Having the latitude of the place of obfervation, to*-
gether with the fun’s declination and altitude at the time
of obfervation, we may find his true azimuth after the
following method, viz.
Make it.
As the tangent of half the complement of the latitude is
to the tangent of half the fum of the diftance of the fun
from the pole and complement of the altitude
So is the tangent of half the difference between the di-
ftance of the fun from the pole and complement of the
altitude
To the tangent of a fourth arch
which fourth arch added to half the complement of the
latitude will give a fifth arch, and this fifth arch leffened
by the complement of the latitude will give a fixth arch.
Then make it
As the radius
is to the tangent of the altitude
fo is the tangent of the fixth-arch
to the co fine of the fun’s azimuth
which is to be counted from the fouth or north, to the eaft
or weft, according as the fun is fituated with refpedt to the
place of obfervation.
If the latitude of the place and declination of the fun
be both north or both fouth, then the declination taken
from 90° will give~the fun’s di-ftance from the pole; but
if the latitude and decimation be on contrary fides of
the equator, then the declination added to 90.0 will give
the fun’s diftance from the neareft pole to the place of
obfervation.
Example. In the latitude of 51° 32'north, the fur*
having 190 39' north declination, his altitude was found
by obfervation to be 38° 18 : Required the azimuth.
By the firft of the foregoing analogies, it will be
19°, 14' 9-54269
61 ,, or 10.25655
9 »» 19 7-21499
40 „ 20 9.92885
which fourth arch 40° 20’, added-to 190 14' half the
complement ©f the latitude, give a fifth arch 590 34';
and this fifth arch leffened by 38° 28', rite complement
of the latitude, gives the fixth arch 2X° 06'; then for
the
As the tangent of 4 the com ?
plemement of the latitude ^
is to the tagent of f the fumS
of the diftance of the funf
from the pole and comple ^
ment of the altitude — J
fo is the tangent of half their?
difference   5
to the tang, of a 4th afch
N A V I G
theazimuthi it will be, by the fecond of the preceding ana-
gies,
As radius      10.00000
is to the tang, of the altitude 38°, iS' 9.89749
fo is the tang, of the fixth arch 21 ,,06 — 9.58644
to the co-fine of the azimuth 72,, 15 — 9-48393
which, becaufe the latitude is north and the fun fouth of
the place of obfervation, mud be counted from the fouth
towards the eaft or weft ; and conlequently, if the alti-
tud of the fun was taken in the morning, the azimuth
will be S 720 15’ E, or ESE 40 45’ E ; but if the al¬
titude was taken in the afternoon, the azimuth will be
S 720 15’ W, or WSW 40 45’ wefterly.
9. Having found the fun’s true amplitude or azimuth
by the preceding analogies, and his magnetic amplitude
or azimuth by obfeivation, it is evident, if they agree,
there is no variation ; but if they difagree, then if the
true and obferred amplitudes at the rifing or fetting of
the fun be both of the fame name, i. e. either both
north, or both fouth, their difference is the variation ;
but if they be of different names, i. e. one north and
the other fouth, their fum is the variation. Again, if
the true and obferved azimuth be both of the fame name,
i. e. either both eaft or both weft, their difference is the
variation , but if they be of different names, their fum is
the variation: And to knotit whether the variation is
eafferly, obferve this general rule, viz.
Let the obferver’s face be turned to the fun : then if
the true amplitude or azimuth be to the right hand of
the obferved, the variation is eafterly ; but if it be to the
left, wefterly.
To explain which, let NESW (No. 30.) reprefent a
compafs, and fuppofe the fun is really E^S at the time
of obfervation, but the obferver fees him off the eaft
point of the ci mpafs, and fo the true amplitude or azi¬
muth of the fun is to the right of the magnetic or ob¬
ferved ; here it is evident that the E£S point of the
compafs ought to lie where the eaft point is, and fo the
oorth where the NiW is ; confequently the north point
of the compafs is a point too far eaft, i. e. the variation
in this cafe is eafterly. The fame will hold when the am¬
plitude or azimuth is taken on the weft fide of the me¬
ridian.
Again, let the true amplitude or azimuth be to the
left hand of the obferved. Thus, fuppofe the fun is really
E£N at the time of obfervation, but the obferver fees
him off the eaft point of the compafs, and fo the true
amplitude or azimuth to the left of the obferved: Here
it is evident that the E5N point of the compafs ought to
Hand where the eaft point is, and fo the north where the
N£E point is ; confequently the north point of the com¬
pafs lies a point too far wefterly, fo in this cafe the va¬
riation is weft. The fame will hold when the fun is ob¬
ferved on the weft fide of the meridian.
Example I. Suppofe the fun’s true amplitude at ri¬
fing is found to be E 14® 20’ N, but by the compafs it
is found to be E 26® 12’: Required the variation, and
which way it is.
Since they are both the fame way, therefore
3?rom the magnetic amplitude —— E 26°, 12’ N,
A T I O N. • 339
take the true amplitude — — E 14 , 20 N.
and there remains the variation   u , 52 E.
which is eafterly, becaufe in this cafe the true amplitude
is the right of the obferved.
Example II. Suppofe the fun’s true amplitude atfet-
tingisW 34° 26’S, and his magnetic amplitude W 23®
13’ S : Required the variation, and which way it is.
Since they lie both the fame way, therefore
From-the fun’s true amplitude — W 34°, 26’ S.
take his magnetic amplitude — W 23 , 13 S.
there remains the variation ■— 11 > 13 W.
which is wefterly, becaufe the true amplitude, in this cafe,
is to the left hand of the obferved.
Example III. Suppofe the fun’s true altitude at rifing
is found to be 130 24’N, and his magnetic E 12° 32’S :
Required the variation, and which way it lies.
Since the true and obferved amplitudes lie different
ways, therefore
To the true amplitude — E 13°, 24’ N.
add the magnetic amplitude — E 12 , 32 S.
the fum is the variation — 25 , 56 W.
which is wefterly, becaufe the true amplitude is, in this
cafe, to the left of the obferved.
Example IV. Suppofe the fun’s true altitude at fet¬
ting is found to be W 8° 24’ N, but his magnetic am-
plitude is W io° 13.’S : Required the variation.
To the true amplitude — W 8°, 24' N.
add the magnetic — — W 10 , 13 S.
the fum is the variation   18 , 37 E.,
which is eafterly, becaufe the true amplitude is to the
right of the oblerved.
Example V. Suppofe the fun’s true azimuth at the
time of obfervation, is found to be N 86° 40' E, but by
the compafs it is N 730 24^ : Required the variation,
and which way it lies..
From the fun’s true azimuth, — N 86°, 40' E.
take the magnetical, — N 73 , 24 E.
there remains the variation,   13 , 16 E.
which is eafterly, becaufe the true azimuth is to the right
of the obferved.
Example VI. Suppofe the fun’s true azimuth is S
3° 24' E. and the magnetical S 40 36/ W : Required
the variation, and which way it lies.
To the true azimuth   S 30, 24' E.
add the magnetical azimuth   S 4 , 36 W.
the fum is thevariation   8 , 00 W.
which is wefterly, becaufe the true azimuth is, in this
cafe, to the left of the obferved.
10. The variation of the compafs was firft obferved
at London, in the year 1^80, to be 11® 15’ eafterly,
and in the year 1622 it was 6° o’ E ; alfo in the year
1634, it was 40 05’ E, ftill decreafing, and the needle
approaching the true meridian, till it coincided with it*,
and then there was no variation; after which, the varia^
tion.
390 N A V I G
tion began to be wefterly; and in the year 1672, it was
obferved to be 20 30’ W ; alfo in the year 1683, it was
40 30’ W; and fmce that time the variation (till conti¬
nues at London to increafe wefterly ; but how far it will
go that way, time and obfervations will probably be the
only means to difcover.
Again, at Paris, in the year 1640, the variation was
30 00’ E ; and in the year i6'66, there was no variation;
but in the year 1681, it was 20 30’ W, and (till conti¬
nues to go wefterly.
In (hort, from obfervations made in different parts of
the world, it appears, that in different places the varia¬
tion differs both as to its quantity and denomination, it
being eaft in one place, and weft in another; the true
caufe and theory of which, for want of a fufficient num¬
ber of obfervations, has not as yet been fully explained.
SeA 9. The M.ztnon of keeping Journal ;
and honu to cor red it, by making proper allowances for
the leeway, variation, <bc.
1. Lee-way is the angle that the rhom bline. upon which
the (hip endeavours to fail, makes with the rhomb (he
really fails upon. This is occafioned by the force of the
wind or furge of the fea, when (he lies to the windward,
or is clofe hauled, which caufesher to fall off and glide
fsde-ways from the point of the compafs (he capes at.
Thus let NESW (No. 31.) reprefent the compafs; and
fuppofe a (hip at C capes at, or endeavours to fail upon,
the rhomb Ca ; but by the force of the wind, and furge
of the fea, fhe is obliged to fall off, and make her way
good upon the rhomb Ch ; then the angle aCb is the lee¬
way ; and if that angle be equal to one point, the (hip
is faid to make one point lee way; and if equal to two
points, the (hip is faid to make two points lee way, &c.
2. The quantity of this angle is very uncertain, becaufe
fome (hips, with the fame quantity of fail, and with the
fame gale, will make more lee-way than others; it de
pending much upon the mould and trim of the (hip, and
the quantity of water that (he draws. The common al¬
lowances that are generally made for the lee-way, are as
follow.
1. If a (hip be clofe hauled, has all her fails fet, the
water fmooth, and a moderate gale of wind, (he is then
fuppofed to make little or no lee-way.
2 If it bio - fo fre(h as to caule the fmall fails be hand¬
ed, it is ufual to allow one point.
g. It it blow fo hard that the top fails muft be clofe
reeft, then the common allowance is two points for lee¬
way.
4 If one top fail muft be handed, then the (hip is fup¬
pofed to make between two and three points lee way.
5 When both top-fails muft be handed, then the al¬
lowance is about four points for lee-way.
6. If blows fo hard, as to occafion the fore-courfe to
be handed, the allowance is between 5^ and 6 points.
7. When both main and fore-courfes muft be handed,
then 6 or 6J points are commonly allowed for lee-way.
8. When the mizen is handed, and the (hip is trying a
hull, (he is then commonly allowed about 7 points for lee¬
way.
3 Though thefe rules are fuch as are generally made
A T I O N.
ufe of, yet fince the lee-way depends much upon the mould
and trim of the (hip, it is evident that they cannot exattly
ferve to every (hip; and therefore the beft way is to tind it
by obfervation : Thus, let the (hip’s wake be let by a com¬
pafs in the poop, and the oppoiite lumb is the true courfe
made good by the (hip ; then the difference between th,s
and the comic given by the compafs in the Oittdcle, is
the lee-way required. If the (hip be within fight of
land; then the lee-way may be exaftly found uy ob*
ferving a point on the land which continues to beai ne
fame way, and the diftance between the point of the
compafs it lies upon and the point the (hip capes at
will be the lee-way. Thus fuppofe a (hip at C, is lying
up NW£, towards A; but inftead of keeping that courle,
(he is carried on the NNEline CB, and confequently the
point B continues to bear the fame way trom the (hip :
Here it is evident that the angle ACB, or the diftance
between the N£W line that the (hip capes at, and the
NNE line that the (hip really fails upon, will be the
lee-way.
4. H iving the courfe (leered, and the lee-way, given-;
we may from thence find the true courfe by the following
method, viz. Let your face be turned diredly to the
windward; and' if the (hip have her larboard tacks on
board, count the lee way from the courfe (leered towards
the right hand ; but if the (larboard tacks be on board,
then count it from the courfe (leered towards the left
hand. Thus, fuppofe the wind at north, and the (hip lies
up within 6 points of the wind, with her larboard tacks
onboard, making one point leeway; here it is plain,
that the courfe (leered is ENE, and the true courfe
E£N ; alfo fuppofe the wind is at NNW, and the (hip
lies up within 6i points of the wind-with her (larboard
tack on board, making if point leeway, it is evident
that the true courfe, in this cafe, is WSW.
y. We have (hewed, in the laft fedtion, how to find
the variation of the compafs ; and from what has been
faid there, we have this general rule for finding the (hip’s
true courfe, having the courfe (leered and the variation
given, viz. Let your face be turned towards the pointof
the compafs upon which the (hip is (leered ; and if the
variation be eafterly, count the quantity of it from the
courfe (leered towards the right hand; but if wefterly,
towards the left hand; and the courfe thus found is
the true courfe (leered. Thus, fuppofe the courfe (leered
is N£E, and the variation one point eafterly; then the
true courfe fleered will be NNE : Alfo fuppofe the courfe
(leered is NE/^E, and the variation one point wefterly;
then in this cafe, the true courfe will be NE ; and fo of
others.
Hence, by knowing the lee-way variation, and cou:fe
(leered, we may from thence find the (hip’s true courfe ;
but if there be a current under foot, then that muft be
tried, and proper allowances made for it, as has been
(hown in the fedtion concerning Currents, from thence to
find the true courfe.
6. After making all the proper allowances for finding
the (hip’s true courfe, and making as juft an eftimate of
the diftance as we can; yet by reafon of the many acci¬
dents that attend a (hip in a day s running, fu ch as diffe¬
rent rates of failing between the times or heaving the log,
the
,
I
Plate CXXXVi
N A V I G
the want of due care^ at the helm by not keeping her
fteady, but fuffering her to yaw and fall off; (udden
ftorms, when no account can be kept, ; the latitude
by account frequently differs from the latitude by obfer
vation; and when that happens, it is evident there mufl:
be fome error in the reckoning; to difcover which, and
where it lies, and alfo how to corred the reckoning, you
may obferve the following rules.
ift, If the (hip fail near the meridian, or within 2 or
2t points thereof; then if the latitude by account difa-
grees with the -latitude by obfervation, it is moft likely
that the error lies in the diftancerun ; for it is plain-that
in this cafe it will require a very fenfible error in the
courfe to make any confiderable error in the difference
of latitude, which cannot Well happen if due care be ta¬
ken at the helm, and proper'allowances be made for the
lee-way, variation, and currents.. Confequently if the
courfe be pretty near the truth, and the error in the dif-
tance run regularly through the whole, we may, from the
latitude obtained by obfervation, corred the dilfance and
departure by account, by the following analogies, viz.
As the difference of latitude by account
is to the true difference of latitude,
fo is the departure by account
to the true departure,
and fo is the dired diftance by account
to the true dired diftance.
The reafon ofthis isplain: for let AB (No. 33.) de¬
note the meridian of the fhip at A, and fuppofe the ftup
fails upon the rhomb AE near the meridian, till by ac¬
count me is found in C, and confequently her difference
of latitude by account is AB; but by obfervation fhe is
found in the parallel ED, and fo her true difference of
latitude is AD, her true diftance AE, and her true de¬
parture DE; then fince the triangles ABC ADE are
fimilar, it will be AB : AD : : BC : DE, and AB : AD
: : AC : AE.
Example. Suppofe a fhip from the latitude of 4.50
20’ north, after haying failed upon feveral courfes near
the meridian for 24 hours, her difference of latitude is
computed to be upon the whole 95 miles foutherly, and
her departure 34 miles eafterly; but by obfervation fhe
is found to be in the latitude of 430 io’ north, and con¬
fequently her trie difference of latitude is 130 miles fou¬
therly; then for the true departure, it will be, As the dif¬
ference of latitude by account 95 is to the true difference
of latitude 130, fo is the departure by account 34 to the
true departure 46.52, and fo is the diftance by account
100.9 t0 t^ie fUE’-diftance 138.
sdly, If the courfes are for the moft part near the paral-
lel of eaft and weft, and the direA courfe be within j^-or 6
points of the meridian; then if the latitude by account
differs from theobferved latitude, it is moft probable that
the error lies in the courfe, dr diftance,x>r perhaps both;
for in this cafe it is evident, the departure by account
will be very nearly true ; and thence by the help of this,
and the true difference of latitude, may the true courfe
and direft diftance be readily found by C«fe 4. of Plain
Sailing.
Vol, III N» 85.
A T I O N. 391
Example. Suppofe a fhip from the latitude of 430 50’
north, after having failed upon feveral courfes near the
parallel of eaft and weft, for the fpace of 24 hours, is
found by dead reckoning to be in the latitude of 420
45’ north, and to have made 160 miles of wefting; but
by a good obfervation the fhip is found to be in the lati¬
tude of 420 35’ north: liequired the true courfe, and
diie<ft diftance failed.
With the true difference of latitude 75 miles, and de¬
parture 160 miles, we fhall find (by Cafe 4. of Plain Sail¬
ing) the true courfe to be S64° '53’ W, and the direft
diftance 176.7 miles.
3dly, If the courfesare for the moft part near the mid¬
dle of the quadrant, and the direft courfe within 2 and 6
points of the meridian ; then the error may be either in
the courfe, or in the diftance, or in both,, which will
caufe an error both in the difference of latitude and depar¬
ture ; to correft which, having found the true difference
of latitude by obfervation, with this, and the direfl di-
ft'ance by dead reckoning, find a new departure (by Cafe 3,
of Plain Sailing;) then half the fum of this departure,
and that by dead reckoning, w’ill be nearly equal to the
true departure ; and confequently with this, and the true
difference of latitude, we may (by Cafe 4. of Plain Sail¬
ing) find the true courfe and diftance.
Example. Suppofe afhip from the latiiude of 440 38’
north, fails between fouth and eaft upon fevera! courfes,
near the middle of the quadrant, for the fpace of 24 hours,
and is then found by dead reckoning to be in the latitude
of 42° 15’ north, and to have made of eafting 136 miles;
but by obfervation fhe is found to be in the latitude of 420
04’ north: Required her true courfe and diftance.
With the true diftance of latitude 154 miles, and the
dirett diftance by dead reckoning 197.4, you will find (by
Cafe 3. of Plain Sailing) the new departure to be 123.4,
and half the fum of this and the departure by dead rec¬
koning will be 123.7 the true departure ; then with this,
ai*d the true difference of latitude, you will find (by Cafe 4.
of Plain Sailing) the true courfe to be S 390 oc/ E,
and the diredt diftance 198.2 miles.
7. In keeping a fhip’s reckoning at fea, the common
method is to take from the log-board the feveral courfes
and diftances ftemmed by the fhip laft 24 hours, and to
transfer thefe together with the moft remarkable occur¬
rences into the log-book, into which alfo are inferted the
courfes corrected, and the difference of latitude and dif¬
ference of longitude made good upon each; then the whole
day’s work being finifhed in the log-book, if the latitude
by account agree with the latitude by obfervation, the fhip’s
place will be truly determined ; if not, then the reckon¬
ing muft be correfted according to the preceding rules, and
placed in the journal.
The form of the Log-book and Journal, together with
an example of 2 days work, you have here fubjoined.
Note, To exprefs the days of the week, they com¬
monly ufe the charadters by which the fun and planets
are expreffed, viz. Q denotes Sunday, £ Monday,
Tucfday, Q Wednefday, %. Thurfday, $ Friday, and
f) denotes Saturday,
5 F 1 The
NAVIGATION.
The FORM of the
L O G ~ B 0*0 K,
With the Manner of working Days Works at Sea.
The Log-Book.
K.iCourfes. Winds. Obfervations and
Accidents.])—
SWJ S
SW|W N E 3 E
Day of—
Fair weather,
four this afternoon
I took my depar-
from the Li
zard, in the lati¬
tude of 50
north, it bearing
N N E, diftance
five leagues.
The gale increa-
fing and being un
der all our fails.
After three this
morning, frequent
fnowers with thick
weather till near
The variation I
reckon to be one
ioint wefterly.
Courfes Correct Ditt,
The Log Book.
Diff. long.
SSW
SAW
s w
S WAS
SWiS
46.2
18.6
29.7
20.2
19.5
i±.
W
29.4
5-5
45-5
20.0
24.6
125.0
Hence the fhip, by account, has come to the latitude
of 47° 46’ north, and has differed her longitude 20 5’
wefterly; fo this day I have made my way good S 31?
31’ W, diftance 157.4 miles.
At noon the Lizard bore from me N 310 31’ E, dif¬
tance 157.4 miles; and having obferved the latitude, I
found it agreed with the latitude by account.
7 he
N A V I G A T I G
39
K.^K. Courl'es.
The Log Book.
Winds. Oblervations and
Accidents, cf—-
Day of 
SS-W W |This 24 hours/
Handed the main ftronggaje of wind
and fore courfes ,!and variable.
!ee-way 6 points
The wind increa-
fing, we tried
hull, lee-way 7 The variation
points. ijudge to be
[point weft.
swbw nwm
Set main-fail, lee;
way 4 4 points
SbE SWbW
Set fore fail, lee¬
way 3 points.
Lat. by obferva-
tion, 47° 06’ N,
Hence the ftn'p, by account, has come to the latitude
of 470 17' north, and has differed her longitude 49'
eafterly; confequemly fhe has got l° i6/ 'to the weft-
ward of the Lizard, and has made her way good the laft
24 hours 849° 08’E, diftance 44.3 miles.
At noon the Lizard bore from me north 170 7’ eaft,
diftance 170.6 miles.
This day ! had an obfervation, and found the latitude
by account to difagree with the latitude by obfervation
by 11 minutes, I being fo much farther to the fouthward
than by dead reckoning, which by the third of the pre¬
ceding rules I correift as in the Journal.
A Journal from the Lizard towards Jamaica in the fhip Neptune, J. M. commander.
Week
Days
Days
N A E
E b %
N N E
E N E
N E £ E
Weft
N W £ W
S W£ W
S 31, 31 W
S 34, ox E
48.2
Latitude
Correct
Whole Diff.
Long, made
47°» 46'
47°. °6'
2°, $' W
l°, 35'W
Bearing and Dift.
from the Lizard
At noon the
Lizard bore N.
310 31' E. Dift
57.4 miles.
At noon the
Lizard bore S,
170 5s' W. Dift,
83 miles.
Remarkable Obferva-
tions and Accidents
Fair weather at four
P. M. I tookmy de
parture from the Li¬
zard, it bearing N N E
diftance 5 leagues.
Strong gales of wind
and variable.
NAUMACHIA,
N A X ( 394 ) NEC
NAUMAGHTA, in antiquity, a fltew or fpe&acle among
the an ient Romans, reprefenting a fea-iight.
NAUMBURGj a city of Germany, the capital of the
county of Sax Naurnburg, in Upper Saxony, fituated
in E. long. 12°, N. lat. 510 15'.
NAUSEA, in medicine, a reaching, or propenfity and
endeavour to vomit, arifing from a loathing'of food,
excited by fome vifcous humpur'that irritates the Ho¬
rn ach.
NAUTICAL planisphere, a defcription of the ter-
reftrial globe upon a plane for the ufe of mariners,
more ufually called chart.
NAUTILUS, in zoology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of vermes teftacea. The fhell confifts of one fpi-
ral valve, divided into feveral apartments by partitions.
There are 17 fpecies, principally diltinguiihed by pe¬
culiarities in their fheiis.
NAVY, the fleet or (hipping of a prince or Hate.
The management of the Britiih navy-royal, under
the lord high admiral of Great Britain, is entrufted to
principal officers and commiflioners of the navy, who
hold their places by patent.' The principal officers of
the navy are four, viz. the treafurer, whofe bhfinefs
it is to receive money out of the exchequer, and to
pay all the charges of the navy, by warrftnt'from the
principal officers : comptroller, who attends andcomp-
trols all payment of wages, is to know the rates of
(lores, to examine and audite all accounts, <bc. r fur-
veyor, who is to ktiow the flates of all (lores, and fee
wants fupplied; to eflimate repairs, charge boatfwains,
&c. with what (lores they receive, and at the end of
each voyage to (late and audite accounts : clerk of the
afts, wkofe bulmefs it is to record all orders, contradls,
bills, warrants, fyc:
The commiflioners of the navy are five: the firfl:
executes that part of the Comptroller’s duty which re¬
lates to the comptrolling the viftuallers accounts ; the
fecond, another part of the faid comptroller’s duty,
relating to the account of the (lore-keepers of the yard;
the third has the diredlidn of the navy at the port of
Ponfmouth ; the fourth has the fame at Chatham ;
and the fifth, at Plymouth.
There are alfo other commiffioners at large, the
number more or lefs according to the exigencies of
public affairs ; and fince the increafe of the royal navy,
thefe have feyeral clerks under them, with falaries al¬
lowed by the king.
The victualling of the royal navy hath formerly been
* undertaken by contradt; but is now managed by com¬
miffioners, who hold their office on Tower-hill, Lon¬
don.
The navy-office is where the whole bufinefs concern¬
ing the navy is managed by the principal officers and
commiffioners.
The royal navy of Great Britain is now in a very
flouriffiing (late ; having been diligently kept up in late
reigns, as the natural (Irength of the kingdom. When
it is complete, it is divided into three fquadrons, dif-
tinguifhed by the different colours of the flags car¬
ried by the refpedtive admirals belonging to the fame.
NAXIA, or Nixia, one of the iflands of the Archipe¬
lago, about an hundred miles in circumference, fituated
in E. long. 26°. and N. lat. 36? 30’.
NAZARENES, in church hiftory, a name originally
given to all Chrilhans in general, on account that Je-
ius Chrift was of the city of Nazareth ; but after¬
wards reflrained to a fedt of heretics, whofe religion
confided of jr drange jumble of Judaifm andChriflian-
ity, obferving at the fame time the JVlofaical law and
the feveral rites of the Chridian religion.
NAZARITES, among the Jews, perfons wh,o either of
themfelves, or by their patents, v/ere dedicated to the
obfervation of nazaritefhip. They were of two forts:
nalnely, fuch as were bound to this obfervance for only
a (hort time, as a week or month ; or thofe who were
bound to it all their lives. All that we find peculiar
. in the latter’s way of life, is, that they were to-abdain
from wine and all intoxicating liquors, and never to
(have or cut off the hairs of their heads. The fird
fort of Nazarites. were moreover to avoid all defile¬
ment ; and if they chanced to contradt any pollution
Before the term was expired, they were obliged to be¬
gin afrefli. Women as wed as men might bind them¬
felves to this vow.
NEALED, among feamen, is ufed when the founding
is deep water clofe to the (bore ; as alfo when the
Ihore’ is fandy, clayey,, ouzy, or foul and rocky
ground.
NEAPED. When a ffiip wants water fo that (lie can¬
not get out of the harbour, off the ground, or out
of the dock, the feamen fay (he is neaped, or be-
neaped.
NEATH, a town of Glamorgajiffiire, in fouth Wales,
fituated on the river Neath, near the Bridol channel,
twenty-eight miles north wed of Landaff.
NEBULY, or Nebulee, in heraldry, is when a coat
is charged with feveral little figures, in form of words,
running within one another, or when the outline of a
bordure, ordinary, is indented or waved, as re-
prefentedin Plate CXXXIV. fig. 3.
NECESSARY, in a philofophical fenfe, .that which
cannot but be, or cannot be otherwife.
NECESSITY, whatever is done by a neceffary caufe,
or a power that is irrefiftible, in which fenfe it Hands
oppofed to Freedom. See Metaphysics.
NECK, in^anatomy, is that dender part fituated between
the head and trunk of the body. -See Anatomy.
NECKAR, a river of Germany, which rifes in the fouth
part of the circle of Swabia, and falls into the Rhine
atManheim.
NECROMANCY, a fpecies of divination, performed
by raifing the dead, and extorting anfwers from them.
See Divination.
NECTAR, among ancient poets, the drink of the fabu¬
lous deities of the heathens, in contradidinftion fronv
their folid food, which was called ambrofia.
NECTARINE. SeePERSicA.
NECTARIUM, among botanids. See Botany, p.
637. i
NECYD ALIS, in zoology, a genus of infedh belonging
to the order of coleoptera. The feelers arc fetaceous ;
theelytraareftiorter and narrower than the wings; and
the
NEE { m ) N E G
the tall is fitnple. There are eleven fpeeies, chiefly dif-
tinguiftied by the flze and figure of the elytra.
NEEDHAM, a market-town of Suffolk, fituated on the
river Orwel, eight miles north-weft of Ifpwich.
NEEDLE, a very common little inftrument or utenfil,
made of fteel, pointed at one end, and pierced at the
other, ufed in fewing embroidery, tapeflry, 6c.
Needles make a very confiderable article in com¬
merce, though there is fcarce any commodity cheaper,
the confumption of them being almoft incredible. The
fizes are from tv? I. the largefl, to nn 25 the fmalleft.
In the manufadure of needles, German and Hungarian
fteel are of mod repute.
In the making of them, the firfl: thing is to pafs the
fteel through a coal Are, and under a hammer, to bring
it out of its fquare figure into a cylindrical one. This
done, it is drawn through a large hole of a wire-draw¬
ing iron, and returned into the fire, and drawn through
a fecond hole of the iron, fmaller than the firft, and
thus fucceffively from hole to hole, till it has acquired
the degree of finenefs required for that fpecies of nee¬
dles, obferving every time it is to be drawn, that it be
greafed over with lard, to render it more manageable.
The fteel thus reduced to a fine wire, is cut in pieces
of the length of the needles intended. Thefe pieces are
flatted at one end on the anvil, in order to form the
head and eye; they are then put into the fire, to foften
them farther; and thence taken out and pierced at each
extreme of the flat part on the anvil, by force of a pun¬
cheon of well tempered fteel, and laid on a leaden block
to bring out, with another puncheon, the little piece of
flee! remaining in the eye. The corners are then filed
off the fquare of the heads, and a little cavity filed on
each fide of the flat of the head; this done, the point
is formed with a file, and the whole filed over ; they
are then laid to heat red hot on a long flat narrow iron,
crooked at one end, in a charcoal fire, and when taken
- out .thence are thrown into a bafon of bold water to
harden. On this operation a good deal depends ; too
much heat burns them, and too little leaves them foft;
the medium is learned by experience. When they are
thus hardened, they are laid in an iron fhove! on a fire
more or lefs brilk in proportion to the thicknefs of the
needles ; taking care to mofe them from time to time.
This ferves to temper them, and take off their brittle-
nefs ; great care here too fnuft be taken of the degree of
heat. They arethen ftraightened one after another with
the hammer, the coldnefs of the water ufed in harden-
in them having twifted the greateft part of them.
The next procefs isthepcdifhing them To do this,
they take twelve or fifteen thoufand needles, and range
them in little heaps again!! each other on a piece of
* new buckram fprinkled with emery-duft. The needles
thus difpofed, emery duft is thrown over them, which
is again fprinkled with oil of olives ; at laft the whole
is made up into a roll, well bound at both ends. This
roll is then laid on a polifhing table, and over it a
thick plank loaden with ftones, which two men work
backwards and forwards a day and a half or two
'days, fucceflivfcly, by which means the roll thus cofi-
» tinuallyagitated by the weight aad motion of the clank
Vol. III. N° 86. 2
over it, the needles withinfide being rubbed agalnfl
each other with oil and emery are infenfibly pollihed.
After polifhing, they are taken out, and the filth wafhed
off them with hot water and foap : they are then wiped
in hot bran, a little moiftened, placed with the needles
in around box, fufpended in the air by a cord, which
is kept ftirring.till the bran and needles be dry. The
needles thus wiped in two or three different brans, are
taken out and put in wooden veiFels, to have the good
feparated from thofe whofe points or eyes have been
broke either in polifhing or wiping ; the points are then
all turned the fame way, and fmoothed with anemery-
ftone turned with a wheel. This operation finifhes
them, and there remains nothing but to, make them
into packets of two hundred and fifty each.
Needle, in navigation, a needle touched
with a loadftone, aad fuftained on a pivot or centre ;
on which playing at liberty, it dire<fts itfeif to certain
points in or under the horizon. See Navigation.
Needlefish. See Syngnathus .
NEEDLES, twocapes, or head lands, at the weft end
of the' ifle of Wight, which is very difficult to pais on
account of the fands and rocks.
NEFASTI dies, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to fuch days wherein it was not allowed to ad-
minifter juftice, ufually marked in the kalendar by’N.
or N. P. i. c. nefaftus prima, when o.Jy nefaftus
for the firft part of it.
NEGAPATAN, a port-town of the hither India, fitu-
ated on the coaft of Coromandel: E. long. 79?, N.
lat. 11° iy’.
NEGATION, in logic, an aft of the mind affirming
one thing to be different from another; as, that the
foul is not matter.
NEGATIVE, in general, fomething that implies a ne¬
gation : thus we fay, negative quantities, negative
figns, negative powers, 6c. See Metaphysics and
Logic.
NEGOMBO, a port-town on the weft coaft of the ifle
of Ceylon, in the Indian ocean, fubjeftto the Butch :
E. long. 78°, N. lat. 70 25’.
NEGRAIS, a port-town ofPegu, in the further India,
fituated on the weft fide of the bay of Bengal : E. Ion.
920 30’, N. lat. xyo.
NEGRIL point, the moft vvefterly promontory of the
ifland of Jamaica.
NEGROES, properly the inhabitants of Nigritia in A-
frica, alfo called blacks and moors; but this name is
now given to all the blacks.
The origin of the negroes, and the caufe of this
remarkable difference from the reft of the human fpe¬
cies, has much perplexed the naturalifts. Mr. Boyle
has obferved, that it cannot be produced by the heat
of the climate : for though the heat of the fun may
darken the colour of the fkin, yet experience does not
fhew that it is fufficient to produce a new blacknefs,
like that of the negroes.
In Africa itfeif, many nations of ^Ethiopia are not
black, nor were there any blacks originally in the
Weft Indies. In many parts of Alia, under the fame
parallel with the African region, inhabited by black;,
5 G ' the
N E H ( 296 ) N E P
live people are but tawny. He adds, that there are
negroes in Africa, beyond the fouthern tropic; and that
a river fometimes parts nations, one of which is black
and, the other only tawny. Dr Barriere alledges that
the gall of negroes is black, and being mixed with
their blood is depofited between their ikin and fcarf-
Ikin. However, Dr Mitchel of Virginia, in the philo-
fophical tra-nfafhons, n0 476, has endeavoured by ma¬
ny learned arguments to prove, that the influence of
the fun in hot countries, and the manner of life of
their inhabitants, are the remote caufes of the colour
of negroes, Indians, &c. and indeed it would be a
ftrong confirmation of his dodtrine, if we would fee
any people, originally white, become black and woolly
by tranfplantation, or vice vsrfa.
Negroes are brought from Guinea, and other coafts
of Africa, and fent into the colonies in America, to
cultivate tobacco, fugar, indigo, 6"c. and inMexicoand
Peru, to dig in the mines ; and this commerce, which is
fcarce defenfible on the foot either of religion or huma¬
nity, is now carried on by all the nations that have
fettlemeots in the Weft Indies. Thofe negroes make
the beft flaves who are brought frorri Angola, Sene¬
gal, Cape Verd, the river Gambia, the kingdoms of
Joloffes, Daniel, Galland, <bc.
There are various ways of procuring them: fome,
to avoid famine, fell themfelves, their wives and chil¬
dren, to their princes, or other great men ; others are
made prifoners of war ; and great numbers are feized
in excurfions made for that very purpofe by the petty
princes upon one another’s territories, in which it is
ufual to fweep away all without diftindtiqn of age or
fex.
Negroes-island, one of the Philippine iflands. in the
Indian ocean, fubjedt to Spain ; fo called, becaufe moft
of the inhabitants are blacks: E. long. 120°, N. lat.
to0.
NEGROLAND, orNiGRiriA, a country of Africa,
which lies between 18° weft and 15° eaft longitude,
and between io° and 20° of north latitude, the great
river Niger running through it. It is bounded by
Zaara, or the defart, 00 the north, by unknown
countries on the eaft, by Guinea on the fouth, and
by the Atlantic ocean on the weft.
NEGROPONT, or Egripos, the capital of the ifland
of Negropont, anciently called Euboea, fituated in
the Archipelago, on the weft fide of the ifland ; where
the ftrait is fo narrow, that it is joined to the conti¬
nent by a bridge : E. Ion. 240 30’, N. lat. 38° 30’.
NEHEMIAH, a canonical book of the Old Teftament
fo called from the name of its author. Nehemiah
was born in Babylon, during the captivity, and fuc-
ceeded Ezra in the government of Judah and Jerufa-
lem. He was a Jew, and was promoted to the office
of .cup-bearer to Artaxerxes Longimanus king of
Perfia ; when the opportunities he had of being daily
in the king’s prefence, together with the favour of
Efther the queen, procured him the favour of being
authorized to repair and fortify the city of Jerufalem,
in the fame manner as it was before its deftruftion by
the Babylonians. On his going to Jerufalem, he fi-
nlffied the rebuilding of the walls in fifty-two days,
and dedicated the gates of the city with great folemni-
ty. He then reformed fome abufes which had crept
in among his countrymen, particularly the extortion
of the ulurers, by which the poor were fo opprefled as
to be forced to fell their lands and children for fup-
port : after which he returned to Perfia, and came
back again with a new commiffion, by virtue of which
he regulated every thing relating both to the ftate and
religion of the Jews. The hiftory of thefe tranf-
aftions is the fubjedl of this book.
NELLENBURG, a city of Swabia, in Germany, ca¬
pital of a county of the fame name, fituated fifteen miles
north of Conftance.
NEMaEA, a town in the Morea, thirty miles fouth of
Co-mth, where the ancient Nemaean games were cele¬
brated.
NEMaEAN games, were fo called from Nemasa, a vil¬
lage between the cities of Cleonae and Philus, where
they were celebrated every third year. The exercifes
were chariot races, and all the parts of the pentath-
lum. Thefe games were inftituted in memory of O-
pheltes, or Archemorus, the fon of Euphetes and
Creufa, and nurled by Hypfipyle ; who leaving him
in a meadow, while ffie went to (hew the befiegers o.f
Thebes a fountain, at her return found him dead, and
a ferpent twined about his neck ; whence the foun¬
tain, before called Langi;;, was named Archemorus ;
and the captains, to comfort Hypftpyle, inftituted thefe
games. Others afcribe their inftitutiou to Hercules,
after his vidfory over the Nem^an lion.
NEMOURS, a city in the ifle of France, forty-two
miles fouth of Paris: E. long 2° 4.5/, N.lat. 48 0 17'.
NEOMENIA, orNouMENiA, a feftival of the ancient
Greeks, at the beginning of every lunar month, which
was, as the name imports, obferved upon the day of
the new moon, in honour of all the gods, but efpe-
cially Apollo, who was called Neomenios; becaufe
the fun is the fountain of light, and whatever diftinc-
tion of times and feafons maybe taken from other pla¬
nets, yet they are all owing to him as the original of
thofe borrowed rays by which they fnine.
NEOPHYTES, new plants, a name given by the an¬
cient Chriftians to thofe heathens who had newly em¬
braced the faith ; fucfa perfons being confidered as re¬
generated, or born anew by baptifm. The term neo¬
phytes has been alfo ufed for new priefts, or thofe
juft admitted into orders, and fometimes for the no¬
vices in monafteries. It is ftill applied to the converts
made by the miffionaries among the infidels.
NEOTTIA, in botany. SccOphrys.
Nepa, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging to the
order of hemiptera. The roftrum is infle&ed; the
antennas are fhorter than the thorax ; and the hind-feet
are hairy, and fitted for fwimming. There are feven
fpecies.
NEPENTHES, in botany, a plant of the gynandria
tetrandria clafs. The calix ccnfifts of four fegments ;
it has no corolla ; and the capfule has four cells.
’There is but one fpecies, a native of Ceylon.
NEPER’s Rods, or bones, an inftrument invented
by
'■ '*»• h/ hm:. N ';v ■
Plate CXXXIV
V E V ( 397 ) N E P
1)7 J. Neper, baron of Merchifton, in Scotland, where¬
by the multiplication and divifipn of large numbers are
much facilitated.
u4s to the conftr u<Tt ion a/" Neper's rods: fuppofe the
common table of multiplication to be made upon a
plate of .metal, ivory, or pafie-board, and then con¬
ceive the feveral columns ((landing downwards from
the digits on the head) to be cut afunder ; and thefe
are what we call Neper's rods for multiplication. But
then there muft be a good number of each ; for as
many times as any figure is in the multiplicand, fo
many rods of that fpecies (/. e. with that figure on the
top of it).muft we have; though fix rods of each fpe¬
cies will be fufficient for any example in common af¬
fairs: there muft alfo be as many rods of o’s.
But before we explain the way of ufing thefe rods,
there is another thing to be known, viz, that the fi¬
gures on every rod are written in an order different
from that in the table. Thus, the little fquare fpace
or divifion in which the feveral produffs of every Co¬
lumn are written, is divided into two parts by a line
aorofs from the upper angle on the right to the i'ower
on the left ; and if the produff is a digit, it is fet in
the lower divifion ; if it has two places, the firft is
fet in the lower, and the fecond in the upper divifion ;
but the fpaces on the top are not divided; alfo tb/ere
is a rod o-f digits, not divided, which is called the in¬
dex rod, and of this we need but one fingle rod. See
the figure of ail the different rods, and the index, fe-
parate from one another, in Plate CXXXIV. fig 1.
Multiplication by NK?^£^s., s rods. Firft lay down the in-^
dex rod; then on the right of it fet a rod whofe top
is the figure in the higheft place of the multiplicand ;
next to this again,;fet the rod whofe top is the next
figure of the multiplicand ; and fo on in order, to the
firft figure. Then is your multiplicand tabulated for
all the nine digits; for in the fame line of fquares
/landing agafnft every figure of' the index rod, you
have the produff of that figure, and therefore you
have no more to do but to transfer the produffs and
fum them. But in taking out thefe produffs from the
rods, the order in which the figures^ftand obliges you
to a very eafy and fmali addition; thus, begin to take
out the figure in the lower part, or unit’s place, of
the fquare of the firft rod on the right; add the fi¬
gure in the upper part of this rod to that in the lower
part of the next, and fo on, which may be done as
fall as you can look on thertn To make this praffice
as clear as poflible, take the following ex-ample.
Example: To multiply 4768 by 185, Having fet
the rods together for the number 4768 {.ibid n0 2 :)
againft 5 in the index, I find this number, by adding
ax:cording to the rule, - - 23840
Againft 8, this number - - - 38144
Againft 3, this number - - . - 14304
Total produff , 1835680
To make the ufe of the rods yet more regular and
eafy, they are kept in a flat fquare box, whofe breadth
is that of ten rods, and the length that of one rod, as
thick as to hold fix (or as many as you pleafe) the
capacity of the box being divided into ten cells for
the different fpecies of rods. When the rods are put
up in the box (each fpecies in its own cell diftinguifiied
by the firft figure of the rod fet .before it on the face
of the bok near the top) as much of every »od (lands
without the box as fhews1 the firft figure of that rod ;
alfo upon one of the flat fides without. and near the
edge, upon the left hand, the index rod is fixed ; and
along the foot there is a fnvall ledge, fo that the rods
when applied are laid upon this fide, and fupported by
the ledge, which makes the praffice very eafy ; hue
in cafe the multiplicand fhould have more than nine-
places, that upper face of the box may be made broad¬
er. Some make the rods with four different faces,
and figures on each for different purpofes.
Divifion ^Neper’s rods. Firft tabulate your divifor ;
then you have it multiplied by all the digits, out of
which you may chufe fuch convenient divifbrs as will
be next lefs to the figures in the dividend, and write
the index anfweringin the quotient, and fo continually
till the work is done. Thus 21797158, divided by
6123, gives in the quotient 356.
Having tabulated the divifor 6123, you fee that
6123 cannot be had in 2179; therefore take five pla¬
ces, and on the rods find a number that is equal or
next lefs to 21797, which is 18369; that is, 3 times
-the divifor; wherefore fet 3 in the quotient, and fub.-
ftraff 18369 from the figures above, and there will
remain 3428 ; to which add 8, the next figure of the
dividend, and feek again on the rods for it, or the
next lefs1, which you will find to be five timesj there¬
fore fet 5. in the quotient, and fubtraff 30615 from
34288, and there will remain 3673 ; to which add 8,
the .laft figure in the dividend,;and finding it to be juft ;
6 times the divifor, fet fix in the quotient.
6123)2179788(356
I8369•■
34288
30615
36738-
36738
00000
MEPETA, in-botany, a genus of the didynamia gyriino-
fpermiaclafs. The intermediatelacinium of theinferior '
lip is crenated ; the margin of the faux is refleffed; and.
the ftamina are near each other. There are 14 fpecies,
only one of which, viz, the cataria, nap, or cat-mint,
is a native of Britain.
NEPHEW, a term relative to uncle and aunt, fignifying
a brother or lifter’s fon ; who, according to the civil
law, is in the third degree of confanguity; but according
to the canon, in the fecond.
NEPHRITIC, fomething that relates to the kidneys.
Nephritic wood, a wood of a very denfe and compaff
texture, and of afine grain, brought usfromNewSpain,
in fmall blocks, in its natural ftate, and covered with
its bark.
This wood is a very good diuretic, and is faid to be
of:
NET ( 398 ) NEW
of great ufe with the Indians in all difeafes of the kid¬
neys and bladder, and in fuppreflions of urine, from
whatever caufe. It is alfo recommended in fevers and
obftru fcions of thevifcera. The way of taking it, among
the Indians, is only an infufion in cold water.
NKpaaiTics, in pharmacy, medicines proper for difeafes
of the kidney's, efpecially the ftone. ,
Such particularly are the roots of althaea, dog’s grafs,
afparagus, fago, pellitorv of the wall, mallows, pitn-
pinella, red chick peafep peaqh kernels, turpentine,
the nephritic ftdne, the nephritic wood, <bc. and diu¬
retics.
NEPHRITIS, in medicine, an inflammation of the kid¬
neys. See Med 1 cine.
'NEREIDS, in the pagan theology, fea-nymphs, daughters
of Nereus and Doris.
Thenereids were efteemed very handfome, infomuch
that Calliope, the wife of Cepheus king of Ethiopia,
having triumphed over all the beauties of the age, and
daring to vie with the nereids, they were fo enraged that
they fent a prodigious fea-monfter into the country;
and to appeafe them, fhe was commanded by the oracle
to expofe her daughter Andromeda, bound to a rock,
to be devoured by the monfter.
In ancient monuments the nereids are reprefented
riding upon fea horfes, fometimes with an entire hu¬
man form, and at other times with the tail of a fifh.
'NEREIS, in zoology, a genus beloging to the order of
vermes mollufca. The body is oblong, linear, and fit¬
ted for creeping; it is furnifhed with lateral pincilled
tentacula. There are eleven fpecies.
NERICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by Weftma-
nia on the north, by Sunderland on the eaft, and by
Gothland on the foutb and weft.
NERIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The feeds are furnifhed with plumes; and
the tube of the corolla terminates in a lacerated coro¬
na. There are four fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
NERVES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 247.
NEST. See Nidus.
NESTORIANS, a Chriftian fedt, the followers of Ne-
ftorius, bifhop and patriarch of Conftantinople ; who,
about the year 529, taught that there were two perfons
in Jefus Chrift, the divine and the human, which are
united, not hypoftatically orfubftantially, butinamyfti-
cal manner ; whence he concluded, that Mary was the
mother of Chpift and not the mother of God. For this
opinion, Neftorius was condemned and depofed by the
council of Ephefus ; and the decree of this council was
confirmed by the emperor Theodofius, who banifhed the
bifhop to a monaftery.
NETHERLANDS, anciently called Belgia, but fince
denominated Low-Countries or Netherlands from
their low fituatios, are fituated between 20 and 70 of
caft longitude, and between 50° and 530 go' of north
latitude; and are bounded by the German fea on the
north, Germany on the eaft, by Lorrain and France
•on the fouth, and by another part of France and the
firitiih feas on the weft; extending near three hundred
miles in length from north to fouth, and two hundred
miles in breadth from eaft to weft. They confift of
fevente^n provinces; ten of which are called the Au-
ftrian and French Netherlands, and the other feven
the United Provinces.
NETTINGS, in a (hip, a fort of grates made of fmall
ropes feized together with rope-yarn or twine, and
fixed on the quarters and in the tops; they are fome¬
times ftretched upon the ledges from the wafte trees to*
the roof trees, from the top of the forecaftle to the
poop; and fometimes are laid in the wafte of a fhip, to
ferveinfteadof gratings.
NETTLE, in botany. SeeURTiCA.
Dead Nettle. See Lamium.
Nettle tree. See Celtis.
NETTUNO, a pert town of Italy, in the Campagna
di Roma ; fituated on the Mediterranean, thirty miles
fou*J>eaft of R me.
NEVERS, a city of France, capital of the Nivernois:
E. if* g.30 15', N lat 46° yo'.
NEUFCHATEL, the capita! of the counties of Neuf-
chatel and Vatlengin, in Switzerland which together
form one free and independant ftate, fubjed to the king
of Pruffia: E. long. 6° 35', N. lat, 470 10'.
Neufchatel is alfo a town of Normandy in France,
tv'enty-three miles north-eaft of Rouen.
NEVIN, or Newin, a market town of North-Wales
eighteen miles fouth weft of Caernarvon,
NEVIS, one of the Caribbee-iflands, divided from the
eaft end of St. Chriftophers by a narrow channel.
NEURAD A, in botany, a genus of thedecandria deca-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and
the corolla of five leaves; the capfule has ten cells,
and ten fharp-pointed feeds. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Egypt.
NEURITICS, in pharmacy, medicines good in diforders
of the nerves.
NEUROGRAPHY, fignifies a defeription of the nerves.
NEUROPTERAv See Natural History, p. 364,
col. 1.
NEUSTAT, a city of Germany, thirty miles fouth of
Vienna.
Neustat is alfb a town of Lower Saxony, fixteen miles
north-weft of the city of Hanover.
NEUTER, or Neuter gender, in grammar, one
of the three genders of nouns, fo called as being
neither mafeuline nor feminine. See Grammar.
NEUTRAL salts, among cbemifts, a fort of falls
neither acid nor alkaline, but partaking of the nature
of both. SccChemistry.
NEUTRALITY, the ftate of a perfon or thing that is
neuter, or that takes part with neither fide.
NEWARK, a borough town of Nottinghamfhire, fifteen
miles north-eaft of Nottingham. In fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
NEWBOROUGH, a market town of Anglefey, fifteen
miles north-weft of Beaumaris.
NEWBURG, a city of Bavaria, in Germany, twenty
eight miles north-eaft of Angfburg.
Newburg is alfo the name of two other towns of Ger¬
many j
N„ E W (
many ; one in Swabia, twenty five miles weft of Stut-
gart ; and the other hkewife in Swabia, twelve miles
north of Bafil.
NEWBURY, a market town ofEerklhire, fifteen miles
weft of Reading.
NEWCASTLE, the county-town of Northumberland,
fituated upon the river Tine: W. long. io', N.'
lat. 550. It fends two members to parliament.
Newcastle, a borough-town of Staffordftiire, ten miles
north of Stafford. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
Newcastle, a market town of Caermarthenfhire, in
South Wales, fifteen miles north of Caermarthen.
NEWEL, in architefture, is the upright poft which a
pair of winding ftairs turn about; this is properly a
cylinder of ftone.which bears on the ground, and is
formed by the end of the fteps of the winding ftairs.
NEWFIDLERS SEA, a lake thirty five miles long, on
the north-weft part of Upper Hungary.
NEW FOREST, a part of Hamplhire, oppofite to the
Ifts of Wight, appropriated by a<ft of parliament for
the growth of oaks to build the royal navy. See
Forest.
NEWFOUNDLAND, a triangular ifland, three hundred
and fifty miles in length from north to fomh, and two
hundred miles in breadth at the bafe from eaftto weft;
fituated in North America, between 550 and 6i° of
weft longitude, and between 47° and 520 of north la¬
titude; bounded by the narrow ftraights of Bellifle on
the north, by the Atlantic ocean on the eaft and fouth,
and by the bay of St. Lawrence on the weft. It is
fubjedt to England ; but the fifhing banks on this coaft
are frequented by moft European nations.
NEWHAUSEL, a city of Upper Hungary, fituated
on the river Neytra: E. long. 180 12', N. lat. 48°
2 s'.
NEWMARK, a city of Tranfilvania, fubjedt to the
houfe of Auftria: E. long. 23° 25', N. lat. 47° 35'.
New mark is alfo a town of Germany in the palatinate
of Bavaria, thirty miles north-weft of Ratifbon.
NEWMARKET, a market town, fituated both in
Cambridgeftureand Suffolk, twelve miles eaft of Cam¬
bridge.
NEWNHAM, a market town, ten miles fouth-vveft of
Glocefter.
NEWPORT, a port town of Flanders, nine miles fouth-
weft of Oftend.
Newport is alfo a borough town of the Ifle of Wight,
which fends two members to parliament.
Newport is alfo a borough of Cornwal, ten miles
weft of Launcefton, which fends two members to par¬
liament.
Newport is alfo the name of feveral market towns ; one
fifteen miles eaft of Shrewlbury, another eighteen miles
fomh-weft of Monmouth, and a third fixteen miles
north- eaft of St Davids.
Newport-pagnel, a market-town, fixteen miles north
of Aillbury.
NEWSTAT, the name of feveral towns; one eight
miles north of Landau; another fifteen miles fouth-
weft of Ratilbon ; a third in Silefia, fifteen miles fouth
Vol.III Ns 86.
399 ) NIC
of Breflaw; a fourth in Hungary, fixty.five miles eaft
of Tockay ; and a fifth in Moravia, ten miles noith of
Olmutz.
NEYfT, or Eft, in zoology. See Lacerta.
NEWTON, a borough town, thirty five-miles fouth of
Lancafter. (
It ftnds two members to parliament.
Newton is alfo a borough town in the Ifle of Wight,
twelve miles fouth of Southampton : it -fends two
members to parliament.
NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doftrine of the
utliverfe, and particularly of the heavenly bodies, their
laws, affedHons, &C. as delivered by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton. See Astronomy, Mechanics, Optics,
NEYLAND, a market-town of Suffolk, fourteen miles
fouth-weft of Ipfwich.
NIAGARA, a prodigious cataradt in Canada, in North
America, between the lakes Erie and Ontario, where
the water falls from high rocks 156 feet perpendicular.
The mift which this fall occafions may be feen at fifteen
miles diftance riling as high as the clouds, and forming
a beautiful rainbow.
NIBANO, a town of Italy, in the dutchy of Parma,
thirty five miles weft of Parma.
NICARAGUA, a province of Mexico, bounded by the
province of Honduras on the north, by the North-
fea on the eaft ; by the province of Coftarica on the
fouth-eaft, and by the South fea on the fouth-weft;
being 400 miles long, and 120 broad. Nicaragua lake
runs through the middle of the province.
NICARIA, one of the iflands of the Archipelago, in
Afiatic Turky : E. long. 26° 5’, N. lat. 370.
NICASTRO, a town of Naples, in the territory of Ca¬
labria ; E. long. 160 40’, N. lat. 390 ij’.
NICE, the capital of the county of the fame name, fitu¬
ated on the mediterranean, at the mouth of the river
Var : E. long. 70 iy’, N. lat. 430 4c’.
Nice is alfo a town of Afiatie Turky, fifty miles fouth-
eaft of Conftantinople.
NICHE, in architedhire, a hollow funk into a wall, for
the commodious and agreeable placing a ftatue.
NICOBAR islands, a clufter of iftands fituated in the
Indian ocean, at the entrance of the gulph/if Bengal,
between 70 and io° N. lat.
NICOLAITANS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics
who affumed this name from Nicolas of Antioch; who,
being a Gentile by birth, firft embraced Judaifm, and
then Chriftianity; when his zeal and devotion recom¬
mended him to the church of Jerufalem, by whom he
was chofen one of the firft deacons. Many of the pri¬
mitive writers believe that Nicolas was rather the oc-
cafion than the author of the infamous praftices of thofe
who affumed his name, who were exprefsly condemned
by the'fpirit of God himfelf, Rev. ii. 6. And in¬
deed their opinions and adtions were highly extravagant
and criminal. They allowed a community of wives ;
made no difference between ordinary meats and thofe
offered to idols. According to Eufebius, they fubfifted
but a fhort time ; but Tertullian fays,* that they only
changed their name, and that their herefies palled into
the fedt of the Cainians,
5 H 2 St,
N I C ( 4'
St. NICOLAS, a town of Lorrain, ten miles fouth-eaft
of Nancy, at the mouth of the river Dwina.
'St. Nicolas is alfo a port-town of Ruffia fituated on the
v White fea, miles below Archangel.
iSh. Nicolas’s day, a feftival of the Romilh church,
obferyed on the 6th of December.
NICOMEDIA, a city of Afiatic Turky, thirty miles
ibuth eait of Conftantinople.
NICOPOLIS, a city of European Turky, fituated on
the Danube, loo miles north weft ©f Adrianople : E.
long. 250, N. kit. 43°.
NICOPPiNG, a city of Sweden, in the province of
Sunderland, fifty miles fouth of Stockholm.
Nicopping is aifothe capitafof the: iftand Hulfter, fub-
je<ft to Denmark, and forty eight miles fouth-weft of
Copenhagen.
NICOSI A, the capital of the ifland of Cyprus: E. long.
35°, N. lit. 35°. . .
NICOTERA, a port town of the kingdom of Naples,
thirty miles north eaft of Reggio.
NIGOTIANA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia. clafs. The corolla is funnel ihaped, with
a plaited limbus ; the ftamina are inclined ; and the
capfule has two valves and two cells. There are
y fpecies, all natives of warm climates. The nicoti-
ana tabacum, or tobacco, was firft brought into
Europe about the year 1560, from the ifland Tobago
in America. It is cultivated in the following manner.
After flowing the tobacco feeds, the ground is wa^
tered every day, and in hot weather covered to pre¬
vent its being fcorched By the fun; and when the plants
are grown to a convenient pitch, they are tranfplanted
into a foil well prepared for their reception : care is
alio taken to keep this ground clear of weeds, and to
pull off the loweft leaves of the plant, that ten or fifteen
of the fineft leaves may haveall the nourilhment. When
thefe leaves are ripe, which is known by their breaking
when bent, the ftajks are cut, and left to dry two or
three hours in the fun ; after which they are tied to¬
gether two and two, and hung on ropes under a fhade
to bs dried in the air. And when.the leaves are fuf-
ficiently dried, they are pulled from off the ftalks, and
made up in little bundles ; which being fteeped in fea-
water, or, for want thereof, in common water, are
twifted in manner of ropes, and the twi rs formed into
rolls, cy winding them with a kind of mill around a
■flick : in which condition it is imported into Europe,
where it is cut by the tobacconifts for fmoaking, form¬
ed into fnuff, and the like. See Snuff.
Belides the tobacco of the Weft-Indies, there are
confiderable quantities cultivated in the Levant, the
coafts of Greece and the Archipelago,' the ifland of
Malta and Italy.
The marks of good twift-tobacco, are a fine fhining
cut, an agreeable fmell, and that it have been well kept.
Tobacco is either taken by way of fnuff, as a fternuta-
tory ; dr as a mafticatory, by chewing it in the mouth;
or by fmoking it in a pipe. It is fometirnes alfo taken
in little longifh pellets put up the nofe, where it is found
t0 produce very good effe&s, to attraft a deal of water
0I pituita, unload the head, refolve catarrhs, and make
>6 ) N I E
a free refpiration ; for the fubtile parts of the tobacco
in infpiration, are carried into the trachea "and lungs,
where they loofen the peccant humours adhering there¬
to, and promote expedoration. Some have left this
tobacco in their nofes all night ; but this is found to
o.cafion vomiting the next morning. Another thing
charged on this way of application, is, that it weakens
the fight. When taken in great quantities in the way
of fnuff, it is found to prejudice the fmelling, greatly
diminifhes the appetite, and in time gives rife to a
phthifis. That taken in the way of fmoke, dries and
damages the brain. Borrhi, in alerter to Bartholine,
mentions a perfon who through excefs of fmoking had
dried his brain to that degree, that after his death there
was nothing found in his ikull but a little black lump,
confilling of mere membranes.
Some people ufe the infufion of tobacco as an eme¬
tic ; but it is. a very dangerous and unjuftifiable prac-
ti e, and often produces violent vomiting, ficknels, and
ftupidity.
Bates and Fuller give fome receipts, in which
tobacco is an ingredient, with mighty encomiums in
afthmatic cafes. A ftrong deco&ion of tobacco, with
proper carminatives and cathartics, given clyfter-wife,
fometimes proves of good effed in what is ufually called
the ftone-cholic, and alfo in the iliac paflion. A drop
or two of the chymical oil of tobacco, being put-on
the tongue of a 04.1, produces violent convulfions, and
death itfelf in the fpace of a minute ; yet the fame oil
ufed in lint, and applied to the teeth, has been of
fervice in the too:h-ach : though it muft be to thofe
that have been ufed to the taking of tobacco; otherwife,
great (Tcknefs, Teachings, vomitings, happen; and
even in no cafe is the internal ule of it warranted by
ordinary pradice.
A ftrong decodion of the ftalks, with (harp-pointed
dock and alum, is faid to be of good fcrvice, ufed ex¬
ternally, in cutaneous ditlempers, efpecially the itch •
fome boil them for that purpole in urine. The fame
is faid to .be infallible in curing the mange tn dogs.
Beat into a mafh with vinegar, or brandy it has
been found fefviceable for removing hard tumours of the
hypochondria
NiCOYA, or St Lucar, a port-town of Mexico, fi¬
tuated on a bay- of the South Sea, in 88° W. long,
and io° vs' N. lat.
NICTITATING membrane, athin membrane, chiefly
found in the bird and fifh kind, which covers the eyes
of thefe animals, flickering them from the doft or toa
much light; yet is fo thin and pellucid, that they can
fee prerty well through it.
NIDUS, among naturalifts. fignifies a neft, or proper
repofitory for the eggs of birds, infeds, wherein
the young of thefe animals are hatched and*n.urfed.
NIECE, a brother or fifter’s daughter, which in the
civil law is reckoned the third degree of confanguinity.
NIEMEN, o Berezina, a river ef Poland, which
rrfes in Lithuania, and falls into a bay of the Baltic
fea, near Memel.
NIEPER, or Boat sthenes, a river which rifes in the
middle of Ruffia; and running fouth through Poland,
enters
N I L ( ^
enters the Ruffian Ukrain, feparates Little T.rtary from
Btidziae Tartary, and- falls into the Black Sea near
Qczakovv.
NIESTAT, a town of Lowpr Saxony, in the duchy of
Mecklenburg: E. Jong, it0 ah', N. Jat. 53° 40’.
Niestat is alfo a town of Upper Saxony, in the mir-
quifate of Brandenburg, 25 miles north-call of Berlin.
NIESTER, a river which rifts in Poland, and running
fouth eaft divides Podolia in Poland from Moldavia
in Turky ; and afterwards, dividing Beffarabia from
Badziac Tartary, falls into the Black Sea near Bel¬
gorod.
NIGELLA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria penta-
gynia clafs. The calix is wanting ; the corolla confilts
of five petals ; there are five trifid nedtaria within the
corolla; and there are five connedled capfules. The
fpecies. are five, none of them natives of Britain.
NIGER, a great river of Africa, which runs from eaft
to weft through the middle of Negroland, and dif-
charges itfelf into the Atlantic ocean by three channels,
called Rio Grande, Gambia, and the river Senega.
It is 300 miles between the northern and fouthern
channels ; and'all the country between them is annual¬
ly overflowed, as Egypt is by the. Nile.
NIGHT, that part of the natural day during which the
fun is underneath the horizon ; or that fpace wherein
it is dulky.
Night was originally divided by the Hebrews, and
other eaftern nations, into three parts; or watchings.
The Romans, and afterwards the jews from them,
divide the night into-four parts., or watches, the firft
'of which began at funfet .and lafted till nine at night,
according to our way of reckoning ; the fecond lafted
till midnight ; the third till three in the morning ; and
the fourth ended at iunrife. The ancient Gauls and
Germans divided their time, not by days, but by nights ;
and the people o! Iceland, and the Arabs, do the fame
at this day. The like is alfo obferved of our Saxon
anceftors.
Night-mare, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 157.
Night-walkers. See Noctambul 1,
NIGHTINGALE, in ornithology. See MqtaCilla.
NIGRITIA. SeeNEGROLAND.
NILE, a great river in Egypt, having its fource in A-
byflinia, or the UpperlEthiopia, in 120 north lat. It
generally runs from fouth to north through Abyflinia
into Egypt, and then continues its courfe north in one
dream till it comes below Cairo to the Delta, where
it divides ; one branch difeharging itfelf into the Me¬
diterranean at Damieta, and another a hundred mdes
to the weftward of it at Rdfttta. There are great
rejoicings every year when the Nile rifes to a certain
height, their future harveft depending upon it. The
juft height of the inundation, according to Pliny, is
iixteen cubits; when it arifejs but to twelve or thir¬
teen, a famine is dreaded ; and when it exceeds fix-
teen, there is alfo danger apprehended. The river
begins ufually to rife in May or June, and is conveyed
by refervoirs, cifterns, and Canals, to'the fields and
gardens as they want it.
As to the Delta, it is all overflowed.
I ) NIT
NIMBUS, in antiquity, a circle oLLrvtd on certain
medals, or round the head of fome emperors, aofwer-
ing to the circles of light, drawn around the images
of faints.
NIMEGUEN, a city of the united Netherlands, fitua-
ted on the river Waal, in the province of Gueider-
Isnd, 52 miles fouth eaft of Amfterdam.
NIMETULAHITES, a kind of Turkifh 'monks, fo
called from their founder Nimetulahi, famous for his
dodtrines and the aufterity of his life.
NIMPO, a city and port town of China, in the province
of Chekiam : E. long. 1220, N. lat. 3©0.
NINEVEH, an ancient city of Aflyria, was fituated on
the eaftern banks of the river Tygris, oppofite to the
place where Moufful now Hands.
NINOVE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Flanders, fituated on the river Dender,
thirteen miles weft of Bruffels.
NIO, a final] Turkilh ifland in the Archipelago, fituated
north-weft of Santorini, remarkable for little but the
tomb of Homer, who is faid to lie buried here.
NIORT, a town of France, in the province of Oriea-
nois and territory of Poidtou, fituated on the river
Seure, twenty eight miles north-eaft of Rochelle.
NIPHON, the largeft of the Japan iflabds, fituated in
the Indian ocean about 130 miles eaft of China ; be¬
ing 600 miles long, and 150 broad, and containing 55
provinces.
NIPPERS, in the menage, are four teeth in the fore¬
part of a horfe’s mouth, two in the upper and. two in
the lower jaw. A horle puts them forth between the
fecond and third year.
NIPPLES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 277.
Nipplewort, in botany. See Lapsana.
NISI prius, in law, a judicial writ which lies in cafea
where the jury being imp-ami el-led and returned before
the juftices of the bank, one of the parties requefts to
have fuch-a writ, for the.eafe of the country, in or¬
der that the trial may come before the juftices in the
fame county on their coming thither. The purport
of a writ of nifi prius is, that the fherifi is thereby
commanded to bring to Weftminfter the men impa¬
nelled, at a certain day, before the juftices, “ nifi prius
jufticiarii domini regis ad aflifas capkndas venerint.”
NISMES, a fine city of France, in the'province of Lan-
gu.doc : -E. long. 40 26’, N. lat. 430 40'.
NISNA, hr Nise-novogorod, the capital of the
province of Nile, or Little Novogorod, in Ruffia s E.
long. 45°, N lat. 56°.
NISSA, a city of European Turky, in the province of
Servia: E. long 23°, N. lat. 430.
Nissa or Nizza, a town of Italy,'injhe duchy of
Montftrrat : E. long. 8° 40/, N. lat. 440 45'.
NITHSDALE, a county of Scotland, bounded by
Clydefdale on the north, by Annandale on the eaft,
by Solway frith on the fputh, and by Galloway on
the weft.
NITRACHT, or Nytrea, a town of Hungary, forty
miles north-eAft of Prefbnrg. ~
NITRE, or Salt-pet&e, See Chem istry, p. 73,
119.
NIU CHE.,
NOE (4c
NIUCHE, a kingdom of Chinefian Tartary, north of
the province of Laotung.
NIVELLE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, and
province of Brabant, fourteen miles fouth of Bruffels.
NIXABOUR, or Nisabour, a city of Perfia, in the
province of Choraflan : E. long. 57° ^2, N. lat,
35° 4°' ■ , '
NOBILIARY, in literary hidory, a book containing
the hidory of the noble families of a nation, or pro¬
vince : fuch are Chorier’s Nobiliary of Dauphine, and
Caumartin’s Nobiliary of Provence. The Germans
are faid to be particularly carefyil of their nobiliaries,
in order to kpep up the purity of their families.
NOBILITY, a quality that ennobles, and raifes a per-
fon podeffed of it above the rank of a commoner.
The origin df nobility in Europe is by fome referred
to the Goths; who, after they had feized a part of
Europe, rewarded their captains with titles of honour,
to didinguilh them from the common people. In
Britain the term nobility is redrained to degrees of
dignity above knighthood; but every where elfe nobi¬
lity and gentility are the fame. The Britifh nobility
confids only of five degrees, viz. that of- a duke,
marquis, earl or count, vifcount, and baron, each of
which fee under their proper articles.
NOBLE, a money of account containing fix fhillings
and eight-pence.
The noble was anciently a real coin druck in the
reign of Edward III. and then called the penny of
gold ; but it was afterwards called a rofe-noble, from
its being damped with a rofe: it was current at 6s. 8 d.
NOCERA, a town,of Italy, in the territory of the pope
and duchy of Spoletto, twenty miles north-ead of
Spoletto.
Terra NOCERIANA, earth Of Nocera, in the
materia medica, a fpecies of bole, remarkably heavy,
of a greyifh-white colour, of an infipid tade, and ge¬
nerally with fome particles indt which grit between
the teeth.
It is much edeemed, -by the Italians, as a remedy
for venemous bites, and in fevers ; but, except its a-
dringent quality, little dependence is to be had on the
other virtues afcribed to it.
NOCTAMBULI, or, Nightwalkers, in medicine,
a term applied to perfons who have a habit of rifing
and walking about in their deep.
NOCTILUCA, a fpecies of phofphorus, fo called be-
caufe it' fhines in the night without any light being
thrown upon it; fuch is the phofphorus made of urine.
See Chemistry, p. 123.
NOCTURNAL, fomething relating to the night, in
contradiftinflion to diurnal.
Nocturnal, Nocturlabium, an indrument chiefly
ufed at fea, to take the altitude or depreflton of fome
dars about the pole, in order to find the latitude and
hour of the pight.
Some nofhirnals are hemifpheres, or planifpheres,
on the plane of the equinoftial. Thofe commonly in
ure.among feamen are two; the one adapted to the
polar dar, and the firft of the guards of the little
bear; the other to the pole-dar, and the pointers of
the great bear.
2 ) NOG
This indrument confids of two circular plates,
(Platq CXXXIV. fig. 2.) applied to each other. The
greater, which has a handle to hold the inftrument, is
about. 2t inches diameter, and is divided into twelve
parts, agreeing to the twelve months; and each month
fub-divided into every fifth day; and fo as that the
middle of the, handle correfponds to that day of the
year wherein the dar here regarded has the fame right
afcenfion with the fun. If the indrument be fitted for
two dars, the handle is made moveable. The upper
left circle is divided into twenty-four equal parts for
the twenty four hours of the day, and each hour fub-
divided into quarters. Thefe twenty four hours are
noted by twenty four teeth to be told in the night.
Thofe at the hours 12, are didinguifhed by their length.
In the centre of the two circular plates is adjufted a
long index. A, moveable upon the upper plate. And
the three pieces, viz. the two circles and" index, are
joined by a rivet which is pierced through the centre
with a hole, through which the dar is to be obferved.
To a/f?/A? Nocturnal, turn the upper plate till the
long tooth, marked 12, beagaind the day of the month
oij the under plate : then, bringing theindrument near
the eye, fufpend it by the handle with the plane nearly
parallel to the equino&ial,; and viewing the pole-dar
through the hole of the centre, turn the index about,
till, by the edge coming from the centre, you fee the
bright dar or guard of the little bear (if the indrument
be fitted to that dar :) then that tooth of the upper
circle, under the edge of the index, is at the hour of
the night on the edge of the hour circle : which may
be known without a light, by counting the teeth from
the longed, which is for the hour 12.
NODATED hyperbola, a name given by Sir Ifaac
Newton, to a kind of hyperbola, which, bjr turning
round, decuflates or erodes itfelf. ■
NODE, a tumour arifing on the bones, and ufualfy pro¬
ceeding from fome venereal caufe ; being much the fame
with what isotherwife called exodofis.
Nodes. See Astronomy, p. 477.
NODUS, or Node, in dialling, a certain-point or pole
in the gnomon of a dial, by the fhadow or light where¬
of either the hour of the day in dials without furni*
ture, or the parallels of the fun’s declination, and his
place in the ecliptic, fcc. in dials with furniture, are
fliewn. See Dialling.
NOETIANS, in church hidory, Ghridian heretics in
the Hid century, followers of Noetius, a philofopher
of Ephefus, who pretended that he was another Mofes,
fent by God; and that his brother was a new Aa¬
ron. His herefy confided in affirming that there was
but one perfon in the Godhead; and that the Word and
the Holy Spirit were but external denominations, gi¬
ven to God, in confequence of different operations;
that as Creator, he is called Father; as Incarnate,
Son ; and as defeending on the apodles, Holy Ghod.
NOGAIAN Tartars, a nation which inhabits that
part of Circaffia, in Afiatic Turky, that lies between
the Palus Meotis and the Cafpian fea.
NOGENT, a to wn of France, in the province of Cham¬
paign, fimated on the river Seine, twenty five miles
north-wed of Troyes.
‘ NOLA,
NON ( 403 ) NOR
NOLA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples.'fi'tu-
ated 16 miles ead of Naples.
NOLI, a town of Italy in the territory of Genoa, fituated
on the bay of Genoa, thirty five miles fouth wed of
that city.
NOMARCHA, in Egyptian antiquity, the governor or
commander of a nome. Egypt was anciently divided into
feveral regions.or quarters, called nomes.
NOMBRE de Dios, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Darien, a little to the eadwardof Porto Bello: W.
long. 83°, and N. lat. io°.
NOMBR1L point, in heraldry, is the next below
the fefs point, or the very centre of the efcutcheon.
See Point.
Suppofing the efcutcheon divided into two equal parts
below thefefs, the fird of thefe divifions is the nombril,
and the lower the bafe.
NOME, or Name, in algebra, denotes any quantity with
a fign prefixed or added to it, whereby it is connected
with fome other quantity, upon which the whole becomes
a binomial, trinomial, or the like. See Algebra.
NOMENCLATOR, in Roman antiquity, was ufually
a Have, who attended upon perfons that dood candidates
for offices, and prompted or fuggeded to them the
names of all the citizens they met, thatthey might court
them, and call them by their names; which, among
that people, was the highed piece of civility.
NOMENCLATORES, among the botanical authors,
are thofe who have employed their labours about fet¬
tling and adjuding the right names, fynonymes, and
etymologies of names, in regard to th.e whole vegetable
world.
NOMENCLATURE, a catalogue of feveral of the more
ufual words in any language, with their fignifications,
compiled in order to facilitate the ufe of fuch words
to thofe who are to learn the tongue: fuch are our
Latin, Greek, French, <£rc. nomenclatures.
NOMINALS, Nominalists, afeftof fchool philofo-
phers, the difciples and followers of Occam, orOcham,
an Englifh cordelier, in the XIVth century. They
were great dealers in words, whence they were vulgarly
denominated word-fellers; but had the denomination
of nominalifis, becaufe that, in oppofition to the realids,
they maintained that words, and not things, were the
objedi of dialedh’cs.
NOMINATIVE, in grammar, the fird cafe of nouns
which are declinable. See Grammar.
NONAGE, in Jaw, generally fignifies all the time a
perfon continues under the age of one and twenty ; but
in a fpecial fenfe, it is all the time a perfon is under
the age of fourteen.
Non-cape, in geography, a promontory on the w'ed
coad of Africa, oppofite to the Canary iflands.
Non-entry, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xii. 5.
Non-naturals, in medicine, fo called becaufe by their
ahufe they become the caufes of difeafes.
Phyficians have divided the non-naturals into fix
clafies, viz. the air, meats and drinks, deep and
watching, motion and red, the paflbns of the mind,
the retentions and excretions.
Vol. Ill, N°, 86. 2
Non-suit, fignifies the dropping of a fuit or aidion, or
a renouncing thereof by the plaintiff or defendant.
NONCONFORMISTS, See Dissenters.
NONE, one of the feven canonical hours in the Romifh
church, anfwering to three o’clock in the afternoon.
Nones, in the Roman kalendar, the fifth day of the
months January, February, April, June, Augud, Sep¬
tember, November, and December; and the fevemh
of March, May, July, and October. March, May,
July, and Oftober, had fix days in their nones ; be¬
caufe tbefe alone, in the ancient conditution of the
year by Numa, had thirty-one days a-piece, the reft
having only twen%-nine, and February thirty : but
when Caefar reformed the year, and made other months
contain thirty one days, he did not allot them fix days
of nones. See Kalendar.
NORDEN, a port-town of Germany, in the circle of
Wedphalia, aqd county of Embden, twelve miles
north of Embden.
NORFOLK, a county of England, bounded by the
German fea on the north and eaft; by Suffolk on the
fouth, and by the fens of Lincolnfhire and the ide of
Ely on the wed.
Norfolk, a county of Virginia, north of Carolina,,
and contiguous to that province.
NORMANDY, a province of France, bounded by the
ead channel on the north, by Picardy and the ide of
France on the wed, by Orleanois on the fouth, by
Britany and another part of the ead channel on tha
wed.
NORROY, the title of the third of the three kings at
arms.
NORTH, one of the four cardinal points. See Navi¬
gation.
North curry, a market-town of Somerfctfhire, fe-
venteen miles fouth-wed of Wells.
North foreland, a cape in the ide of Thanet, on
the ead coad of Kent, four miles ead of Margate.
North sea, a name given to all that part of the At¬
lantic Ocean which lies north of Terra Firma, in
South America.
North-west pajfage. A north-wed pafiage by Hud-
fon’s Bay, into the pacific ocean, has been more than
once attempted of late years, but hitherto without
fuccefs. Some greatly doubt of the prafHcablenefs
of fuch an enterprize, and think the obfervations made
by the Ruffians give us fmall hopes. Some general
things may be feen in the Phil. Tranf. N° 482. fe<d.
14. It appears from thence, that the Ruffians have
palled between the land of Nova Zembla, and thej
coad of Afia ; and, as the Dutch did formerly difeo-
ver the northern coadsof Nova Zembla, we may now
be well allured that that country is really an idand.
NORTHALLERTON, a borough-town of the north
riding of Yorklhire, twenty-two miles north-wed of
York. It fends two members to parliament.
NORTHAMPTON, the capital of Northamptonlhire,
fituated on the river Nen: W. long. 55', and N. lat.
5 2° 15'. It fends two members to parliament-.
Northampton, is alfo a county of Virginia, in North
5 I America,
NOT
America, which forms the fouth part of the peninfuia
on the eaftern Ihore of Virginia.
NORTHAUSEN, a town of Germany in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and territory of Thuringia, fifty-five
miles fouth-weft of Magdeburg.
NORTHLEECH, a market town of Glocefierlhire, fif¬
teen miles eafi of Glocelfer.
NORTHUMBERLAND, a county of England, bounded
on the north by Scotland, on the eaft by the German
fea, on the fouth by Durham, and on the weft by
Cumberland and part of Scotland.
'Northumberland is alfo a county of Virginia, lying
at the mouth of the river Patowmac.
NORTHWICH, a market town of Ch^lhire, fixteen
miles north-eaft of Chefter.
NORWAY, a kingdom of Europe, fituated between
4° and 30° eaft longitude, and between j8° and 720
north latitude, bounded by the Atlantic ocean on the
north and weft, bySwediih Lapland and other provinces
of Sweden on the eaft, and by the fea called the Cate-
gate and Schaggeric on the fouth. It is a cold barren
country, fubjeft to Denmark.
Norway-rat, in zoology. SeeMus.
NORWICH, a large city of great trade in Norfolk,
fituated 20 miles weft of Yarmouth and the German
ocean: E. long. i° 26', and N. lat. 520 40'. It fends
two members to parliament.
NOSE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 161, 162,
163, 293.
NOTARY, fignifies a perfon, ufually fome fcrivener,
who ta.kes notes, or frames fhort draughts, of con-
trafts, obligations, charter-parties, or other writings.
At prefent we call him a notary-public who publicly
attefts deeds, or writings, in order to make them au¬
thentic in another nation : but he is principally employ¬
ed in bufinefs concerning merchants, as making pro-
tefts of bills of exchange <fac. And noting a bill, is
where he goes to take notice of a merchant’s refufal to
accept or pay the fame.
NOTATION, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, p. 366.
NOTES, in mufick, charafters which mark the founds,
i. e. the elevations and fallings of the voice, and the
fwiftnefs and flownefs of its motions. See Musick.
Note is likewife ufed for a mark made in a book or
writing where there occurs fomething remarkable and
worthy of particular no.tice : as alfo for an obferva-
tion or explication of fome paflage in an author added
in the margin, at the bottom of the page, orelfewhere,
in which fenfe it ftands contradiftinguiflied to text.
Note, is alfo a minute, or fhort writing, containing
fome article of bufinefs, in which fenfe we fay, pro¬
miffary note, note of hand, bank note, fac.
NOTHUS, fignifies fpurious or baftard ; whence it is fi¬
guratively applied by phyficians, isc. tofuch difeafes as
though in refpect of a fimilitude of fymptoms, <bc. they
have the fame denomination as fome others, yet are
of a different origin, feat, or the from the fame.
NOTION, in logic, an idea or repVefentation of any
thing in the mind. See Logic and Metaphysics.
NOTITI A, in literary hiftory, a book that gives an ac¬
count of a particular country, city, or other place : fuch
NOV
is the Notitia Imperii Romani, Notitia Romas Antlquas,
6-c. '
NOTO, the capital of a province of the fame name in
Sicily, twenty miles fouth of Syracufe, E. long. 150,
N. lat. 370 15'.
NOTONECTA, the Boat-fly a genus of infedts be¬
longing to the order hemiptera. The beak is infledted;
the antennae are fhorter than the thorax ; the four
wings are plaited crofs-ways ; and. the feet are hairy,
and fitted for fwimming. There are three fpecies,
diftingaifhed by their colour.
NOTTEBURG, a city of Rufiia, fituated on an iflund
in the lake Lodoga, twenty five miles eaft of Peterf-
burg.
NOTTINGHAM, the capital ofNottinghamfhire, fitu¬
ated about a mile north of the river Trent; W. long.
i° 5,l N. lat. 530. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
NOVA-Scotia. See Scotland.
Nova-zembla, or Newland, called by the Dutch the
ifiand of Weygats, is lituated in the frozen ocean,
between 50° and 8o° eaft longitude, and between 70^
north latitude and the north pole: it is feparated from
the province of Samoida, in Ruflia, by the ftraits of
Weygats.
NOVARA, the capital of the Novarefe, in the duchy
of Milan, forty miles weft of Milan.
NOVATIANS, a Ghriftian fedl-which fprang upinthe
third century, fo called from Novatian a prieft of
Rome, or Novatus an African bifhop who feparated
from the communion'of pope Cornelius,'Whom Nova¬
tian charged with a criminal lenity towards thofe who
had apoftatized during the perfeCution of Decius. He
denied the church’s power of remitting mortal fins,
upon the offender’s repentance; and at laft went fo far
as to deny that the apoftles could ever hope for par¬
don even from God himfelf.
NOVATION, or Innovation, in the civil law, de*
notes the change of one kind of obligation for another;
as when a promife is accepted inftead of a written o-
bligation.
Novation, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxiii. 7.
NOVEL, in matters of literature, a fi&itious hiftory of
a feries of entertaining events in common life, wherein
the rules of probability are or ought to be ftridlly pre-
ferved.
NOVELLARA, a town of Italy, in the' duchy of
Mantua, twenty miles fouth of the city of Mantua.
NOVEMBER, in chronology, the eleventh month of
the Julian year, confifting only of thirty days ; it got
the name of November, as being the ninth month of
Romulus’s year, which began with March.
NOVEMVIRI, the nine magiftrates of Athens, more
ufually called archons.
NOVIGRAD, a town of Dalmatia, in 170 30’ E.
long, and 440 30’ N. lat.
NOUN, in grammar, a part of fpeech, which figpifies
things without any relation to time; as a man, a houfe,
fw.eet, bitter, <bc. See Grammar.
NOVOGOROD, the capital of a province of the fame
name in Mufcovy, fituated on the river Wolcoff, 130
miles
( 4°4 )
N U M ( 405 ) NUN
miles fouth call of Peterftmrg; E. long. 34'', N. lat.
58°.
It is an archbiihop’s fee, and has 180 churches
and monafteries.
NOVOGRODECK, a city of Lithuania, in Poland : E.
Jong. 250 30,J N. lat. 530 45'.
NOURISHMENT. See Nutrition.
NOWED, in heraldry, fignifies knotted, from the Latin
mdatus ; being applied to the tails of fuch creatures as
are very long, and fometimes reprefeoted in coat-
armour, as if tied up in a knot.
NUBIA, a country of Africa, bounded by the defart of
Barca, on the north; by Egypt and Abyffinia, on the
eaft ; by the Lower Ethiopia, on the fouth ; and by
the defarts of Africa, on the weft.
NUCHA, the nape of the neck.
NUCIFEROUS trees, fuch as bear nuts.
NUCIFRAGA,. in ornithology. See C o rv u s.
NUCLEUS, in general denotes the kernel of a nut, or
even any feed inclofed within a hulk.
The term nucleus is alfo ufed for the body of a co¬
met, otherwife called its head. See Astronomy,
p. 444.
NUDITIES, in painting and fculpture, denotes thofe
parts of an human figure which are not covered with
• any drapery ; or thole parts where the carnation ap¬
pears.
NULLITY, in law, fignifies anything that is null or void:
thus there is a nullity of marriage, where perfons mar¬
ry within the degrees, or where infants marry without
confent of their parents or guardians.
NUMBER. See Arithmetic.
Ue/r/ew Number. See Astronomy, p. 495.
Number, in grammar, a modification of nouns, verbs, <bc.
to accommodate them to the varieties in their objefts,
confidered with regard to number. See Grammar.
Numbers, in poetry. See Versification.
Book of Numbers, the fourth book of the Pentateuch,
taking its denomination from its numbering the fami¬
lies oflfrael.
A great part of this book*is iiiftorical, relating to
feveral remarkable palfages in the Ifraelites march
through the wildernefs. It contains a dillintft rela¬
tion of their feveral movements from one place to ano¬
ther, or the two and forty Rages through the wilder¬
nefs. and many other things, whereby we are inftruc-
ted and confirmed in fome of the weightieft truths that
have immediate reference to God and his providence
in the world. But the greateft part of this book is
fpent in enumerating thefe laws and ordinances, whe¬
ther civil or ceremonial, which were given to God, but
not mentioned before in the preceding books.
NOMENIUS, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the
order of the fcolopaces ; the beak of which is of a
figure approaching to a cylindrical one ; it is obtufe at
the point, and is longer than the toes; the feet have
each 4 toes, connedled together. This genus compre¬
hends the curlew, the woodcock, the great plover, and
thefnipe. See Curlew, tie.
NUMERAL letters, thofe letters of the alphabet
which are generally ufed for figures ; as I, one ; V,
five ; X, ten ; L, fifty ; C, a hundred ; D, five hun¬
dred ; M, a thoufand ; tic.
NUMERATION, or Notation, in arithmetic. See
Arithmetic, p. 366.
NUMERATOR of a fraftion. See Arithmetic,
p. 387-
NUMERICAL, Numerous, or Numeral, fomethmg
belonging to numbers; as numerical algebra is that
which makes ufe of numbers, inftead of letters of the
alphabet. Alfo, numerical difference, is the diffe¬
rence whereby one individual is diftinguifhed from ano¬
ther. Hence a thing is faidto be numerically the fame,
when it is fo in the ftridteft fenfe of the word.
NUMIDIA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of gallinse. On each fide of the head there is a
kind of coloured flefhyhorn ; and the beak is furnifhed
with cere near the noftrils. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Africa.
Numioia, the ancient name of Biledulgerid, in Africa.
NUMISMATOGRAPHIA, a term ufed for the de-
fcription and knowledge of ancient medals and coins,
whether of gold, filver, or brafs.
NUMMUS, among the Romans, a piece of money 0-
therwife called feftertius.
NUN, a woman, in feveral Chriftian countries, who de¬
votes herfelf, in a cloifter or nunnery, to a religious
life.
There were women in the ancient Chriftian church
who made public profeflion of virginity before the mor
naftic life was known in the worid, as appears from
the writings of Cyprian and Tertullian. Thefe, for
diftindtion’s fake, are fometimes called ecclefiaftica!
virgins, and were commooly enrolled in the canon or
matricula of the church. They differed from the mo-
naftic virgin chiefly in this, that they lived privately in
their father’s houfes, whereas the others lived in com¬
munities : but their profeflion of virginity wasmat fo
ftridl as to make it criminal in them to many after¬
wards if they thought fit. As to the confecration of
virgins, it had fome things-peculiar in it; itwasufually
performed publicly in the church by the bilhop. The
virgin made a public profeffion of her refolution, and
then the bilhop put upon her the accuftomed habit of
facred virgins. One part of this habit was a veil, call¬
ed the facrum velamen ; another was a kind of mitre
or coronet worn upon the head. At pfefent, when a
woman is to be made a nun, the habit, veil, and ring
of the candidate are carried to the altar; and fhe her¬
felf, accompanied by her neareft relations, is conducted
to the bifliop, who, after mafs and an anthem, thefub-
je<£t|of which is, “ that (he ought to have her lamp ’ight-
ed, becaufe the bridegroom is coming to meet her,”
pronounces the benediction : then fhe rifes up, and the
bifhop confecrates the new habit, fprinklingit with holy
water. When the candidate has put on her religious
habit, fhe prefents herfelf before the bifhop, and
fings on her knees, Ancilla Cbrifli fum, See. then fhe
receives the veil, and afterwards the ring, by which
Hie is married to Chrift ; and laftly the crown of vir¬
ginity.
NUT ( 406 ) NUT
gini'-y. When fhe is crowned, an anathema is de.
noonced againd all who fliall attempt to make her break
her vows.
NUNCIO, or Nuntio, an ambaffador from the pope
to fome catholic prince or date ; or a perfon who at¬
tends on the pope’s behalf at a congrefs, or an affem"
bly of feverai ambaffadors.
NUNCUPATIVE, in the fchools, fomething that is
only nominal, or has no exiftence but in name.
Nuncupative Testament, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xxviii. 2.
NUNDINAL, Nun^inalis, a name which the Ro¬
mans gave to the eight firft letters of the alphabet,
ufed in their kalendar.
This feries of letters. A, B, C, D, E, F, G. H, is
placed and repeated fucceffively from the firfl: to the
lad day of the year : one of thefe always expredcd
the market days, or the ademblies called nundinae,
quaji novendina, becaufe they returned every nine
days. The country people, after working eight days
fuccedively, come to town the ninth, to fell their fe¬
verai commodities, and to inform themfelves of what
related to religion and government. Thus the nun¬
dinal day being under A on the fud, ninth, feven-
teenth, and twenty fifth days of January, (3c. the
letter day will be the nundinal letter of the year fol¬
lowing. Thefe nundinals bear avery great refemblance
to the dominical letters, which return every eight days,
as the nundinals did every nine.
NUPTIAL rites, the ceremonies attending the folem-
nization of marriage, which are different in different
ages and countries.
NURENBURG, the capital of a territory of the fame
name, in the circle of Franconia, in Germany : E.
long. 11 °, N. lat. 490 3c/.
NURSERY, in gardening, is a piece of land fet apart
for raifing and propagating all forts of trees and plants,
to fupply the garden and other plantations. See Gar¬
dening.
NUSANCE, in law, a thing done to the annoyance of
another.
Nufances are either public or private. A public nu-
fance is an offence againft the public in general, either
by doing what tends to the annoyance of all the
king’s fubjedts, or by negledling to do what the com¬
mon good requires: in which cafe all annoyances and
injuries to ffreets, high ways, bridges, and large ri¬
vers, as alfo diforderly ale houfes, bawdy-houfcs,
gaming-houfes, ffages for rope-dancers, (ire. are held
to be common nufances. A private nufance is when
only one perfon or family is annoyed, by the doing of
any thing ; as where a perfon flops up the light of a-
nother’s houfe, or builds in fuch a manner that the
rain falls from his houfe upon his neighbour's.
NUT, among botaniffs, denotes a pericarpium of an
extraordinary hardnefs, inclofing a kernel or feed.
NUTATION, in aftronomy, a kind of tremulous mo¬
tion of the axis of the earth, whereby, in each annu¬
al revolution, it is twice inclined to the ecliptic, and
as often returns to its former pofition.
NUTMEG, the kernel of a large fruit, not unlike the
peach.
The nutmeg is feparated from its inveflient coat,
the mace, before it is fent over to us ; except that
the whole fruit is fometimes imported in preferve, by
way of fweetmeat, or as a curiofity. See Mace.
The nutmeg, a_s we receive it, is of a roundifh or
oval figure, of a tolerably compadt and firm texture,
but eafily cut with a knife, and falling to pieces on a
fmart blow. Its furface is not fmooth, but furrowed
with a number of wrinkles, running in .various direc¬
tions, though principally longitudinally. It is of a
greyifh brown colour on the outfide, and of a beauti¬
ful variegated hue within, being marbled with brown
and yellow variegations, running in perfedt irregulari¬
ty through its whale fubltance. It is very undtuous
and fatty to the touch, when powdered ; and is of an
extremely agreeable fmell, and of an aromatic tafte.
There are two kinds of nutmeg in the flrops, the one
called by authors the male, and the other the female.
The female is the kind in common ufe, and is of the
Ihapeof an olive: the male is long and cylindric, and has
lefs of the fine aromatic flavour than the other; fo that
it is much lefs elteemed, and people who trade largely
in nutmegs will feldom buy it. The longer male nut¬
meg, as we term it, is called by the Dutch the wild
nutmeg. It is always diftinguilhable from the others,
as well by its want of fragrancy, as by its lhape : it
is very fubjedl to be worm-eaten, and is flridlly forbid,
by the Dutch, to be packed up among the other, be¬
caufe it will give occafion to their being worm-eaten
too, by the infedts getting from it into them, and breed¬
ing in all parts of the parcel.
Thelargeft, heavieft, and moft undluous of the nut¬
megs are to be chofen, fuch as are of the fliape of an
olive, and of the moft fragrant fmell. The Dutch
import them from the Eaft-Indies.
Nutmeg is greatly ufed in our foods, and is of ex¬
cellent virtues as a medicine ; it is a good ftomachic,
it promotes digellion, and (Lengthens the Itomach. It
alfo flops vomiting ; is an excellent remedy in flatufes;
and is happily joined with rhubarb, and other medi¬
cines, in diarrhoeas. It is obferved to have a foporific
virtue, and to exert it too ftrongly, if taken in immo¬
derate quantities. It has a confiderable degree of
aftringency ; and given, after toafting before the fire
till throughly dry and crumbly, it has been fometimes
known alone to cure diarrhoeas.
NUTRITION, in the animal ceconomy, is the repairing
the continual lofs, which the different parts of the body
undergo. The motion of the parts of the body, the
friftion of thefe parts with each other, and efpecially
the-adiion of the air, would deflroy the body entirely,
if the lofs was not repaired by a proper diet, contain¬
ing nutritive juices; which being digefled in theftomach,
and afterwards converted into chyle, mix with the
blood, and are diftribmed through the whole body for
its nutrition.
In young perfons, the nutritive juices not only ferve
to repair the parts that are damaged, but alfo loincreafe
them, which is called growth.
In grown perfons, the cuticle is every where con-
flantly defquannting, and again renewing ; and in the
fame manner the parts rubbed off, or otherwife fepa-
mesSf
N Y B
Tated From the flefhy parts of the body, are foon fup-
rplied with new flefti; a wound heals, and an emaciated
perfon grows plump and fat.
Buffon, in order to account for nutrition, luppofes
the body of an animal, or vegetable, to f>e a kind of
mould, in which the matter neceflary to its nutrition is
modelled and affimilated to the whole. But, continues
he, of what nature is this, matter, which an animal, or
vegetable, aflimilates’toIts own fubftance ? What pow¬
er is it that communicates to this matter the activity
and motion neceflary to penetrate this mould ? and, if
fueh a force exift, would it not be by a fimilar force
that the internal mould itfelf might be reproduced?
As to thefirft queftion, he fuppofes that there exifls
in nature an infinite number of living organical parts,
and that all organized bodies confift of fuch organical
parts; that their production cofts nature nothing, fince
their exiftence is conftant and invariable; fo that the
matter which the animal, or vegetable, aflimilates to
its fubftance, is an organical matter, of the fame nature
with that of the animal, or vegetable, which confequent-
ly may augment its volume, without changing its form,
or altering the quality of the fubftance in the mould.
As to the fecond queftion: There exift, fays he, in
•nature, certain powers, as that of gravity, that have
no affinity with the external qualities of the b6dy, but
a£t upon the moft intimate parts, and penetrate them
throughout, and which can never fall under the obfer-
vation of our fenfes.
And, as to the third queftion, he anfwers, that the
internal mould itfelf is reproduced, not only by a fi¬
milar power, but it is plain that it is the very fame
power that caufes the unfolding and reproduction there¬
of : for it is fufScient, proceeds he, that in an organi¬
zed body that unfolds itfelf, there be fome part fimilar
to the whole, in order that this part may one day be¬
come itfelf an organized body, altogether like that of
which it is actually a part.
NUX P 1 STACHIA See PtSTACHlA.
NUYS, a town of Germany, twenty miles north of Co¬
logne.
NYBURG, a town of Denmark, fituated at the eaft-
N YS
end of theiflaivl of Funen, ten miles eaft of Odenfee;
E. long. io°, N. lat. $5° .
NYCHTHEMERON, the natural day, -or day and
night, which together always make twenty-four hours,
NYCTALOPIA, in medicine, a two-fold diforder of
the eye, one of which is oppofite to the other. In the
fir ft, the fight is heft in the night, and in obfeure
places; whereas in a clear light their fight fails, fo
that they can hardly fee any thing. In the other fort
of nyClylopia, the patient can fee nothing at all except
in a clear and bright light.
NYCTANTHES, Arabian]ASN.ink, in botany, agenus
of the diandria monogynia clafs. The calix and like-
wife the corolla confift of eight fegrtents. There are
five fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
NYCTICORAX, in ornithology. See Ardea.
NYLAND, a province of Finland, fituated on thegulph
of Finland, weft of the province of Carelia.
NYMPH, in mythology, an appellation given to certain
inferior goddefles inhabiting the mountains, woods,
waters, See Mythoxogv.
Nymph, among naturalifts, that ftate of winged inftCls
between their living in the form of a worm, and their
appearing in the winged or moft perfect ftate.
Nympha:, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 276.
NYMPHyEA, the water-lily, inbotany, a genus of
the polyandria monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts
of many petals, and the calix of four or five leaves ;
and the berry has many cells. There are four fpecies,
two of which are natives of Britain, viz. the lutea,
or yellow water-lily ; and the alba, or white water-
lily.
NYMPHEUM, in antiquity, a public hall, magnificently
decorated,' for entertainment, 6v. and where thole
who wanted convenience at home held their marriage-
feafts, whence the name.
NYONS, a town of Dauphine, inFrance: E. long. 5®
6°, N. lat. 44° 28’.
NYSLOT, a town of Sweden in the province of Fin¬
land, fixty miles north of Wyburg: E. long. 29°,
N. Jat. 62°.
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O*
OAK
OAK, in botany. SccQuercus.
Oak of Jerufalem, in botany. See Chendpo-
D1UM.
OAKAM, old ropes untwifted, and pulled out into
loofe hemp, in order to be ufed in caulking the fearas,
tree-nails, and bends of alhip, for flopping or prevent¬
ing leaks.
OAKHAMPTON, a borough of Devonfhire, twenty
Vol. III. N° 8b. a
OAR
miles weft of Exter, which fends two members to
parliament.
OAR, in navigation, a long piece of wood, made round
where it is tb be held in the hand, and thin and broad
at the other end, for the eafier cutting and refilling the
water, and confequently moving the veflel, by rowing.
Oars for Ihips are generally.cut out of fir-timber; thole
for barges are made dutof New-England, or Dantzick-
5 K rafters.
O B L ( 408 ) O B S
rafters; and thofe for boats either out of EngSifh afli,
or rir-rafters from Norway.
O.AT, in-botany. See Avena.
OATt I, is a folemn affirmation, in which the perfons fworn
invoke the Almighty to witnefs that their teftimony is
true '; reaouncing all claim to his mercy, and calling for
h;s vengeance, if it he falfe.
OBADIAH, or the Prfphecy c/'Obadiah, a canonical
book of the Old Tellanient, which is contained in one
fmgle chapter; and is partly an invedlive agaiofl the
cruelty of the Edomites, who mocked and derided the
children of IfraelJ as they paffed into captivity, and
with other enemies, their confederates, invaded and
oppreffed thofe grangers, and divided the fpoil amongll
themfelves |-and partly a prediction 6f the deliverance
of Ifrael, and of the vuSlory and triumph of the whole
church over her enemies.
OBELISK, in architeflure; a truncated, quadrangular,
and flender pyramid, railed as an ornament, and fre¬
quently charged either with infcriptions or hiero¬
glyphics.
Obelilks appear to be of very great antiquity, and
to be firft raifed to tranfmit to polteriry precepts of
philofophy, which were Cut in Kieroglypliical characters:
afterwards they were ufed to immortalize the great
actior.s'of heroes, and the memory of perfons beloVed.
The firft obeli fit mentioned in hiftory was that of Ra-
mefes king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan War,
which was forty cubits high. Phius, another king of
Egypt, raifed one of forty-five cubits ; and Ptolemy
Philadelphus, another of eighty-eight cubits, in me¬
mory of Arfinoe. Auguftus erefted one at Rome in
the Campus Manias, which ferved to mark the hours,
on an horizontal dial, drawn on the pavement. They
were called by the Egyptian priefts the fingers of the
fun, becaufe they were made in Egypt alfo to ferve
as ftyles or gnomons to mark the hours on the ground.
The Arabs ftill call them Pharaoh’s needles; whence
the Italians call them aguglia, and the French ai¬
guilles.
OBERSTEIN, the capital of the county of the fame
name, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, thirty miles eaft
of Triers.
OBERWESEL, or Wesel, a town of Germany, in
the eleftorate of Triers, thirty-feven miles north eaft
of the city of Triers.
OBJECT, in philofophy, fomething apprehended, or
prefented to the mind, by fenfation or by imagination.
See Metaphysics.
Object-glass of a telefcope. See Optics.
OBJECTION, fomething urged to overthrow a pofition,
or a difficulty raifed againft an allegation or propofi-
tion of a perfon we are dTputing withal.
OBJECTIVE is ufed, in the fchools, in fpeaking of a
thing which exifts no dtherwife than as an objedl
known. The exiftence of fuch a thing is faid to be
objedtive.
OBLATI, in church hiftory, were fecular perfons, who
devoted themfelves and their eftates to fome monaftery,
into which they were admitted as a kind of lay brothers.
The form of theij^adaiiffion, was, putting the beil-
: ropes of the church round their necks, as a mirk of
fervirude. They wore a religious habit, but different
from that of the monks.
OBLATION, a facrifice, or offering made to God.
OBLIGATION, in Scots law. See Law Tit. xx.
OBLIQUE, in geometry, fomething aflant, or that de¬
viates from the perpendicular. Thus an oblique angle
is either an acute or ootufe one, i. e. any angle except
a right one.
OfinquE cases, in grammar, .are all the cafes except
the nominative.
Oblique line, that which falling'on another line,
makes oblique angles with it, viz. one acute, and the
other obtufe.
Oblique planes, in dialling, are thofe which recline
from the zenith, or incline towards the horizon. See
Dialling.
Oblique sailing, in navigation. See Navigation.
OBLIQUITY of the ecliptic. See Astronomv.
OBLIQUUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles, particularly in the head, eyes, and abdomen.
See Anatomy, Part II.
OBLONG, in general, denotes a figure that is longer
than broad : fuch is a parallelogram, dliplts, -&c.
OBOLUS, in antiquity, an ancient Athenian coin.
Among ancient phyficians, obolus likewife denoted
a weight, equal to ten grains.
OBREPTITIOUS, an appellation given toletters patent,
or other inftruments, obtained of a fuperioi by furprife,
or by concealing from him the truth.
OBSCURE fomething that is dark and refieds little
light, or that is not clear and intelligible.
OBSECRATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby the
orator implores the affiftance of God, or man.
'OBSEQUIES, the fame with funeral folemnities. See
Funeral.
OBSERVATION, among navigators, fignifies :b* taking
the fun’s or the ftar’s meridian alitude, in order there¬
by to find the latitude.
OBSERVATORY, a place deftined for obferving the
heavenly bodies; being generally a building ereifted
on fome eminence, covered with a terrace for making
aftronomical obfervations.
The more celebrated- obfervatories ate, 1. The
Greenwich-obfervatory, built in 1676, by order of
Charles II. at the folicitations of Sir Jonas Moor
and Sir Chriftopher Wren ; and furnifiied with th&
moft accurate inftruments, particularly a noble fextant
of feven feet radius, with telefcopic fights.
2. The -parifii-obfervatory, built by the late Louis
XIV. in the Fauxbourg St. Jaques.
It is a very Angular, ‘but withal a very magnificent
building ; the defign of monfieur Perault: It is eighty
feet high; and at top-is a terras.
The difference in ' longitude between this and the
Greenwich obfervatory is 20 20 ijteft.
-In it is a cave, or cellar, 170feet defcent, for ex¬
periments that are to be made far from the fun, &c.
particularly fuch as relate to congelations, refrigera¬
tions, indurations, confervations, &c.
3. Tycho Brahe’s obfervatory, which was in the
little
O C c (4
iutle iflafld Ween,, or Scarlet ifland, between the
coafts of Schonen and Zeland, in the Baltic.
It was eretfted and furnished with inlfruments at his
own eKpence, and called by him Uianiburg.
Here he fpent twenty years in obferving the liars:
the refult is his catalogue.
4. Pekin obfervatory. Father Le Compte defcribes
a very magnificent obfervatory, erected and fumithed
by the late emperor of China, in hrs capital, ar the
interceffion of fome Jtfuits, miffionaries, chiefly fa¬
ther Verbielt. whom he made his chief obferver. -
The inftruments are exceedingly large ; but thedi-
vifions lefs accurate, and the contrivance in fome re-
fptdts lefs commodious tlian thofe of the Europeans:
the chief are, an armiilary, zodiacal fphere, of fix Pa¬
ris feet diameter; an equino&ial fphere, of fix feet
diameter; an azimuthal horizon, fix feet diameter;
a large quadrant,, fix feet radius ; a fextant, eight
feet radius; and a celefttal globe, fix feet diameter.
OBSTRUCTION, in medicine, fuch an obturation of
the vefltls, as prevents the circulation of the fluids,
whether of the found and vital, or of the morbid and
peccant kind, through them.
OBTURATOR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 205.
OBTUSE, fig- ifies blunt, dull, &c. in oppolition to
acute, (harp, fcc. thus we fay obtufe angle, obtufe-
angled triange, <fac-.
OBULARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an- _
giofpermia clafs. The cahx has two fegments ; the
corolla is campanulated, and divided into four fegments ;
the capfule has one cell, two valves, and many feeds.
There is but one fpecies, a native of Virginia.
OBY, a great river of Ruffia, which rifes in Kalmuck
Tartary, and forms the boundary between Europe and
Afia, till it falls into the frozen ocean, after it has fun's
a courfe of above two thoufand miles.
OCCIDENT, in geography, the weilward. quarter of
the horizon, or that part of the horizon where the e-
cliptic, or the fun therein, defcends into the lower he
mifphere, in contradfclinftion to orient. Hence we
ufe the word occidental, for any thing belonging to
the weft; as, occidental bezoard, occidental pearl, &c,.-
OCC1PITAL, in anatomy, » term applied to the parts
of the occiput, or back part of the Ikull. See Ana¬
tomy.
OCCIPITIS os, the occipital bone, in anatomy.
See Anatomy, p. 156.
OCCULT, fomething fecret, hidden, or invifible. The
occult fciences, are magic, necromancy, cabbala, ^rc.
Occult, fn geometry, is ufed for a line that is fcurce
perceiveable, drawn with the point of the compafles,
or a leaden pencil. Tftefe lines are ufed in feveral
operations, as tlieraifing of plans,, defigns of building,
pieces of perfpedlive, drc. - They are to be enaced
when the -work is finiflied.
OCCULTATION, in aftronomy, the time a ftar or pla¬
net is bid from our fight, by the interpofition of the
body of the moon, or of fome other planet. See A-
STRONOMY.
OCCUPANT, in law, the perfon that firft feizes, or
gets pofleflion cf a thing.
9 ) O C T
OCCUPATION, in a legal fenfe, is taken.for ufe or
t'-nure ; as in deeds it is frequently faid, that fuch lands
are or lately were in the tenure.or occupation of fuch
a petfon. It is likewife ufed for a trade or myftery.
OCCUPIERS of walling, a term in the falt-works
4 for the pet ions who are the fw'orn officers that alloc
in particular places what quantity of fait is to be
made, that the markets may not-be overftocked, and
fee that all is carried fairly and equally between the
lord and the tenant,
OCEAN, in geography, that vaft colleclion of'falt and
navigable waters, in which the two concinents, the
firft including Europe, Afia, and Africa, and the la't
America, are inclofed like iflands.
OCHLOCRACY, that form of government wherein
the populace has the chief adminiftration of affairs.
OCHNA, in btnany, a genus of the polyandria monot
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five petals, and
the calix of five leaves ; and the berry contains one
feed. There are two fpecies, both natives of the
Indies.
OCHRE, in natural hiftory, a genus of earths, fiightly
coherent, and compofed of fine, fmooth, foff, argilla¬
ceous particles, rough to the touch, and readily diffu-
fible in water.
Ochres are of various colours, as red, yellow, blue,
brown, green* 6'c.
OCYMUM-, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The fuperior lip of the calix is
round, and the inferior is divided into four fegments.
There are eight fpecies, none of them natives' of Bri¬
tain.
OCKER, a river of Germany, which, rifing in the fou-
thern part of the duchy of Brunfwick, runs north ;
and palling by Wolfembuttle and Brunfwick, falls in¬
to- the river After.
OCKINGHAM, a market-town of Berkfhire, feven
miles eaft of Reading.
OCTAETERIDES, in chronology,, denotes a cycle of
eight years, at the end of which three entire lunar
months were added.
This cycle was in ufe at Athens, till Meton difeo-
vered the golden number.
OCTAGON, or Octogon, in geometry, is a figure
of eight fides and angles; and this, when all the fides
and angles are equal, is culled a regular odlagon, or
one which may be inferibed in a circle.
Octagon, in fortification, denotes a place that has
eight baftions. See Fortification.
OCTAHEDRONv-or Octaedron, in geometry, one
of the five regular bodies, confiding of eight equal
and equilateral triangles.
OCTANDRIA, in botany, one of the clafles of plants
eftablifhed by Linnaeus, the eighth in order. See Bo¬
tany.
OCTANT, or Octile, in aftronomy, that afpeft of
two planets, wherein they are' diftant an eighth part
of a circle, or 450 from each other.
OCTAPLA, in matters of facred literature, denotes a
polyglot bible, confifting of eight columns, and as ma¬
ny different yerfions of the facred text; viz. the ori¬
ginal!
ODE (
ginal Hebrew both in Hebrew and Greek charaflers,
Greek verfions, &c.
OCTATEUCH, an appellation given to the eight firfl:
books of the Old Teftament.
•OCTAVE, in mufick, an harmonica! interval, conGiling
of feven degrees, or lefler intervals. See Musics.
OCTOBER, in chronology, the tenth month of the
Julian year, conGfting of thirty-one days : it obtained
the name of Oftoher from its being the eighth month
in the kalendar of Romulns.
•OCTOSTYLE, in the ancient architedure, is the face
of an edifice adorned with eight columns.
>OCULUS, the eye, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
289.
Oculus beli, in natural history, one of the femi-pelu.
-cid gems, of a greyifh white colour, variegated with
yellow, and with a black central nucleus: it is of a
rounclifh form, and its variegations very beautifully
repre!ent the pupil and iris of the eye ; whence the
name.
•Oculus mund 1, one of the femi-pellucid gems, of a
whitiih-grey colour, without any variegations.
OCZAKOW, a port-town of European Turky, the ca¬
pital of Budziac Tartary : E. long. 350, N. lat. 46°.
ODA, in the Tu kifh fera^.o, fignifiesa clafs, order,
or chamber. The grand feignior’s pages are divided
into five clafles or chambers. The firft, which is the
lowed in dignity, is called the great oda, from the
great number of perfons that compofe it: thefe are the
juniors, who are taught to read, write, and fpeak the
languages. The fecond, is called the little oda ; where
from the age of fourteen or fifteen years, till about
twenty, they are trained up to arras, and the ftudy of
all the polite learning the Turks are acquainted with.
The third chamber, called kilar oda, confifts of two
hundred pages, which, befides their other exercifes,
are under the command of the kilardgi bachi, and
ferve in the pantry and fruitery. The fourth confifts
only of twenty four, who are under the command of the
khaztneda-bachi, and have charge of the treafure in
the grand feignior’s apartment, which they neverenter
with cloaths that have pockets. The fifth is called
kas-oda, or privy-chamber, and is compofed of only
forty pages, who attend in the prince’s chamber. E-
very night eight of thefe pages keep guard in the
grand leignior’s bed chamber, while he fleeps : they
take care that the light, which isconftantly kept in the
room, does not glare in his eyes, left it ftiould awake
him ; and if they find him difturbed with troublefome
dreams, they caufe him to be awaked by one of their
agas.
-OpA BACHI, or Oddobassi, among the Turks, an
officer equivalent to a ferjeant or corporal among us.
X)DE, in poetry, a fong, or a compofition proper to be
fung.
Among the ancients, odes fignified no more than
fongs ; but with us they are very different things.
The ancient odes were generally compofed in honour
of their gods, as many of thofe of Pindar and Horace.
Thefe had originally but one ftanza, or ftrophe ; but
afterwards they were divided into three parts, the
flO ) O E C
ftrophe, the antlftrophe, and the epode. The priefts
going round the altar finging the praifes of the gods,
called the firft entrance, w'hen they-turned to the left,
the ftrophe ; the fecond, turning to the right, they
called antiftrophe, or returning ; and, laftly, Handing
before the altar, they fung the remainder, which they
called the epode.
Heroes and triumphs were alfo fubjedts for the ode; and
in cqurfe of time love and entertainments were likewife
thought very fuitable to it. Here Anacreon and Sap¬
pho excelled, and Horace has loft us fome of both forts
wrote with peculiar fweetnefs and elegance. Among
the moderns, Dryden’s ode on St Cecilia’s day, and
Pope’s on the fame fubjedl, are juftly allowed to exceed
every thing of the kind, either in this, or in any of the
modern languages.
ODENSEE, the capital of Funen, one of the largeft of
the Daniffi iflands in the Baltic, fituated feventy-two
miles weft of Copenhagen.
ODER, a river which rifes in the Carpathian mountains,
on the confines of Hungary ; runs through Silefiaand
Brandenburgh ; and then feparating the eaftern from
the weftern Pomerania, divides itfelf into feveral chan¬
nels, and falls into the Baltic fea.
Oder is alfo a town of Silefia, fituated on the river of
the fame name : E. long. 17® 17', N. lat. 49° 45'.
ODERBERG, a town in the duchy of Silefia, in Bohe¬
mia, fituated on the river Oder : E. long. 17° 45’,
N lat. 50° 6'.
ODIERNHEIM, a town of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine, fifteen miles fouth of Memz.
ODEUM, in Grecian antiquity, a mufick-theatre, built
by Pericles, the infide of which was filled with feats
and ranges of pillars ; and on the omfide the roof de-
fcended ffielving downwards from a point in the centre,
with many bendings, in imitation of the king of Per-
fia’s pavilion. Herethe mufical prizes were contended
for; and here alfo, according to Ariftophanes, was a
tribunal.
ODIHAM, a market-town of Hampffiire, twenty miles
north-eaft of Winchefter.
ODONTALGIA, the tooth ach, in medicine. See
Medicine.
ODONTOIDE, in anatomy, an appellation given to a
procefs of the fecond vertebra of the neck, from its
refemblance to a tooth.
ODOROUS, or Odoriferous, appellations given to
whatever fmells ftrongly, whether they be fetid or
agreeable; but chiefly to things whofe fmell is brifk,
and agreeable.
ODYSSEY, a celebrated epic poem of Homer, wherein
are related the adventures of Ulyffes in his return
from the fiege of Troy,
OECONOMICS, the art of managing the affairs of a
family, or community; and hence the perfon who
takes care of the revenues and other affairs of churches,
monafteries, and the like, is termed oeconomus.
OECONOMY, denotes the prudent condud, or difcreet
and frugal management, whether of a man’s own e-
ftate, or that of another.
Animal Qeconomy, comprehends the various operations
of
OFF (4
of nature, in the generation, nutrition, and prefer/a-
tion of animals. See Generation, Nutrition,
'6c.
The doflrine of the animal oeconpmy is nearly con-
nefted with phyfiology, which explains the levered
parts of the human body, their ftru&ure, ufe, 6c. See -
Anatomy.
GECUMENICAL, fignifies the fame with general, or
univertal; as oecumenical council, bifhop, ,6v,
OEDEMA, in medicine and furgery. See Medicine
' and Surgery.
OEDENBURG, or Edenburg, a town of Hungary,
thirty miles fouth of Vienna.
OELAND, a Swedifh ifland in the Baltic fea, between
the continent of Gothland, and the ille of Gothland:
E. long. i6°, N. lat. between 56° and 570 3o'.
OELFELD. a town in the duchy of Magdeburg and
circle of Lower Saxony in Germany, twenty miles
call of Brunfwick.
OENANTHE, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The flofcules are fertile, dilfimilar, and
barren in the dilk ; and the fruit is crowned with a ca-
lix. There are five fpecies, three of them natives of
Britain, viz. the fiftulofa, or water-dropw'ort; the
pimpinelloides, or pimpernel-dropwort; and the cro-
cata, or yellow dropwort.
Oenanthe, in ornithology, a fpecies of motacilla. See
Motacilla.
OENAS. See Columba.
OENOPTiE, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of cenfors
at Athens, who regulated entertainments, and took care
that none drank too much or too little.
OENOTHERA, in botany, a genus of the o&andria
monogynia clafs. The calix confdls of four fegments,
and the corolla of four petals; the capfule is cylindri¬
cal, and the feeds are naked. There are feven fpe¬
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
OESEL, an ifland at the entrance of the bay of Livonia,
in the Baltic fea; fituatedin 22° of E. long, and 58°
of N. lat.
OESOPHAGUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
282.
OESTRUS, in zoology, a genus of infesfls belonging to
the order of diptera. It has no mouth, but the point
appears in place of it, without any probofcis or fnout.
There are five fpecies, diftinguifhed by their colour.
QETING, the capital of the county of the fame name,
in the circle of Swabia, in Germany : E. long. 10°
35', and N lat. 49’.
OFFENBURG, afreeimperialcity ofthe circle of Swa¬
bia, in Germany, fituated bn the river Kintzig : E.
long. 70 4c/, and N. lat. 48° 3c/.
OFFENCE in law, an a£t committed againfl the law', or
omitted where the law requires it.
OFFICE, a particular charge or truft, or a dignity at¬
tended with a public fubdb’on. The word is primari¬
ly ufed in fpeaking of the offices of judicature and po¬
licy ; as the office of a fecretary of Hate,-the office of
a ffieriff, of a juftice of peace, 6c.
Office alfo fignifies a place or apartment appointed for
officers to attend in, in order to difcharge their re-
- Von. Ill, N° 36..
n ) OFF
fpeftive duties and employments : as»the fecretary’s
office, office of ordnance, excife-office, fignet office,
paper-office, pipe-office, fix-clerks office, 6c.
Office, in architedture, denotes all the apartments ap¬
pointed for the neceflary occafions of a palace or grea^
houfe, as kitchens, pantries, confedtionaries, 6c.
Office, in the canon-law, is ufed for a benefice that
has no jurifdidHon annexed to it.
OFFICER, a perfon polTeffed of a poll or office. Sec
the preceding article.
Cammifio/2-OFFicERS, are thofe appointed by the king’s
commiffinn : fuch are all from the general to the cor¬
net inclufive, who are thus denominated in contradif-
tindlion to warrant-officers, who are appointed by the
colonel’s or captain’s warrant, as quarter-mafters, fer-
jeants, corporals, and even chaplains and furgeons.
Field Officers are fuch as command a whole regiment,
as the colonel, lieutenant-colonel, and major.
FLg Officers. See Flag-officers, and Admi¬
ral.
UrnTtf/OFFiCERs are thofe whofe command is not li¬
mited to a Angle company, troop, or regiment; but
extends to a body of forces, eompofed of feveral re¬
giments ; fuch are the general, lieutenant-general, ma¬
jor-generals, and brigadiers.
Officers of the houfchold. See Household.
^/Officers are fuch as, in the king’s prefence, bear
a white ftaff, or wand ; and at other times, on .their
going abroad, have it carried before them by a foot¬
man bare-headed: fuch are the lord fteward, lord
chamberlain, lord treafurer, 6c.
The white ftaff is taken for a commiffion, and at the
king’s death each of thefe officers breaks his llaff over
the hearfe made for the king’s body, and by this means
lays down his commiflion, and difcharges all his in¬
ferior officers.
Subaltern-OFViCF.'&s are all whoadminifter juftice in the
name of fubjefts ; as thofe who adt under the earl
marfhal, admiral, 6c. In the army, the fubaltern of¬
ficers are the lieutenants, cornels, enfigns, ferjeants,
and corporals.
OFFICIAL, in the canon-law, an ecclefiaftical judge,
appointed by a bifiiop, chapter, abbot, 6c. with charge
ofthe fpiritual jurifdidtion of the dioeefe.
Official, is alfo a deputy appointed by an archdeacon,
as his affiftant, who fits as judge in the archdeaconT
court.
OFFICINAL, in pharmacy, an appellation given to fuch
medicines, whether fimple or compound, as are re¬
quired to be conftantly kept in the apothecaries {hops.
OFFIDxL a town of Italy fubjcdt to the pope, twenty-
fix miles fouth of Loretto.
OFFING, or Offin, in the fea language, that part of
the fea a good diftance from Ihore, where there is deep
water, and no need of a pilot to conduct the ffiip :
thus, if a ftiip from ftiore be feen failing out to fea-
ward, they fay, {he ftands for the offing : and if a {hip
having the ftiore near her, have another a good way
without her, or towards the fea, they fay, that fa ip is
in the'effing.
OFF-SETS, in gardening, are the young {hoots, that
5 L 2 Ip-nng
OLE (412
fpring from the roots of plants* which being careful¬
ly fepirated, and planted in a proper foil, ferve to
propagate the fpecies.
Off sets, in furveying, are perpendiculars let fall, and
meafuring from the dationary. lines to thehedge, fence,
or extremity of an enclofure.
OGEE, or O. G. in architedure, a moulding confiding
of two members, the one concave, and the other con¬
vex' ; or of a round and a hollow, like an S. See
Architecture.
OGIVE, in architedure, an arch, or brapch of a go¬
thic vault; which, inftead of being circular, paffes dia¬
gonally from one angle to another, and forms a crols
with the other arches.
OGLIO, a river which rifes in the alps, it the county
of Trent, and, after running fouthward .through the
lake Ifco and duchy of Mantua, falls into the Po a
little weft of Borgoforte.
OHIO, a large river of North America, which, taking
its rife in themountainsof Penfylvania, runs fouth-weft;
and, after receiving many confiderable branches, falls
into the Meflaffippi.
OIL. See Chemistry, p. 92, <&c. ' '
OINTMpNT, in pharmacy. See Unguent.
OSIANS, atownof France, in the province of Dauphine,
eighteen miles fouth-eaft of Grenoble-.
OKEHAM, the capital of Rutlandfhire, fourteen mile's
eaft of Leicefter: W. long. 45', and N. lat. 52®
40'. >
OLAX, in botany, a genus of the triandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla is entire ; the calix is funnel-fhaped,
and divided into three fegments; and the nedarium
confifts of four leaves. There is but one fpecies, a na
tive of Ceylon.
OLDENBURG, the capital of the-county of the fame
name in WeftphaHa: E. long. 70 32', and N. lat.
53° 3 i'-
QLDENDORP, a town of Germany in the circle of
Weftphalia, thirty nfiles fouth-weft of Hanover.
OLDENLANDIA, agenusof the tetrandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla conlifts of four leaves, and the ca-
lix of four fegments ; and the capfule has two cells, and
many feeds. There are four fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
OLDENZEL, a city of the United Netherlands, in the
province of Overyflel: E. long. 6° 50', and N. lat.
52° 30'.
OLD-WIFE-FISH. See Balistes,
OLEA, in botany, a genus of the diandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla has four fegnients, with oval la-
cinia: ; and the diupa contains one feed. There are
two fpecies.
This tree grows in the fouthern parts of France, in
Spain, Italy, and other warm countries: with us it is
ufually preferred in the green-houfes of the curious;
though it will bear our ordinary winters in the open
air, and produce very good fruit. Olives have an a-
crid, bitter, extremely difagreeable tafte : pickled (as
we receive them from abroad) they prove lefs difagree¬
able. The Lucca olives, which are fmaller than the
others, have the weakeft tafte; the Spanilh, or larger,
> O L I
the ftrongeft ; the Provence, which are of a middling
fize, are generally the moft efteemed.
The oil obtained from this fruit has no particular
tafte or frrSell, and dogs not gready differ in quality
from oil of almods. Authors make mention of two
forts of this oil, one expreffed from the olives when
fully ripe, which is our common oil olive; the other,
before it has grown ripe ; this is called oleum immatu-
rum, and omphacinum. Nothing is met with in the fhops
under this name; and Lemery affirms, that there is
no fuch oil, unripe olives yielding only a vifcid juice
to the prefs. From the ripe fruit, two Or three forts
are obtained, differing in degree of purity; the pureft
runs by light preffure ; the remaining magffia, heated
and preffed more ftrongly, yields an inferior fort, with
feme dregs at the bottom, called amurca. All thefe
oils contain acoufiderable portion of aqueous moifture,
and a mucilaginous fubftance; which fubjedl them to
run into a putrid ftate; to prevent this, the preparers
add fome fea fait, which- imbibing the aqueous and
mucilaginous parts, finks with them to the bottom; by
this means the oil becomes more homogene, and con-
fequentfy lefs fufceptible of alteration. la its paffage
to us, fome of the fait, thrown up from the bottom ,
by the ffiaking of the veflel, is fometimes mixed with
and detained in the oil, which,_ in our colder climate,
becomes too thick to fuffer it freely to fubfide; and
hence the oil is fometimes met with of a manifeftly fa-
line tafte Oil-olive is ufed in the fimple balfam of
fulphur, Locatellie’s balfam, and feverai ointments.
It is oftner employed in this laft intention than the o-
ther expreffed oils, but more rarely for internal medi¬
cinal purpcfes.
OLEAGINOUS, fomethingthat partakes of the nature
of oil, or out of which oil may be expreffed.
OLECRANUM, or Ouecranon, in anatomy. See
Anatomy, p. 178.
OLERON, an ifland of France, near the coaftof Poidiou,
fourteen miles fouth weft of Rochelle, being about
fifteen miles long, and fix broad.
Sea-lawi o/"Oleron, certain laws relating to maritime
affairs, made in the time of Rich. I. when he was at
the ifland Oleron.
Thefe laws, being accounted the moft excellent
fea-laws in the world, are recorded in the black book
of the admiralty.
OLESCO, a town of upper Volhinia, in Poland: eift
longitude 24°, and north latitude 50°.
OLFACTORY nerves. See Anatomy, p. 248.
OLIBANUM, Frank-incense, in pharmacy, a dry
refinous fubftance, brought to us in detached pieces,
or drops as it were, like thofe of maftic; but lajger,
and of a lefs pure and pellucid texture.
It is of a-pale yeilowiffi white colour, but with fome
mixtureof abrownifticaftin it. It is moderately heavy;
its fmell is ftrong, but not difagreeable ;.and its tafte
bitter, acrid, and refinons.
Olibanum is to be chofen whitifti, pure, dry, and as
much approaching to pellucidity as may be.
Olibanum‘is greatly commended by many againft
diforders of the head and breaft, and againft diarrhoeas
and
o L Y _(
asd' dyfenteries, and profluvia of the rnenfes, and
the fluor albus. Its dofe is from ten grains to a drachm.
It is.efteemed by many a fpecific in pleurifies, efpe-
cially when epidemic.
Externally it is ufedjn fumigations for diforders of
the head, and againft catarrhs ; and is an ingredient
in fome^piafters. It is a noble balfam in confumptions,
given in fubftance, or diffblved with the yolk of an
egg into the form of an emulfion. There is an oil
made of it per deliquium, in the fame manner as that
of myrrh : this is done by putting the powder of it in
the white. of a boiled egg, in a cellar, till it runs into
a liquor; this is efteemed a great cofmetic, and de-
ftroyer of pimples in the face.
OLIGAEDR.A, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus
of cryftals, and exprefles that which is compofed of
only a few planes.
The bodies of thisclafs are cryftals of the imperfedt
kind, being compofed of columns affixed irregularly
to fome folid body at one end, and the other termi¬
nated by a pyramid ; but the column and pyramid
being both pentangular, the whole confifts only of tdn
planes, and not, as the common kind, of twelve.
OLIGARCHY, a form of government, wherein the
adminiftration of affairs is lodged in the hands of a
few perfons.
OLINDA, a city and port-town of Brad : weft long.
35°, and fouthlat. 8°.
OLIO, in cookery, denotes a favoury diffi compofed of
a great variety ofingredients, chiefly ufedby the Spa
niards. .
OLIVA, a port-town of Poland, in the province of regal
Prtiffia, only fix miles weft of Dantzick.
OLIVARIA corpora, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 287.
OLIVE, in botany. See Ol,ea.
Olive-colour, a yellow mingled with black. See
Optics.
OLIVENZA, a town of Alentejo, in Portugal, ten
miles fouth of-Elvas. i
OLMUTS, a city of Morayia, feventy-five miles north
of Vienna,
OLYMPIA, a port-town of the Morea, at prefent called
Longinico : eaftlong. 21° 3 s', and north lat. 370 40'.
OLYMPIAD, the fpace or period of four years, where¬
by the Greeks reckoned time. See Astronomy, p. 493.
OLYMPIC games were folemn games, famous among
the ancient Greeks, fo called from Olympian Jupiter,
to whom they were dedicated ; and by fome faid to
be firft inftituted by Jupiter, after his vi&ory over
the fons of-Titan ; others alcribe their inftitution to
Hercules, not the fon of Alcmena, but one of much
greater antiquity; others, to Pelops ; and others,
to Hercules the fon of Alcmena. Thefe games were
fo conGderable, that the Greeks made them their epo-
cha, diftinguiffiing their years by the riturn of thsoo-
lympics.
The care.and management of thefe games belonged,
for the moft part, to the Eleans, who, on that account,
enjoyed their poffeffions without moleftation, or fear of <
413 ) O M E
war of violence. They appointed a certain number
of judges, who were to take care that thofe who’cf-
fered themfelves as competitors performed their pre¬
paratory exercifes; and thefe judges, during the ib-
lemnity, fat naked, having before them a crown of
vidlory, formed of wiid-olive, which was prefented to
whomfoever they adjudged it. Thofe who were con¬
querors, were called Olympionices, and were loaded
with honours by their countrymen. At thefe gatpes
women were not allowed to be prefent; and if any
woman was found to have paffed the river Alpheus,
during the folemnity, fhe was to be thrown headlong
from a rock.
OLYMPUS, the name of two mountains, the one in
Bythinia in the Leffer AGa^ and fhe other in the
ifland of Cyprus.
OMAN, a province or kingdom in the fouth-eaft parts
of Arabia Felix.
OMBRE, a celebrated game at cards, borrowed from
the Spaniards, and played by two, by three, or by five
perfons, but generally by three.
Ombre de soleil, Shadow oe the sun, in heral¬
dry, is when the fun is borne in armory, fo as that the
• eyes, nofe, and mouth, which at other times are re-
prefented, do not appear ; and the colouring is thin,
fo that the field can appear through it.
OMBRIA, the ancient name of a province of Italy, in
the territory of the pope, now called Spoletto and Pe¬
rugia;
OMBRO, orLoMBRO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Tufcany, and territory of the Siennois, fituated near
the Tufcan fea, a little fouth of the lake of Caftiglion,
forty-fiYe miles fouth-weft of Sienna.
OMELET, or Amlet, a kind of pancake or fricaffee
of eggs, with other engredients, very ufual in Spain
arid France.
OMEN, a certain accident and cafual occurrence that
was thought to prefage either good or evil. There
were three forts of omens among the ancients. One was
of things internal, or thofe which affedted the perfons
themfelves ;, the fecond, of things external, that only
appeared to men, but did not make any impreflion bn
them; the third were ominous words. Of the firft
fort were thofe fudden confternations, called panic
fears, that feized,upod men without any vifible caufe,
and were therefore, imputed to the daemons, efpecially
fhe god Pan : of thefe panics there is frequent mention
in hiftory. The fecond fort of omens were of fuch
things as appeared to men, but were not cbntained in
their own bodies. Of thefe there were feveral forts :
the beginning of things were, thought to containTome-
thing ominous : it was thought a direful omen, when
any thing unufual befel the temples, altars, or ftatues
of the gods. Under the head of external omens are to ’
be placed thofe which offered themfelves in the wayj
fuch were the meeting of an eunuch, a black, a bitch
with whelps, a friake lying in the road, &c. Words
were ominous; and as they were good or bad, were
believed to prefage accordingly.
DMENTUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p, 366,
OMERS,
O N O
OMERS, orSt.OMERS, a city of Artois, in the French
Netherlands, twenty miles fouth of Dunkirk, and
eighteen fouth-call of Calais.
OMLANDS, a divifiofl of the province of Groningen,
in the United Provinces.
OMMEN, a town of the United Netherlands, in the
province of Overyffcl, fnuated on the leffer Vecht,
• feventeen miles north-call: of Deventer.
OMOPHAGIA, an ancient'Greek feftival, in honour of
Bacchus, furnamed' Omophagos, /. e. eater of raw
Helh. This 'feftival was obferved in the fame manner
with the other feflivals of Bacchus, in which they
counterfeited madnefs; what was peculiar to it, was
that the worlhipers ufed to eat the entrails of goats,
raw and bloody, in imitation of the god, who was fup-
pofed to do the-fame thing.
OMOPLATE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 176.
OMPHALO-MESENTERIC, in anatomy. All fee-
tufes are'wraped up in at leaR two coats or membranes;
mod of them have a third, called allantoides, or uri¬
nary.
Some, as the dog, cat, hare, &c. have a fourth,
which has two blood-veflels, viz. a vein and an artery,
called omphalo-mefenterics, becaufe palling along
the firing to the navel, and terminating in the me-
fentery.
ONANDAGOES, one of the tribes of the Iroquois, or
Five Nations, fnuated on the lake Ontario, or Fron-
tenac, in North America: they are'allies of Great
Britain.
ONANIA, of Onanism, terms which fome late em¬
pirics have framed, to denote the crime of felf-pollu-
tion, mentioned in feripture to have been praftifed by
Onan, and punilhed in him with death.
ONEGA-lake, a lake upwards of an hundred miles
Jjang, and forty broad, fituated in the empire of Ruffia
between 6i° and 63° of north lat. and 35° eafi
longitude.
ONEGLIA, a port town of Italy, feventy miles fouth-
weft of Genoa, fubjed to the king of Sardinia : E.
long. 8° 30', and north lat. 440.
ONEIRGCRITICA, the art of interpreting dreams, or
predi&ing future events from dreams.
ONGAR, a market town of Elfex, ten miles weft of
Chelmsford.
ONGLE'E, in heraldry, an appellation given to the
talons or clavVs of hearts or birds, when borne of a dif¬
ferent colour from that of the body of the animal.
ONION. See Cepa.
ONISCUS, in zoology, a genus of infedls, belonging to
the order of aptera. It has 14 feet, briltly feelers,
and an oval body. There are 17 fpecies
ONKOTOMY, in forgery, the operation of opening a
tumour or abfeefs. See Surgery.
ONOCLEA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
hlices clafs: the fruit confifis of feveral globular cap-
fules, with five valves and one cell, in which are fe¬
veral fmall hairy feeds.
ONOCROtALUS, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
ONOMANCY, a branch of divination, which foretels
O P A
the good or bad fortune of a man, from the Utters in
his name.
From much the fame principle the young Romans
toafted their miftrefles as often as there were letters in
their names : hence Martial faysj
Navia fex .cyathis, feptem JuJlina bibat-ur.
ONOMATOPOEIA, in grammar and rhetoric, a figure'
where words are formed to rcfemble the found made
by the things fignified ; as th* bpz of bees, the cack¬
ling of hens, dv.
ONONIS, in botany, a genus offthe diadelphia decan-
dria clafs. The calix has five fegments; the vexillum
is ftriated ; and the pod is feflile and turgid. There
are 19 fpecies, three of them natives of Britain, viz.
the fpinofa, or reft-harrow; the arvenfis, or corn refi-
harrow: and the repens, or creeping reft-harrow'.
ONOPORDUM, a genus of the fyngenefia polygamia
sequalis clafs. The receptacle is naked, and the fcales
of their calix are (harp-pointed. There are four fpe¬
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
ONTARIO, cr Frontenac, a lace of North Ameri¬
ca: fituated.in W. long. 790, and between 41® and
430 N. lat.
ONTOLOGY. See Metaphysics.
ONYX, in natural hiftory, one of the femipellucid gems,
with varioufly coloured zones, but none red; being
compofed of cryfial, debafed by a fmall admixture of
earth ; and made up either of a number of flat plates,
or of a leries of coats furrounding a central nucleus,
and feparated from each other by, veins of a different
colour, refembling zones or belts.
We have four fpecies of this gem. 1. A bluifli
white one, with broad white zones. 2. A very pure
onyx, with fnow-white veins. 3. The jafponyx, or
horny onyx, with green zones. 4. The brown onyx,
with bluifh white zones.
OOST, a kiln for drying hops after they are picked
from the (talks,
OOSTERGO, the north divifionof Weft Friefland, one
of the United Provinces.
OPACITY, in philofophy, a quality of bodies which
renders them impervious to the rays of light. See
Optics.
OPAL, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of gems.
The opal is a gem of a peculiar kind, and has been
efteemed by many in all ages of very great value;
though at prefent it is oflefs values >n proportion to its
flze, than any of the finer gems. It isfofter than any
other of the fine gems, and is difficult to polifti to any
degree of nicety. It is founcf of various (hapes and fi¬
xes : its moft frequent bignefs is between that of a pea
and a horfe-bean; but it is found as fmall as the head of
a large pin, and has been feen of the fize of a large wal-
mut. Its figure is very various and uncertain, but it is
never found in a eryftalliform or columnar- date ; its
moft ufual (hapeis an irregularly oblong one, convex a-
bove, flatted.at bottom, and dented with various finuofi*
ties at its (ides. It is often found among the loofe earth
of mountains, fometimes on the fnores of rivers, and
not unfrequently bedded in the coarfer kinds of jafper.
It
( )
O P H
It is found in Egypt, Arabia, fome parts of the Eaft-In-
dies, and in many parts of Europe : thofe of Europe
are principally from Bohemia, and are of a greenilh
or greyilh colour ; the colour of other opals much
refembles the fineft mother of pearl, its bafis feeming
a bluilh or greyilh white, but with a property of re-
fledting all the colours of the rainbow, as turned dif¬
ferently to the light.
OPALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated at Rome in
honour of the goddefs Ops. Varro fays they were,
held on the nineteenth of December, which w>as one of
the days of the Satbrnalia : thefe two feafts were ce¬
lebrated in the fame month, becaufe Saturn and Ops
were hulband and wife : the vows offered to the god¬
defs were made fitting on the ground.
OPERA, a dramatic compofition fet to mudc, and fung
ontheftage, accompanied with mulical inllruments, and
enriched with magnificent dreffes, machines, and other
decorations.
OPERATION, in general, the adt of exerting or exer-
cifing fome power or faculty, upon which an effedt
follows.
Operation, in chirurgery, denotes a methodical adfion
of the hand on the human body, in order to reeftablilh
health. Se,e Surgery.
OPERATOR, a perfon who performs an operation.
OPHIDIUM, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the
order of apodes. The head is fomewhat naked ; the
teeth are in the jaws, palate, and fauces ; there are
feyen rays in the gill membrane ; and the body is Iha-
ped like a fword. There are two fpecies, viz. thebar-
batum, with four cirri ; and the imberbe, which has
no cirri, and the tail is blunt.
OPHIOGLOSSUM, in botany, a genus of the crypto-
gamia filices clafs. The fpike is jointed. There are
feven fpecies, only one of which, viz. the vulgatum,
or adders-tongue, is a native of Britain.
OPHIOMANCY, in antiquity, the art of making pre-
didtions from ferpents. Thus Calchas, on feeing a
ferpent devour eight fpairows w'ith their dam, foretold
the duration of the fiege of Troy. And the feven
quoils of a ferpent that was feen on Anchifes’s tomb,
were interpreted to mean the feven years that yEneas
wandered from place to place before he arrived in
Latium.
OPHIORHIZA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The calix is funnel lhaped ; the ger-
men is bifid ; it has two ftigmata ; and the fruit has
two lobes ; there are two fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
OPHIOXYLON, in botany, a genus of the polygamia
monoecia clafs. The corolla and calix of the herma-
■ phrodite coofifts of five fegments ; it has five ftamina,
and one piftillum : The calix of the male is bifid ;
the corolla is funnel-fhaped, with a cylindrical nedta.
rium near the inner edge, and confifls of five feg-
ments ; it has only two ftamina. There is but one
fpecies, a nadve of Ceylon.
OPHITES, in natural hiftory, a fort of variegated
marble, of a dufky green ground, fprinkled with fpots
of a lighter green, otherwife called ferpentine.
Yoi. III. N°. S6. 2
O P I
Ophite s, in church hiftory, Chriftian heretics, fo called
both from the veneration they had for the ferpent
that tempted Eve, and the worfhip they paid to a real
ferpent.
Ophrys, in botany, a genus of the gynandria diandria
clafs. The nedtarium’has a kind of carina on the un¬
der part. There are 18 fpecies, eleven of which are
natives of Britain ,
OPHTHALMIA, in medicine, an inflammation of the
membranes which invert the eye; efpecially of the ad¬
nata, or albugineous coat. See Medicine.
Ophthalmic nerves. See Anatomy, p. 248.
OPHTHALMOSCOPY, a branch of phyfiognomy, •
which deduces the knowledge of a man’s temper and
manners from the appearance of his eyes.
OPIATES, medicines of a thicker confiftence than a
. fyrup, prepared with opium fcarcely fluid. Theyconnft
of various ingredients, made up with honey or fyrup;
and are to be ufed for a long time either for purgative^
.alterative, or corroborative intentions.
The word opiate is alfo ufed, in general, for any
medicine given with an intention to procure fleep,
whether in the form of eledtuaries, drops, or pills.
OPINION, is defined to be an aflent of the mind to pro-
pofitions not evidently true at firft fight.
OPISTHOTONOS, in medicine, a kind of convulfion,
wherein the body is bent backwards.
OPIUM, in Ihe materia medica, is an infpifTated juice,
partly of the refinous, and partly of the gummy kind,
brought to us in cakes from eight ounces to a pound
weight. It is very heavy, of a denfe texture, and
not perfedlly dry ;ibut, in general, eafily receives an
impreflion from the finger : its colour is a brownifh
yellow, fo very dark and dulky that at firft it appears
black : it has a dead and faint fmell, and its tafte is
very bitter and acrid. It is to be chofen moderately
firm, and not too foft; its fmell and tafte fhoulcT te
very ftrong, and care is to be taken that there is no
dirty or ftony matter in it.
Opium is the juice of the papaver album, or white
poppy, with which the fields of Afia Minor are in
many places fown, as ours are with corn. When the
heads are near ripening, they wound them with an in-
ftrument that has five edges, which on being ftuck in¬
to the head makes at once five long cuts in it ; and
from thefe wounds the opium flows, and is next day
taken off by a perfon who goes round the field, and put
up in a veflel which he carries faftened to his girdle ;
at the fame time that this opium is coliedtec], the op-
pofite fide of the poppy head is wounded, and the'o-
pium colledted from it the next day. They diftinguifli,
however, the produce of the firft wounds from that of
the fucceeding ones; for the firft juice afforded by the
plant is greatly fuperior to what is obtained afterw ards:.
After they have colledled the opium, they nioiften it
with a fmall quantity of water or honey, and work it
along time upon a flat, hard, and fmooth board, with
a thick and ftrong inftrument ofthe fame wood, til] it
becomes of the confiftence of pitch ; and then work it
up with their hands, and form it into cakes or rolls
for fale.
5 M
( 4*5 )
Opium
0 p 1 (4
Opium at prefent is in great efteem, and is one of
the rnoft valuable of all the fimple medicines. Applied
externally, it is emollient, relaxing, and dlfcutient, and
greatly pj-gmotes fuppuration: if long kept, upon the
ikin, it takes off the hair, and always occafions an itch •
ing in it; Sometimes it exulcerates it, and raifes little
blifters, if applied to a tender part: fometitnes, on ex¬
ternal application, it allays pain, and even occafions
ileep : but it mufl: by no means be applied to the head,
efpecially to the futures of the fku'l ; for it has been
known to have the mod terrible efFefts in this applica¬
tion, and even to bring on death itfelf. Opium, taken
internally removes melancholy, eafes pain, and dif-
pofes to deep ; in many cafes removes haemorrhages,
provokes fweating. A moderate dofe is commonly
under agrain; though, according to the circumftances,
two grains, or even three, may be within the limits of
this denomination : but cudom will make people bear
a dram or more ; though in this cafe nature is vitia¬
ted, and nothing is to be hence judged in regard to o-
thers. If given diifolved, it operates in half an hour;
if in a folid form, as in pills, or the like, it is fome-
times an hour and a half. Its fird effe<d, in this cafe,
is the making the patient cheerful, as if he had drank
moderately of wine, and atthe fame time bold and above
the fear of danger ; for which reafon the Turks always
take it when they are going to battle. A very immode¬
rate dofe brings on a fort of drunkennefs, much like that
occafioned by an immoderate quantity of ftrong liquors;
cbeerfulnefs and loud laughter at fird, than a relaxa¬
tion of the limbs, a lofs of memory, and lightheaded-
nefs; then vertigoes, dimnefs of the eyes, with a laxi¬
ty of the cornea and a dilatation of the pupils, a flow-
nefs of the pulfe, rednefs of the face, relaxation of
the under jaws, fwelling of the lips, difficulty of
breathing, painful erection of the penis, convulfions,
cold fweats, and finally death. Thofe who efcape are
ufiially relieved by a great number of dbols, or pru-
fufe Iweats.
Prepared opium, commonly called extra# of opium,
is made by diffolving opium in a fufficient quantity of
water with a gentle heat; then draining the folution
from the feces, and evaporating it to the confidence
OPT
rT'HE caufe and nature of vifion are properly the fub-
je# of that part of natural philofophy which is called
Optics : but as light is the caufe of vifion, the word Op¬
tics is commonly ufed in a more extenfive fenfe; and eve¬
rything is looked upon as a part of Optics which relates
to the nature and qualities of light. If we ufe the word
Optics, in the drifter fenfe of it, for the theory of vi¬
fion, the fciehce of Optics is divided into two parts, viz-
Dioptrics and Catoptrics. The laws of refradtion, and the
effefls which the refraftion of light has in vifion, are the
fubjedt of Dioptrics: The laws of refledtion, and the ef-
fedts which the refledtion of light ha; in vifion, are the
.6 ) OPT
of honey. Trndture of opium, or liquid laudanum,
otherwife-called the thebaic tirdture, is made as fol¬
lows : Take of prepared opium, two ounces; of cinna¬
mon and cloves, each one drachm ; of white-wine, one
pint; infiife them a week without heat, and then filtre
it through paper.
OPOBx^LSAMCM, in the materia medica. See Bal¬
sam.
OPOPANAX, in the materia medica, is a gum refin of-
a tolerably firm texture, ufually brought to us in loofe
granules or drops, and fo me times m large raafies,
formed of a number of thefe connedted by a quantity
of matter of the fame kind; but thefeare ufually load¬
ed with extraneous matter, and are greatly inferior to
the pure loofe kind. The dropes or granules of the
fine opopanax, are on the outfida of a brownilh led
colour, and of a duflcy yeilowifli or whrtjffi colour
within : they are of a fomewhat ondluous appearance,
fmooth on the furface ; and are to be chofen in clear
pieces, of a ftrong fmell and acrid t.afte.
Opopanax is attenuating and difcutient, and is gen-
t!y purgative ; it difpels flatulencies, and is good in
afthmas, in inveterdre coughs, and in d.forders of the
hand and nerves. It alfo promotes the menfes, and
is good againft all ohftrudtions ofthe vifcera.
OPOSSUM, in zoology. See Didelphis.
OPPILATION, in medicine, the a# of obftrufting or
flopping up the paffiiges of the body, by redundant or
peccant humours. This-word is chiefly ufed for ob«
ftruftions in the lower belly.
OPPONENT, aperfon who withftands or oppofes ano¬
ther.
OPPOSITION, in logic, the difagreement between pro-
pofitions which have the fame fubje# and the fame
predicate.
OPTATIVE mood, in grammar, that which ferves to
exprefs an ardent defire or wiffi for Fomething.
In moft languages, except the Greek, the optative
is only exprefl’ed by prefixingto thefubjun#ive an ad¬
verb of wiffiing ; as utinain, in Latin ; plut a Dien, in
French; and •would to God, in EngHffi.
OPTERIA, in antiquity, prefents hiade by a bridegroom
to his bride, when firft condudted to him.
ICS.
fttbje# of Catoptrics. But this divifion of Optics is of no
ufe ; for there are many propofitipns in Optics where both
parts are mixed, and many that cannot be properly re¬
duced to either; and therefore we ffiall not make any
ufe of that diftindtion in the following Treatife.
. Of Light.
Light confifts of an inconceivably great number of
particles flowing from a luminous body in all manner of
diredtions; and thefe particles are fo fmallj as to furpafs
all human comprehenfion.
That the number of particles of light is inconceivably
great
OPT
great, appears from tl.e light of a candle; which, if
there be no obftacie in the way to obflrutt the pa/Tags of
its rays, will fill all the fpace within two miles of the
dandle every way with luminous particles, before it has
loft the leaft fenfible part of its fubftance.
A ray of light is a continued ftream of thefe particles,
flowing from any vifible body in a ftraight line : ,and that
the. particles themfelves are incomprehenfibly fmall, is
manifeft from the following experiment. Make a fmall
pin-hole in a piece of black paper, and hold the paper
upright on a table facing a row of candles (landing by one
another; then place a (beet of pafteboard at a little dif*
tance behind the paper, and fome of the rays which flow
from all the candles through the hole in the paper, will
form as many fpecks of light on the pafteboard, as there
are candles on the (able before the plate : each fpeck be¬
ing as diftindt and clear, as if there was only one fpeck
from one (ingle candle: which (hews, that the particles
of light are exceedingly fmall, otherwife they could not
pafs through the hole from fo many different candles
without cdnfuhon —Dr Niewentyt has computed, that
there flows more than 6,000,000,000,000 times as many
particles of light from a candle in one fecond of time, as
there are grains of fand in the whole, earth, iuppofing
each cubic inch of it to contain 1,000,000.
Thefe particles, by failing diredtly upon our eyes, ex¬
cite in our minds the idea of light. And When they fall
upon bodies, and are thereby refledted to our eyes, they
excite in us the ideas of thefe bodies. And as every point
of a vifible body refledls the rays of light in all manner
of diredHons, every point will be vifible in every part to
which the lightis refledted from it. Thus the objedf ABC
(Optical Plates,fig. n° 1.) is vifible to an-eye in any
part where-the rays Ad,' Ah, .Ac, Ad, As, ~Ba, Bb, Be,
Bd, Be, and Ca, Cb, Cc, Cd, Ce, come. Here we have
fnewn the rays as if they were only refledted from the ends
^ and B, and from the middle point C of the oBjedt; e-
very other point being fuppofed to refledt rays in the fame
manner. So that, where-ever a fpedlator is placed with
regard to the body, every point- of that part of the fur-
face which is towards him will be vifible, when no inter¬
vening objedt flops the pafiage of the light.
Since no objedt can be feen through the bore of a bend¬
ed pipe, it is evident that the rays of light move in ftraight
lines, whilft .there is nothing to refradt or turn them out
of their redtilineal courfe.
Whilft the rays of light continue in any * medium of
an uniform denfity, they are ftraight; but when ihey pafs
obliquely out of one medium into another which is either
more denfe or morfe rare, they are refradfed towards the
denfeh medium : and this refradVion is more or lefs, as the
rays fall more or lefs obliquely on the rcfradling furfaee
which divides the mediums.
To prove this by experiment, fet the empty veflel
ABCD (No. 2.) into any place where the fun (hines ob¬
liquely, knd obferve'the part where the fliadow of the
edge BC falls on the bottom of the veflel at E ; then fill
the veflel with water, and the (hadow will reach no far¬
ther than e; which (hews, that the ray aBE, which came
IC S. \ ^17
ftraight in the open air, juft over the edge of the vdfd
at B to its bottom at E, is retraced by failing obliquely
on the furface of the water at B : and in (lead of going
on in the r^dlilineal diredtioh aBE, it is bent downward
in the water from B tor e, the whole ber-d being at the
furface of the water: and id of all other raysdir.
If a (tick be laid over the' veftcl, and the fun’s rays be
refledted from a glafs perpendicularly into the vefle], the
fnadqw of the (tick will fa!], upon the fame part of the
bottom, whether the veflel be empty o* full; which (hews
that the rays of -light are not refradted when they fail
perpendicularly on the farface of any medium.
The rays of light are as much refradted by palling out
of water into air, as by palling out of air into water.
Thus, if a ray of light flows from the point e, under
water, in the diredtion eB ; when it comes to the fur¬
face of the water at B, it will not go on thence in the
redtilineal courfe Bd, but will be refradted into the lice
Ba. Therefore,
To an eye at e looking through a plane glafs in the
bottom of the empty veflel, the point a cannot be feen,
becaufe the fide Be of the veil'd interpofes : and the point
d will juft be feen over the edge of the veflel at B. But
if the veflel be filled with water, the point a will be (een
from e ; and will appear as at d, elevated in the diredtion
of the ray eB. Hence a piece of money lying at e, in
the bottom of an empty veflel, cannot be feen by an eye
at a, becaufe the edge of the veflel intervenes ; but let
the veflel be filled with water, and the ray ea being then
refradted at B, will flrike the eye at a, and fo render ths-
money vifible, which will appear as if it were raifed up
ro/"in the line aBf. '
The time of fun-rifing or fetting, fuppofing its rays
fufFered no refraction, is eafily found by calculation. But
obfervation proves, that the fun rifes fooner and fets la¬
ter every day than the calculated time; the reafon of
which is plain, from what was faid immediately above.
For, though the fun’s rays do not come part 6f the way
to us through water, yet they do through the air or at-
mofphere, which being a grofier medium than the free
fpace between the fun] and the top of the atmofphere,
the rays, by entering obliquely into the atmofphere, are
there refradied, and thence bent down to the earth. And'
although there are many places of the earth to winch the
fun is vertical at noon, and confequeritly his rays can fuf-
fer no refradtion at that time, becaufe they come perpen¬
dicularly through the atmofphere ; yet there is no place
to which the fun’s rays do not fall obliquely on the top
of the atmofphere, at his rifing and fetting ; and confe-
quently, no clear day in which the fun will not be vifible
before he rifes in the horizon, and after he fets in it; and
the longer or (horter, as the atmofphere is more or lefs
repletewith vapours. For, \ot ABC, (No. 3.) be part of
the earth’s furface, DliTthe atmofphere that covers it, and
EBGH the fenfible horizon of an obferver at B. As e-
very point of the fun’s furface fends out rays of light in
all manner ef diredlions, fome of his rays will conflanth/
fall upon,, and enlighten, fome half of our atmofphere ;
and
* Any thing through which tile rays of light can pafs, is called a medium ; a? air, water, glafs, diamond, or even a
vacuum.
4r3 OPT
and therefore, when the fun is at I, below the horizon H,
thole rays which go on in the free fpace IkK preferve a
redilineal courfe until they fall upon the top of the at-
mofphere; and thofe which fall fo about K> are refra&ed
at their entrance into the atmofphere, and bent down in
the line KmB, to the obferver’s place at B : and there¬
fore, to him the fun will appear at L, in the direction of
the ray BmK, above the horizon BGH, when he is really
below it at /.
The angle contained between a ray of light, and a per¬
pendicular to the refrafting furface, is called the angle of
incidence; and the angle contained between the fame per¬
pendicular, and Ihe lame ray after refraction, is called
the angle of nfrattion. Thus (No. 4.) \ctLBM be the
refracting furface of a medium (fuppofe water,) and JBC
a perpendicular to that furface ; let DB be a ray of light,
going out of air into water at B, and therein refracted in
the line BH; the angle ABD, is the angle of incidence,
of which DF is the fine; and the angle KBH is the an-
.gle of refraction, whofe fine is KI.
When the refracting medium is water, the fine of the
angle of incidence is to the fine of the angle of refraction
as 4 to 3 ; which is confirmed by the following -experi-
ment, taken from DoCtor Smith’s Optics.
Defcribe the circle DAEC on a plane fquare board,
and crofs it at right angles with the ftraight lines ABCt
and LBM\ then, from the interaction A, with any o-
pening of the compafles, fet off the equal arcs AD and
AE, and draw the right line OfT: then, taking Fa,
which is three quarters of the length FE, from the point
a, draw al parallel to ABK, and join KI parallel to
BM: loKI will be equal to three quarters ol FE or of
DF. This done, fix the board upright upon the leaden
pedeftal 0, and flick three pins perpendicularly into the
board, at the points D, B, and I: then fet the board
upright into the veflel TUF, and fill up the veflel with
water to the line LBM. When the water has fettled,
look alpng the line DB, fo as you may fee the head of
the pin B over the head of the pin D; and the pin /
will appear in the fame right line produced, to G, for its
bead will be feen juft over the head of the pin at B:
which {hews that the ray IB, coming from the pin at I,
is fo refraCled at B, .as to proceed from thence in the
line BD to the eye of theobferver ; the fame as it would
do from any point G in the right line DBG, if there
were no water in the veffel: and alfo ftiews, that KI,
the fine of refraClion in water, is to DF, the fine of in¬
cidence in air, as 3 to 4.
Hence, if DBH were a crooked flick put obliquely
into the water, it would appear a ftraight one at DBG.
Therefore, as the line appears at BG, fo the line .SC?
will appear at Bg; and confequently, a ftraight ftick DBG
put obliquely into water, will feem bent at the fuxface
of the water in B, and crooked, as DBg.
When a ray of light paflfes out of air into glafs, the
fine of incidence is to the fine of refraction as 3 to 2;
and when out,of air into a diamond, as 5 to 2.
O/'Glasses,
Glass maybe ground into eight different fhapes at
lea ft, for optical purpofes, viz.
I c s.
x. A plane glaft, (No. 5.) which is fiat on both fides,
and of equal thicknefs in all parts, as A.
2. A plano-convex, which is fiat on one fide, and con¬
vex on the other, as B.
3. A double-convex, which is convex on both fides,
as C.
4. A plano-concave, which is flat on one fide, and
concave on the other, as D.
5. A double concave, which is concave on both fides,
as E.
6. A menifeus, which is concave on one fide, and
convex on the other, as F.
7. A flat plano-convex, whofe convex fide is ground
into feveral little'flat furfaces, as G.
8. A prifm, which has three flat fides; and when
viewed endwife, appears like an equilateral triangle, as
H.
Glafles ground into any of the fttapes B, C. D, E, F,
are generally called lenfes,
A right line LfK, (No. 6.) going perpendicularly
through the middle of a lens, is called the axis of the
lens-.
A ray of light Gh, falling perpendicularly on a plane
glafs EF, will pafs through the glafs in the fame direc¬
tion hi, and go out of it into the air in the fame right
courfe iH.
A ray of light AB, falling obliquely on a plane glafs,
will go out of the glafs in the fame diredion, but not in
the fame right line: for in touching the glafs, it will
be refrafted in the line BC\ and in leaving the glafs, it
will be refraded in the line CD.
A ray of light <7Z), (No. 7.) falling obliquely on the
middle of a convex glafs, will go forward in the fame
diredion DE, as if it had fallen with the fame degree of
obliquity on a plane glafs ; and will go out of the glafs
in the fame diredion with which it entered : for it will
be equally refraded at the points D and E, as if it had
pafled through a plane furface. But the rays CG and
Cl will be fo refraded, as to meet again at the point F.
Therefore, all the rays which flow from the point C,
fo as to go through the glafs, will meet again at F\ and
if they go farther onward, as to L, they crofs at F, and
go forward on the oppofite fides of the middle ray CDEF,
to what they were in approaching it in the diredions
HF and KF.
When parallel rays, as ABC, (No. 8.) fall diredly
upon a plano-convex glafs DE, and pafs through it, they
will be fo refraded, as to unite in a point /“ behind it;
and this point is called the principal focus; the diftance of
which, from the middle of the glafs, is called the focal
dijlance, which is equal to twice the radius of the fphere
of the glafs’s convexity. And,
When parallel rays, as ABC, (No. 9.) fall diredly
upon a glafs DE, which is equally convex on both fides,
and pafs through it; they will be fo refraded, as to meet
in a point or-principal focus f, whofe diftance is equal to
the radius or femidiameter of the fphere of the glafs’s
convexity. But if a glafs be more convex on one fide
than oh the other, the rule for finding the focal diftance
is this : As the fum of the femidiarneters of both con¬
vexities is to the femidiameter of either, fois double the
femidiameter
OPT
femidiameter of the other to the diflance of the focus."
Or, di.vide the double product of the radii by their fum,
and the quotient will be the diftanoe fought.
Since all thofe rays of the fun which pafs through a
convex glafs are colledled together in its focus, the force
of all their heat is colleded into that part; and is in
proportion to the common heat of the fun, as the area
of the glafs to the area of the focus. Hence we fee the
reafon why a convex glafs caufes the fun’s rays to burn
after paffing through it.
All thefe rays crofs the middle ray in the focus f, and
then diverge from it, to the contrary fides, in the fame
manner FfG, as they converged in the fpace DfE in co¬
ming to it.
If another glafs FG> of the fame convexity as DE,
be placed in the rays at the fame diftance from the focus,
it will refraft them fo, as that, after going out of it,
they will be all parallel, as ale ; and go on in tie fame
manner as they came to the firft glafs DE, through the
fpace ? but on the contrary fides of the middle ray
. £?/$ : for the ray AGf will go on from /' in the direction
fGa, and the ray CE/'in the direction /Fc\ and fo of the reft.
The rays diverge from any radiant point, as from a
principal focus : therefore if a candle be placed at f, in
the focus of the convex glafs FG, the diverging rays in
the fpace EfG will be fo refra&ed by the gla'ls, as that,
after going out of it, they will become parallel, as fhewn
in the fpace cla.
If the candle be placed nearer the glafs than its focal
diftance, the rays will converge after paffing through the
glafs more or lefs as the candle is more or lefs diftant fromthe
focus.
If the candle be placed farther from {he glafs than its
focal diftance, the rays will converge after paffing thro’
the glafs, and meet in a joint, which will be more or
lefs diftant from the glafs as the candle is hearer to or
farther from its focus : and where the rays meet, they will
form an inverted image of the flame of the candle; which
may be feen on a paper placed in the meeting of the rays.
Hence, if any objedt ABC (No. 10.) be placed be¬
yond the focus F of the convex glafs def,'fome of the
rays which flow from every point of the objedt, on the
fide next the glafs, will fail upon it; and after paffing
through it, they will be converged into as many points
on the oppofite fide of the glafs, where the image of eve¬
ry point will be formed, and confequently the image
of the whole objedl, which will be inverted. Thus, the
rays Ad% Ae, Af, flowing from the point A, will con¬
verge in the fpace daf, and by meeting at a will there
form the image of the point A. The rays Bb, Be, Bf,
flowing from the point B, will be united at b by the re-
fradfion of fhe glafs, and will there form the image of
the point B. And the rays Cd, Ce, Cf, flowing from
the point C, will be united at c, where they will form
the image of the point C. And fo of all the other in¬
termediate points between A and C. The rays which
flow from every particular point of the objedt, and are
united again by the glafs, are called pencils of rays.
If the objedl ABC be brought nearer to the glafs, the
pidtifre abc will be removed to a greater diftance. For
then more rays flowing from every Angle point, will all
Voi-. HI. N° 87. 2
X G S.
more diverging upon the glafs ♦ and therefore cannot be
fo foon colledted into the correfponding points behind it.
Confequently, if the diftance of the oGpitfABC (No 11.)
be equal to the diftance eB of the focus of the glafs, the
rays of each pencil will be fo refradted by paffing through
the glafs, that they will go out of it parallel to each o-
ther; as dl, cH, fh, from the point d7; dG, eK, fD,
fromthe point.#; ZQ&dK,eE, fL, from the point A: and
therefore, there will be no pidture formed behind the glafs.
If the focal diftance of the glafs, and the diftance of
the objedt from the glafs, be known, the diftance of the
pidture from the glafs may be found by this rule, viz.
Multiply the diftance of the focus by the diftance of the
objedt, and divide the pro'dudt by the difference; the
quotient will be the diftance of the pidture.
The pidture will be as much bigger or left than the
objedt, as its diftance from the glafs is greater or iefs
than the diftance of the objedt. For, as Be (No. 10.) is
to eB, fo is AC to ca. So that if ABC be the objedt,
eba wiil be the pidture; or if eba be the objedt, ABC
will be the pidture.
Having deferibed how the rays of light, flowing from
objedts and paffing through convex glafles, are colledted
into points, and form the images of the objedts ; it will be
eafy to underftand how the rays are affedted by paffing
through the humours of the eye, and are thereby colledt¬
ed into innumerable points on the bottom of the eye, and
thereon form the images of the objedts which they flow
from. For, the different humours of the eye, and parti¬
cularly the chryftalline humour, are to be confidered as
a convex glafs ; and the rays in paffing through them to
be affedted in the fame manner as in paffing through a
convex glafs.—For a defeription of the coats and tumours
t>f the eye, fee Anatomy, p. 289.
As every point of an o\)]e&.ABC, (No. 12.) fends out
rays in all diredtions, fome rays, from every point on the
fide next the eye, will fall upon the cornea between E,
and F\ and by paffing on through the. humours and pu¬
pil of the eye, they will be converged to as many points
on the retina or bottom of the eye, and will thereon form
a diftindt inverted pidture eba of the objedt. Thus, the
pencil of rays yr/ that flows from the point A of the ob¬
jedt, will be converged to the point a on the retina ; thole
from the point B will be converged to the point b; thofe
from the point C will be converged to the point c ; and
fo of all the intermediate points ; by which means the
whole image abc is formed, and the objedt made vifible :
although it muft be owned, that the method by which this
fenfation is carried from the eye by the optic nerve to the
common fenfery in the brain, and there difeerned, is a-
bove the reach of our comprehenfion.
But that vifion is effedted in this manner, may be de-
monftrated experimentally. Take a bullock’s eye whilft
it is freffi, and having cut off the three coats from the
back part, quite to the vitreous humour, put a piece of
white paper over that part, and hold the eye towards any
bright objedt, and you will fee an inverted pidture of the
objedt upon the paper.
Since the image is inverted, many have wondered why
the objedt appears upright. But we are to confider,
x. That inverted is only a relative term ; and, 2. That
5 N - there
420 OPT
there is a very great difference between the real object
and the means or intake by tyhich we perceive it. When
all the parts of a distant profpedl are painted upon the
retina, they are ail right with refpedt to one another,
as well as the parts of the profpeft itfelf; and we can
oniy judge of an objefl’s being inverted, when it is turn¬
ed reverfe to its natural pofition with refpeft to other
cbjedls which we fee and compare it with.—If weda'y
hold of an upright (tick in the dark, we can tell which
is the upper or lower part of it, by moving our hand
downward or upwardand know very wel! that we cannot
feel the upper end by moving Our hand downward. Juft
fo we find by experience, that upon direftmg our eyes
towards a tall objeft, we cannot fee its top by turning
our eyes downward, nor its foot by turning our eyes up¬
ward ; but muft trace the object the fame way by the eye
to fee it from head to foot, as we do by the hand to
feel it; and as the judgment is informed by the motion ,
of the hand in one 'Qafe, fo it is alfo by the motion of the
eye in the other.
In (No. 13.) is exhibited the manner of feeing the fame
objedt ABC, by both the eyes D and E at once.
When any'part of the image cba falls upon the optic1
nerve L, the correfponding part of the object becomes in-
vifible. On which account, nature has wifely placed the
optic nerve of each eye, not in the middle of the bottom
of the eye, but towards the fide next the nofe; fo that
whatever part of the image falls upon the .optic nerve of
one eye, may not fall upon the optic nerve of the other,
i'hus the.point « of the image !cba fails upon the optic
. nerve of the eye D, but trbt of the eye E anj the poi,;t
c falls upon the optic nerve of the eye E, but not of the
eye D : and therefore, to both eyes taken together, the
whole objedt ABC isvifible.
The nearer that any objedi is to the eye, the larger is
the angle under which it is feen, and the magnitude un¬
der which it appears. Thus to the eye D, (No. 14.)
the objedt ABC feen under the angle APC\ and its
.image cba is very large upon the retina: but to the eye
E, at a double diftance, the fame objedt is feen under
the angle ApC, which is equal only to half the angle
APC,- as is evident by the figure. The image cba is'
likewife twice as large in the eye D, as the other image
cis is in the eye E. In both thefe reprefentations, a
part of the image falls on the optic nerve, and the objedt
in the correfponding part is invifible.
As the fenfe of feeing is allowed to be occafioned by
the impulfe of the rays from the vifible objedt upon the
retina of the eye, and forming the image of the objedt
thereon, and that the retina is only the expanfion of
the, optic nerve all over the choroides; it Ihould feem
fufpriling, that the part of the image which falls on the
optic nerve (hould render the like part of the objedt in¬
vifible "t efpecially as that nerve is allowed to be the in-
ftrument by which the impulfe and image are conveyed
to the common fenfory in the brain. But this difficulty
vaniffies, when-we confider that there is an artery within
the trunk of the optic nerve, which entirely obfeures the
'image in that part, and conveys no fenfation to the brain.'
That the part of the image which falls upon the middle
of the optic nerve is loft, and confequently the correfpond-
I c s.
ing part of the objedt is rendered invifible, is plain by
experiment. For, if a perfon fixes three patches, A,B~,C,
(No. 15.) upon a white wail, at the height of the eye,
and the diftance of about a fgot from each other, and
places himlelf before them, Ihutting the right eye, and
diredting the left towards the patch C, he will fee the
patches and C, but the middle patch B will difappear..
Or, if lie (huts his left eye, and diredts the right towards
A, he will fee both A and C, but B will difappear ; and
if he diredfs his eye towards B, he will fee both i? and
A, but not C. For whatever patch is diredtly oppofite
to the optic nerv’e N, vanilhes. This requires a little
pradtice, after which he will find it eafy to diredt his eye,
fo as to lofe the fight of whichever patch he. pleafes.
We are not commonly fenfible of this difappearance,
becaufe the motions of the eye are fo quick and inftanta-
neous, that we no fooner lofe the fight of any part of an ■
objedt, than we recover it again ; much the fame as in
the twinkling of our eyes; for at each twinkling we are
blinded ; but it is fo foon over, that we are fcarce ever
fenfible of it.
Some eyes require the affiftance of convex glaffes to'
make them fee objedts diftindtly, and others of concave.
If either the cornea (No. 16.) or chryftalline hit*
mour e, or both of them, be too fiat, as in the eye A>
their focus will hot be on the retina, as at d, where it
ought to be, in order to render vifion diftindt; but be¬
yond the eye, as at f. And therefore, thofe rays jvhkh
flow from the objedl C, and pafs through the humours
of the eye, are not ednverged enough to unite at */; and
therefore the obferver can have but a very indiftindt view
of the objedl. This’is remedied by placing a convex
glafs^before the eye, which makes the rays converge
looner, and imprints the image duly On the retina at d.
If either the cornea, or chryftalline humour, or both
of* them, be too convex, as in the eye B, the rays that
enter it from the Objedt C, will be converged to a focus
in the vitreous humour, as atyft and by diverging from
thence to the retina, will form a very confufed image
thereon : and fo, of coutfe, the obferver will have as
confufed a view of the objedl, as if his eye had been too
flat. This inconvenience is remedied by placjpg a con¬
cave glafs ^ before the eye; which glafs, by caufing
the rays to diverge between it and the eye, lengthens the
focal diftance fo; that if the glafs be properly chofen, the.
rays will unite at the retina, and form a diftindt pidture
of the.objedl up7>n it.
Such eyes as have their humours of a due convexity,
cannot fee any objedt diftindliy at a lefs diftance than fix.
inches ; and there are numberlefs objedts too fmalljo be
feen at that diftance, becaufe they cannot appear under
any fenfible angle. The method of viewing fuch minute
objedt3|is by a microfcops; of which there are three forts,.
viz, the Jingle, the double, and the fslar.
Of Microscopes.
'Thk/ingle microfcope is only a fmall convex glafs, as
cd, (No. 17.) having the objedt ab placed in its focus,
and the eye at the fame diftance on the other £de ;
fo that the rays of each pencil; flowing from every point
of the objedt on the fide next the glafs, may go on pa¬
rallel
O P T
Tall el to the eye after p. fling through the glafs ; and then,
hy entering the eye at Ct they will be converged to as
many different points on the retina, and form a large in¬
verted phfture AB upon it, as in the figure.
To find how much this glafs magnifies, divide the leafl:
diftance (which is about fix inches) at which an objeft
can be feen diftinflly with the bare eye, by the focal dif-
tance of the glafs ; and the quotient will (hew how much
the glafs magnifies the diameter of the objed.
rThz double or compound microfcope, (No. 18.) confifts
of an ebjedt-glafs cd, and an eye-glafs ef. The fmall
objedt ab \s placed at a little greater diftance from the
giafs c^,than its principal focus, fo that the pencils of rays
flowing from the different points of the objedt, and pars¬
ing through the glafs, may be made to converge and u-
nite in as many points between £ and b, where the image
of the objedt will be formed : which image is viewed by
the eye through the eye-glafs ef. For the eye-glafs be¬
ing fo placed^ that the image may be in its focus, and
the eye much about the fame diflance on the other fide,
the rays of each pencil will be parallel, after going out
of the eye-glafs, as at e and f, till they come to the eye
at k, where they will begin to converge by the refradfive
power of the humours ; and after having croffed each o-
ther in the pupil, and paffed through the chryflalline
and vitreous humours, they will be coliedbed into poin s on
the retina, and form the large inverted image AB thereon.
The magnifying power of this microfcope is as follows.
Suppofe the image.to be fix times.the diftance of the
objedt ab from the objedt-glafs 6d'\ then will the image
be fix, times the length of the objedt: but fince the image
could not be feen diftindtly by the bare eye at a lefs dif¬
tance than fix inches, if it be viewed by an eye-glafs ef,
of one inch focus, it will thereby be brought fix times
nearer the eye ; and confequemly viewed under an angle
fix times as large as before ; fo that it will be again mag¬
nified fix times ; that is, fix times by the objedt^glafs,
and fix times by the eye-glafs ; which multiplied into one
another, makes 36 times ; and fo much is the objedt mag¬
nified if) diameter more than what it appears to the bare
eye ; and confequently 36 times 36-, or 1296 times, in
furface.
But, becaufe the extent or field of view is very fmall
in this microfcope, there are generally two eye-glafies
placed fometimes clofe together, and fometimes an inch
afunder ; by which means, although the objedt appears
lefs magnrfred, yet- the vifible area is much enlarged by
the interpofition of a fecond eye-glafs, and, confequently
a much pleafanter view is obtained.
The jolar microfcope, (No. 19.) invented by Dr Lie-
berkhun, is conftrudted in the- following manner. Having
procured a very dark room, let a round hole be made in
the window-lhutter, about,three inches diameter, through
which the -fun may caft a cylinder of rays A A into the
room. In this hole, place the end of a tube, containing
two convex glaffes and an objedt, viz. 1. A convex glafs
aa, of about two inches diameter, and three inches focal
diftance, is to be placed in that end of the tube which is
put into the hole. ' 2. The objedt bb, -being put between
two glafles (which.-muft be concave to hold it atdiberty)
I C S, 421-
is placed about two inches and a half from the glafs era.,
3. 'A little mare than a quarter of an inch-from the object
is placed the fmall convex gkfs cc, whofe focal diftance
is a quarter of an inch.
The tube may be fo placed, when the fun is low-, that
his rays A A may enter diredtly into it : but when he is
high, his ray? BB muft be refledted into the tube by the
plane mirrour or looking glafs CC.
Things being thus prepared, the rays, that enter the
tube will be conveyed by the glafs aa towards the objedt
bb, by which means it will be ftrongly illuminated ; and
the rays d which flow from it through the convex glafs
cc, will make a large inverted pidlure of the objedl at DD,
which, being received on a white paper, will reprefent
the objedt magnified in length, in proportion of the dif¬
tance of the pidture from the glafs cc, to the diftance of
the objedt from the fame gfafs.. Thus, ftippofe the dif¬
tance of the objedt from the glafs to be T?- parts of an
inch, and the diftance of the diftindt pidture to be 12
feet or 144 indues, in which there, are 1440 tenth? of an
inch ; and this number divided by 3 tenths, gives 400 ;;
which is the number of times the pidture is longer or
broader than the objedt ; and the length multiplied by-
the breadth, ftiews how much the whole furface is mag¬
nified.
, Of Tele scopes*
Before we enter upon the defcription of telefccpes,
it will be proper to (hew how the rays of fight are affec¬
ted by paffing through concave glaffes, and alfo by falling
upon concave mirrours.
Whefl parallel rays, as abcdefgh, (No. 20.) pafs di-
tedtly through a glafs AB, which is equally concave on
both fides, they will diverge after paffing through the glafs,
as if they had come from a radiant point C, in the centre
of the glafs’s concavity ; which point is called the nega¬
tive or virtual focus of the glafs. Thus the ray a, after
paffing through the glafs AB, will go on-in the diredtion
fr, as if it had proceeded from the point C, and no g<lafs
been in the way. The ray £ will go on in the dirediion
mn ; the ray c in the direftion 0/, &c.—The ray C, that
falls diredtly upon the middle of the glafs, fuffers no
refradtion in paffing through jt; but goes on in the fame
:rediilineal diredtion, as if no glafs had been in its way .
If the.glafs had been concave only on one fide, and the
' other fide quite plane, the rays would have diverged, af¬
ter paffing through it, as if they had come from a radiant
point at double the diftance of d7 from the glafs ; that iss
as if the radiant had been at the diftance of- a whole dia¬
meter of-the glafs?s conc'avity.
If rays come more convergihg to fuch a glafs, than pa¬
rallel rays, diverge after paffing through it, they will con¬
tinue to converge after paffing through if; but will not
meet fo foon as if no glafs had been in the way, and will
incline.toward-s the fame fide to which they would have
diverged if they had come parallel to-the glafs. Thu-s
the rays f and b, going in a converging ftate^ towards the
edge of the glafs at B, and converging mor£in their way
to it than the parallel rays diverge after paffing through
it, they will go on converging after they pafs through it,
* though
42* OPT
sfeougli In a lefs degree than they did before, and will
meet at /; but if no glafs has been in their way, they
would haTe met at
When parallel rays, (No. 21.) as dfa, Crfib, elc, fall
•tipon a' concave mirrour AB (which is not tranfparent,
but has only the furface AbB of a clear polifh,) they
will be reflected back from that mirroar, and meet in a
point m, at half the diftance of the furface of the mir¬
rour from C the centre of its concavity ; for they will be
rededled at as great an angle from a perpendicular to the
furface of the mirrour, as they fell upon it with regard
?o that perpendicular, but on the other fide thereof.
Thus, let C be the centre of concavity of the mirrour
AbB; and let the parallel rays dfa, Cml, and elc, fall up¬
on it at the points a, b, and c. Draw the lines Cia,
Cmb, and Che, from the centre C to thefe points; and
all thefe lines will be perpendicular to the furface of th.e
mirrour, becaufe they proceed thereto like fo many radii
or fpokes from its centre. Make the angle Cab equal to
the angle daC, and draw the line amh, which will be
the diredtipn of the ray dfa, after it is refledted from the
point a of the mirrour; fo that the angle of incidence
daC, is equal to the angle of refiedtion Cah; the rays
making equal angles with the perpendicular Cia on its
oppofite fides.
Draw alfo the perpendicular Che to the point c, where
the ray elc touches the mirfour; and, having made the
angle Cci equal to the angle Cce, draw the line cmi, which
will be the'courfe of the ray eA:, after it is refledted from
the mirtour.
The ray Cmb palling through the centre of concavity
of the mirrour, and falling upon it at l, is perpendicular
to it; and is therefore refledted back from it in the fame
line bmC.
All thefe refledted rays meet in the point m; and in
-that point the image of the body which emits the paral¬
lel rays da, Cb, and ec, will be formed ; which point is
diflant from the mirrour equal to half the radius bmC of
its concavity.
The' rays which proceed from any celeftial objedt may
be elteemed parallel at the earth; and therefore, the i-
tnages of that objedt will be formed at m, when the re-
■fledting furface of the concave mirrour is turned diredtiy
towards the objedt Hence, the focus m of parallel rays
is not in the centre of the mirrour’s concavity, but half
way between the mirrour and that centre.
The rays which proceed from any remote terreftrial ob-
jedt, are nearly parallel at the mirrour ; not ftridtly fo, but
come diverging to it, in feparate pencils, or, as it were,
bundles tf rays, from each point of the fide of the objedt
next the mirreur ; and therefore they will not be conver¬
ged to a point at the dillance of half the radius of the
inirrour’s concavity from its refledling furface, but into fe¬
parate points at a little greater diftance from the mir¬
rour. And the nearer the objedl is to the mirrour, the
farther thefe points will be from it ; and an inverted i-
mage of the objedt will be formed in them, which will
feem to hang pendant in the air; and will be feen by
an eye placed beyond it (with regard to the mirrour)
in all refpedls like the objedt, and as diftind! as the objedt
itfdf, ” J
l c s.
Let AcB, (No. 22.) be the refleQing furface of a mir¬
rour, whofe centre of concavity is at C; and let the up¬
right objedt D£ be placed beyond the centre C, and fend
out a conical pencil of diverging rays from its upper ex¬
tremity /?, to every point of^the concave furface of the
mirrour AcB. But to avoid confSfion, we only draw
three rays of that pencil, as DA. Dc, DB.
From the centre of concavity C, draw the three right
lines CA, Cc, CB, touching the mirrour in the fame
points where the forefaid rays touch it ; and all tbeie
lines will be perpendicular to the furface of the mirrour.
Make the angle CAd equal to the angle DAC, and
draw the right line Ad for the courfe of the refledted ray
DA: make the angle Ccd equal to the angle DcC, and
draw the right line cd for the courfe of the refledted ray
Dd: make alfo the angle CBd equal to the angle DBG,
and draw the right line Bb for the courfe of the refledted
ray DB. All thefe refledted rays will meet in the point
d, where they will form the extremity d of the inverted
image ed, fimilar to the extremity D of the upright ob¬
jedt Z>£. 6
If the pencil of rays Eg, Eh, be alfo continued to the
mirrour, and their angles of refledtion from it be made
equal to their angles of incidence upon it, as in the for¬
mer pencil from D, they will all meet at the point e by
refledtion, and form the extremity e of the image ed, fi¬
milar to the extremity E of the objedt DE.
And as each intermediate point of the objedt, between
D and E, fends out a pencil of rays in like manner to
every part of the mirrour, the rays of each pencil will
be refledted back from it, and meet in all the intermediate
points between the extremities .rand dof the image; and
fo the whole image will be formed, not at /, half the
diftance of the mirrour from its centre of concavity C;
but at a greater diftance, between i and the objedt DE ;
and the image will be inverted withrefpedi to the objedt.
This being well underftood, the reader will eafily fee
how the image is formed by the large concave mirrotir of
the refledting telefcope, when he comes to the defeription
of that inftrument.
When the objedt is more remote from the mirrour
than its centre of concavity C, the image will be lefs
than the objedt, and between the objedt and mirrour :
when the objedt is nearer than the centre of concavity,
the image will be more remote and bigger than the ob¬
jedt : thus, if DE be the objedt, ed will be its image :
for, as the objedt recedes from the mirrour, the image
approaches nearer to it; and as the objedt approaches
nearer to the mirrour, the image recedes farther from it;
on account of the lefler or greater divergency of the
pencils of rays which proceed from the objedt: for, the
lefs they diverge, the fooner they are converged to points
by refledtion ; and the more they diverge, the farther
they muft be refledted before they meet.
If the radius of the mirrour’s concavity, and the dif¬
tance of theobjedt from it, be known, the diftance of the
image from the roirrour is found by this rule; Divide the
produdt of the diftance and radius by double the diftance
made lefs by the radius, and the quotient is the diftance
required.
If the objedt be in the centre of the mirrour’s con¬
cavity.
OPT
cavity, the lipage andobjeft will be coincident, and equal
in bulk.
If a man places himlelf dire&ly before a large concave
mirrour,, but farther from it than its centre of concavity,
he jvili fee an inverted image of himfelf in the air, be¬
tween him and the mirrour, of a lefs fize than himfelL
And if he holds out his hand towards the mirrour, the
hand of the image will come out towards his hand, and
coincide with it, of an equal bulk, when his hand is in
the centre of concavity; and he will imagine he may fhake
hands with his image. If he reaches his hand farther,
the hand of the image will pafs by his hand, and come
between his hand and his body: and if he moves his
hand towards either fide, the hand of the image will
move towards the other; fo that whatever way the ob¬
ject moves, the image will move the contrary.
' All the while a by-fiander will fee nothing of the i-
mage, becaufe none of the reflected rays that form it enter
his eyes.
If a fire be made in a large room, and a fmooth ma-
hogony table be placed at a good diftance near the wall,
before a large concave mirrour,^fo placed, that the light
.of the fire may be reflected from the mirrour to its focus
upon the table ; if a perfon Hands by the table, he will
fee nothing upon it but a longifh beam of light: but if
he Hands at a diHance towards the fire, not direCtly be¬
tween the fire and mirrour, he will fee an image of the fire
upon the table, large and ereft. And if another perfon,
who knows nothing of this matter before hand, fhould
chance to come into the room, andfhould look from the fire
towards the table, he would be Hartled at the appearance;
for the table would feem to be on fire, and, by being near
the wainfcot, to endanger the whole houfe. In this ex¬
periment, there Ihould be no light in the room but what
proceeds from the fire; and "the mirrour ought to be at
leafi fifteen inches in diameter.
If the fire be darkened by a fcreen, and a large candle
be placed at the back of the fcreen ; a perfon Handing by
the candle will fee the appearance of a fine large flar, or
rather planet, upon the table, as bright as Venus or Jupi¬
ter. And if a fmali wax taper (whofe flame is much lefs
.than the flame of the candle) be placed near the candle, a
fatellite to the planet will appear .on the table : and if the
taper be moved round the candle, the fatellite will go
round the planet.
In a ref ratting telefcope, the glafs which is neareft the
objeCl in viewing it is called the and that which
is nearefl the eye is called the eye-'glafs. The objeCl-
glafs mufl be cbnvex, but the eye-glafs may be either con.
vex or concave: and generally, in looking through a te¬
lefcope, the eye is in the focus of the eye-glafs ; though
that is not very, material: for the diflance of the eye, as
to diHinfl vifion, is indifferent, provided the rays of the
pencils fall upon it parallel: only, the nearer the eye is
to the end of the telefcope, the larger is the fcope or area
of the field of view.
Let cd(No. 23.) be a convex glafs fixed in a long tube,
and have its focus at E. Then, a pencil of rays ghit
Rowing from the upper extremity A oithe remote objeft
Add, will be fo refra<fled by palling through the glafs, as
to converge and meet in the point f; whilH the pencil of
jays him, flowing from the lower extremity B of the
Vol. III. N0. 87. 2
I c S. 423
fame objed AB, and paffing through theglifs, will con¬
verge and meet in the point e: and the images of the
points A and B will be formed in the points /'and e. And
as all the intermediate points of the objeft, between A
■ and B, fend out pencils of rays in the fame manner, a fuf-
ficient number @f thefe pencils will pafs through the ob-
jedt-glafs cd, and converge to as many intermediate points
between e andf\ and fo will form the whole inverted i-
mage of the diflind objcd. But becaufe this image
is final!, a poncave glafs no is fo placed in the end of the
tube next the eye, that its virtual focus may be at F.
And as the pencils of rays pafs converging through the
concave glafs, but converge lefs after paffing through it
than before, they, go on further, as to b and a, before
they meet; and the pencils themfelves being made to
diverge by palling through the cuncave glafs, they enter
the eye,' and form the large pidure ab upon the retina,
whereon it is magnified under the angle bFa.
But this telefcope has one inconveniency which renders
it unfit for moft purpofes, which is, that the pencils of
rays being made to diverge by paling through the con¬
cave glafs no, very few of them can enter the pupil of the
eye; and therefore the field of view is but very fmali,
as is evident by the figure. For none of the pencils
which flow either from the top or bottom of the objed AB
can enter the pupil of the eye at E, but are all Hopt by
falling upon the iris above and below the pupil: and there¬
fore, only the middle part of theobjed can be feen when
the telefcope lies diredly towards it, by means of thofe
rays which proceed from the middle of the objed. So
that to fee the whole of it, the telefcope mufl be moved
upwards and downwards, unlefs the.objed be very re¬
mote ; and then it is never feen diflindjy.
This inconvenience is remedied by fubflituting a con¬
vex eye-glafs, as gb, (No. 24.) in place of the concave
one ; and fixing it fo in the tube, that its focus may
be coincident with the focus of the objed-glafs cd,
as at E. For then, the.rays of the pencils flowing
from the objed AB, and paffing through the objed-glafs
cd, will meet in its focus, and form the inverted i-
mage mEp : and as the image is formed in the focus
of the eye-glafs the rays of each pencil will be pa¬
rallel, after paffing through that glads ; but the pencils
themfelves will crofs in its focus on the other fide, as at
e: and the pupil of the eye being in this focus, the i-
mage will be viewed through the glafs, under the angle
geh ; and being at E, it will appear magnified, fo as to
fill the whole fpace CmepD.
But, as this telefcope inverts the image with refped
to the objed, it gives an unpleafant-view of tefreflrial
objeds-; and is only fit for viewing' the heavenly bo¬
dies, in which we regard not their pofition, becanfe their
being inverted does not appear on account of their being
round. But whatever way the objed leems to move,
this telefcope mufl be moved the contrary way, in order
to keep fight of it; for, fince the objed is inverted, its
motion will he fo too.
The magnifying power of this telefcope is as the focal
diftance of the objed-glafs to the focal diflance of the
eye-glafs. Therefore, if the former be divided by the
latter, the quotient will exprefs the magnifying power.
When we fpeakof the magnifying of a telefcope or micro-
5 O fcope j
fcope, it is only meant with regard to the diameter, not
to the area nor folidity of the object. But as the iniiru-
ment magnifies the vertical diameter, as much as it does
the horizontal, itis eafy to find how much the whole.vi-
fible area or furface is magnified: for, if the diameters
be multiplied into one another, the produft will exprefs
the magnification of the whole vifible area. Thus, fup-
•pofe the focal diftance of the objed-glafs be ten times as
great as the focal diftance of the eye-glafs 5 then, the
ebjeft will be magnified ten times, both in length and
breadth : and 10 multiplied by 10, produces 100; which
fhews, that the area of the object will appear 100 times
as big when feen through fuch a telefcope, as it does to
the bare eye.
Hence it appears, that if the focal diftance of the
eye-glais were equal to the focal diftance of the objeft-glafb,
the magnifying power of the-telefcope would be nothing.
This telefcope may be made to magnify in any given
degree, provided it be of a iirffictent length. For, the
greater the focal diflance of the objedi-glafs, the lefs
may be the focal diftance of the eye-glafs ; though not
diredhly in proportion. Thus, an objeft-glafs, of 10 feet
focal diftance, will admit of an eye-gtafs whof'e focal dif¬
tance is little more than ai inches ; which will magnify
near 48 times : but an objedt-glafs, of 100 feet focus,
will require an eye-glafs fomewhat more than 6 inches ;
and -will therefore magnify almoft 200 times.
A telefcope for viewing terreftrial objeifls, fhould be
fo conftrmfted, as to fhew them in their natural pofture.
And this is done by one objeft-glafs cd, (No. 25.) and
three eye-glafles ef> gk, ik, fo placed, that the diftance
between any two, which are neareft to each other, may
be equal to the fum of their focal diftances ; as in the fi¬
gure, where the focus of the glafles cd and ef meet at F,
i hofe of the glafles ef and gh meet at /, and of gh and
ik at m ; the eye being at », in or near the focus of the
eye-glafs ik, on the other fide. Then, it is plain, that
thefe pencils of rays, which flow from the objed AB, and
pafs through the objed-glafs cd, will meet and form an
inverted image CFD in the focus of that glafs ; and the
image being alfo in the focus of the glafs ef, the rays of
the pencils will become parallel, after palling through that
glafs, and crofs at /, in the focus of the glafs ef, from
whence they pak on to the next glafs gh, and by going
through it they are converged to points in its other focus,
•where they form an ereft image EmF of the objed AB :
and as this image is alfo in the focus of the eye-glafs ik,
and the eye on the oppofite fide of the fame glafs ; the i-
mage is viewed through the eye glafs in this telefcope, in
the fame manner as through tbe eye-glafs in the former
one ; only in a contrary pofition, that is, in the fame
pofition with the objed. „
The three glafles next the eye have all their focal
diftances equal : and the magnifying power of this tele¬
fcope is found the fame way as that of the laft above; viz.
by dividing the focal diftance of the objed-glafs cd, by
the focal diftance of the eye-glafs'z'/i, or gh, or ef fince
all thefe three are equal. ' *
When the rays of light are feparated by refradion,
they become coloured ; and if they be united again, they
will be a perfed white. But thofe rays which pafs
I c s.
through a convex ghfs near its edges are more unequally
refraded than thofe which are nearer the middle of the
ghfs. And when the rays of any pencil are unequally
refraded by the glafs, they do not all meet again in one
and the fame point, but in fepafate points; which makes
the image indiftind, and coloured, about its edges. The
remedy is, to have a plate with a fmall round hole in its
middle, fixed in the tube at m, parallel to the glaffes'.
For, the wandering rays about the edges of the glafles
will be ftopt, by the plate, from coming to the eye; and
none admitted but thofe which come through the middle
of the glafs, or at kaft at a good diftance from its edges,
and pafs through the hole in the middle of the plate.
But this circumfciibes the image, and Jeflecs the field
of view, which would-be much larger if the plate could
be difpenfed with.
The great inconvenience attending the management of
long telefcopes of this kind, has brought them much into
difufe ever fince the refledting telefcope was invented.
’ For one of this fort, fix feet in length, magnifies as much
as one of the other an hundred. It was invented by Sir /-
faac Newton, but has received confiderable improvements
fince his time; and is now generally conftrudfed in the fol¬
lowing manner, which was firft propofed by Dr Gregory.
At the bottom of the great tube TTFT, (No. 26.) is
placed the large concave roirrour DUFF, whofe principal
focus is at m; and in its middle is a round hole P, op-
pofite to which is placed the fmall mirrour L, concave
toward the great one ; and fo fixed to a ftrong wire A/,
that it may be moved farther from the great mirrour, or
nearer to.ii, by means of a long ferew on the outfide of
the tube, keeping its axis ftill in the fame line Pmn with
that of the great one.—Now, fince in viewing a very re¬
mote objeft, we can fcarce fee a point of it but what is
at leaf! as broad as the great mirrour, we may confider
the rays of each pencil, which flow from every point of
the objeifl, to be parallel to each other, and to cover the
whole reflefling furface DUFF. But to avoid confufion
in the figure, we fhall only draw two rays of a pencil
flowing from each extremity of the objedf into the great
tube, and trace rheir progrefs, through all their reflexions
and refraXions, to the eye f, at the end of the fmaM
tube tt, which is joined to the great one.
Let us then fuppofe the objeX AB to be at fuch a dt-
ftan'ce, that the rays 5 may flow from its lower extremi¬
ty B, and the rays E from its upper extremity A. Then
the rays C falling parallel upon the great mirrour at D,
will be thence refleXed converging, in the direXion DG;
and by drofliug at 1 in the principal focus of the mirrour,
they will form the upper extremity / of the inverted i-
mage //f,.finjilar to the lower extremity i? of the objeX
AB: and pafling on to the concave.mirrour L (whofe fo¬
cus is at n) they will fall j>p>on it at g, and be thence re¬
fleXed converging, in the direXion gN, becaufe gm is
longer than gn; and pafiiug through the hole/* in the
large mirrour, they would meet fb me where-about r, and
form the lower extremity B of the ereX ira^ge AB, fi-
miiar to the lower extremity B of the objeX AB. But by
palling through-the plano-convex glafs/? in their way*
they form that extremity of the image at h. In like man¬
ner, the-rays Is, which come from the top of the objeX
OPT
dli, and-fall parallel upon the great mirrcur at F, are
thence reflected converging to its focus, where they form
the lower extremity K of the inverted image/if, firm far
to the upper extremity A of thd' objedt AB-, and thence
pafling on to the fmail mirrour L, and falling upon it at
b, they are thence refledted in the converging Hate hO)
and going on through the hole P of the great mirrour,
they would meet fomewhere about q, and form there the
upper extremity a of the eredt image ab, fimilar to the
upper extremity A of the objedT but by palling
through the convex glafs ift in their way, they meet and
crefs fooner, as at a, where that point of the eredi image
is formed.—The like being, underftood of all thofe rays
which flow from the intermediate points of the objedb
between A and B, and enter the tube TT\ all the inter¬
mediate points of the image between a and b will be form¬
ed ; and the rays pafling on from the'image, through the
eye-glafs S, and through a fmail hole e in the end of the
lefier tube tt, they enter the eye f, (which fees the image
ab by means of the eye-glafs) under the large angle ced,
and magnified in length under that angle from c to d.
' In the belt refledting telefqopes, the focus of the fmall
mirrour is never coincident with the focus m of the great
one,'where the fiifl: image IK is formed, but a little be-
yojid it (with refpedl to the eye) as at w; the confequence'
'of which is, that the rays of the pencils will not be p,aial-
lel after refledlion from the fmall mirrour, but converge
fo as'to meetin points about q,e,r\ where they would form
a larger upright image thanai, if the glafs R was not in
their way ; and this image might, be viewed by means of
a fingle eye glafs properly placed between the image and
the eye; but then the field of view would be Jefs, and
confequemly not fo pleafant ; for which reafon, the
glafs R is ftill retained, to enlarge the fcope or area of
the field.
To find the magnifying power of this telefcope, mul¬
tiply the focal diftance of the great mirrour by the difiance
of the fmali mirrcur from the image next the eye, and
multiply the focal difiance of the fmall mirrour by the
focal difiance of the eye-glafs ; then, divide the produdt
of the former multiplication "by the produdl of the latter,
and the quotient will exprefs the magnifying power.
We fnall here fet down the dimenfions of one of Mr.
Short’s refledting telefcopes, as deferibed in Dr. Smith’s
optics.
The focal diftance of the great mirrour 9.6 inches, its
breadth 2.3; the focal diftance of the fmall fnir-rour 1.5,
its breadth 0.6 ; the breadth of the hole in the great mir¬
rour 0.5 ; the diftance between the fmali mirrour and the
next tye-glafs 14,2 ; the diftance between the two eye-
gla{Tes2.4; the focal diftance of the eye-glafs next the
metals 3.8 ; and the focal diftance of the eye-glafs next
the eye 1.1.
One great advantage of the refledbing telefcope is, that
it will admit of an eye-glafs of a much fhorter focal di¬
ftance than a refradling telefeope will ; and, confequent-
3y, it will magnify fo much the more : for the rays are
not coloured by refledfion from a concave mirrour, if it
be ground to a true figure, as they are by pafling through
a convex glafs* let it be gfound ever fo true.
The adjufting ferew on the outfidc of the great tube
fits thistelefcopes to all forts of eyes, by bringing the fmail -
mirrour either nearer to the eye, or removing it farther ;
by which means, the rays are made to diverge a little for
ftiorc-fighted eyes, or to converge for thofe of a long fight.
The hearer an objedt is to the telefcope, the more its
pencils of rays will diverge before they fall upon the
great mirrour, and therefore they will be the longer of
meeting in points after refledbion ; fo that thefirft image.
IK will be formed at a greater diftance from the large
mirrour, when the objedb is near the telefcope, than
when it is very remote. But as this image muft be
formed farther from the fmall mirrour than its princi.
pal focus n, this mirrour muft be always fet at a greater
diftance from the large one, in viewing near objedts, thaa
in viewing remote ones. And this is done by turning
the ferew on the outfide of the tube, until the fmall mir¬
rour be fo adjiifted, that the objedb (or rather its image)
appears perfedb.
In looking through any telefcope towards an objedb,
1 we never fee'the objedb itfelf, but only that image of it
which is formed next the eye in the telefcope. For if a •
man holds his finger or a ftitk between his bare eye and
an objedb, it will hide part (if not the whole) of the'
objedt from his view. But if he ties a ftick acfols
the mouth of a telefcope before the objedb-glafs, it will
hide n&part of the imaginary objedb he faw through the
telefcope before, unlefs it covers the whole mouth of the
tube: for, all the efftdt will be, to make the objedt ap¬
pear dimmer, becaufe it intercepts part of the rays.
Whereas, if he puts only a piece of wire acrofs the in-
fide of the tub, between the eye-glafs and his eye, it will
hide part of. the objedt which he thinks he fees: which
proves, that he fees.not the real objedt, but its image.
This is alfo confirmed by means cf the final! mirrour Lt
in the- refledbing telefcope, which is mafte of opake metal,
and ftands diredtly between the eye and'-the objedt to¬
wards which the telefcope is turned ; and will hide the
whole objedb from the eye at e, if the two glafles R and ,
S are taken out of the tube.
Of the Multiplying Glass;
The multiplying glafs is made by grinding down the -
round fide hik (No, 27.) of a convex glafs AB, into fe-
. veral flat furfaces, as kb, bid, dk, An objedb C will not
appear magnified when feen through this glafs by the
eye at H ; but it will appear multiplied into as many dif¬
ferent objedts as the glafs contains plane furfaces. For,
fince rays will flow from the objedt C to all parts of the
gla!s, and each plane furface wiii refradt thefe rays to the
eye,'the fame objedb will appear to the eye in the di-
redtion of the rays which enter'it through each furface,.
Thus, a ray giH, falling perpendicularly on the middle
fur face, will go through the glafs to the eve without fuf,
fering any refradtion ; and will therefore fhew the objedt
in its true place at C: whilft- a ray ab flowing from the
fame objedb, apd,falling obliquely on the plane furface
bh, will be refradted in the diredtion be, by palling thro’
the glafs ; and upon leaving it, will go on to the eye in
the direction eH ; which will caufe the fame objedt (7to
appear alfo at £, in the diredtion of the ray He, produ¬
ced in the right line Hen. And the ray cd, flowing from
the.
4«S OPT
the o'jefl C, and failing obliquely on the plane fur face
dk, will be refrafted (by palling through the glafs and
leaning it at/) to the eye at i/; which will caufe the
fame objea to appear at D, in the direction Hfm.—If
the glafs be turned round the line glH, as an axis, the
object C will keep its place, becaufe the furface bld\% not
removed ; but all the other objects will feem to go round
C, becaufe the oblique planes, on which the rays ab cd
fall, will go round'-by the turning of the glafs.
Of the Camera Obscura.
The camera obfcura is made by a convex-glafs CD,
(Ho. 28.) placed in a hole of a window-ftunter. Then,
if the room be darkened fo, as no light can enter but
what comes throOgh the glafs, the pictures of all the ob¬
jects (as fields, trees, buildings, men, cattle, &c.) on the
outfide, will be {hewn in an inverted ottler, on a white
paper placed at GH in the focus of the glafs ; and will
• afford a muff beautiful and perfect piece of perfpeCtive or
bndfcape of whatever is before the glafs, efpecially if
the fun {bines upon the objects. _
If the convex glafs CD be placed in a tube in the fide
of a fqaare box, within which is the plane nfirrour .ET,
reclining backwards in an angle of 45 degrees from the
perpendicular kq, the pencils of rays flowing from the
outward objeCts, and pafling through the convex glafs to
the plane mirrour, will be reflected upwards from it, and
meet in points, as 1 and K (at the fame diflance that
they would have met at H and G, if the mirrour had
not been in the way,) and will form the afbrefaid images
on an oiled paper ftretched horizontally in.the direction
JK\ on which paper, the out-lines of the images may
be eafily drawn with a black-lead pencil; at)d then co¬
pied on a dean flieet, and coloured by art, as the objeCts
themfelves are by nature.—In this machine, it is ufual
to place a plane glafs, unpoliflied, in the horizontal fi-
tuation IK, which glafs receives the images of the out¬
ward objeCts ; and their outlines may be traced upon it
by a black-lead pencil.
N. B. The tube in which the convex glafs CD is
fixed, muff be made to draw out, or pufh in, fo as to
adjuft the ddldnce of that glafs from the plane mirrour,
in proportion to the diftance of the outward objeCts;
which tile operator does, until he fees their images di-
ftinCtiy pointed on the horizontal glafs at IK.
The forming a horizontal image, as IK, of an upright
objeCt dlB, depends upon the angles of incidence of the
rays upon the plane mirrour EF, being equal to their an¬
gles of reflection from it. For, if a perpendicular be
fuppofed to be drawn to tire furface of theplane mirrour
at e, where the ray JaCe falls upon it, that ray will be
reflected upwards in tin equal angle with the other fide of
the perpendicular, in the line edl. Again, if a perpen¬
dicular be drawn to the mirrour from the point /, where
the ray Abf falls upon it, that ray will be reflected in an e-
qual angle from the other fide of the perpendicular, in
the line fhl. And if a perpendicular be drawn from the
pointy, where the ray Acg falls upon the mitrour, that
ray will be reflected in an equal angle from the other fide
of the perpendicular, in the line gil. So that all the
rays of the pencil abc, flowing From the upper extremi-
I c s.
ty of the objeCt AB, and pafling through the convex glafs
CD, to the plane mirrour FF, will be reflected from the
mirrour, and meet at I, where they will form the ex¬
tremity I of the image IK, fimilar to the extremity A of
the objeft AB. The like is to be underffood of the
pencil qrs, flowing from the lower extremity of the ob¬
ject AB, and meeting at K (after reflection from the
plane mirrour) the rays form the extremity K of the i-
mage, fimilar to the extremity 2?-of the objeCt: and fo
of all the pencils that flow from the intermediate points
of the objeCt to the mirrour, through the convex glafs.
Of the Opera-Glass.
If a convex glafs, of a fliort focal diftance, be placed
near the plane mirrour in the end of a ftiort tube, and a
convex glafs be placed in a hole in the fide of the
tube, fo as the image may be formed between the
laft mentioned convex glafs and the plane mirrour;
the image -being viewed-through this glafs, will appear
magnified.—In this manner, the opera-glajfet are con-
ftruCted ; with which a gentleman may look at any la¬
dy at a diftance in the company, and the lady know
nothing of it.
Of the Common Looking-Glass. -
The image.of any objeCt that is placed before a plane
mirrour appears as big to the eye as the objeCt itfelf;
and is ereCt, diftinCt, and feemingly as far behind the
mirrour, as the objeCt is before it: and that part of the
mirrour, which reflects the image of the objeCt to the eye
(the eye being fuppofed equally diftant from the glafs with
the objeCt) is juft half as long and half as broad as the
objeCt itfelf. Let AB (No. 29 ) be an objeCt placed
before the reflecting furface of the plain mirrour CD;
and let the eye be at 0. Let Ah be a ray of light flow¬
ing from the top A of the objeCt and falling upon the
mirrour at h, and hm be a perpendicular to the fur¬
face of the mirrour at h‘, the ray Ah will be reflected from
the mirreur to the eye at 0, making an angle mho -e-
qual to the angle Ahm : then will the top of the image
E appear to the eye in the direction of the reflected ray
oh produced to E, where the right line ApE, from the
top of the objeCt, cuts the right line ohE, at E. Let
Bi be a ray of light proceeding from the foot of the ob¬
ject at B to the mirrour at i ; and ni a perpendicular
to the mirrour from the point /, where the ray Bi falls
upon it: this ray will be reflected in the line to, making
an angle nio, equal the angle Bin, with that per¬
pendicular, and entering the eye at o’; then will the
foot F of the image appear in the direction of the
reflected ray oi, produced to F, where the right line
BE cuts the reflected ray produced to F. All the 0-
ther rays that flow from the intermediate points of
the objeCt AB, and fall upon the mirrour between h
and i, will be reflected to the eye at c ; and all the in¬
termediate points of the image EF will appear to the eye
in the direction of thefe reflected rays produced. But
‘ all the rays that flow from the objeCt, and fall upon the
mirrour above h, will be reflected back above the eye at
0 ; and all the rays that flow from the objeCt, and fall
upon the mirrour below i, will be reflected back below
the
OPT
the eye at o : fo that none of the rays that fall above h,
or below i, can be reflefted to the eye at o; and the dif-
tance between b and / is equal to half the length of the
objetf AB.
Hence it appears, that if a man fees his whole image
in a plane looking-glafs, the part of the glafs that refledts
his image muft be juft half as long and half as broad as
himfelf, let him ftand at any diftance from it whatever;
and that his image muft appear juft as far behind the
giafs as he is before it. Thus, the man ^2? (No. 30.)
viewing himfelf in the plane nm-rour CD which is juft
half as long-as himfeif, fees his whole image as at EF,
behind the glafs, exadly equal to his own (ize. For,
a ray AC, proceeding from.his eye at A, and falling
perpendicularly upon the furface of the glafs at C, is re
fledted back to his eye, in the fame line CA \ and the
eye of his image will appear at E, in the fame line pro¬
duced to E, beyond the glafs. And a ray BD, flowing
from his foot, and falling obliquely on the glafs at D,
will be refledted as obliquely on the other fide of the
perpendicular in the diredfion DA\ and the foot
of his image will appear at F, in the direction of the re-
fledted ray AD, produced to F, where it is cut by the
right line BGF', drawn parallel to the right line ACE.
Juft the fame as if the glafs were taken away, and a real
man flood at F, equal in fize to the man ftanding at B:
for to his eye at A, the eye of the other man at E would
be feen in the diredtion' of the line ACE ; and the foot
of the man at F would be feen by the eye A, in the di¬
redtion of the line ADF.
If the glafs be brought nearer the man AB, as fuppofe
to cb, he will fee his image as at CDG : for the reflec¬
ted ray CA (being perpendicular to the glafs) will fhew
the eye of the image as at C ; and the incident ray Bb,
being refledted in the line bA, will fhew the foot of his
image as at (7; the angle of refledtion being always
equal to the angle of incidence Bba: and fo of all the
intermediate rays from A to B. Hence, if the man AB
advances towards the glafs CD, his image will approach
towards it ; and if he recedes from the glafs, his image
will alfo recede from it.
Of the Magic Lantern.
ABCD (No. 31.) is a tin lantern, with a tube nklm
fixed in the fide of it. ,This tube confifts of two joints,
one of which flips into the other: and by drawing this
joint out, or pulhing it in, the tube may be made longer
or ftiorter. At kl in the end of the moveable joint of
^be tube a convex lens is fixed, and ap objedt painted
with tranfparentcolours upon a piece of thin glafs is pla¬
ced at dV fomewhere in the immoveable joint of the tube;
fo that as the tube is lengthened or Ihortened, the lens
Will be either at a greater or a lefs diftance from this
tranfparent objedt. In the fide of the lantern there is a
very convex lens bhc, which ferves to caft a very ftrong
light from the candle within the'lantern upon the objed
4e Now when the rays, which fhine through the ob-
jedt zfe, diverge from the feveral points as .i, e, 8tc. in
the objedt, and fall upon the lens bl, they will be made
to converge to as many points f g, See. on the other fide
of the-lens, and will paint an inverted pidfure of the
Vox.. Ill N» 87. • 2
I C S. 427
objedl at fg upon a white wall, a flieet or a fereen of
white paper, provided the objedt is farther from the lens
than its principal focus. To make this picture appear
diftinct and bright, it muft have no other light fall up¬
on it but what comes through the lens ki; and for this
reafon the whole apparatus is to be placed in a dark
rodm EFGH. The lens 2/ muft be very convex, fo that
the object e/e maybe very near to it, and yet not be near¬
er than its principal focus: for by this means, as the
objedt is near to the lens, the pidture fg will be at a
great diftance from it, and confequently the pidture will
be much bigger than the objedt, Since the pidture is
inverted in refpedt of the object, in order to make the
picture appear with the right end upwards, it is necef-
fary that the object de Ihould be placed with the wrong
end upwards.
Of the Different Refrangibility c/Light,
We have hitherto fuppofed that a particle of light, -as
it comes from the fun, is the leaft particle into which light
can be feparated. But we muft now correct this fup-
pofition, by {hewing, that a particle of light, as it comes
from the fun, is, properly fpeaking, a bundle of rays,
which may be feparated from one another. Therefore,
for the future, by a ray of light we muft be underftood to
mean, not that collection of particles which we hare
hitherto called by this name, but the leaft particles in¬
to which light can be feparated.
Rays of light are faid to be differently refrangible,
•when at the fame er equal angles of incideniefeme
are more turned out of the way than others.
Rays are faid to be differently reflexible, if fame an
more eafily refs fled than others.
Light is called homogeneous, when all the rays are e-
qually refrangible : it is called heterogeneous, when
feme rays are more refrangible than others.
The colours of homogeneous light are called primary or
fmple colours ; and thofe of heterogeneous light are
called fecondary or mixed.
The rays of the fun are not all equally refrangible ;
and thofe rays, which have a different degree of re~
frangibility, have likewife a different colour.
__ If a beam of light SF, (No. 32.) that cgmes from
the fun, pafiesinto a dark room through F a round hole
in a window fhufter EG ; this beam proceeding ftraight
forwards, and falling upon a paper at Y, would there make
a round pidture of the fua. This pidture would be a
confufed one indeed, if the hole is a large one and there is
no lens in the hole. However, as this round fpot of light
is a pidture of the fun, we (hall hereafter, notwithftand-
ing its confufion, call it by this name. Now if a glafs
prifm ABC is placed between the hole in the window-
{flutter and the paper at Y. the rays of this beam, by the
refradtion which they fuffer in the prifm, will be bent
from their (trait courfe, and inftead of going on fo as to
fall upon the paper at Y, they will be turned upwards,
and the pidture of the fun produced by them will -ra!l up¬
on a paper MN that is placed above Y. If all the rays
5 P wets .
<423 OPT
v.ere equally bent upwards, the pi&ure would be a round
one upon the paper MN, after the rays have been re¬
fracted, as v/ell as when they paffed ftraight forwards and
fell upon a paper at Y. But this refrafted picture PTis
found to beoblong. The horizontal diameter or breadth
of this oblong picture is equal to the diameter of the cir¬
cular one Y : but the perpendicular diameter or height
cf the picture PT is much greater than its breadth. The
refraCtion is made upwards, and net in a. horizontal direc¬
tion : therefore no alteration ought to be made in the
breadth or horizontal diameter of the picture; becaufe
no refraCtion, that is not in the direction of that diame¬
ter, can make the picture either broader or narrower.
.And if all the rays were equally refraCted upwards, fuch ,
a refraCtion would not change the length of the picture ;
as.it is round when it falls at Y, fo it would be round
when it is refraCted upwards by theprifm and falls atPT.
This oblong picture confifls therefore of rays, which are
differently refrangible : they all fall at equal angles of
obliquity upon BC the firft fide of the prifm, but in the
refraCtion fotne are more turned out of the way than
others : thdfe rays which go to P, the upper part of the
picture, are the moft refrangible ; and thofe which go to
T, the lower part of it, are leait refrangible: the reft,
which fall between P and T, have intermediate degrees of
refrangibility.
This oblong picture is of different colours in different
parts of it. The moft refrangible rays at P are violet, the
leaft refrangible at T are red; the rays of intermediate
refrangibility from the violet downwards to the red are
indigo-coloured, blue, green, yellow, and orange. So
that the whole picture is made up of rays of thefe feven
different colours. We may from hence fee the reafon
why the coloured pifture confifting of differently refran-
mble rays fhould beoblong, in fuch a manner that the two
fides of it are right lines, and the two ends femicircles.
For it confifts (as in No. 33.) of feven circles, thehigheft
of which PAGQJs violet, the loweft STN is red,, the
five intermediate ones, BH, Cl, DK, EL, OM, are
indigo coloured, blue, green, yellow, and orange. The
white round picture Y, (No. 32.) is formed by hetero¬
geneous rays, that are of feven different forts, diftin-
guilhed from one another by their different degrees of
refrangibility and different colours. The refraCtion of
the prifm feparates theft rays from one another by re¬
fracting fome of them more and others lefs. And confe-
quently the refraCted picture will confift of ftven round
pictures one below another. Theft round pictures are fo
near to each other, that the higheft of them APGR will
mix itftlf with fome of thofe below it, as with BH and
CQI. This nearnefs of theft ftveral round pictures to
each other will prevent their colours from being diftinCtljr
ften ; it will likewift make the fides AS, GN, which
are compoftd offmall arcs of circles very cloft to one a-
nother, appear like right lines ; but the two ends p and
T will be femicircles.
If the centres of theft circles continue at the fame dif-
tahee from one another, and the circles themftives are
made lefs, as srpg, bh, ci, di, <?/, om, stn, they will
then be diftinCt or will not mix with each other ; and
as the colours of the feveral parts will by this means
I c s.
be kept ftparate, fo the refracted rays, inftead of form¬
ing one continued oblong picture, will form ftven fmall
circular ones placed in a line perpendicular to the horizenv
This ftparation of the ftveral parts in the refraCted pic¬
ture from each other is brought about, (ai in No. 34.)
by making the hole F in the window-fhutter very fmall,
and by collecting the rays that come through it with a con¬
vex lens MN. For this will make a very fmall white
picture of the fun at L, if there is no prifm dbc: but the
refraCtion of this prifm, if it is placed a little beyond the
lens, will ftparate the heterogeneous rays by refraCting
them upwards ; and inftead of one fmall round and white
picture at L, there will be feven fmall round pictures at
PT, of which r will be violet, s indigo, u blue, * green
/ yellow, jr orange, and z red.
That the prifm ABC (No. 32.) does not make the
rays diverge, fo as to fpread over thefpace PT, upon any
ocher account but their different refrangtbility,. will be
evident, if (as in No. 35.) a ftcond prifm DH is pla¬
ced beyond the firft abc. For if. the rays that come
from S and pafs through the hole F of the window {but¬
ter EG, were by the firft prifm abc made to diverge and
form the oblong picture PT upon any other account be-
fides their different refrangibility ; then, fuppofing a ft¬
cond prifm DH to be placed at right angles to the for¬
mer, the effeCt muft be this ; the firft prifm abc makes
the rays diverge from one another in a line PT perpen¬
dicular to the horizon, and conftquently the fecond prifm
DH muft make them diverge from one another in aline
parallel to the horizon; fo that the ftcond prifm would
increaft the breadth of the picture, as much as the firft
increaftd its length; and as one prifm alone makes the
picture a long one, both of them together would make it
fquare, as prsf. But this ftcond refraCtion does not alter
the figure of the picture, but only the pofition of it:
the ftcond prifm refraCts the picture (ideways ; and thofe
rays, which fell the higheft at P after the firft refrac¬
tion, are refraCted fideways the moft by the ftcond prifm;.
thoft which fell the loweft at T are refraCted fideways the
leaft; by which means the picture, though it continues ob¬
long, will not be perpendicular tothe horizon as PT was, but
will be inclined fo as to lie in the pofitionpt This makes it e-
vident, that the fpreading of the rays by the firft refraCtion
was owing to their different refrangibility, and to no other,
cauft. It muft be owing to their different refrangibi-.
lity, becauft tboft which were moft refraCted upwards
by the firft prifm are moft refraCted fideways by the
ftcond. It cannot be owing to any other caufe, becaufe
if it was, the ftcond prifm would fpread the rays in
breadth as much as the firft prifm fpreads them in length,
and both prifms would make the picture fquare.
T'bofe rays of light, 'which are mojl refrangible, are
likenwife meji reflexible.
When a beam of light is admitted into a dark chamber
through the hole F in the window-fhutter EG, (No. 36.)
and this beam falls upon a prifm ACBi the fides of which
AC and AB are equal, and the angle at A a right one ;
when the obliquity of thefe rays, as they are to pafs out
of the prifm at its baft BC, is lefs than 40 degrees, the
greateft part of the beam will pafs out, but fome 'sw rays
OPT
will be refle&ed at the furface BC. The rays, which pafs
through the bafe, foim an oblong coloured pifture HK,
where MH is a more refrangible ray, and MK a lefs re¬
frangible one. If the few rays of the beam, which are
refle<5led from M in the diredfion MN, are made to pafs
thiough another prifm XYV, they will likewife form an
oblong coloured pidure pt, where p is the moft refran¬
gible and t the lead: refrangible ray. This pidture will
be a very/aint one, becaufe there are but few rays re-
flcdfed from M.
Now if the prifm ACB is turned flowly round upon
its axis in the diredtion ACB, the obliquity of the rays
EM to the bafe BC will keep increafing, till at lad this
obliquity may become fo great, that no rays will pafs
out at M, but all of them will be refledled. When this
total refledtion is made, the oblong pidture pt, which was
faint before, will become much brighter, becaufe then
not only a few rays, but all the beam, will be refledted
thither. This total reflection will not be made all at
once ; but as the prifm is turned flowly round upon its
axis, the moft refrangible rays MH will be firlt refledted,
for the violet colour will difappear in the oblong pidture
HK, whilft all the other colours continue as bright as
they were before ; and when this colour difappears at
HK, the fame colour at p will become bright, and all
die other colours at pt will continue as faint as they were
before. When the prifm is turned a little farther upon
its axis, the indigo colour, which confifts of rays that have
the next greateft degree of refrangibility, will be reflec¬
ted, fo that this colour will difappear at HK and will
become bright at pt. The fame thing will happen to all
the rays in their order ; as the prifm is turned round,
each different fort of rays will be reflected fooner as the
rays have a greater degree of refrangibility, or latter as
they have a lefs degree. The red rays at K, which are the
leaft refrangible of all, will be reflected laft of all. From
hence therefore it appears, that the rays of the fun are
differently reflexible, and that thofe which are moft re¬
frangible are'likewife moft reflexible.
Homogeneous light is refratted regularly 'without any di¬
latation or fcattering of the rays.
When the rays of any one particular colour in the ob¬
long picture of the fun, as the green rays, for inftance,
are feparated from one another; if feme of tbefe green
rays which are homogeneal, or are all equally refrangible,
are tranfmitted through a very fmall round hole in a ftiff
pafteboard, and ate refracted by a prifm on the other fide
of the hole, the picture formed by thefe green rays after
refraction upon a white paper held beyond the prifm will
not be oblong, but circular, as,the hole is through which
they paffed. Therefore this homogeneous light is not
dilated, nor are the rays of it fcattered by this refraction.
The confufed appearance of oljetts, •when they are feen
through refracting bodies, is owing to the different re¬
frangibility of light.
If flies, or the letters of a fmall print, or any other
minute objects, are placed in heterogeneal light, fuch as a
direct beam of the fun’s, which has never been feparated
by any refraction into its homogeneous parts; thefe ob~
ICS. 42 9
jects being viewed through a glafs-prifm will le feen con-
lufedly, their edges will appear fo mifty that the fmailer
parts of minute animals cannot eafiiy be diftinguilhed from
one another, and the lettess of the fmall print cannot be
read. But if the fame objects are placed in a beam of
homogeneous light, which is feparated from all other rays
of a differeijt refrangibility in the manner already deferi-
bed, they will appear as diftinct through a prifm as if
they were viewed with the naked eye. Therefore we
may conclude, that this confuffon is owing to the different
refrangibility of thofe rays which come from the objects ;
fince objects never appear confufed when they are feen
through refracting bodies, unlefs they are enlightened
with feveral forts of rays which, have different degrees
of refrangibility.
It is probable that any Jingle ray of the leaf refrangi•
ble fort contains a greater quantity of matter than any
Jingle ray of the mofl refrangible fort.
We have already feen, that at the fame angles of in¬
cidence violet rays will be more refracted or more turned '
out of the way than red rays. And we have likewtfe feena.
that rays are refracted when they pafs out of one medium
into another, by being either more or lefs attracted in one
medium than they are in the other. Now fince, when
all other circumftances are equal, when red rays and violet
rays fall at equal obliquities, and are to pafs out of glafs
into air, fo that the mediums, and confequently the at¬
tractive force or caufe of refraction, is given ; if the fame
caufe can turn the violet rays more out of the way, or
refract them more, than it does the red rays, thefe rays
muft have different moments ; the moft refrangible fays,
or thofe which are moft eafiiy turned out of the way, have
the leaft moment; and the leaft refrangible rays, or thofe
which are moft difficult to turn out of the way, have the
greateft moment. But if all forts of rays have the fame
velocity, their refpective quantities of matter will be aS'
their moments; and confequently any fingle ray of the
moft refrangible fort contains a lefs quantity of matter
than any fingle ray of the leaft refrangible fort.
It may be upon this account that a red colour, or a
pale purple, is lefs pleafant to the eye than a blue, green,
or a yellow. The red. rays ftrike the eye with fo great
a force as to be offenfive to it; and the fmall force of
the pale purple ones will produce too faint a fenfation to
be agreeable. The intermediate colours are therefore
more pleafant to the eye, as the force of the rays is neither
too great to beoffenfive> nor too fmall to produce a quick .
and. lively .fenfation.
The colours of homogeneous light are fo invariable, that
neither any refraction nor any reflection can alter
them.
If abeam of homogeneous light paffes through a round,
hole in a pafteboard, and then is refrafted by a prifm on
the other fide of the hole, this refradlion will make no
alteration in the colour* of the rays ; if they were red, or
whatever was their colour, before they entered the prifm,
their colour will ftill be the fame, when they have paffed
through it, and fall upon a white paper held beyond the.
prifm. This proves the firft part of the propofition, that
the
.4p OPT
the colours-of homogeneous light are to bechangedby-any
ref ration.
Red lead, when it is viewed in open day-light, orwhen
heterogeneous rays fall apon it, will likewife be red, if
itis placed in homogeneous red light; but red lead, when
it is placed in any other fort of homogeneous light, will
have the fame colour with the rays that fall upon it and
are refle&ed from it; if itis placed in yellow homogene¬
ous ligt® it will be yellow; if in green light, it will be
green; or if in blue light, it will be blue. Confequently
the refledtion of the rays from the red lead make no alte¬
ration in their colour ; for if it did, rays of any fort re-
fiedted from the lead would be of the fame colour, fo that
it would appear red in whatever fort of light it was pla-
'ced. The fame that is here faid of red lead, is true of
any other fubflance of any other colour. Grafs, which
is green either in open day-light or in homogeneous green
light, will not change the colour of any homogeneous rays
by reflecting them, but will itfelf have the fame colour
with the rays in which it is pla.ced; it will be red in red
light, or blue in blue light, or yellow in yellow light.
From hence we may conclude, by the way, that a body
is of any particular colour, not becaufe it refledts no other
rays but thofe of that particular colour, but becaufe it re
fledts thofe more copioufly and others more fparingly.
Red lead, as it appears red in red light, fo in green hght
it appears green, or in blue light it appears blue : con¬
sequently it refledts rays of thefe forts, and in the fame
manner it might be (hewn to refledt all other forts of rays.
But then the red colour of red lead, when it is placed in
red light, is much brighter than any other colour will be
that it puts on by being placed in another fort of light;
confequently it refledts red rays more copioufly than any
other fort of rays; and for this reafon, when it is placed
in open day-light, where it refledts all forts of rays at once,
the red rays are fo much more numerous than the reft, as
to make the whole mixture of their ov/n colour.
Colours may be produced by compofition, mihich Jball in
appearance be like the colour of homogeneous light :
but then tbefe compound colours 'will be altered by re-
fradion.
When, by means of two holes in the window-fhutter
of a dark room and of two prifms, two oblong coloured
pidtures are produced; if a circular piece of white paper
is fo placed that the red light of one pidture and the yel¬
low light of the other may fall upon it, this mixture will
produce an orange colour, that in appearance will be like
the primary orange colour. But between the Ample and
compound colour, though they are alike in appearance,
there will be this difference; if the circular pieCe.of paper,
when it is enlightened with compound orange, is. viewed
through a prifm, the rays will be found to be differently
refrangible, and they will, by the refradtion of the prifm,
be fo feparated from one another, that the paper feeri
through it will appear as two circles, one of which will
be red and the other yellow; vehereas, if the fame paper,
when it is enlightenfed with Ample or primary orange, is
viewed in like manner through a prifm; the rays will be
found to be equally refrangible, and the paper will appear
through the prifm, as it does to the naked eye, to be one
I c s.
orange-coloured circle diftindtly terminated all round.
After the fame manner other homogeneous colours, as
blue and yellow, when mixed together, will produce a
a new compound colour like the intermediate homogene¬
ous green colour in appearance. But then the rays of
this compound green will not be all of them equally re¬
frangible, as the rays of the Ample or primary green co¬
lour are.
The ivhitenefs of the fun's light is cofhpounded cf all the
primary colours mixed in a due proportion.
Let the oblong coloured pidlure (No. 37.) fall upon
the convex lens MN ; and then all the rays which are
feparated from one another at PT will be colledted to¬
gether by pafling through the lens, and will meet at its fo¬
cus G, in fuch a-manner as to form a-round pidture of the
fun upon a white paper DE. This round pidture, which
eonfifts of rays of all forts, of red, orange, yellow, blue,
green, indigo, and violet, is white. And this whitenefs is
compounded of all the primary colours mixed together.
None ot the rays change ’.heir colour by beingmixed with
the reft; each fort retains the fame colour after itis mixed
with the reft that it had before; neither the red rays, nor
the orange, nor the yellow, nor the blue, nor the green,
nor the indigo, nor the violet, are made white by being
mixed with the reft at the focus; but though none of the
parts are white, yet the whol4 mixture is white.
That the whitenefs at the focus G arifes from a mixture
of all the primary colours, is evident. For if any of the
colours are intercepted at the lens, the focus lofes its white¬
nefs, and becomes of that colour which arifes from a mix¬
ture of thofe which are not intercepted. Thus if all the
rays at PT are intercepted except the yellow, the orange,
and the red, the focus will not be white, but will be o-
range-coloured. If all the rays are intercepted at PT, ex¬
cept the blue, the green, and the yellow, the focus will
then be green. The orange in one cafe, and the green in
the other cafe, is the compound colour ariAng from a mix¬
ture of thofe rays which are not intercepted. And in
either cafe, if the rays that were intercepted are again
fufFered to pafs through the lens, the focus will recover
its whitenefs.
It may be more difficult to fhew that the rays, when
they are all of them mixed at the focus, retain their pro¬
per colours, and are none of them white though the
compound mixture is white. To make this out, let the
paper be removed from DE, where all the rays are mix¬
ed upon it at G, to de, where it will receive the rays,
after they have croffed one another at the focus, and
having got beyond it diverge again. In this pofition of the
the paper, becaufe the' rays that were mixed at the focus
have diverged from thence, and are again feparated from
one another, the objong coloured picture will appear a-
gain at tp, fo that the red colour T, which was the low-
eft at the lens, will be the higheft at the paper d--. But
though the colours are thus inverted by pafling the focus,
yet all of them appear at tp; which would have been
impoflible, if each fort of rays, by being mixed with the
reft at the focus, hadloft their colour, and had been made
white, Nor indeed is the colour of any fort of rays at all
changed by being mixed with the reft at the focus; but
O P T
4-he Tame rays tliat prcduced any particular colour in the
oblong pifture PT are the rays that produce the fame
Colour in the inverted pifture //; as would be evident
from intercepting any particular colour at PT: for if the
green rays, for inftance, are intercepted at PT, theye will
be no green at tp : or if the red are intercepted at PT,
there will then appear no red colour at tp: and the fame
thing will happen upon intercepting the rays of any other
colour at PT, for then that colour will vanilh at tp.
Colours may be produced by compojition that are neither
exattly like any of the primary ones, nor fully white.
If the red rays of one coloured piflure are mixed with
the violet rays of another, accprding to the various pro¬
portions in which they are mixed, various purples will
be produced, fuch as are not like in appearance to the
colour of any homogeneous light; and of tbefe purples,
mixed with yellow and blue, may be made other new co¬
lours.
By mixing the coloured powders which painters ufe,
though the powders themfelves referable the primary co¬
lours, yet the mixture may be grey, or dun, or ruflet-
brown, luch as are the colours of a man’s nail, of a moufe,
of allies, of ordinary ftones, of mortar, of dull and dirt
in thehigh-ways. Thus one part of red lead, and five of
virlde aeris, compofe a dun colour like that of a moufe.
If toorpiment, which is yellow, a full bright purple pow¬
der ufed by painters is added, the mixture may be made
of a pale red; and with the addition of a little viride aeris,
■which, as the name imports, is green, and of a little blue
bile, this pale red will change to grey or pale white, iuch
as js the colour of alhes, or of wood newly cut, or of a
man’s Ikin.
Thefe grey, dun, and ruflet colours are only imperfeft
forts of white. And- we may underftand, why the mix¬
ture of thefe coloured powders Ihould produce an imper-
fe£l white, and not a full bright one, from the following
©bfervation. All coloured powders fupprefs and ftop great
part of the light that falls upon them : they refledt more
of thofe rays from whence their colour arifes than of any
other fort; but they refledt even thofe more fparingly
than white bodies do. Red lead, for inltance, refledts
fewer red rays than white paper does ; for if red lead and
■white paper are both of them placed in homogeneous red
light, the paper will appear of a brighter red than the lead.
But if red lead fupprelTes many red rays, it may well be
fuppofed to fupprefs many more rays of other colours;
lince its rednefe is owing to its refiedting red rays more
copioufly, and all other rays more fparingly. From hence
it follows, that in a mixture of coloured powders, though
they refledt rays of all forts in a due proportion, fo that
the compound light will not be more of one colour than
another, but will be white ; yet the whitenefs will be
much iefs bright than that of paper ; becaufe the mixture
of powders fupprefies and (lops many rays, whereas the
paper refledls almoft ail the rays that fall upon it, and
fupprefles fcarce any. Thus the whitenefs in the mixture
of powders, and the whitenefs in the paper, are both of the
fame fort, and differ from one another only in degred, or
in the quantity of light. Therefore, if fome of this mix¬
ture of powders is placed in bright funfliine, and a piece
of white paper is placed in the fnade, the mixture by thus
Vet,. III. N° 87. 2
1 C S. 43,1
increafing the light, and the paper by thus dimimfliing it,
may be made to appear equally white.
The colours of all bodies are either the fmple colours of
homogeneous light, or fuch compound colours as arife
from a mixture of homogeneous light.
Each fort of light has a peculiar colour of its own,
which no refradlion or refledlion can change. ' Therefore
the colour of no natural body can be any other than either
the colour of fome fort of homogeneous light, or a com¬
pound colour ariling from a mixture of the feveral forts.
For bodies appear colourtjd only by refledting light ; and
no refledtion can give any other colours to the rays but
what they had before.
Of the Colours of thin transparent Plates.
Water, air, glafs, or any other tranfparent fubjlance,
when drawn out into thin plates, become coloured.
Water, when it is made tenacious by having foap
mixed with it, may be blown up into a bubble A, (No. 38.}
fuch as children play with. If this bubble is fet under a
glafs, fo that the motion of the air may not affedt it, then
as the water glides down the fides of it, and the top of it
at A grows thinner, feveral colours will fucceffively appear
at A, and will fpread themfelves from thence in rings fur¬
rounding A, and defeending farther and farther down the
fides of the bubble, till they vanifli at BC in the fame order
in which they appeared. Thus, forinftance, the firll colour
that appears at A, the top of the bubble, is red : this red fpot
fpreads itfelf into a circular ring round A, and then the
top of the bubble A becomes blue : this blue fpot fpreads
itfelf in the lame manner round A, and then A becomes
red a fecond time. Before we go on to confider what o-
ther colours arife at A, we will obferve what becomes of
thofe which arife firft. The red, which firft appeared
at A, fpreads itfelf into a circular ring round A: this
ring grows larger, as the water glides down the fides of
the bubble; fo that the coloured ring glides down the
bubble along with the water, till it finks at laft to BC,
and there encompaffes the bubble. In like manner the
blue, which arifes at A after the red, fpreads itfelf and
defeends down the bubble, as the red ring did. The co¬
lour which arifes next at A, is red a fecond .time ; this
fpreads itfelf in the fame manner, and is fucceeded by blue
a fecond time. Thefe are followed by a great variety of
colours, which appear fucceffively at A, and fpread them¬
felves from thence in this order: Red, yellow, green, blue^
purple ; then again red, yellow, green, blue, violet; and
laftly, red, yellow, white, blue. This laft blue colour is
fucceeded at A by a black fpot, which refiefts fcarce any
light: this fpot dilates itfelf, but not into a circular ring
as the colours had done; it becomes broader and broader,
till the bubble breaks.
A thin plate of water of the fame fort with this bub¬
ble, but more lading, may be otherwife procured. If a
piece of plane pplifhed glafs is placed upon the objedl-
glafs of a long telefcope, as in .(No. 39.) the plane fur-
face Of one glafs, and the convex one of the other, will
touch one another only at a fingle point; and if the inter¬
val between them is filled with water, as the glaffes are
preffed together, the fame colours arife at the point of
5 ' conia«
contafV, and fpread themfelves in circular rings round it
in the fame order as in thefoap.bubbie. IfBC (No. 40.)
is a feition of the plane glafs, and DAE a fedtion of the
convex one ; when they are prefled clofe together, the thin
plate of water that fills the interval between them will
have a black fpot at A; and this fpot will be encompaffed
with rings of colours, in the fame order that they (land
in that figure upon the line BC, on each fide of A. If the
colours are reckoned in the order in which they (land on
the plate of water after the black fpot appears at A, and
we reckon them from the fpot A towards the edges of the
plate at B and C ; then we mult call blue the firft colour.
But if we reckon them in the order in which they arofe
at. A, and fpread themfelves; then we mull begin from B
or C, the edges of the plate, and go on towards A, and in
this reckoning we mud call red the firft colour.
If there is no water between the two glaffes, then the
•interval will be filled with air, and this thin plate of air
will have the fame colours that the plate of water had;
with this difference only, that each of the coloured rings
is larger in the plate of air than in the plate of water.
When glafs is blown very thin at a lamp-furnace, thin
plates of it thus formed will exhibit colours ; and fo like-
wife will thin plates of Mufcovy-glafs. Metals, when they
are heated, fend out to their furfaces fcoria or vitrified
parts, which cover the metals in form of a thin Ikin; and
thefe fcoria or thin plates caufe colours upon the furface
of the metal, fuch as are made to appear on'polifhed fteel
by heating it, or on bell-metal by melting it firft and then
pouring it on the ground to cool in the air.
When the thin plate is denfer than the medium that fur-
rounds it, the colours are more vivid than they are
nuhen the plate is rarer than that medium,
A thin bubble is a plate of water encompafted with air;
where the fubftance of the plate, which is water, is den¬
fer than the air, which is the medium that furrounds it.
On the contrary, the plate of air between the two glaf-
les BAC, DAE, (No. 40.) is encompaffed with glafs;
and here the fubftance of the plare is rarer than that of
the circumambient medium ; and the colours on the
bubble of water are more vivid than thofe on the thin
plate of air.
When thin tranfparent plates reflefi one fort of rays, they
' tranfmit the reft.
If the plate of air between thetwt/glaffes BAC, DAE,
(No. 40.) is viewed by reflected light, the colours of it
are thofe exprefied on the upper part of the figure from
B to C ; but if we look through it, that is, if we view it
by tranfmitted light, or if the tranfmitt-ed light falls upon
a white paper, the colours that we fee through the plate,
or that fall on the paper, are thofe exprefled on the low-
erpart of the figure. Now, any of the tranfinitted colours
are what would arife from a mixture of all the remaining
rays, after thofe of the reflected colour are feparated from
thefun’s heterogeneal light. Thus, for inftance, tbs fourth
Tefledted colour from the black fpot Ainclufively is yellow,
the tranfinitted colour is violet. The yellow rays, andfome
of the orange and green, are refledted here, fo that the
mixture of the reftedled light will be yellow. The mix¬
ture of the tranfmitted light therefore will be violet, or
ICS.
rather fuch a purple as is not exadlly like any of the pri¬
mary colours ; for we obferved, that from red rays, vio¬
let, and blue, new purpies may be produced.
This is the cafe in fome natural bodies, as well as in
thefe tranfparent artificial plates ; for if leaf-gold, which
is made thin enough to tranfinit light, is heldagainft the
ftrong light of the fun’s rays, the gold, which is yellow
when feen by the refledled light, will be blue when thus
feen by tranfmitted light.
The feventh reffedted colour inclufiveiy from the black
fpot is blue, the feventh tranfmitted colour is yellow.
When the rays which make the blue colour are taken
out of the fun’s heterogeneous light, the remaining rays
will be yellow. Thus it happens likewife in fome natural
bodies; for an infufion of lignum nephriticum, which is
blue when feen by refledled light, is yellow when feea by
tranfmitted light.
The black (pot A refledts fcarce any light: and as rays
of all co|ours are tranfmitted there, the tranfmitted co¬
lour is whfte; the third refledled colour from the black
fpot inclufively is white. Therefore, fince all the rays
are refledled there, no colour ought to be feen there,
when we look through the plate ; and accordingly that
part of the plate is black.
Hence we fee the reafon why, if there be two liquors
of full colburs in two different glafs veffels, fuppofe red
and blue ; though each is tranfparent when we look thro’
it feparately, yet we fliould not be able to fee through
both of them together, if one was held behind the o-
ther. For if the blue liquor, for inftance, is held towards
the light, and the red to vards the eye ; fince only blue
rays pafs through the firft liquor, and come to the Se¬
cond; and fince the fecond liquor will tranlmit no blue
rays, but only red ones ; it follows, that no rays at all
can come to the eye.
Indeed fome tranfparent bodies appear of the fame co¬
lour, whether we fee them by refledted or traufmitted
light. Of this fort is moft painted glafs. But when
this is the cafe, the coloured rays are refledled from the
fecond furface of the body. Thus, if a piece of painted
glafs is yellow either when feen by refledted light or when
feeh by tranfmitted light, all the rays but the yellow
ones are luppreffed as they pafs through the glafs: of
the yellow rays, moft are tranfinitted at the fecond fur-
face; the few which are refledted from thence will be fuf-
ficient to tinge all the light yellow, which is refledled
from the firft furface. This will be evident from making
the body thick, and pitching it on the backfide: for by
this means the refledled colour will be loft; whereas, if it
had been refledled from the firft furface, the pitch at the
fecond furface could not have altered it.
‘The more denfe the fuhjlance is out of which a thin
plate is made, the lefs is the thicknefs of the plate
where it refietts any Certain colour.
The colours are the fame whether there is air or water
between the two glaffes BAC, DAE, (No. 40.) only
the coloured circles are fmaller in the plate of water than
in the plate of air. Thus the yellow, for inftance, which
is the fourth coloured circle from the black fpot, is a lefs
circle, or is nearer to the black fpot, when there is a
plate of water between the glaffes, than when there is a
OPT
plate of air between them. But the lefs the diftance
from the point of contact A, the elofer the^glaffes are
to one another, and confe<iuent!y the thinner will be the
plate that lies between them ; confequently that part of
a plate of water where this yellow appears, is thin¬
ner than that part of a plate of water where the fame
colour appears. And the fame holds good in any other
colour. But water is more denfe than air : therefore,
the more denfe the fubftance is out of which a thin plate
is made, the lefs is the thicknefs of the plate where it
refledts any certain colour.
The fort of colour, •which is reflefled from any part
of a thin plate, depends only upon the thicjinefs of
the plate itfelf in that part: but the fame colour
•will be made lefs vivid by increaftng the denfity
of the medium •with •which the plate is encompajfed.
The colours upon any part of a thin plate of Mufco-
vy glafs are the fame in fort, whether the plate is dry
or wetted with water. Therefore the fort of colour in
any part depends not upon the medium that encompafles
the plat^* but upon the thicknels of the plate itfelf;
fince the colours are the fame when the plate is dry and
encompafled with air, of wet and fo encompaffed with
water. But the fame colours are more faint when the
plate is wet, than when it is dry; and confequently, the
brightnefs of the colours does depend upon the medium
that encompafles the plate ; and the denfer that medium
is, the fainter will be the colours; they are are more faint
when the plate is covered with water than when it is
dry and fo is furrounded with air.
The rays of light have alternate fits of eafy reflec¬
tion and eafy tranfmijfion, •which return at equal
intervals.
Let GF, (No. 41.) be a beam of homogeneous light
confifting all of one fort of rays, as fuppofe all the rays
that compofe the beam were red ones. Then, if thefe
rays fall upon a thin plate of air between the two glafles
BAG, DAE, at A there will be a dark fpot, and all
the rays will be tranfmitted: round this fpot there
will be a red ring, where all the rays are reflected ;
round this red ring there will be a dark ring, where
all the rays are tranfmitted. And if the thicknefs of
of the plate where all the rays are refledled in the ring
neareft to A is called 1, the thicknefs where the dark
ring appears and all the rays are tranfmitted will be 2.
Again, at that part of the plate where the thicknefs
is 3, all the rays will be tranfmitted: at the thicknefs 4,
they will be all reflefled. And thus alternately, as ex-
prefled by the lines in the figure, the rays will be reflec¬
ted in all parts of the plate where the thicknefs is ex-
prefled by any of the uneven numbers j, 3, 5, 7, 9,
<&c. and will be tranfmitted-where the thicknefs is ex-
preffed by any of the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, «Sr<r.
Now as the plate is the fame in all parts, the caufe
of this alternate refleflion and tranfimiflion muft be in the
rays themfelves; and their difpofitions to be thus al¬
ternately reflefled and tranfmitted, are what we call fits
of eafy refleflion and eafy tranfmiflion.
The rays that are in a fit of ealy refleflion penetrate
as far as the fecond furface of the plate. For if the £e-
cond furface of a thin plate of Mufcovy glafs is wetted,
the colours caufed by thealternate refleflion grow fain-er-
whereas if the refleflion was made at the firlt furface,
wetting the fecond could not affefl the colours. But
fince thofe rays which have pafled from the firft furface
of the plate to the fecond where the thicknefs of it is 1,
are reflefled, and thofe .which have paff?d from the firft
furface to the fecond where the thicknefs of it is 2, are
tranfmitted ; and then again thofe which have thus pafs-
ed from one furface to the other, where the thickneft is
3, are reflefled; and thofe which have parted in the fame
manner, where the thicknefs is 4, are tranfmitted ; it
follows, that the fits of eafy refleflion and tranfmifibn te-
turn at equal intervals. So that, if a ray was to fetout
from A in the line AB, (No. 42.) and was to be in a fit
of eafy refleflion when it had moved from A to c, it
would be in a fit of eafy tranfmiflion when it had mo¬
ved to twice that diftance from A, or when it was got to
d: at e, or the dirtance 3 from A, it will be in a fit of ea¬
fy. refleflion; at/, or the diftance 4, in a fit of eafy
tranfmiflion; at g, or 5, in a fit of eafy refleflion; at
B, or 6, in a fit of eafy tranfmiflion : and thus, in the far¬
ther progrefs of the ray, the fame fits will return at equal
intervals.
Thus if the tbicknefs of the plate of air, where the
rays of any homogeneous colour are all reflefled, is equal
to Ac or r, and the rays are in a fit of eafy refleflica
when they come to the fecond furface of the plate ; then,
where the thicknefs of the plate is Ad or 2, the rays
will be in a fit of eafy tranfmiflion when they come to
the fecond furface, and confequently will all pals through
that furface. Again, where the thicknefs is A<? or 3, the
rays .when they come to the fecond furface, will bein a fit
of eafy refleflion, and will all be reflefled; where the
thicknefs is Af or 4, the fit of eafy tranfmiflion will be
returned when the rays come to the fecond furface, fa
that all of them will be tranfmitted. And in like man¬
ner, by fuch fits returning at equal intervals, the rays,
will be reflefled where the thicknefs is exprerted by the
number 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and will be tranfmitted where,
it is exprefled by 2, 4, 6, 8* io, ebc.
When a thin coloured plate is vie<wed obliquely, the
colours of every part in the plate •will be altered.
When a bubble of water or a plate of air between two
glafles BAG, DAE, (No. 40, )is viewed obliquely, the.
coloured rings dilate themfelves: and confequently a ring
of any one colour, by being dilated, gets into that part of
the plate where a ring of fome other colour appeared
when the plate was viewed direflly.
If the plate is denfer than the medium that encom¬
pafles it, the colours of it, •when viewed obliquely t
change lefs. than they •would if the plate •was ra¬
rer than the medium that encompaffes it.
A bubble of water is a thin plate denfer than the air
that encompafles it: and a plate of air between the two
glafles BAG, DAE, (No. 48.) is rarer than the glafs
that encompafles it; Upon viewing each of thefe thin
plates obliquely, the coloured rings on the plate of water
dilate lefs than thofe on the plate of air. Therefore*
finee it is by. thjs dilation of the rings that a ring o£
oae.
®ne colour gets into a part of the plate where a ring of
fome other colour appeared when the plate was viewed
diredtly ; that is, fince it it by this dilatation of the rings
that the’fevera! parts of the plates change their colours;
itjollows, that any part of a plate of water encompafied
with air chartges colour lefs upon being viewed obliquely,
than any part of a plate of air encompaffed with glafs,
, When the medium 'which encampaffes a colouredtranf-
parent plate is given, the colours change lefs up¬
on altering thefituation of the eye, as the fub-
fiance is more denfe out of 'which that plate is made.
The matter out of which a bubble of water is made
Is not fo denfe as that, out of which a bubble of glafs is
made, and glafs is not fo denfe as the fcoria or glafly
Ikin thrown out by metals when they are heated. Now,
anyofthefe plates either of water, or-glafs, or metal¬
line fubftance, when they are encompaffed with the fame
medium air, will change their colour a little upon being
viewed obliquely; but the'plate of water changes the
moft, the plate of glafs lefs than that, and the fcoria of
metals leaftof all.
Of the Opakeness, Transparency,awiCoLOURS
^Natural Bodies.
The opakenefs of bodies is owing to the many refled ions
and refraftions which the rays of light fuffer within
thofe bodies.
The fmalleft parts of almoft all natural bodies aretranf-
parent, as will readily be granted by thofe who have
been ufed to look through microfcopes. A piece of leaf-
gold is tranfparent if it is held up again!! the hole of a
window-(butter in a dark room; and any other fubftance,
however opake it may feem in the open air, will appear
tranfparent by the fame means, when it is made of afuf-
heient thinnefs. Even metals become tranfparent, if
they are diflblved in a proper menftruum, as gold in aqua
regia, or filver in aqua fortis; and by being thus diftblved,
are reduced to very fmall particles. But fince even in o-
pake bodies every (ingle particle tranfmits.light, or is tranf¬
parent, the whole would likewife tranfmit light, unlefs
the rays, when they are to pafs through all the particles
which make up the whole, were fo turned out of the way
by innumerable refraftions and refleftions, as to be ftbp-
ped-and fuppreffed in their palfage. That this is the rea-
fon why bodies that confift of tranfparent particles (hould
be opake, is evident; fince opake bodies, when they are
reduced to a fufficient tbinnefs, become tranfparent: for
then there will be but few particles lying beyond one a-
nother for the light to pafs through ; and as the rays will
fuffer fewer refradlions and refleftions, fome of them may
get through a thin plate, though all of them would be
fuppreffed in a thicker mafs of the fame fubftance. '
The medium, with which theflmres of opake bodies are
filled, is not of the fame denjhy with the particles of
thofe bodies.
Bodies confift of tranfparent particles, and their o-
pakenefs is owing to the many refledions and refraftions
which the light fuffers within them. Now, if the inter-
liices between the par tides of any body were filled with
I c s,
a medium of.the fame denficy with the particles, the light
would neither be refrafted nor reflefted as it paffed out
of the particles into the interftices and out of the intejr-
ftices into the pores, but would pafs through the body,
and the body would be tranfparent. Confequently, in an
opake body, where the light is fuppreffed by the refrac¬
tions and refleftions which it fuffers, the particles that
compofe the body, and the medium that fills the pores
or interftices between the particles, muft be of different
denfities.
Hence we may fee the reafqn why paper, when'ft has
been dipped in water or oil, is more tranfparent than
when it is dry. For when the paper is thoroughly wet¬
ted with water or oil, the pores of it are filled with a
medium that is nearly of the fame denfity with fts par¬
ticles. On the contrary, though oil of turpentine and
water are both of them tranfparent when they are fepa-
rate; yet if they are (haken together fo as to mix but im-
perieftly, the mixture becomes much left tranfparent *
becaufe the parts of each fluid are feparated^rom one a-
nother, and thofe of the other fluid, which are of a dif¬
ferent denfity, get in between them.
The parts of bodies, and their interJUces, mujl not he lefs
than of a certain definite bignefs to render them opak e
and coloured.
The moft opake bodies become tranfparent when their
particles are fubtilly divided.; as metals, fuch as gold or
filver, which are opake in large maffes, become.tranfpa¬
rent when the former is diflblved in aqua regia, and the
latter in aqua fortis. And we obferved, that at the top
of.a bubble of water, where the water is extremely thin,
there is a black fpot, which reflefts fcarce any light at
all • though the water is encompaffed with air, which is
a medium of a different denfity. Confequently, if the dia¬
meter of the particles of which any natural fubftance
confifts was no greater than the thicknefs of the bubble*
where it reflefts no light, but tranfmits all, fuch a body
would be tranfparent, notwithftandiog the interftices
that are between its particles were filled with a medium
the denfity of which is different from theirs.
In like manner, we obferved, that when a thin plate off
air Ires between two pieces of glafs BAG,DAE, (No 40.)
there is a dark fpot, which r.eflefts no light, and tranfmits
all, not only at the point A where the glaffes touch one
another, but alfo round that point to fome dillance where
the glaffes are very near to one another. From hence we
may conclude, that though the particles of any natural
fubftance were as denfe as glafs, and the medium which
fills their interftices was as rare.as air; yet if thefe inter¬
ftices were no bigger than the interval between the two
glaffes BAC, DAE, at that place where all light is tranf-
mitted, fuch a body would be tranfparent.
The tranfparency of water feems to be owing to the
caufes here mentioned, to the fmallnsfs of its parts, or
of its pores, or of both. For we are fure that the pores
of water are filled with air, becaufe the air may be drawn
oat from the water in an air-pump ; and confequently,
as the pores are filled with a medium of a different den¬
fity from the parts, the mixture ought to be opake, like
fuch a mixture of water and oil of turpentine as was
mentioned above, But the fmallnefs either of die parts,
-or
OPT
'or of the Interftlces, or of both, will prevent the mixture
from being opake.
Since therefore all bodies will be tranfparent, if either
their parts or their interftices are too fmall, it follows
that the parts; and likewife the pores, of fuch bodies as
are not tranfparent but opake and coloured, mult not be
|efs than of a certain and determinate bignefs.
The colours of natural bodies depend upon the fize of
their particles.
Different parts of thin tranfpareBt plates, according
to the different thioknefs of them, are of different colours.
Now if any part of fuch a thin plate of glafs, for inftance,
where it appears of one uniform colour, fhould be fplit
into threads, or broken into fmall particles, all thefe par¬
ticles would make a heap of powder of the fame colour.
And the fmall particles of natural bodies, fmce they are
tranfparent, like fo many fragments of a thin plate, mud
exhibit colours in the fame manner.
The parts of bodies, on •which their colours depend,
are much denfer than the medium •which fills their pores.
For where the tranfparent plate or particle confifts of
a rarer fubftance than the medium that encompaffes it,
the colours are lefs vivid than thofe of natural bodies
commonly are. For this reafon it is that the colours of
Clks or cloths, when they are wetted with oil or water,
become more faint; becaufe thefe liquors are more near¬
ly of the fame denfity with the particles, than the medium
is which fills the interftices when they are dry. Befides,
the colours upon a tranfparent plate change very fenfibly,
unlefs the plate confifts of a fubflance much denfer than
the medium that encompafles it ; but moft natural bodies
are of the fame colour in whatever pofuion of the eye
they are viewed. Therefore their tranfparent particles,
upon which their colours depend, are much denfer than
the medium which encompaffes thofe partibles or fills the
interftices between them.
Nor is the cafe otherwife even in thofe bodies which
do change colour upon being viewed obliquely, fuch as
changeable filks, or the feathers of a peacock’s tail or of
a pigeon’s neck. For this change of colour, upon the
fituation of the eye being changed, is no reafon for con¬
cluding that the medium which fills the interftices or
pores is more nearly of the fame denfity with the par¬
ticles, upon which the colours depend, in thefe bodies
than in others ; fince the change of colour is plainly ow¬
ing to our feeing a different part of the body in different
pofitions of the eye. Thus, in changeable filks, the warp
is of one colour, and the woof of another ; and in one po-
fition of the eye more of the warp is feen, and in another
pofition of it more of the woof is feen. In like manner,
if a pigeon’s neck appears blue in one pdfition of the eye,
and crimfon in another, it is becaufe in thefe different
pofitions we fee different parts of the fame feathers.
We cannot from the colour of a body make any conjcflure
about the ftze of the particles upon •which its colours
depend.
Suppose, from the appearance of the colour in any
yellow body, that we had determined its yellow to be of
the fame fort with that which is next to the black fpat
Vol. III. N°.8f. 2
I C S. 435
■in a plate of air, or water, or glafs. The thicknefs of a
plate, where it appears of this colour, is different accord*
ing to the different denfity of the fubftance out of which
that plate is made ; the thicknefs of a plate of air where
it appears of this colour, is greater than that of a plate
of water were it appears of the fame colour, and much
greater ftill than that of a plate of glafs. Suppofe there¬
fore farther, that we were able to determine exa<ftly what
is the thicknefs of a plate of air or water or glafs, where
each of them is tinged with the fame yellow colour that
any natural body exhibits ; yet we cannot determine
whether the diameter of the particles, upon which this
body’s colour depends, is equal to the thicknefs of the
plate of air, or of water, or of glafs, unlefs we could
firft determine whether the denfity of thofe particles is e-
qual to the denfity of air, or to that of water, or to that
of glafs : fince the particles muft be larger, if their den¬
fity is equal to the denfity of air, than if it is equal to
the denfity of water; and larger, if it is equal to that of wa¬
ter than if it is equal to that of glafs. And indeed we have
good reafon to conclude, that the denfityof the parts, upon
which the colours of natural bodies depend, is greater even
than that of glafs ; and confequently that the diameter of
thofe parts is much lefsthan the thicknefs of a plate of glafs,
where it appears-of the fame.colour with the body. For,
upon being viewed obliquely, thin plates of glafs change
colour, whereas natural bodies do not: and the colour
of natural bodies is made more unchangeable than that of
thin plates of glafs, by their particles being more denfe
than glafs.
Of the Rainbow.
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drop if rain and
enter into it, fame of them, after one refleftion and
two refrafiions, may come to the eye of a fpeftator who
has his back towards thefun and hisface toward the drop ^
If XY (No. 43.) is a drop of rain, and the fun ftiines
upon it in any lines sf, sd, sa, &c. moft of the rays will
enter into the drop : fome few of them only will be re-
flefted from the firft furface ; thofe rays, which are re-
fleAed from thence, do not come under our prefent cor-
fideration, becaufe they are never refra&ed at all. The
greateft part of the rays then enter the drop, and thofe
palling on to the fecond furface will moft of them be
tranfmitted through the drop ; but neither do thofe rays
which are thus tranfmitted fall under our prefent con-
fideration, fince they are not refledted. For the rays,
which are defcribed in the propofition, are fuch as are
twice refradled and once refletfted. However, at the fe-
cond furface, or hinder part of the drop, at pg fome few
rays will be refiedied, whilft the rays are tranfmitted : thofe
rays proceed in fome fuch lines as nr,nq\ and coming out
of the drop in the lines rv, qt, may fall upon the eye of
a fpedlator, who is placed any where in thofe lines, with
his face towards the drop, and confequently with his back
towards the fun, which is fuppofed to Ihine upon the drop
in the lines sf,sd,sa. See. Thefe rays'are twice refradled,
and once refledted : they are refradted, when they pafs
out of the air into the drop ; they are refledted from the
fecond furface, and are refradled again, when they pafis
out of the drop into the air,
5 R
When
o
p
T
43*
Jfben r:;ys of light reflrfled from a drop of rain cotne to
the eye, thofe are called ejfeffual which are able to
excite a fcnfation.
When -rays of light come out of a drop of rain, t~hey
will not be effectual, ur.lef they are parallel and con¬
tiguous.
There are bm few rays that caft come to the eye at
all: for the greateft part of thofe rays which enter the drop
xy (Np 43.) between x and a, pafs out of the drop thro’
the hinder furface pg; only few are refle&ed from thence
and come out through the nearer furface between a and
y. Now fuch rays as emerge, or come out of the drop,
between a and y, will be ineffectual, unlefs they are pa¬
rallel to one another, as rt/and-g'/ are ; becaufe fuch rays
as ccme out diverging from one another, will' be fo far
afunder when they coma to the eye, that all of them
Cannot enter the pupil ; and the very few that can en.
ter it will not be fufficient to excite any fenfation. But
even rays, which are parallel, as rv.qt, will not be ef¬
fectual, unlefs there are feveral of, them contiguous or
very near to one another. The two rays rv and qt alone
will not be perceived, though both of them enter the
eye ; for fo very few rays are not fufficient to excite a
fenfation.
• When rays of light cotne out of a drop of rain after one
refleftton, thofe will be effectual which are reflected
from the fame point, and which entered the drop near
to one another.
Any rays, as sb and cd, (No. 44.) when they have
paffed out of the air into a drop of water, will be refrac¬
ted towards the perpendiculars bl, dl; and as the ray sb
falls farther from the axis«i> than the ray cd, sb will be
more refraCted than cd; fo that thefe rays, though pa¬
rallel to one another at their incidence, may defcribe the
lines be and de after refraction, and be both of them
reflected from one and the fame point e. Now all rays
which are thus reflected from one and the fame point,
when they have defcribed the lines ef, eg, and after re¬
flection emerge at f and g, will be fo refraCted, when
they pafs out of the drop into the air, as to defcribe the
lines fh, gi, parallel to one another. If thefe rays were
to return from e in the lines eb, ed, and were to emerge
at b and d, they would be refrafted into the lines of
their incidence bs, dc. But if thefe rays, inftead of be¬
ing returned in the lines eb, ed, are reflected from the
fame point e in the lines eg, ef, the lines of reflection eg
and ef will be inclined both to one another and to the
furface of the drop : juft as much as the lines eb and ed
are. Firft eb and eg make juft the fame angle with the
furface of the drop : for the angle hex which eb makes
with the furface of the drop, is the complement of inci¬
dence ; and the angle which makes with the fur¬
face, is the complement of reflection; and thefe two are
equal to one another. In the fame manner we might prove
that ed and ef make equal angles with the furface of the
drop. Secondly, the angle bed is equal to the angle feg,
or the reflected rays eg, ef, and the incident rays be, de,
are equally inclined to each other. For the angle of in¬
cidence bel is equal to the angle of reflection gel, and the
angle of incidence del is equal to the angle of reflection
I c s.
fel; confequently the difference between the'sngTes of
incidence is equal to the difference between the angles of
reflection, or bel—del—gel—-fel, or bed=gef. _ Since
' therefore either the lines eg ef, or the lines eb ed, are
equally inclined both to one another and to the furface
of the drop; the rays will be refraCted in the fame man¬
ner, whether they w-ere to return in the lines eb, ed, or
are reflected in the lines eg, ef. But if they were to re¬
turn in the lines eb, ed, the refraction, when they e-
merge at b and d, would make them parallel. Therefore,
if they are reflected from one and the fame point e in the
lines eg, ef, the refraction, when they emerge at g and
/, will Jikewife make them parallel.
But though fuch rays, as are reflected from the fame
point in the hinder part of a drop of rain, are parallel to
one another, when they emerge, and fo have one condi¬
tion that is requtfite towards making them effectual ; yet
there is another condition neceffary; for rays, that are
effectual, muft be contiguous, as well as parallel. And
though rays, which enter the drop in different places,
may be parallel when they emerge, thofe only will be
contiguous which enter it neaily at the fame place.
Let xy, (No.. 43 ) be a drop of rain, ag the axis or
diameter’ of the drop, and sa a ray of light that comes
from the fun and enters the drop at the point a. This
ray sa, becaufe it is perpendicular to both the furfaces,
will pafs ftrait through the drop in the line agh without
being refraCted ; but any collateral rays that fall about
sb, as they pafs through the drop, will be made to con¬
verge to their axis, and palling out at n will meet the
axis at b\ rays which fall farther from the axis than sb,
fuch as. thofe which fall about sc, will likewife be made
to converge ; but then their focus will be nearer to the
drop than h. Suppofe therefore i to be the focus to
which the rays that fall about sc will converge, any ray
sc, when it has defcriaed the line co within the drop, and
is tending to the focus i, will pafs out of the drop at the
point 0. The rays that fall upon the drop about sd,
more remote ftill from the axis, will converge to a focus
ftill nearer than i, as fuppofe at k. Thefe rays there¬
fore go out of the drop at p. The rays, that fall ItiJl
more remote from the axis, as se, will converge to a fo¬
cus nearer than k, as fuppofe at /; and the ray se, when
it has defcribed the line eo within the drop, and is tend¬
ing to /, will pafs out at the point c. The rays, that
fall ftill more remote from the axis, will converge to a
focus ftill nearer. Thus the ray sf will after refraftion
converge to a focus at m, which is nearer than /; and
having defcribed the line fn within the drop, it will pafs
out at the point n. Now here we may obferve, that as
any rays sb or sc, fall farther above the axis sa, the
points a, or 0, where they pafs out behind the drop, will
be farther aboveg ; or that, as the incident ray rifes from
the axis sa, the zxzgno increafes, till we cometofome
ray sd, which' paffes out of the drop at p; and this is the
higheft point where any ray that falls upon the quadrant
or quarter ax can pafs out: for any rays se, or sf,
that fall higher than sd, will not pafs out in any point
above p, but at the points 0, or n, which are below it.
Gonfequently, though the arc £»<?/> increafes, whilft the
diftance of the incident ray from the axis sa increafed;
till we come to the ray sd) yet afterwards, the higher the
tuy
OPT
ray falls above the ax's sa, this are pong will decreafe.
We have hitherto Spoken of the points on the hinder
part of the drop, where the rays pafs out of it; but this
was for the Take of determining the poihts from whence
thofe rays are refledled, which do not'pafs out behind
the drop. For, in explaining the rain-bow, we have no
farther reafon to confider thofe rays which go through
the drop; fince they can never come to the eye of a
fpecftator placed any where in the lines rv or qt with his
face towards the drop. Now, as there are many rays
which pafs out of the drop between g and fo fome few
rays will be relieved from thence ; and confeqftently the
fevera! points between g and />, which are the points
where fome of the rays pafs out of the drop, are like-
wife the points of refledion for the reft which do not
pafs out. Therefore, in refpeS of thofe rays which are
reflefted, we may call gp the arc of reflexion ; and may
fay, that this arc of refleftion increafes, as the. diftance
of the incident ray from the axis sa increafes, till we
come to the ray sd ; the arc of reflexion is gn for the ray
sb, it is go for the ray sc, and gp for the ray sd. But
after this, as the diftance of the incident ray from the
axis sa increafes, the arc of reflection decreafes ; for og
fefs than pg is the arc of reflection for the ray se, and r.g
is the arc of reflection for the ray if.
From hence it is obvious, that fome one ray, which
falls above sd, may be reflected from the fame point
with fome other ray which falls below sd. Thus, for
inftance, the ray sb will be reflected from the point n,
and the ray//'will be reflected from the fame point ; and
confequently, when the reflected rays nr, nq, are refrac¬
ted as they pafs out of the drop at r and q, they will
be parallel, by what has been fhewn in the former part
of this propofition. But finqe the intermediate rays,
which enter the drop between sf and sb, are not reflec¬
ted from the fame point n, thefe two rays alone will be
parallel to one another when they come out of the drop,
and the intermediate rays will not be parallel to them.
And confequently thefe rays rv, qt, though they are pa¬
rallel after they emerge at r and q, will not be conti¬
guous, and for that reafon will not be effectual; the ray
sd is reflected from p, which has been (hewn to be the
limit of the arc of reflection ; fuch rays, as fall juft a-
bove sd, and juft below sd, will be reflected from nearly
the fame point/>, as appears from what has been already
(hewn. Thefe rays therefore will be parallel, becaufe
they are reflected from the fame point p; and they will
likewife be contiguous, becaufe they all of them enter the
drop at one and the fame place very near to d. Confe¬
quently, fuch rays as enter the drop at d, and are reflected
fromp the limit of the arc of reflection, will be effectual;
fince, when they emerge at the fore part of the drop
between a and y, they will be both parallel and conti¬
guous.
If we can make out hereafter that the rain bow is pro¬
duced by the rays of the fun which are thus reflected
from drops of rain as they fall whilft the fun Ihines upon
them, this propofition may ferve to {hew us, that this
appearance is not produced by any rays that fall upon a-
»y part and are reflected from any part of thofe drops :
finee this appearance cannot be pro’ducecfby any rays but
thofe which are effectual; and effectual rays mult al-
I c s.
437-
ways enter each drop at one certain place In the fore-part
of it, and muft like wife be reflected from one certain
place in the hinder furface.
fV/jen rays that are ejfetiual emerge from a drop of
rain after one refleclion and t=wo refraflions, thofe
•which are mojl refrangible will, at their emerfion,
make a lefs angle with the incident rays than thefe
do which are leaf refrangible ; and by this means
the rays of different colours •will be feparated from
one another.
Let fh and gi, (No. 44.) be effectual violet rays
emerging from the drop aty£; and/»„ gp, effeaual red
rays emerging from the fame drop at the fame place. Now
though all the violet rays are parallel to one another^
becaufe they are fuppofed effectual ; and though all the
red rays are likewife parallel to one another for the fame
reafon ; yet the violet rays will not be parallel to the
red rays. Thefe rays, as they have different colours,
and different degrees of refrangibility, will diverge from
one another ; any violent ray gi, which emerges at 9
will diverge from any red ray gp, which emerges at the
fame place. Now, both the violet ray^/, and the red ray
gp, as they pafs out of the drop of water into the air,
will be refraCled from the perpendicular/o. But the vio¬
let ray is more refrangible than the red one, and for that
reafon gi, or the refracted violet ray, will make a greater
angle with the perpendicular than gp the refraCted red
ray ; or the angle igo will be greater than the angle pgo.
Suppofe the incident ray sb to be continued in the dil
j-eCtion sk, and the violet ray/£ to be continued backward
in the direction ik, till it meets the incident ray at k
Suppofe likewife the red ray pg to be continued back!
wards in the fame manner, till it meets the incident ray
at w. The angle ikk is that which the violet ray, or
moft refrangible ray at its emerfion, makes with the in¬
cident ray ; and the angle pws is that which the red ray,
or leaft refrangible ray at its emerfion, makes with the
incident ray. The angle iks is lefs than the angle/<tu/.
For, in the triangle gws or pnvs is the externai
angle at the bafe, and^/w or iks is one of the internal
oppofite angles ; and either internal oppofite angle is lefe
than the external angle at the bafe. Euc. b.*!. prop
16. What has beenfliewn to be true of the rays and
gp might be fhewn in the fame manner of the rays fh
and fn, or of any other rays that emerge refpeClively pa.
rallel to gi an&gp. But all the effeaual violet rays are
parall to gi, and all the effbaual red rays are parallel to
gp. Therefore the effeaual violet rays at their emerfion
make a lefs angle with the incident ones than the effeaua] ‘
red ones. And fbr the fame reafon, in all the other fort
of rays, thofe which are moft refrangible, at their emer!
fion from a drop of rain after one refleaion, will make
a kfs angle with the incident rays, than thbfe do which
are lefs refrangible.
Or otherwife : When the rays^/ and gp emerge at the
fame pointy, as they both come out of water into air
and confequently are refraCted from a perpendicular, in-
ftead of going ftraight forwards in the line eg continued, they
will both be turned round upon the point g from the per¬
pendicular £0. Nowit is eafy to conceive, that either of
thefe lines might be turned in this manner upon the pohn
g as -.
433 OPT
g as upon a centre, till they became paralL-1 to sb the
incident ray. Bat if either of thefe lines or rays were
refracted fo much from go as to become parallel to sb,
the ray fo much refraded would, after emerfion, make
no angle with sk, becaufe it would be parallel to it. And
confequently that ray which is moft turned round upon
the point g, or that ray which is mod refrangible, will
after emerfion be nearett parallel to the incident ray, or
will make the leaft angle with it. The fame may be pro¬
ved of all other rays emerging parallel to gi and^/> re-
Ipedively, or of all effedual rays ; thofe, which are moll
refrangible, will after emerlion make a lefs angle with
the incident rays, than thofe do which are lead re¬
frangible. >
But fince the effedual rays of different colours make
different angles with sk at their emerfion, they will be
feparated from one another: fo that if the eye was pla¬
ced in the beam fghi, it would receive only rays of one
colour from the drop xagy ; and if it was placed in the
beam fgnp, it would receive only rays of feme othercolour.
The angle swp, which the lead refrangible or red rays
make with the incident ones, when they emerge fo
as to be effedual, is found by calculation to be 42 de¬
grees 2 minutes. And the angle ski, which the mod
refrangible rays make with the incident ones, when they
emerge fo as to be effedual, is found to be 40 degrees 17
minutes. The rays, which have the intermediate de¬
grees of refongibility, make with the incident ones in¬
termediate angles between 42 degrees 2 minutes and 40
degrees 17 minutes.
If a line is fuppofed io be drawn from the centre of
the fun through the eye of the fpeftutor, the angle
•which any effectual ray, after two refractions and one
refeClion, makes with the incident ray, will be equal
to the angle which it makes with that line.
Let the eye of the fpedator be at (No. 44.) and let
qt be the line fuppofed to be drawn from the centre of the
fun through the eye of the fpedator; the angle git, which
any effedual ray makes with this line, will be equal to the
angle iks, which the fame ray makes with the incident
ray sb or sk. If sb is a ray coming from the centre of the
fun, then (ince qt is fuppofed to he drawn from the fame
point, thefe two lines, upon account of the rdmotenefs of
the point from whence they are drawn, may be looked up¬
on as parallel to one another. But the right line ki cross¬
ing thefe two parallel lines will make the alternate an¬
gles equal. Euc. b. I. prop. 29. Therefore kit or git is
^qual to ski.
When the fun fhines upon the drops of rain as they are
falling ; the rays that come from thofe drops to the eye
of a fpeClator, after one reflection and two refractions,
produce the primary rainbow.
If tha fun fnines upon the rain as it falls, there are com¬
monly feen two bows, as AFB, CHD, (No. 46.) or if
the cloud and rain does not reach over that whole fide of
the Iky where the bows appear, then only a part of one
or of both bows is feen in that place where the rain falls.
Of thefe two bows, the innermoft AFB is the more vivid
of the two, and this is called the primary bow. The out¬
er part TFY of the primary bow is red, the inner part
I c s.
VEX is violet; the intermediate parts, reckoning from
the red to the violet, are orange, yellow, green,blue, and
indigo. Suppofe the fpedator’s eye to be at O, and let
LOP be an imaginary line drawn from the centre of the
fun through the eye of the fpedator: If a beam of light
S coming from the fun falls upon any drop F; and the
rays that emerge at F in the line FO, foasto be effedual,
make an angle FOP of 42 degrees 2 minutes with the line
LP; then thefe effedual rays make an angle of 42 degrees
2 minutes with the incident rays, by the preceding propo-
fition, and confequently thefe rays willbe red,, fo that the
drop F will appear red. All the other rays, which emerge
at F.’and would be effedual if they fell upon the eye, are re-
fraded more than the red ones, and confequently will pafs
above the eye. If a fceam of light S falls upon the drop
E ; and the rays that emerge at E in the line EO, fo as
to be effedual, make an angle EOP of 40 degrees 17 mi¬
nutes with the line LP ; then thefe effedual rays make
likewife an angle of 40 degrees 17 minutes with the inci¬
dent rays, and the drop E will appear of a violet colour. All
the other rays, which emerge at E, and would be effec¬
tual if they came to the eye, are refraded lefs than the
violet ones, and therefore pafs below the eye. The in¬
termediate drops between F and E will for the fame rea-
fons be of the intermediate colours.
Thus we have fltewn why a fet of drops from F to E,
as they are falling, fhould appear of the primary colours,
red, orange, yellow', green, blue, indigo, and violet. It is
not neceffary that the feveral drops, which produce thefe
colours, Ihould all of them fall at exadly the famediffance
from the eye. The angle FOP, for inffance, is the fame
whether the diftance of the drop from the eye is OF, or
whether it is in any other part of the line OF fomething
nearer to the eye. And whilff the angle FOP is the fame,
the angle made by the emerging and incident rays, and
confequently the colour of the drop, will be the fame.
This is equally true of any othy drop. So that although
in the figure the drops F and E are reprefented as falling
perpendicularly one under the other, yet this is not ne¬
ceffary in order to produce the bow.
But the coloured line FE, which we have already ac¬
counted for, is only the breadth of the bow. It ftill re¬
mains to be Ihewn, why not only the drop F Ihould ap¬
pear red, but why all the other drops quite from A to
B in the arc ATFYB fltould appear of the fame colour.
Now it is evident, that where-ever a drop of rain is placed,
if the angle, which the effeAual rays make with the line
LP is equal to the angle FOP, that is, if the angle
which the effeAual rays make with the incident rays is
42 degrees 2 minutes, any of thofe drops will be red,
for the fame reafon that the drop F is of this colour.
If FOP was to turn round upon the line OP, fo that
one end of this line (hould always be at the eye, and the
other be at P oppofite to the fun; fuch a motion of this
figure would belike that of a pair of compaffes turning round
upon one of the legs OP with the opening FOP. In this
revolution the drop F would deferibe a circle, P would
be the centre, and ATFYB would be an arc in this
circle. Now fince, in this motion of the line and drop OF,
the angle made by FO with OP, that is, the angle FOP,
continues the fame ; if the fun was tofhineupon this drop
as it revolves, the effeitual rays would make the fame
I
c
s.
O P T
angle whh tbe incident rays,' in whatever part of the arc
ATFYB the drop was to be. Therefore, whether the drop
is at A, or at T, or at Y, or at B, or where-ever elfe it is
in this w'hole arc, it would appear red, as it does at F. The
drops of rain, as they fall, are not indeed turned round in
this manner : but then, as innumerable of them are falling
at once in right lines from the cloud, whillt one drop is at F,
there will be others at Y, at T, at B, at A, and in every
other part of the arc ATFYB: and all tbefe drops will be
red for the fame reafon that the drop F would have been
red, if it had been in the fame place. Therefore, when the
fun Ihines upon the rain as it falls, there will be a red
arc ATFYB oppofite to the fun. In the fame manner, be-
caufe the drop E is violet, we might prove that any other
drop, which, whilft it is falling, is in any part of the arc
AVEXB, will be violet, and confequently, at the fame
time that the red arc ATFYB appears, there will likewife
be a violet arc AVEXB below or within it. FE is the
diftance between thefe two coloured arcs; and from what
has been laid it follows, that the intermediate fpace between
thefe two arcs will be filled up with arcs of the intermediate
colours, orange, yellow, blue, green, and indigo. All thefe
coloured arcs together make up the primary rainbow.
The primary rainbow is never a greater arc than a femi-
circle.
Since the line LOP is drawn from the fun through the
eye of the fpetfator, and fince P (No. 46.) is. the centre
of the rainbow ; it follows, that the centre of the rainbow
k always oppofite to the fun. The angle FOP is an angle
of 42 degrees 2 minutes, as was obferved, or F the higheft
part of the bow is 42 degrees 2 minutes from P the centre
of it. If the fun is more than 42 degrees 2 minutes high,
P the centre of the rainbow, which is oppofite to the fun,
will be more than 42 degrees 2 minutes below the horizon;
and confequently F the top of the bow, which is only 42 de
grees 2 minutes from P, will be below the horizon ; that is,
when the fun is more than 42 degrees 2 minutes high, no
primary rainbow will be feen. If the fan is fomething lefs
than 42 degrees 2 minutes high, then P will be fomething lefs
than 42 degrees 2 minutes below the horizon ; and confe-
quently F, which is only 42 degrees 2 minutes from P, will
be juft above the horizon; that is, a fmall ffart of the bow
at this height of the fun will appear clofe to the ground op¬
pofite to the fun. If the fun is 20 degrees high, then P will
be 20 degrees below the horizon ; and F the top of the bow,
being 42 degrees 2 minutes from P, will be 22 degrees 2 mi¬
nutes above the horizon ; therefore, at this height of the fun,
the bow will be an arc of a circle whofe centre is below the
horizon; and confequently that arc of the circle, which is
above the horizon, or "the bow, will be lefs than a femkir-
cle. If the fun is in the horizon, then P, the centre of
the bow, will be in the oppofite part of the horizon; F, the
top of the bow, will be 42 degrees 2 minutes above the ho¬
rizon ; and the bow itfelf, becaufe the horizon pafles thro’
the centre of it, will be a, femicircle. More than aftmicircle
can never appear; becaufe if the bow was more than femi¬
circle, P the centre of it muftbe above the horizon ; tut P
is always oppofite to the fun, therefore P cannot be above
the horizon, unlefs the fun is below it; and when the fun is
fet, or is below the horizon, it cannot fhine upon the drops
of rain, as they fall, and conlequently, when the fun is below
the horizon no bow at all can be feen.
Von. III. NO87. 2
439
When the rays of the fnn fall upon a drop of rein, fame of
them, after two reflexions and two refraXion:, may come
to the eye of a fpeXator, who has his back towards the
Junand his face towards the drop,
hgw, (No. 45.) is a drop of rain, and parallel rays
coming from the lun, as zv, yw, fall upon the lower part
of it, they will be refra&ed towards the perpendiculars vl,
wl, as they enter into it, and will deferibe fome fuch lines
as vh, wi. At h and i great part of thefe rays will pals
out of the drop; but fome of them will be refledted from
thence in the lines ig. At fzndg again, great part of
the rays, that were refledled thither, will pafs out of the
drop. But thefe rays will not come to the eye of a fpedta-
tor at 0. However, here again all the rays will not pafs out j
but fome few will be refle&ed from f and^, in foma fuch
lines as fd, gh ; and thefe, when they emerge out of the
drop of water into the air at£ and d, will be refradted front
the perpendiculars, and, deferibing the lines dt, bo, may
come to the eye of a fpedfator who has his back towards
the fun and his face towards the drop.
Thofe rays, which are parallel to one another after they
have been once refraXed and once refleXed in a drop of
rain, will be effeXual when they emerge after two re-
fraXions and two refleXions.
No rays can be effedtual, unlefs they are contiguous, and
parallel. From what was faid, it appears, that when rays
come out of a drop of rain contiguous to one another, ei¬
ther after one or after two refledhons, they muft enter the
drop nearly at one and the fame place. And if fuch rays
as are contiguous are parallel after the firft refledlion, they
will emerge parallel, and therefore will be efFedlual. Let
zv and^iu be contiguous rays which come from the fun, and
are parallel to one another when they fall upon the lower
part of the drop bgw, (No. 4$.) fuppofe thefe rays to be
refracted at v and w, and to be refledted at h and i; if they
are parallel to one another, as hf, gi, after this firft refledtion,
then, after they are refledted a fecond time from/"and^, and
refradted a fecond time as they emerge at d and b, they will
go out of the drop'parallel to one another in the lines dt and
bo, and will therefore be effedtual.
The rays zv, yw, are refradted towards the perpendicu¬
lars vl, wl, when they enter the drop, and will be made to
converge. As thefe rays are very oblique, their focus will
not be far from the furface vw. If this focus is at k, the
rays, after they have paffed the focus, will diverge from
thence in the diredtions kh, ki\ and if ki is the principal focal
diftance of the concave refledting furface hi, the refkdted.
rays hf. ig, will be parallel. Thefe rays hf, ig, are reflec¬
ted again from the concave furface fg, and will meet in a
focus at e, fo that ge will be the principal focal diitance of
this refledfing furfaceAnd becaufeand are parts
of the fame, fphere, the principal focal diftances ge uni ki
will be equal to one another. When the rays have paffed
the focus e, they will diverge from thence in the lines ed,
eb : and we are to (hew, that, when they emerge at d and b,
and are refradted there, they will become parallel.
Now if the rays vk, wk, when they have met at/, were
to be turned back again in the diredtions iv, kw, and were
to emerge at v and w, they would be refiadhd into the lines
of their incidence vz, wy, and therefore would be parallel.
But fince is equal to ik, as has already been {hewn, the
S S ray$
44° O P T
rays edyeb, that diverge from e, fall in the fame manner
upon the drop at d and h, as_the rays kv, kvs, would fall upon
it at v and w ; and ed, eh, are juft as mud inclined to the
refrafting furfacWfl^, a.% kv, k'w, would be to the furface
vw. From hence it follows, that the rays ed, eb, emerging at
d and b, will be refracted in the fame planner, and w ill have
the fame direftion in refpeft of one another; as^u, kw, wo'uld
have. But kv and kw would be parallel after refraftion.
Therefore ed and eb will emerge in lines dp, lo, fo as to be
parallel to one another, and confequently fo as to be effec¬
tual.
When rays that are effectual emerge from a drop of rah
after two reflections and two refraflions, ihofe which
are moft refrangible will aJ their emerfion make a great¬
er angle with the incident rays than tkefe do which
are leaji refrangible ; and by this means the rays of dif¬
ferent colours will be feparated from one another.
If rays of different colours, which are differently refran¬
gible, emerge at any point b, (No. 45.) thefe rays will not
be all of them equally refradted from the perpendicular.
Thus, if bo is a red ray, which is of all others the lead re¬
frangible, and bm is a violet ray, which is of all others the
mod refrangible; when thefe two rays emerge at £, the vio¬
let ray will be refradted more from the perpendicular bx than
the red ray, and the refradtfed angle ;r£?w will be greater than
the refradted angle xbo. From hence it follows, that thefe
turn rays, after emerfion, will diverge from bne another. In
like manner, the raySi that emerge at d will diverge from
one another ;, a red ray will emerge in the line dp, a violet
ray in the line dt. So that though all the effedtual red rays
of the beam bdmt are parallel to one another, and all the
effedlual red rays of the beam bdop are likewife parallel to
one another, yet the violet rays will not be parallel to the
red ones, but the violet beam will diverge from the red
beam.' Thus the rays of different colours will be feparated
from one another.
This will appear farther, if we confider what the pro-
pofition affirms, That any violet or mod refrangible ray will
make a greater angle with the incident rays, than any red
or lead refrangible ray makes with the fame incident rays.
Thus if yw is an incident ray, bm a violet ray emerging
from the point b, and3» a redray emerging from the fame
point; the. angle which the violet ray makes with the in¬
cident one is yrm, and that which the red ray makes
with it is yso. Now yrm is a greater angle than yso.
For in the triangle brs the internal angle is lefs than
£sy the external angle at the bafe. Euc. b. I. prop. 16.
But yrm is the complement of brs or of bry\o two right
ones, and yso is the complement of bsy to two right ones.
Therefore, fince bry is lefs than bsy, the complement of
try to two right angles will be greater than the comple-
menty of bsy to t\fro right angles; or yrm will be greater
than j/u.
Orotherwife : Both the rays bo and bm, when they are
refradfed in paffing out of the drop at b, are turned round
upon the polfit b from the perpendicular bx. Now either
of thefe lines boos ben might be turned round in this man¬
ner, till it made a right angle with yw. Confequently, that
ray which is mod turned roundhipon 3, oc which is mod
refradted, will make an angle withyw that will be nearer to a
right one than that ray makes with it which is lead turn¬
ed round upon b, or which is lead reffadted. Therefore
I c s.
that ray which is mod refradted will make a greater an¬
gle with the incident ray than that which is lead refradted.
But fince the emerging rays, as they are differently re-
'frangible, make different angles with the fame incident ray
yw, the refradtion which they fuffer at emerfion will fe-
parate- them from' one another.
The angle which the mod refrangible or violet rays
make with the incident ones, is found by calculation to be 54
degrees yminutes; and the angle^ou, which the lead refrangible
or red rays make with the incident ones, is found to be 50 de¬
grees 57 minutes: the angles, which the rays of the in¬
termediate colours, indigo, blue, green, yellow, and orange
make with the incidect rays, are intermediate angles be¬
tween 54 degrees 7 micutes and 50 degrees 57 minutes.
If a line is fuppofed to be drawn from the centre of the fun
through the eye of Ihefpellator ; the angle, which, after
two ref raft ions and two refleftions, any efleftual ray makes
with the incident ray, will be equal to the angle which
it makes with that line.
If^w, (No 45.) is an incident ray, bo an effedtual ray,
and qn a line drawn from the centre of the fun through o
the eye of the fpedfator; the angle which the effedlual
ray makes with the incident ray, is equal to son the angle
which the fame effedlual ray makes with the line qn. For
yw and qn, confidered as drawn from the centre of the fun,
are parallel ; bo croffes them, and confequently makes the
alternate angles j/rs, son, equal to one another. Euc. b. I.
prop. 29.
When the fun floines upon the drops of rain as they are fall¬
ing ; the rays {hat come from thofe drops to the eye of
a fpeftator, after two refleftions and two refraftions, pro¬
duce the fecondary rainbow.
The fecondary rainbow is the outermod CHD, No. 46.
When the fun dimes upon a drop of rain U ; and the rays
HO, which emerge at H fo as to be effedlual, make an
angle HOP of 54 degrees, 7 minutes with LOP aline drawn
from the fun through the eye of the fpedlator ; the fame ef-
fedtual rays will make likewife an angle of 54 degrees 7 mi¬
nutes with the incident rays S, and the rays which emerge
at this angle are violet ones, by what was obferved above.
Therefore, if the fpedlator’s eye is at O, none but violet
rays will enter it : for as all-the other rays make a lefs
angle with OP, they will fall above the fpedfator’s eye.
In like manner, if the effedtual rays that emerge from the
drop G make an angle of 50 degrees 57 minutes with the
Hue OP, they will likewife make the fame angle with the
incident rays S ; and confequently, from the drop G to the
fpedfator’seye atO, nor rays will come but red ones; for all
the othdrvays, making'a greater angle with the line OP, will
fall below the eye at O. For the fame reafon, the rays e-
merging from the intermediate drops between H and G, and
* coming to the fpedtatoFs eye at O, will emerge at interme¬
diate angles, and therefore will have theintermediate colours.
Thus, if there are feven drops from H to G inclufively,
their colours will be violej, indigo,, blue, green, yellow,
.orange and red. This coloured line is the breadth of the
fecondary rainbow,
Now, if HOP was to turn round upon the line OP, like
a pair of compaffes upon one of the legs OP with the open¬
ing HOP, it is plain from the fuppofition, that, in fuch a
vrevolution of the drop H, the angle HOP would be the
fame.
O P T
fame, and cdnfeq'uently the emerging rays would make the
fame angle with the incident ones. But infuch a revolution
the drop would defcribe a circle of which P would be the
centre and CNHRD an arc. Confequently, fince, when
the drop is at N, ®rat R, or any where eife in that arc,
the emerging rays make the fame angle with the incident
ones as when the drop is at H, the colour of the drop
will be the fame to an eye placed at O, whether the drop
isat'N, or at ff, or at R, or any where elfe in that arc.
Now, though the drop does not thus turn round as it falls,
and does not pafs through the feveral parts^of this arc, yet,
fince there are drops of rain falling every where at the fame
time, when one drop is at H, there will be another at R,
another at N, and others in all parts of the arc ; and thefe
drops will all of them be violet-coloured, for the fame rea-
fon that the drop H would have been of this colour if it had
been in any of thofe places. In like manner, as the drop
G is red when it is at G, it would hkewife be red in any
part of the arc 'CWGQI>; and fo will any other drop,
when, as it.is falling, it comes to any part of that arc.
Thus as the fun Ihines upon the rain, whilfl it falls, there
will be two arcs produced, a violet coloured one CNHRD,
,and"a red one CWGQD ; and for the famereafons the in¬
termediate fpace between thefe two arcs will be filled up
with arcs of the reterfnediate colours. All thefe arcs to¬
gether make dtp the fecoadary rainbow.
"The colours of the, fecondary rainbow are fainter than th°fe
of the primary rainbow; and are ranged in the central
order.
The primary rainbow is produced by fuch rays as have
been only once refleAed ; the fjeondary rainbow is produced
by fucb rays as have been twice refledted. But at every
refledfion feme rays pafs out of the drop of rain without be¬
ing refledted ; fo that the oftener the rays are refledted, the
fewer of them are left. Therefore the colours of the fe.
condafy Bow are produced by fewer rays, and confequent-
O R A
OPTIMATES, in Roman antiquity, wera, according to
Tully, the heft citizens, who defired ^Jieir adtions might
be approved of by the better fort; and the populates,
thofe who, out of a thirft of vain-glpry, did not confi-
der fo much what was right, as what would pleale the
populace.
OPUNTIA, in botany. See Cactus.'
GR, in heraldry, denotes yellow, or gold colour. See
Colour and Metal.
In the coats of noblemen, it is blazoned topgz ; and '
in thofe of fovereign princes, fol.
It is reprefented in engraving by fmall points or dots,
fcattered all over the field or bearing. See PI. 134. fig. 5.
ORACLE, among the heathens, was the anfwer which the
gods were fuppofed to give to thofe who confulted them
upon any affair of importance ; it is alfo ufed for the
god who it was thought gave the anfwer, and the place
. where it was given.
The credit of oracles was fo great, that in all doubts
and difputes their determinatiohs were held facred and
inviolable : whence vaft numbers flocked to them for ad¬
vice about the management of their affairs ; and no bu-
fioefs of any confequence was’undertaken, fcaree. any
I C S. 44 Z’
ly will be fainter, than the colours of the primary bow.
In the primary bow, reckoning from theoutlide of it, the
colours are ranged in this order; red, orange', yellow, green,
blue, indigo,- violet. In the fecondary bow, feckonign
from the outfide, the colours are violet, indigo,ddue, green
yellow, orange, red. So that the red, which is the cut-
ermoft or higheff colour in the primary bow, is the inner-
mofl: or lowed colour in the fecondary one.
Now the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be ef¬
fectual after one refledion, make a lefs angle with the in¬
cident rays than the red ones; confequently the violet rays-
make a lefs angle with the lines OP, (No. 46.) than the red
ones. But in the primary rainbow the rays are only once
refleded, and the angle which the effedual rays make with '
OP is the diftance of the coloured drop from P the centre
of the bow. • Therefore the violet drops or violet arc in the
primary bow will be nearer to the centre of the bow, than
the red drops or red arc ; that is, the innermoft colour in
the primary bow will be violet, and the outermoft colour
will be red. And, for the fame reafon, through the whole
primary bow, every colour will be nearer to the centre P,
as the rays of that colour are more refrangible.
But the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be ef-
fedual after two refledions, make a greater angle with the
incident rays-than the red ones ; confequently the violet
rays will make w greater angle with the line OP, than the
red ones. But in the fecondary rainbow the rays are twice
refleded, and the angle which effedual rays make witfw
OP is the diftance of the coloured dtop from P the cen¬
tre of the bow. Therefore the violet drops or violet arc
in the fecondary bow will be farther from the centre of
the bow than the red drops or red arc; that is, the outer¬
moft colour in the fecondary bow will be violet, and the in-
nermoft colour will be red. And, for the fame reafon, thro’
the whole fecondary bow,, every colour will be further from.
the centre P, as the rays of that colour are more refrangible.
O R A
peace concluded, any war waged, or any new form of*
government inftituted, without the advice and approbation •
of fome oracle. The anfwers were ufually given by the ;
intervention of the prieft or prieftefs of the god who was
confulted; and generally expreffed in fuch dark and in¬
termediate phrafes, as might be eafily wrefted to prove
the truth of the oracle whatever was the event. It is not, -
therefore, to be wondered at, that the priefts who deli¬
vered them were in the hrgheft credit and efteem ; and
that they improved this reputation greatly to their ad¬
vantage. They accordingly allowed no man to confult
the gods, before he had offered; coftly facr-ifices, and
made rich prefents to them. And to keep up the vene¬
ration for their oracles, and to prevent their being taken
unprepared, they admitted perfons to confult the gods
only at certain ftated times ; and fomecimes they were
fo cautious, that the greateft perfons coujd obtain no an¬
fwer at all. Thus Alexander himfelf was peremptorily ?
denied by the pythia, or prieftefs of Apollo, till fire was,
by.downright force, obliged to afeend,the tripos ; when,
being unable to refift any longer, ftie cried out, thou art
invincible ; and thefe words were accepted inftead of a
farther oracle. See Mythology.
ORACH;
O R D (44
QUACH, in botany. See AraiPLEx.
ORAL, fomething delivered by word of mouth,, without
being committed to writing ; in which fenfe we fay, oral
law, oral tradition, <bc.
ORANGE-tree, in botany. See Citrus.
Orange, in geography, a city of Provence, in France,
capital of the principality of Orange : it rs fituated on the
eaft fide of the river Rhone, feventeen miles north of
Avignon : E. long. 40 46 , N, lat. 440 10 .
ORATION, in rhetoiic, a fpeech or harangue, compofed
■ according to the tules of oratory, and fpoken in public.
Orations may be all reduced to three kinds, viz. the
: demonflrative, deliberative, and judicial. To the de-
nionllrative kind belong panegyrics, genethliaca, epitha-
lamia, congratulations, <bc. To the deliberative kind
belong perfuafion, exhortation, 6t. And to the judicial
kind belong accufation, confutation, foe.
ORATORIO, in the Italian mufick, a fort of facred dra¬
ma of dialogues ; containing recitatives, duettos, trios,
ritorne-Ios, chorufes, foe.
The febjedb of thefe pieces are ufually taken from the
feriptures, or from the life of fome faint, foe.
The mufick for the oratorio fhould be in the fined tade,
and bed chofen drains. Thefe oratorios are greatly ufed
at Rome, in time of lent ; and of late, in England.
ORATORY. See Rhetoric.
Oratory, among the Romanids, a clofet or like apartment
near a bed-chamber, furnilhed with an altar, crucifix, ,
foe. for private devotion.
ORB, in adronomy, foe. denotes an hollow globe or
fphere.
ORBICULARIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 306.
ORBIS, in ichthyology, a name given to two fpecies of
odracion, nearly as broad aslong, and covered with fpines.
See Ostracion.
Orris magnus, in adronomy, denotes the earth’s orbit,
in its annual revolution round the fun.
ORBIT, in adronomy, the path of a planet or comet, or
the curve that it deferibes in its revolution round its cen¬
tral body : thus the earth’s orbit is the curve which it
deferibes in its annual courfe, and ufually called the e-
. cliptic. See Astronomy. ■
ORCADSS, the Orkney-i slands. See Orkney.
ORCHARD, a plantation of fruit-trees. See Garden¬
ing.
ORCHESTRA, in the ancient theatres, a place in the
form of a femi-circle, where the dancing was performed.
In the Greek theatres, the orchedra made part of the
dage; but, among the Romans, it anfwered.nearly to our
pit ; only that in it were difpofed the feats for the fe-
nators, magidrates, veftals, and other perfons of dif-
tinflion.
ORCHIS, in botany, a genus of the gynandria diandria
clafs. The neftarium is draped like a horn behind the
flower. There are 32 fpecies, 12 of them natives of Bri¬
tain. The root of the morio, or female fool-dones,
has been celebrated as an aphrodifiac, but without any
folul foundation.
ORDEAL, a form of trial,, or of difeoyering innocence or
guilt, formerly praftifed over almod all Europe, and
which prevailed in England from the time of Edward (he
Confeflbr, till it was abolidred by a declaration of Hen-
,-ry III, It was called purgatio vulgaris, or judicium ; in
t ) O R D
oppofition to bellum or combat, the other form of pur¬
gation ; and was of various kinds, as that of fife, that of
red hot-iron, that of water, that of judicial pottage, that
of hallowed cheefe, that of the green crofs, and that of
dice laid on relics covered with a woollen cloth. To
each of which kinds particular niafles were appointed.
In England, an offender, on being arraigned and plead¬
ing not guilty, had it in his choice to put himfelf upon
God and his country ; that is, upon the verdift of a ju¬
ry ; or upon God alone, on which account it was called
the judgment of God, it being prefumed that God would
deliver the innocent. The more popular kinds of ordeal
were thofe of red-hot iron and water; the firft for free¬
men and people of fafhion, and the lafl for peafants.
That by fire, as praftifed here, was the perfon’s walking
bare-footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughfhares ;
and if he efcaped unhurt, he was acquitted ; otherwife,
condemned. That of water was of two kinds, viz. ei¬
ther with hot water, or cold: the former was where the
perfon fufpefted put his arm or leg into Raiding water,
and brought it out unhurt; and the latter was when his
body was not, contrary to the courfe of nature, borne up
by the water.
ORDER, in archite&ure, is a fyftem of the feveral mem¬
bers, ornaments, and proportions of columns and pilaflers;
or a regular arrangement of the proje&ing parts of a build¬
ing, efpecially the column, fo as to form one beautiful
whole. See Architecture.
Order is alfo ufed for a divifion or clafs of any thing:
thus, the tribe of animals, called birds is fubdivided in¬
to fix orders. See Natural History, and Botany.
Holy orders, a charadter peculiar to ecclefiaflics, whereby
they are fet apart for the miniftry. See Ordination.
Military orders, are companies of knights, inflituted'by
kings and princes; either for defence of the faith, or to
confer marks of honour, and make diftin&ions among
their fubjefts.
Religious orders, are congregations or focieties of mona-
Ihcs, living under the fame fuperior, in the^iame man-
, ner, and wearing the fame habit
ORDINAL, a book containing the order or manner of
performing divine fervice.
ORDINANCE, or Ordonnance, a law, ftatute, or
command of a fovereign or fuperior: thus the adts of
parliament are fometimes termed ordinances of parliament.
Ordinary, in civil law, is any judge inverted with autho¬
rity to take cognizance of caufes in his own right, and
not by deputation
Ordinary, or/tawoarA'W*?Ordinary, in heraldry, ade-
‘ nomination given to certain charges properly belonging to
that art. The honourable ordinaries are ten in num¬
ber; viz. the chief,, pale, bend, fefle, bar, crofs, fat¬
tier, chevron, bordure, and orle. For which fee the ar¬
ticles Chief, Pale, foe.
ORDINATES. See Conic Sections.
ORDINATION, the aft of conferring holy orders, or of
initiating a perfon into the.priefthood by prayer and the
laying on of hands.
ORDNANCE, a general name for all forts of great guns
ufed in war. See Gunnery.
Office of Ordnance, an office kept within the tower of
London, which fuperintends and difpofes of allthe aims,
inrtrumsnts, .and utenfils of war, both by fea and land,
in
c
Or tics.
, I’We CXL1.
X. 40.
H 1 lli'il | 4 3 l j IX'l-ll lAfe l > I X
Hr
6
O R G ( 443 ) O R L
in all themagazlnes, ganifons, and forts, In GreatBritain. Orgues is alfo ufed' for a machine, compofed of fcveral
Ordonnancg, in architecture, the compofition of a harquebufs or mufqaet-barrels bound together, by means
building, and the difpofition of its parts, both with re- whereof feveral explolions are made at the fame time,
gard to the whole and to one another ; .or, as Mr. Evelyn ufed to defend breaches and other places attacked",
exprefles it, determining the meafure of what is alfigned ORGYA, an ancient Grecian meafure, containing fix feet,
to the feveral apartments. ORIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and
ORE, in natural hiftory, the compound mineral glebe, territory of Otranto, lituated thirty miles north-wed of
eaith, done, or other fubftance, which is rich enough
in metallic particles to be worth the while of being pu-
r%d, and by this means to feparate the metal from it,
whether gold, filver, copper, See Chemistry.
OREBRO, the capital of the province of Nericia, in Swe¬
den: E. long, ry0, N. lat. 59° 2c/.
OREGRUND, a port-town of Sweden, in the province
of Upland: E. long. 180 N, lat. 6o° 3c/.
ORFORD, a borough and port town of Suffolk, thirty
miles eaft of Bury. It fends two members to parliament.
ORGAL, among dyers, denotes the lees of wine dried.
ORGAN, in general, is an inftrument or machine defign-
ed for the production of Tome certain aCHon or operation;
in which fenfe, the mechanic powers, machines, and e-
ven the veins, arteries, nerves, mufcles, and bones of
the human body, may be called organs.
Organ, in mufick, the largett.and moll harmonious wind-
inftrument.
The invention of the organ is very ancient, though it
is agreed that it was very little ufed till the eighth cen¬
tury. It feems to have been borrowed from the Greeks.
Vitruvius deferibes an hydraulic one in his tenth book of
architecture. The. .emperor Julian has an epigram in its
praife.- St. Jerome mentions one with twelve pair of
bellows, which might be heard a thoufand paces, or a
mile; and another at Jerufalem, which might be heard
at the mount of Olives.
There is one in the cathedral church of Ulm, in Ger¬
many, that is oinety.three feet high, and twenty-eight
broad; the biggeft pipe is thirteen inches in diameter;
and it has fi'xteen pair of bellows.
The modern organ is a buffet, containing feveral rows
of pipes. The fize of the organ is generally expreffed
by the length of its biggelt pipe; thus we fay an organ
of thirty-two feet, of.fixteen, of eight, and of two feet.
Hydraulic Organ, denotes a mufical machine that plays
by means of water inftead 6f wind. Of thefe there are
feveral in Italy in the grottoes of vineyards, Ctefebes of
Alexandria, who lived in the time of Ptolemy Eurgetes,
is faid to have firft invented organs that played by com-
prefiing the air with water, as is IHll praCtifed. Archi¬
medes and Vitruvius have left us deferiptions of the hy¬
draulic organ.
ORGASM, an ecftacy, or impetuous defire of coition, oc-
cafioned by a turgefcency pf the feminal veffels.
ORGIA, in antiquity,* feafts and facrifices performed in
honour of Bacchus, inftitured by Orpheus,-and chiefly
celebrated on the mountains by wild diftraCted women,
called Bacchae. See Bacchanalia, andDioNYSiA.
ORGIVA, a town of Spain, in the province of Granada,
twenty-five miles fouth of Granada.
ORGUES, in the military art, are thick? long pieces of
wood, pointed at one end, and fhod with iron, clear one
of another; hanging each by a particular rope, or cord,
over the gate-way of a ftrong place, perpendicularly, to
be let fidl in cafe of an enemy.
Vgl. HI, N° S8. 2
the city of Otranto.
ORIFICE, the mouth or aperture of a tube, pipe, or o-
ther cavity.
ORIGANUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The ftrobilus is triangular and fpiked.
There are eleven fpecies, two of which are natives of
Britain, viz. the vulgare, or wild marjoram; and the
onites, or pot-marjoram.
ORIGENISTS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian fed! in the
fourth century, fo called from their drawing" their opi¬
nions frpm the writings of Origen. The origenifts main¬
tained, that the fouls of men had a pre-exiftent ftate ;
. that they were holy intelligences, and had finned in hea¬
ven before the body was created : that Chrilt is only the
fon of God by adoption : that he has been fucceffively u-
nited with all the angelical natures, and has been a che¬
rub, a feraph, and all the celeflial virtues, one after an¬
other: that in future ages, iie will be crucified for the
falvation of the devils, as he has already been for that of
men; and that their punifument, and that of the damned,
will continue only for a certain limited time.
ORIGINAL, a firlt draught or defign of any thing, which
ferves as a model to be imitated or copied.
Original sin, the crime of eating the forbidden fruit,
of which it is faid all mankind are guilty at their con¬
ception by the imputation of Adam’s tranfgreffion ; which
is accounted for by fuppofing, that Adam, as he was ts
be the father, was alfo th& foederal head ancf reprefen-
tative, of the whole human race ; and that on his finning,
all that were to fpring from him partook of his crime.
ORIGUELLA, a city of Spain, in the province of Va¬
lencia : W. long, yo', N. lat. 38° 3o\
ORILLON, in fortification, is a fmall rounding of earth
faced with a wall; raifed on the fhoulder of thofe baftions
that have cafemates, to-cover the cannon in the retired
flank, and prevent their being difmounted bythe enemy.
See Fortification.
ORIOLUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of pics. The bill is conical, convex, very (harp,
and ftrait, the fuperior mandible being much longer than
the under one ; and the tongue is forked and (harp.
There are 20 fpecies, principally diltinguifoed by their
colour.
ORION, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
ORJXA, the capital of the province of the fame name, is
the hither India, fuuated on the weft fide of the bay of
Bengal.
ORKNEY islands, certain iflands on the north of Scot¬
land, from which they are feparated by a frith twenty
miles in length, "and ten in breadth. Thefe iflands are
forty in number, and together with the ifland of Zetland
fend one member to parliament, and another for the burghs
of Kirkwall,
ORLE, Orlet, or Orlo, in archite&ure, a fillet under
the ovolo or quarter round of a capital. When it is at
the top br bottom of the (haft, it is called cintfture.
5 T PaOadi*
O R O ( 444 ) -O R T
Palladio ufesthe word orlo, for the plinth of the bafes
of the columns.
Orle, in heraldry, an ordinary, in form of a fillet, drawn
round the ihield, near the edge or extremity thereof,
leaving the field vacant in the middle. Its breadth is but
half that of the treffure or bordure, which contains a fixth
part of the fhield ; and the orle, only a twelfth : befides
that the orle is its own breadth diftant from the edge of
the (hieki, whereas the bordure comes to the edge itfelf.
The form of the orle is the fame with that of the fliield;
whence it refembles an efcutcheon. See Plate CXXXIV.
fig. 6. which reprefents an orle argent in a field gules.
ORLEANOIS, a province or government of France, bound¬
ed by Normandy and the ifle of France, on the north }
by Champaign and Burgundy, on the ealt; by Lyohois
and Guienne, on the fouth; and by Britany and the bay
of Bifcayr on the weft.
ORLEANS, a city of France, capital of Orleanois, fi-
tuated on the river Loire, in E. long. 2°, N. lat. 47°
55'-
Orleans is alfo the name of an ifland and town on the
fiver of St. Laurence, in Canada : W, long. 7 jQ, N.
lat. 47°.
ORLOPE, in the fea-language, the uppermoft fpace or
deck in a great ftiip, reaching from the main-maft to the
mizen. In three-deck (hips, the fecond and loweft decks
are fometimes called orlopes.
ORMOND, the north divifion of the county of Tipperary
in Ireland.
ORMUS, an iflapd at the entrance of the gulph o'f Perfia,
fituated oppofite to Gombron on the continent, in E. long.
56°, N. lat. 27° 30'.
This ifland is 'thirty miles in circumference.
ORNITHOGALUM, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monbgynia clafs. The corolla confifts of fix ereift petals;
and the filaments are alternately wider at the bafe. There
are n fpecies, three of them natives of Britain, viz. the
luteum, or yellow ftar of Bethlehem ; the pyrenaicum,
or fpiked ftar of Bethlehem ; and the umbellatum, or
common ftar of Bethlehem.
ORNITHOLOGY, that branch of natural hiftory which
treats of birds. See Natural Histqry.
ORNITHOMANCY, a fpecies of divination, performed
by means of birds ; being the fame with augury. See
Divination and Augury.
ORNIOPHPUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The pod is jointed, cylindrical, and
arcuated. There are four fpecies, only one of which,
viz. the perpufillils, or birds-foot, is a native of Britain.
OROBANCHE, in botany, ,a genus of thedidynamiaangio-
fpermia clafs. The calix is bifid, and the corolla rin-
gent ; the capfule has two valves, and contains many
feeds. There are feven fpecies, two of them natives of
Britain, viz. the major, or broom-rape; and the ramofa,
or branched broom-rape.
OROBUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The ftylus is linear; the calix is blunt at the bafe,
the fuperior fegments of it being (horter. There are nine
fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz. the tube-
rofus, or wood-peafe ; and the fylvaticus, or bitter
vetch. _
ORONOQUE, a river of South America, which falls into
the Atlantic oceanirf 8° N. lat. almoft oppofite to the ifland
of Trinity.
ORONTIUM, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono-
gynia clafs. The fpadix is cylindrical, and covered with
flofcules ; the corolla confifts of fix petals ; it has no fty¬
lus ; and the capfule has three cells. There is but one
fpecies, a native of Virginia.
ORPHAN, a fatheriefs child, or minor ; or one that is
deprived both of father and mother. •
ORPHUS, in ichthyology. SeeSfARUs.
ORPIMENT, in nathral hiftory, a foflile fubftance ufually
found in copper-mines, compofed of thin flakes, like the
talcs ; which eafily fplit, and are flexible, and not ela-
ftic, foluble in oil, fufibje in a moderate fire, and yield¬
ing in burning an offenfive fmell like garlic.
Of this genus of folfils, there are. only three known
fpecies : 1. A broad-flaked, gold-coloured kind, much
efteemed at prefeht by our painters. This is found in
feveral places, as in the iflands of the Archipelago, in the
mines of Gbffelaer in Saxony, in fome parts of Turky,
and in the Eaft-Indies, and in its utmoft purity about
Smyrna ; this makes the fineft of all yellows in painting.
2. The fmall-flaked yellow kind, which is the common
orpiment of the ftiops, and is a fine cofour, though great¬
ly inferior to the former. This is found in many parts
of the Turkilh dominions, and in Germany. And, 3.
Red-orpiment, which is of a fine bright red: this is a
very beautiful fubftance of a fine bright red, very gloffy,
and a little tranlparent, and is found in the Tu kiflt do¬
minions, in the iflands of the Archipelago,, and even in
Cornwall, where it is known under the name of red
nwndic.
GeofFroy declares it a corrofive and poifonous mineral:
on the other’ hand, Boerhaave declares orpiment an in¬
nocent and harmlefs medicine ;- and Hoffman, whp has
been at more pains than any body to examine into its na¬
ture, declares the fame, and even gives inftances of its
being gjven to dogs without anyjiarm.
It is an excellent depilatory, mixed with lime, and made
into a-pafte with water. The painters are .fond- of it as
a golden colour ; and a lixivium of it, with quick lime,
makes fyrnpathetic ink.
ORPINE, in botany. See Sedum.
ORRERY, a curious machine, or movement, for repre-
fenting the motions and appearances of the heavenly bo¬
dies. See Astronomy, p. 49^.
ORRICE. See Iris.
ORTEG AL cajile and Cape, the moft northerly promon¬
tory of Spain, thirty miles north-eaft of Ferrol : W.
long. 8° 22', N. lat. 440.
ORTEGIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria monogynia
clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves the corolla is
wanting; and the capfule has one cell, and many feeds.
There is but one fpecies, a native of Spain.
ORTHODOX, in church-hiftory, an appellation given to
thofe who ape found in all the articles of the Chtriftian
faith.
ORTHOGRAPHIC projettion of xhefpbere, that where¬
in 4the eye is fuppofed at an infinite diftance ; fo called,
becaufe the perpendiculars from any point of the fphere
will all fall in the common interfe&ion of the fphere, with
the plane of the projection.
• ORTHO-
O S N ( 445 • )• O a T
. ORTHOGRAPHY, that part of'grammar which teaches
the nature and affethons of letters, and the jut! method
of fpelJing or writing words with all the p opcr and ne-
ctffary letters, making one of the four greatelt divifions
or branches of grammar. See Grammar.
Orthography, in geometry, the ait of drawing or deli¬
neating the fore-right plan of any objtft, and of exprefs-
ing the heights or elevations of each part. It is called
orthography, fr.om its determining things by perpendicu¬
lar li,nes falling on the geometrical plane.
Orthography, in architeftur^, the elevation of a build-
ing.
Orthography, in perfpedlive, is the fore-fight fide of
any plane, i. e. the fide or plane that lies parallel to a
llraight line, that may be imagined to pafs- through the
outward convex, points of the eyes, continued to a con¬
venient length.
ORTHOPNOEA, in medicine, a fpecies or degree of
althma, where there is fuch a difficulty of refpiration,
that the patient is obliged to fit or ftand upright, to be
•able to breathe. See Medicine.
ORTON, a market town of Weftmoreland, fituated ten
miles fouth-weft of Appleby. •*
ORVALA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gymnq-
fpermia clafs. The fuperior lip of the corolla is divided
into three fegments, each being teethed ; and the inferi¬
or lip is cordatedand crenated. There is but one fpecies,
a native of Italy.
ORVIETTO, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territories,
capital of the province of Orvietto, fituated at the conflu¬
ence of the Tiber and the Chiane: E. long. 130, N.
lat, 430.
ORWELL, a river of Suffolk, which, riling in the middle
of that country,-tains fdtoth-eaft by Ipfwich, and falls into
the German fea at Languard-fort.
ORYZA, RICE, in botany, a genus of the hexandj;ia digy-
nia clafs. The calix is a double-valved glume, with one
flower; and the corolla confilta of two equal valves. There
is but one fpecies.
This plant is cultivated in valt abundance in the Eaft,
as alfo in Carolina, for food. It is faid to be good in dy-
fenteries, diarrhoeas, be.
OSACA, a great city and port-town of Japan, fituated on
a bay of the fea, on the eaft fide of the ifland: in E,
long. .35°, N. lat. 3,5®.
GSBECKIA, in botany, a genus of the odandna monogy*
nia clafs. The calix confilts of fourfegments, and the co¬
rolla of four petals; and the capfule has four ceils. There
is but one fpecies, a native of India.
OSCHEOCELE, in furgery, a hernia of the ferotum. See
Surgery.'
OSCILLATION, in mechanics, the vibration, or recipro¬
cal afeent and defeent of a pendulum. See Mechanics.
OSMUNDA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fili-
cum clafs. The fpike is full of branches, and the frufti-
fication is round; There are 17 fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain,
OSNABURG, the capitaltof the biffiopric of the fame name,
t in-the circle of Weftphalia : E; long. 70 40', N. lat. 5s9
31'. The territories of this biffiopric, which are forty
miles long, and thirty broad, are fubjeft to its biftiop:
and this biffiopric is alternately held by a protellant and
papifl, the protettant 'being always a prince of che houfe-of
Brunfwic,
OSORNO, a town of Chili in South America : W. long,.
8o°, S.' lit. 41°.
OSPREY. SeeFALCo.
OSSI FICATIONj the formation of bones, but more par¬
ticularly the ponverfipn of parts naturally foft to the
hardnefs and confiftence of bones. See .Anatomy, p.
!48.
OSSORY, the weft divifion of Queen’s county in Ireland. -
OSSUNA, a town of Spain, in the province of Andslufia,
forty miles eaft of Seville.
OSTAGIO, a town of Italy in the territory of Genoa, fif¬
teen miles north-weft of Genoa.
OSTEND, a city and port-town pf the Atiftrian Nether¬
lands, in the province of Flanders, fituated twelve miles
weft of Bruges : E, long. 20 45\N. lat. 51° 15°.
OSTEOCOLLA, in natural hiltory, though fuppofed by
many to be an earth, is truly a cruftated kind of ipar, de-
bafed by earth, and therefore not tranfparent.
It is ufually found coating over vegetable, or other bo¬
dies, in form of incruftations ; fo that the true ofteocoila is
a tubular cruftaceous fpar, of a very foul and coarfe tex-s
ture, and carries with it much more of the appearance of
a marl than of a fpecies of fpar.
The mafles of cfteocollo, though regplarly of the fame
figure, are very different in fize ; Lome of them being not
thifker-than a crow-quill, and others of five and fix inches
diameter; it is always, however; of a tubular figure; and
a wrinkled and rough furface..
Ofteocolla is frequent in Germany, wheteitis found bu--
tied near the furfaee of the earth, fometimes in ftrata of
fand, but more frequently among marls: it ffiould be cho-
fen for ufe, the pureft that can be had of a pale brown
colour, and of a tolerably dofe and firm texture.
It has long been famous for.bringing on a callus in frac».
tured bones ; its name ofteocollo fignifying the bone-glue,
or bone-hinder. It is alfo recommended as a diuretic, and
as good in the fluoy aibua: but, at prefent, little regard is
paid to it; fince, if it has any virtues, "they muft be wholly
owing to fpar, v/hich may be given to greater advantage
in a purer form.
OSTEOLOGY, that branch of anatomy which treats of
the bones. See Anatomy, Part I.
OSTEOSPERMUM, in botany, a genus of thefyngenefia
polygamia neceffaria clafs. The receptacle.is naked; it has
no pappus ; the calix confifts of many leaves; and the feeds
are round and hard. There are five fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
OSTIA, a port-town of Italy, in,the pope’s territories, fi¬
tuated at the mouth of the Tiber : E.long, 13°, N. lat. .
4l0 30V
OSTRACION, in zoology, a genus of the amphibia nantes
clafs. It has ten long, cylindrical, obtufe,teeth in each
jaw; the aperture is linear; the body is covered with a bo-r
ny fubftance; and it has no belly-fins. There are nine
fpecres, principally diftinguiffied by the angles of their bo¬
dies and the number of fpinesnear the tail.
OSTRACISM, inGrecian antiquity, denotes the baniffiment
of fuch perfons whofe merit and influence gave umbrage to >
the people of Athens, left they ffiould attempt any thing a-
gainft the public liberty. It was fo called, becaufe the peo-
OVA ( <
^>'e voted a petfon’s banifliment, by writing bis name'on
(lulls, and cafting them into an urn.
O’Sl'ilACITES, m natural hiftory, the name by which au¬
thors call the fofiile oyfter-lhell.
Oftracitcs has the fame medicinal virtues with the be-
Jemnites, and lapis judaicus', only in a higher degree; be¬
ing accounted by Dr. Lifter one of the greateft: known
medicines in nephritic cafes : the dofe, in powder, is from
half a dram to a dram, in white-wine; and to prevent a
licknefs at the ftomach, that fometimes attends the taking
it, one third part oft he quantity of powdered chamomile-
flowers may be mixed with it.
OSTREA, the OYSTER, in zoology, a genus belonging to
the order of vermes teftacea. The ftiell has two unequal
valves; the cardo has no teeth, but a fmail hollow pit,
with tranfverfe lateral ftreaks. There are 31 fpecies, prin¬
cipally diftingulftied by peculiarities in their (hells. The
common oifter ifc ufed both raw, and varioufly prepared as
food.
OSTRICH, in ornithology. See Struthio.
OSWEGO, a town of the Iroquois, in North America,
three hundred miles weft of Albany, in New-York.
OSWESTRY, a market-town in Shropfhire, fifteen miles
north-weft of Shrewfbury.
OSYRIS, in botany, a genus of the diascia triandria clafs.
The calix of both male and female confifts of three feg-
mehts; neither of them have any corolla; the female has
no ftylus,. but a roundifh ftigma ; and the drupa has but
one cell. There is only one fpecies, a native of Italy.
OTHONNA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia neceffaria clafs. The receptacle is naked ; it has no
pappus; and the calix is fomewhat cylindrical, and confifts
of many jeaves. There are feven fpecies, two of them na-
tivesof Britain, viz. thepaluftris, or marfti fltabane; and
the integrifoiia, or mountain ragwort.
OTIS, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to the or¬
der ofigrailse. The fuperior mandible of the bill is arched;
the noftnls are oval; the tongue is bifid; the feet are made
fqr running, being furnifhed with four toes. There are
four fpecies, principally diftinguiflredby their colour;
' OTLEY, a market-town, tw'enty-one miles weft of York.
OTOQUE, an ifland fituated in the bay of Panama, from
whence the cfty is furniihed with provifions ; W. long.
82°, N. lat. 70.
OTRANTO, a city and archbifhop’s fee of the kingdom of
Naples, fituated at the entrance of the gulph of Venice:
E. long. 190 15', N. lat. 40° 12'.
OTTER, in zoology. See Mustela.
OTTOMAN, hr Othoman, an appellation given to the
Turkilh empire, from Othomannus, or Ofmanhus, the
firft emperor of the prefent family.
OTTONA, or Ortona, a city of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, fituated on the gulph of Venice: in E. long. 15°
3c/, N. lat. 420 22/.
OVAL, an oblong curvilinear figure, otherwife called ei-
lipfis. See Conic Sections.
OVARIES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 275.
OVATION, in the Roman antiquity, a lefier triumph, al¬
lowed to commanders for victories won without the effu-
fion of much blood; or for defeating a mean and incon-
fiderable enemy. The (how generally began at the Al¬
banian mountain, whence the general with his retinue
G?ad£ bis entry into the city on foot, with many flutes
46 ) O V l
or pipes founding in poncert as he paffed along, and wear¬
ing a garland of myrtle as a token of peace. The term
ovation, according to Servius, is derived from avis, flieep,
becaufe on this occafion the conqueror facrificed a flieep,
as in triumph he facrificed a bull.
-QUDENARDE, a town of tW Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province of Flanders,, fituated on the river Scheld,
thirteen miles Couth of Ghent.
OUDENBURG, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province o! Flanders, five miles fouth-eaft of Oftend.
OVERHALE, in the ! - -language. A rope is laid to be
overhaled ween drawn too ftiff, or haled the contrary
way. *
Over- rake, amongfeamen : When a (hip, ridingat anchoj-,
fo overheats herfelf into an high fea, that (he is washed
by the waves breaking in upon her, they fay the waves
over-rake her.
OVERSMAN, in Scots law ; a perftm named by arbiters,
or by the parties fubmitters, to determine the matter fub-
mitted, in cafe the parties difagreee in their opinion.
OVERT, the feme with open : thus an overt ad! figuifies an
ad! which, in law, muft be clearly proved ; and fuch is
to bealledged in every indidhnent for high treafon.
OVERTUR,E, or Quverture, opening or preluding ; a
term ufed for the folemnities at the beginning of a pu.
blic ad! or ceremony ; an opera, tragedy, concert of mu-
fick,
The overture of the theatre, or feene, is a piece of rnu-
fick ufually ending with a fugue : the overture of a ju¬
bilee is a genera] proceflxon, eSrt,i
OVERYSCHE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in the
province of Brabant, fituated on* the river Yfche, nine
miles north-eaft of Bruflels.
OVERYSSEL, one of the united provinces, bounded by
Groningen on the north, by Weftphalia on the eaft, by
Zutphen on the fouth, and by Guelderland, the Zuyder-
fsa, and Frieflaffd, on the weft. ,
OVIEDA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angiofper-
mia glafs. The calix confifts of five fegments; the co¬
rolla is a long cylindrical tube; and the berry is round,
containing two feeds. There are two fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
OVIEDO, a city of Spain, capital of the province of Aftu-
rias; fituated on the river Ada, fifty miles north of
Leon, in W. long. 6° 40', N. lat. 430 30.
OVILIA, or Septa, in hncient Rome, a place i« the
campus martius, at firft railed in like a (heep.pen, whence
its name. Afterwards it was mounted with marble, and
beautified with walks and galleries, as alfo with a tri¬
bunal, or feat of juftice. Within this precindt, or in-
clofure, the people were called in to give their fufFrages
for the eledlion of magiftrates. The afeent into the o-
viiia was not by (fairs, but by pontes, or narrow boards,
laid there for the occafion ; on which account de ponte
dgjici was to be deniedthe privilege of voting; andperfons
thus dealt with, were called depontani.
OVIPAROUS, a term applied to fuch animals as bring
forth their young from eggs; as birds, infedls,
OVIS, in zoology, a genus of the mammalia clafs, and of
the order of pecora; the charadters of which are thele:
The horns are concave, turned backwards, twifted, and
full of wrinkles; there are eight foreteeth in the un¬
derjaw, and no dog-teeth. The fpecies are three, viz.
l.' Aries,
O V I { 447 ) OHS
’i. Arks, or ram and fhecp, theliorns of which are faa-
ped like a hajf moon, and compreikd. This animal is
perhaps the moft gentle and inoffenfive, and at the fame
lime the mod timid and flnpid, of all quadrupeds. In
a flock of Iheep, there is always a leader, whole fiepsthe
red implicitly and blindly follow. If he runs over a pre¬
cipice, the whole dock follow his example, and cannot
be redraine<f though evident dedrudion be the confe-
quence. The fmalled noife, if uncommon, makes them
run precipitantly.,againd each other, without knowing
the caufe ot their 'danger, or beingable to extricate them-
felves. In fhow, they remain fixed in the fame fpot;
and continue obdinaieiy in that fituation, urilefs they are
forced to move by the die'pherd or his dog. But though
dadardly in itfelf, though almod devoid of fentiment and
mental qualities, flris animal is of the mod extenfivfe u-
tility to man. It affords us both food and cloathing, be-
fides the advantages we derive from its milk, its fkin, and
its tallow.
Love, the livelied fentiment in all animals, is the on¬
ly paffion which infpires the ram with any degree of vi¬
vacity; when under the influence of this paffion, he be¬
comes petulant, runsagaind his neighbours, and fometimes
•even attacks the fhepherd himfelf. But the ewe, or fe¬
male, though in the fame fituacion, does not appear to be
in the lead affeded ; fhe.feems to have no other indind
than that of fimply admitting the embraces of the ram,
eating her food, and recognifing her offspring ; the lamb,
■on the other hand, is endowed with the fame indind of
didinguifhing its mother from the red of the flock.
This animal, fo foft and fo Ample in its nature and
. difpolition, is likewife extremely weak and feeble in its
conditution : They can endure but little fatigue ; when¬
ever they run, their hearts palpitate, and their wind fails
them ; they are equally incapable of bearing heat or cbld,
fnow or rain : They are fubjed to many difeafes, mod
of which are contagious : They bring fonh their yonng
with pain .and difficulty, and require more care and at¬
tention than any other domeflic animal.
The ram is capable of generation at the age of 18 months;
and the ewe can be impregnated when a year old. One
ram is fufficient for 30 or 40 ewes. He ought to be
Urong, well proportioned; his head fhoultf be thick knd
•ftrong, his front large, his eyes black, his nofe flat, his
neck thick, his body long and tall, his teflicles maffy,
and his tail long. White is the bed colour for a ram.
The eweswhofe woo^is mod plentiful, buftiy, long, foft,
and white, are mod proper for breeders, e!pecial!y when
at thefarrie time they are of a large fize, have a thick neck,
and move nimbly.
Ewes are generally in ,fea{qn from the end of Odober
to the beginning of April: However, .they may be impreg¬
nated at any time, if they be fed with dimulating nou-
rifhment, as fait water, and bread made of hemp-feed.
They go with young about five months, and generally
bring forth but one at a time, though frequently, two :
In warm climates, they may bring forth twice in a year ;
but in Britain, France, and mod parts of Europe, only
once. They give milk plentifully for feven or eight
months: Their milk affords no.urifhment for children
and country-people ; good cheefe is made of it, efpeciaily
when mixed with cow-milk. They live from 10 to 12
years, and are capable of bringing forth as long as they
live.
Vox.. HI. NQ, 88. 2
When the male lambs are not intended to be kept foe
propagation, but fattened for food, they ought to be
cadrated at the age of five er fix months. This opera¬
tion is performed two ways: in the one, an incifion is
made and the tedides taken out; in the other, a ligature
is tied tight round the fcrotum, above the tedicles, which
foon dedroys the veffels which nourifli them. After ca-
dration, they are called weathers.
The ram, ewe, and-weather, when one year old,'lofe
the two foreteeth of the under jaw ; fix months after¬
wards, they lofe the two foreteeth next to thefe ; and at
the age of three years, the teeth are all replaced, ~ The
• age of a ram miy likewife be difcovered by their horns,
which always appear.the firftyear, and frequently as food
as they are brought Forth. Thefe horns'uniformly ac¬
quire an additional ring every year as long as the creature
lives. The ewis commonly have no horns, but a kind
of long protuberances in place of them : However, forne
of them have two, and feme four hoTnsi.
In Spain, and the fouthern parts of Europe, the flocks
are kept in fliades or dables during the night: but in
. Britain, where there is now no danger from wolves,
they are allowed to remain without, both night and day;
which makes the animals more healthy, and their flefh a
more whole food. Dry and moun ainons grounds, where
thyme and Iheep’s fefeue grafs abound, are the bed for
the paduring (beep. ■
2. TheGuineeiifis, or Guineadieep. haspendulous ears,
lax hairy dew laps, and a prominence oft the hind part of
the head. The wool is diort, like thatof a goat. It is •
a native of Guinea.
3. The drepficeros, or Cretan fheep, has draft cari-
nated horns, twided in afpiral manner. It is a nativepf
Mount lola,
OULNEY, a market-town of Bucktnghamfliire, fituated
nine miles fouth-ead of Northampton.
OULZ, a town of Italy, in the province of Piedmont, fitu.
ated in E long. , 6° 30°, N. lat. 45°.■
OUNCE, a little weight, the fixteenth part of a pound a-
voirdupois, and the twelfth part of a pound troy.
Ounce, in zoology. See Leo..
OUNDLE, a market-town of Northamptonfhire, fituated
on the river Nen, twenty-two miles north-ead of North¬
ampton.
OVOLO, or Ovum, in architedhare, a round moulding,
whofe profile, or fweep, in the ionic and compofite capi¬
tals, is ufuaiSy a quadrant of a circle: whence it is alfo
commonly called the quarter-round,.
It is ufually cut with the reprefentation of eggs and an¬
chors or arrows heads placed alternately,
OUSE, a river, which,/riling in the north of Yorkfliire,
runs fouth-ead by York; and, continuing that courfe, '
falls into the Trent.
Ouse, is alfo a river which rifes on the confines of Ox-
fordlhire and. Buckinghamfiiire ; and running north-ead
through Buckinghamfhire, Bedfordffiire, Huntingdon',
fhire, Cambridgedtire, and Norfolk, paffes by Bucking¬
ham*, Bedford, Huntington, and Ely, difeharging itfelf
into the bay of the German fea at Lynn.
OUSTIACH, or OStiach Country, is a part of Afiatic
Ruffia, extending along the river Inis to its confluence
with the river Oby.'Jand from thence northwasd along the
banks of the Oby and Jenifa, into the gtilph of the Man-
gafea, or the frozen ocean; and extending aifa along
5 U the
O X U ( 443 ) . O Z AE
tha banks of feveral rivers which fail into the Oby and
Jenifa.
OUTLAW, .fignifies one that is deprived of the benefit of
the law, and therefore held to be out of the king’s pro-
teftion. See the next article.
OUTLAWRY, is where aperfon is outlawed, and on that
account lofes the benefit of a fubjeff,
The procefs of outlawry lies in indiftments of treafon
or felony, and alfoof trefpafs vi&armis, confpiracy, <bc.
And by ftatute, perfons may be outlawed in many civil
, actions, as debt, cafe, covenant, <bc.
OUTWORKS, in fortification, all thofe works made with-
out-fide the ditch of a fortified place, to cover and de¬
fend it. See Fortification.
OUZEL, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
OWL, in ornithology. See Strix.
OX, in zoology. See Bos.
OXALIS, in botany, a genus of the decandria pentagynia
clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves; the petals are con-
nedtedby the claws; andthe capfule has five fides. There
are ^fpecies, only one of them, viz. the acetofella, or
wood forrel, is a native of Britain.
OXFORD, the capital of Oxfordfhire, and the fee of a
bifhop ; it is fituated at the confluence of the Ifis and
Cherwell, fifty-five miles weft of London : W. long.
15', and N. lat. 510 45’.
Oxfotd is moft remarkable on account of its univerfity,
which confifts of twenty colleges and five halls: this
city fends two members to parliament, and the univerfi¬
ty as many.
OXGANG, or Oxgate, is generally taken, in our old
law-books, for fifteen acres, or as much ground as afingle
ox can plough in a year.
OXUCLiE, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus of
foflils of the clafs of the felenitae, but of the columnar,
not the rhomboidal kind.
Of this genus there are only two known fpecies. 1.
A fine kind, with thin flakes and tranfverfe filaments,
found in the clayey banks of the river Nen, near Peter¬
borough, in Northamptonfhire ; and, 2. A dull kind,
with thick plates and-longitudinal filaments. This is not
uncommon in Yorkfhire, and lies fometimes in a yellow,
fometimes in a blue clay.
OXUS, a river which rifes in the mountains on the north
of India ; and running no th-weft, through Ufoec Tarta¬
ry, afterwards feparates Perfia from Ufbec Tartary,s.and
falls into the Cafpian fea, in 44° N. lat.
OXYCOCCUS, in botany. See Vaccinium.
OXYCRATE, in pharmacy, <bc. a mixture of vinegar
and water, proper to afiwage, cool, and refrefh: they
make fomentations ofoxycrate, clyfters of oxycrate, <bc.
The ufual proportion is onefpoonful of vinegar to five or
fix fpoonfuls of water.
OXYCROCEUM, in pharmacy, he. a preparation much
ufed in plafters for fra&ures, he. made as follows:
Take yellow wax, one pound ; pitch and galbanum, each
half a pound : melt them over a gentle fire ; and then add
of venice-turpentine, myrrh, and olibanum, each three
ounces; faffron, two ounces : make them into a plafter.
OXYGLYCU, a fpecies of drink prepared of the fweeteft
honey combs, macerated and boiled. The combs from
which all the honey has been exprefled, are put into a
pot with pure water, and boiled till they feem to have
depofited all their contained honey in the water. This
liquor is to be kept, and, when diluted with cold water,
is to be drank in the fummer-time, in order to remove
thirft.
OXYMEL, in pharmacy, a compofition of vinegar and ho¬
ney.
There are feveral forts of oxymel, whereof the Ample
kind Is made by boiling, in a glazed earthern veflel, and
with a gentle fire, two .pounds of clarified honey, in a
pint of vinegar, to the confiftence of a fyrup.
OYER, in law-books, feems to have been anciently ufed
for what is now called aflifes.
Oyer and terminer, a commiflion diredled to the judge
of aflife, and other gentlemen, impowering them to hear
and determine all criminal caufes, and to try all offenders,
whether for treafon, felony, or trefpafs.
OYES, or Oyez, fignifies Hear ye ; and is frequently ufed
by the criers in our courts, on making proclamations, or
to enjoin filence.
OYSTER, in zoology. See Ostrea.
OZiENA, a foul and malignant ulcer of the nofe, diftin-
guifhed by its foetor, and often accompanied with a caries
of the bones of the nofe.
)3(5!c.¥5!030K}3050s0JG305f
p.
P A C
PABULUM. See Fuel and Fire.
PACA, in zoology. See Mus.
PACE, a meafure taken from the fpace between the two
feet of a man, in walking; ufually reckoned two feet and
a half, and in fome men a yard or three feet.
The geometrical pace is five feet ; and 60000 fuch pa¬
ces make one degree of the equator.
Pace, in the manege, is of three kinds, viz. walk, trot, and
gallop; to which may be added jin amble, becaufe fome
horfes have it naturally.
P A C
Horfes which go ftiufHing or mixed paces, between the
walk and amble, are for the moft part of no value ;
which commonly proceeds from their fiery temper, and
fometimes from a weaknefs in their reins or legs.
PACHAMAC, a temple of Peru, in South America, de¬
dicated by the Indians to the fupreme being : it gives its
name to the adjacent couuntry.
PACHODECARHOMBIS, in natural hiftory, the name
of a genus of foflils, of the clafs of thefelenitae, exprefling
a thick rhomboidal body, ccmpofed of ten planes.
PACIFIC
P AE O ( 4
PACIFIC ocean, that vaft ocean which fe pa rates Afia
from America : it is called Pacific, from the moderate
•weather the firft mariners who failed in it met with be¬
tween the tropics ; and it was ca'led fourh-fea, becaufe
the Spaniards croffed the ifthmus of Darien from north to
fouth, when they (irft difcovered it: though it is proper¬
ly the Weftern ocean, with regard to America.
PACK, in commerce, denotes a quantity of goods, made
up in loads, or bales, for carriage.
A pack of wool is feventeen ftone and two pounds, or
a horfe’s load.
PACKAGE* is a fmall duty of one penny in the pound,
paid for all goods not particularly rated.
PACOS, in zoology. SeeCAMELUS.
PACTOLUS, a river of Lydia in the lefler Afia, cele¬
brated by the ancient poets for its golden fands.
PADDOC, or Paddoc-course, a piece of ground en-
compaffed with pales or a wall, and taken out of a park
for exhibiting races with grey-hounds, for plates, wa¬
gers, or the like.
PADERBORNE, the capital of the bilhopric of the fame
name in Weftphalia : E. long. 8° 25', N.lat. 51° 45'.
PADSTOW, a market town of Cornwall, thirty miles
weft of Launcefton.
PADUA, the capital of the Paduan, in Italy, a city of a
circular form, fituated twenty-two miles weft of Venice:
E. long. 120 15', N. lat. 450 30'.
PADUAN, a province of Italy, in the territories of Ve¬
nice, thirty-five miles long, and almoft as much in breadth ;
bounded by the Trevifane on the north, by the duchy
of Venice on the eaft, by the Polefin de Rovigo on the
fouth, and by the Vicentin on the weft.
Paduan, among the medalifts, a modern medal ftruck in
imitation of the antique ; or a new medal ftruck with all
the marks and characters of antiquity.
PADUS, in botany. See Prunus.
PASAN, among the ancient pagans, was afongof rejoicing
fung in honour of Apollo, chiefly ufed on occafions of
victory and triumph.
Paean, in the ancient poetry, a foot confifting of four fyl-
lables ; of which there are four kinds, the paean primus,
fecuntjus, tec.
The paean primus confifts of one long fyllable and
three ftiort ones, or a trochaeus and pyrrhichius, as
iemporibus ; the pxan fecundus confifts of a ftiort fylla¬
ble, a long, and two ftiort, or an iambus and a pyrrhi-
chius, as potentia ; the paean tertius confifts of two ftiort
fyllables, a long and a ftiort one, or a pyrrhichius and a
trochaeus, as animatus.; the paean quartus confifts of
three ftiort fyllables and a long one, or a pyrrhichius and
iambus, as celeritas.
PiEDEROTA, in botany, a genus of'the diandria mono-
gynia clafs, of which there are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
PADO-baptism, infant-baptifm, or that conferred on
children.
PAIONIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria digynia
clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves, and the corolla
of five petals ; the ftylus is wanting ; and the capfule
contains many feeds. There are two fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
The root of this plant is a very celebrated medicine in
-nervous cafes.
.9 ) ' P A I
PAGAN, a heatuen, gentile, of idolater ; or.e who adores
falfe gods. See Mythology.
PAGANALIA, certain feftivals obferved by the ancient
Romans in the month of January. They were inftituted
by Servius Tullius, who appointed a certain number of
villages (pagi), in each of which an altar was to be railed:,
for annual facrifices to their tutelar gods ; at which all
the inhabitants were to affift, and give prefents in money, ‘
according to their fex and age, by which means the num¬
ber of country-people was knpwn. The fervants upon
this occafion offered cakes to Ceres and Tellus, to obtain
plentiful harvefts.
PAGANELLUS, in ichthyology. See Gobius.
PAGANISM, the religious worfhip and difcipline of pa¬
gans ; or, the adoration of idols and falfe gods. See
Idolatry and Mythology.
PAGEANT, a triumphal car, chariot, arch, or other like
pompous decoration, varioufly adorned with colours, flags,
tec. carried about in public ftiews, proceflions,, tec.
PAGOD, or Pagoda, a name whereby the Eaft-Indians
call the temple in which they worftnp their gods.
Pagod, or Pagoda, is alfo the name of a gold and Giver
> coin, current in feveral parts of the Eaft-Indies.
PAIN, is defined to be an uneafy fenfation arifing from a
fudden and violent folution of the continuity, or fome
other accident in the nerves, membranes, veflels, muf-
cles,' tec. of the body ; or, according to fome, it con¬
fifts in a motion of the organs of fenfe ; and, according .
to others, it is an emotion of the foul occafioned by thefe
organs.
PAINTING, the art of reprefenting natural bodies, and
giving them an appearance of life, by the turn of lines,
and the degrees of colours.
Whoever would apply himfelf to painting, fays Leo¬
nardo da Vinci, muft in the firft place learn perfpedtive:
this will enable him to difpofe things in their proper pla¬
ces, and to give the due dimenfions to each: having done
this, he muft learn to defign ; chufing for that purpofe
fome able mafter, who at the fame time may give him
fome infight into the colours of figures : he ought then
to confolt nature, to confirm himfelf in what he has al¬
ready learnt ; and, laftly, let him apply himfelf to the
ftudy and imitation of the greateft mafters, in order to
get a habit of reducing1 what he has learnt into pra&rce.
To judge of the goodnefs of a painting, it is neceftary
to eftablilh to ourfelves a fyftem of rules to be applied
occafionally ; and to affift the judgment herein, the fol¬
lowing rules have been laid down : 1. The fubjedl muft:
be finely imagined, and, if po'ffible, improved in the
painter’s hands ; he muft think well as an hiftorian, poet,
philofopher, or divine, and more efpecialjy as a painter,
in making a wife ufe of all the advantages of his art, and
in finding expedients to fupply its defers. 2. The ex*-
preffion muft be, proper to the fubjeft, and the chandlers
of the perfons : it muft be ftrong, fo that the dumb ftiew
may be perfedlly and readily underftood : every part of
the pidlure muft contribute to this end ; colours, animals,
draperies, and efpecially the adlions of the figures, and
above all the airs of the heads. 3. There muft be one
principal light; and this, and all the fubordinate ones,
with the lhadows and repofes, muft make one entire and .
harmonious mafs ; the feveral parts muft be well con-
nedled and contrafted, .fo as jo render the whole as grate-
P A l ( 450 )
•'fel to the pys, a? a good piece of mufick to the ear. By
this means the piSure is not only more delightful, but
better feen and comprehended. 4. The drawing mull
, be juft; nothing mull be flat, lame, or ill propertioaed;
and thefe proportions'fhonld vary according to the cha¬
racters of the perfons drawn. $. The colouring, whe¬
ther gay or foiid, mud be natural, beautiful, and clean,
and what the eye is delighted with, in fhadows, as well
as lights and middle tints ; atjd whether the colours are
laid on thick, or finely wrought, they muft appear to be
done by a light and accurate hand. Laftly, Nature mud:
be the foundation that muft be feen at the bottom ; dmt
nature muft be raifed and improved, not only from what
is .commonly feen, to what is but rarely met with, but
even yet higher, from a judicious and beautiful idea in
the painter’s mind, fo that grace and greatnefs may (hine
throughout .more or lefs according to the fubjeCt.
Painting is of various kinds, according to the materials
ufed, the matter upon which they are applied, and the
manner of applying them ; as painting in oil, in water¬
colours, frefco, 6v.
•Painting in oil. The whole fecret of painting in oil con-
fifls in grinding the colours with nut oil, or linfeed-oil;
but the manner of working is very different from that in
frefco, or in water, by reafon the oil does not dry near fo
fail, which gives the painter an opportunity of touching
and re touching all the parts of his figures as often as he
pleafes ; which in the other methods of painting is a thing
impracticable. The figures done in oil are alfo capable
•of more force and boldnefs ; infomuch that thq black be¬
comes blacker, when ground with oil, than with water;
befides, all the colours mixing better together, makes the
colouring the fweeter, more delicate and agreeable, and
gives an union and tendernefs to the whole, irv.mitable in
any of the other manners.
Painting in oil is performed on canvas, on walls, wood,
ftone, and all forts of metals. 1. Painting on cloth or canvas
is done as follows : The canvas being ftretched on a frame,
give it a layer of fize, or pafte-water, and then go over it
with a pumice-ftone to fmooth off the knots. By means
of the fize, the little threads and hairs are all laid clofe on
the cloth, and the little holes fiiled-'hp, fo that no colour
can pafs through. When the cloth is dry, lay on oker in
oil, which may be mixed with white-lead to make it dry
the fooner. When dry, go over it again with the pumice-
ftone, to make it fmooth. After this a fecond couch isfome-
times applied, compofed of white-lead and alittle charcoal-
black, to render the ground of an afti colour. Others prime
the canvas in the following manner: They firft fmooth the
canvas with a pumice-ftone, fize it over with a' good fize
..and a little honey, and let it ftand to dry.; after which
they lay it over with whiting and fize, mixed with a lit¬
tle honey : the ufe of the honey is to prevent it from
Cracking, peeling, and breaking out; on this they firft
draw the pi&ure with a coal, and then lay on the colours.
3. Painting on walls: When the wall is dry, they give it
two or three wafltes with boiling oil; till the plafter remains
cjuite greafy. and will imbibe no more; upon this they
lay drying colours, -fucb as white-chalk, red-oker, or o-
ther chalks beaten pretty (Hff. When this conch or layer
is well dried, the fubje<ftor defign isfltetched out, and af¬
terwards painted over, mixing a litt-le varnifh with their
.iSwlaurs* to fave the varnilhiog afterwards. la order the
PAL
better to fortify the wall again ft tnoifture, forr.e cover it
with a pi fter of lime, marble-dtift, or a cement made of
beaten tnss. foaked in linfeed-oil; and at iaft prepare a
competition of green-pitch, maftic, and thick vainilh boil¬
ed together, which they apply hoc ever the former p!,i-
fter ; and when dry, lay on the colours as before. Others,
in fine, make their plafter with lime-mortar, tile-cement,
andfand; and this being dry, they apply another of limf,
cement, andiron feoriss; which being wellbeaten, andincor-
porated with linfeed-oil and whites of eggs, makes an ex¬
cellent piafter. When this is dry, the colours are laid on
as before., 3. In painting on wood, they ufually give their
ground a couch or layer of white tempered with fize, and
then proceed as in painting on walls. 4. In painting on
ftone or metals, it is notneceffary to lay them ever with fize,
but only to add a flight couch of colours before the defign
is drawn on it; nor even is this done on ftoneiSj whefe
you would have the ground appear, as in certain marbles
and agates of extraordinary colours.
All the colours ufed in frefco are good in oil, except
white of lime and marble duft. Thofe chiefly ufed aTe
white-lead, or cerufe, yellow and white mafticot, orpi-
ment, vermilion, lacca,.blue and green allies, verdigreafe,
indigo, fmalt, black-lead, ivory-black, lamp-black,
As to oils, the beft are* thole of linfeed, walnuts, fpike,
and turpentine. The drying oils are nut-oil, boiled with li¬
tharge and fandarach, and otherwife with fpirit of wine,
maftic, and gum-lacca.
In the preparation of oil-colours, care muft be taken
that they be ground fine; that in putting them on a pal¬
let, thole which will not dry of themfelves be mixed with
drying oil, or other ingredients of a dying quality ; and
that the tinged colours be mixed in as fmali quantities as
poflible. As to the fituation of the colours, the pureftand
llrongeft muft ^ placed in the front of the piece, and the
colouring varied according to the fubjeft, time, and pladg.
If the"fubjedl be.grave, melan-holy. or terrible, the gene-
raj tint of the colouring muft incline to brown and
black, or red and gloomy ; but it muft be gay and pleaj
fsnt, in fubje&s of joy-and triumph.
PALAESTRA, in' <JIrecian_antiquity, a public building,
where the youth exercifecl themfelves in wreftling, run¬
ning, playing at quoits, &c.
PALAISTROPHYLAX, was the diredtor of the palasftra
and .the exercifes performed there.
St. PALAIS, a town of France, in the province of Gaf-
cony, capital of the lower Navarre, fituated in W. long.
1° 8', N. lat. 430 23'.
PALAMBOANG, or Palambang, the capital of a king¬
dom at the call end of the illand of Java, in the Eaft-In»
dies, fituated on the ftraits of Bally, in-E long, !I4P,
S. lat. 70 30', and feparated from the ifland of Bally by
a narrow ftrair.
PALAMEDIA, in ornithology, a genus beloging to the
order of grails. The bill is conical, the fuperior mandi¬
ble being crooked; and the feet have three divided toes.
There are two fpecies, both natives of Brafil.
PAL.ARIA, among the Romans, a kind of exercife, per¬
formed at a flake by the foldiers. The.ftake being fixed
in the ground, and fix feet high above it, the young un-
difciplined foldiers advanced againft it, armed with ahur-
dle and cudgel, inftead of a Ihield and fword, and went
through all the rules of attack and defence, as if adtually
engaged
PAL (45
engaged with an adverfary. Sometimes they flood at a
diltance, and attacked with TnifSve weapons, at the fame
time ufing all the requiflte motions for defending them-
felves, and warding off what might be thrown againft
them.
PALATE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 162. 303.
PALATINATE, a province, or' figniory, polTeffed by a
palatine.
PALATINE, or count palatine, a title anciently gi¬
ven to all perfons who had any office or employment in
the prince’s palace; but afterwards conferred on thofe
delegated by princes to hold courts of juftice in the pro-
vinces ; and on fuch among the lords as hid a palace,
that is, a court of juftice, in their own houfes.
At prefent the word palatine is retrained to a prince
of Germany, or a lord of Poland, poffeffed of a palatine.
PALATO-salping^us. See Anatomy, p. 303.
Palato -staphylinus, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 303.
PALE, a little pointed flake or piece of wood, ufed in
making inclofures, feparations, The pale was an
‘ inftrument of puniffiment and execution among the an¬
cient Romans, and ftill continues fo among the Turks.
Hepce empaling, the palling a (harp pale up the funda¬
ment through the body.
Pale, in heraldry, one of the honourable ordinaries of an
efcutcheon ; being the reprefentation of a pale or (take
placed upright, and comprehending the whole height of
the coat from the top of the chief to the point. When
the pale is Angle, it is to contain one third of the breadth
of the ffiield. See Plate CXXXIV. fig. 7.
PALERMO, the capital of the ifland of Sicily, fituated
on the north coaft of that ifland, on a bay of the Medi¬
terranean fea: in E. long. 13°, N. lat. 38° .
PALESTINE, a part of Afiatic Turky, fituated between
thirty-fix and thirty-eight degrees of eaft longitude, and
between thirty-one and thirty-four degrees of north lati¬
tude : it is bounded by Mount Libanus which divides it
from Syria, on the north ; by Mount Harmon, which fe-
parates it from Arabia Deferta, on the eaft; by the moun¬
tains of Seir and the Defarts of Arabia Petraea, on the
fouth; and by the Mediterranean fea, on the weft.
It was called Paleftine, from the Philiftines who inha¬
bited the fea coafts. It was alfo called Judea, from Ju¬
dah ; and the Holy Land, from our Saviour’s refidencevand
fufferings in it; and it is called Canaan, and the Pro-
mifed Land, in the feriptures.
It is 150 miles in length, and 80 in breadth ; and in
the time of Solomon it feems to have extended from the
Mediten anean fea to the river Euphrates.
PALESTRINA, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territory
and Campania of Rome, fituated thirty miles eaft of Rome.
PALIMBAM, a town on the ifland of Sumatra, in the
Eaft-Indies, fituated in E. long. 1O30, S. lat. 30.
PALINDROMUS, a verfe or fentence which runs the
fame when read either backwards or forwards; fuch is
tffie verfe-,
Roma tibi fubito motibus ibit amor.
PALING, a fort of fencing for fruit-trees planted in fields,
wherein three fmall polls are erected at a foot and a half
diftance one from another, and near the top nailed to each
other with crofs-bars.
Vol. III. N0. 87. 2
[ ) PAL
PALINGENESIA, among divines, fignifies the fame with
regeneration. .
Among chemrfts, it denotes the producing a body from
its principles.
PALINODY, a difeourfe contrary to a preceding one :
hence the phrafe palinodiarn canere was taken for a re¬
cantation. y
PALISADE, in fortification, an inclofure of ftakes or piles
driven into the ground, each fix or feven inches fquare,
and eight feet long, three whereof are hid under ground.
FALISSE', in heraldry, a bearing like a range of palifades
before a fortification, reprefented on a feffe, riling up a
confiderable’height, and pointed a-top, with the field ap¬
pearing between them. See Plate CXXXIV. fig. 8.
PALIURUS, in botany. See Rhamnus.
PALL, in heraldry, denotes a kind,of crofs reprefenting
the pallium, or archiepifcopal ornament fent from Rome
to the Metropolitans. See Plate CXXXIV. fig. 9.
PALLA, in Roman antiquity, a mantle which women wore
over the gown called ftola.. It was borne on the left
{boulder; whence palling to the other fide, under the
right arm, the two ends were bound under the left arm,
leaving the breaft and arm quite bare.
PALLADIUM, in antiquity, a llatue of the goddefs Pal.
las, fuppofed to have dropped down from heaven, pre-
ferved in Troy, whereon the fate of that city is faid to
have depended.
PALLET, among painters, a little oval table, or piece of
wood, or ivory, very thin and fmooth; on and round
which the painters place the feveral colours'they have
occafion for, to be ready for the pencil. The middle
ferves to mix the colours on, and to make the tints re¬
quired in the work. It has no handle, bqt inftead there¬
of, a hole at one end to.put the thumb through to hold it.
Pallet, in heraldry, is nothing but a fmall pale, confift-
ing of one half of it in breadth, and therefore there are
fometimes feveral of them upon one ffiield.
Pallet, in (hip-building, is a room within the hold, clofe-
ly parted from it, in which by laying fome pigs of lead,
fac- a ffiip may be fufficientiy baliafted, without lofing
room in the hold ; which, therefore, will ferye for the
flowing the more goods.
PALLIATION, or a palliative cure, in medicine, is
when, in defperateand incurable difeafes, after predidting
the fatal event, the phyfician prefcribes.fome remedies for
mitigating the pain or fome other urgent fymptoms, as
in ulcerated cancers, or cancerous fiftulas, and the like.
PALLIUM, or Pall, an archiepifcopal veftment, of
white woollen cloth, about the breadth of a border, made
- round, and thrown over the ffioulders.
Palm.Sunday, in the Chriftian church, the Sunday next
before Ealler ; being fo called in memory of our Savi¬
our’s triumphal entry into Jerufalem when the multitude
that attended him ftrewed palm-branches in hts way.
Palm-tree, in botany. See Phoenix
Palma isle, one oftheCanary-iflands, sixty miles north-
weft of Teneriff.
PALMARIS. in anatomy.' See Anatomy, p. 199.
PALMATED, fomething refembling the fhape of the hand :
thus we fay palmated leaves, roots, Hones, <bc.
PALMIPEDES, among ornithologifts, the fame with web-
fo.oted birds.
5 X
PALMISTRY,
PAN (4
PALMISTRY, a kind of divination, or rather a deceitful
art pradlil'ed by gypfies, who pretend to foretel events by
looking upon the lines and marks of the hand.
PALMYRA, the ruins of a magnificent city, in the pro¬
vince of Syria, two hundred miles fouth-eaft of Aleppo.
PALOS, a port-town of Spain, fltuated on the bay of Ca¬
diz : W. long. 70 15', N. lat. 37°.
PALPABLE, fomething perceiveable by the fenfes, parti¬
cularly that of feeling.
PALPITATION, a fpaftic contraftion of the heart, when
it le-ps and beats violently.
PAL.SY, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 97.
PALUDAMENTUM, in Roman antiquity, a habit that
differed in little' from the chlamys, except that this lafl:
belonged, chiefly to the lower clals of people. See
Chlamys.
PALUMBUS. See Columba.
PALY, or Pale/, in heraldry, is when the Ihield is di¬
vided into four or more equal parts, by perpendicular
lines falling from the top to the bottom. See Plate
CXXXIV. fig. ic.
Paly bendy is when the efcutcheon is divided by per¬
pendicular lines, which is paly; and alfo by diagonals,
which is called bendy. See the article Bendy.
PAMPELUNA, the capital of Spanilh Navarre, is the fee
of a. bilhop, and an univerfity: W. long. i° 3c/, N.
lat. 430 15'.
PANACEA, among phyficians, denotes an univerfal medi¬
cine, or a remedy for all difeafes} a thing impoffible to
be obtained.
PANADA, a diet confiding of bread boiled in water to the
confidence of a pulp, and fweetened with a little fugar.
PANAMA, the capital city of the province of Darien, in
South America, where the treafures of gold and filver,
and the other rich merchandize of Peru, are lodged in ma¬
gazines till they arefent to Europe : W. long. 82°, N.
lat. 90.
PANARO, a river of Italy, which rifing in the Appenine
mountains, on the confines of Tufcany, divides Modena
from Romania, and then running through the Ferrarefe
falls into the Gulph of Venice.
PANATHENrEA, in Grecian antiquity, an ancient Athe¬
nian fedival, in honour of Minerva, who was the protec-
trefs of Athens, and called Athena.
PANAX, in botany, a genus of the polygamia dicecia clafs.
The calix. of the hermaphrodite has five teeth, and the
corolla five petals ; there are five ftamina, and two ftyli ;
and the berry contains two feeds. The calix of the male
is entire ; the corolla has five petals ; and there are five
ftamina. The fpecies are three, none of them natives of
Britain.
PANAY, the capital of the ifie of Panay, one of the Phi¬
lippine iflands: E. long. 1190, and N. lat. 11°.
PANCARPUS, in Roman antiquity, a kind of (hew which
the Roman emperors frequently exhibited to the people.
In this fpe&tcle, the circus being fet all over with large
trees, represented a foreft, into which the beafts being
let from the dens under the ground; the people, at a fign
given by the emperor, purfued, ftvot, cut in pieces, and
killed all they could lay hold of, which they afterwards
carried away, to regale upon at home. The beafts ufu-
ally given on thefe occafions were boars, dcer> oxen, and
|heej>.
) PAN
PANCHYMAGOGUE, in pharmacy, a name given to
fome cathartic extradts. -
PANCRATIUM, amang.the aQcients, a kind of exercife,
which confifted of wreftling and boxing. In thefe con-
tefts it was cuftomary for the weaker party, when he found
himfelf preffed by his adverfary, to fall down, and fight
rolling on the ground.
Pancratium, in botany, a genus of the hexandria mono-
gyma clafs. It has fix petals, and a nedtarium divided
into twelve fegmerts, and the ftamina lie upon the nedta¬
rium. There are feven fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
PANCREAS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 265.
PANDECTS, in the civil law, colledtioos made by Jufti-
nian’s order, of five hundred and thirty-four decifions of
the ancient lawyers, on fo many queftions occurring io the
civil law ; to which that emperor gave the force and au¬
thority of law, by an epiftle prefixed to themi The pan-
dedts confift of fifty books, and make the firft part of the
body of the civil law.
PANDICULATION, a ftretching, or that violent and
tenfive motion of the folids, which ufually accompanies
the adt of, yawning.
PANEGYRIC, an oration in praife of fome extraordinary
thing, perfon, or virtue.
Panegyrics were anciently made in the public and fq-
lemn affembliesof the Greeks, either at their games, their
feafts, or religious meetings.
PANEGYRICUM, in church-hiftory, an ecclefiaftical
book, ufed by the Greek church, containing the panegy¬
rical orations of various authors on the foleifinities of
Jefus Chrift and the faints.
PANGONIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus of
cryftal, confifting of fuch as are compofed of many angles.
PANIC, denotes an ill-grounded terror or fright.
PANICLE, in botany, denotes a foft woolly beard, on
which the feeds of fome plants, as millet, reeds, &c.
hang.
PANICUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calix confifts of three valves, the inmoii of
which is leaf!:. There are 28 fpecies, four of which are
natives of Britain, viz. theviride, or green panic-.grafs ;
the cruffgaili, or loofe panic-grafs 5 the fanguinale, or
cockVfoot panic-grafs ; and the dadtylon, or creeping pa¬
nic grafs.
PANNEL, in law, fignifies the prifoner at the bar, or per¬
fon who takes his trial before the court of jufticiary, for
fome crime. See Law, Tit, xxxiii. 47.
Pannelso/' a faddle, are two cufhions or bolfters,. filled
with cow’s, deer’s, or horfe-hair, and placed under the
faddle, on each fide, to prevent the bows and bands from
galling the horfel
PAN.NICULUS CARNosur, in comparative anatomy, a
robuft flefliy tunic, fituated in beads, between the tunic
and the fat; by means of which they can move their (kin
in whole or part: it is altogether wanting in mankind.
PANORPA, the Scorpion-fly, in zoology, a genffi of
infers belonging to the order of neuroptera. The ro-
ftrum is horny and cylindrical; there are two pappi, and
three flemonata ; the feelers are longer than the thorax;
and the tail of the male is furniihed with a forceps.
There are four fpecies, diftinguiftied by the colour and
Ib.ape of their wings..
PANTALOON,
PAP ( 453 ) PAP
PANTALOON, a fort of garment, confiding of breeches
and dockings all of one piece ; faid to have been fidt in¬
troduced by the Venetians.
PANTHEON, in Roman antiquity, a temple of a circular
form, dedicated to ail the gods: It was built by Agrippa,
Ion-in-law to Auguftus; but is now converted into a
church, and dedicated to the Virgin and all the martyrs.
PANTHER, in zoology. See Leo.
PANTOMIME, a petion who imitates all'forts of a&ionS
and chara&ers, by mere geftures, without fpeaking a
word.
PANUCO, a city of Mexico, fituated at the mouth of a river
of the fame name, and which falls into the gulph of Mexi¬
co: W. long. 103°, and N. lat. 230.
PAP AVER, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of four petals, and the
calix of two ieayes. There are nine fpecies, fix of them
natives of Britain, viz. the hybridum, or round rough¬
headed poppy; the cambricum, or yellow poppy; the
fomniferum, or wild poppy; the orgemone, or long
rough-headed poppy; the rhceas, or red corn-poppy; and
the dubium, or long Imooth-headed poppy. For the me¬
dical properties of poppy, fee Opium.
PAPENHEIM, a town of Franconia, in Germany, fubjeft
to its own count: E. long. 110, N. lat. 48° SsE
PAPER, fheets of a thin matter, made of feme vegetable
fubftance.
The materials on which mankind have, in different a-
ges, contrived to write their fentiments, have been ex¬
tremely various; in the early ages they madeufeof Hones,
and tables of wood, wax, ivory, <&c. See Book.
Paper, with regard to the manner,'of making it, and
the materials employed therein, is reducible to feveral
kinds; as Egyptian paper, made of the rufh papyrus;
bark-paper, made of the inner rind of feveral trees ; cot¬
ton paper; incombuftable paper; and European paper,
teade of linen rags.
Egyptian paper was principally ufed among the ancients;
being made of the papyrus, or biblus, a tpecies of rufh
which grew on the banks of the Nile In making it into
paper, they began with lopping off the two extremes of
the plant, the head ' and the root; the remaining part,
which was the Hem, they cut lengthwife into two nearly
equal parts, and from each of tbefe they (tripped the fca-
Jy pellicles of which it confided. The innermoll of tbefe
pellicles were looked-on as the heft, and that nearefl the
rind as the word : they were therefore kept apart, and
madeto conditute two different forts of paper. As the pel¬
licles were taken off, they extended them on a table,
laying them over each other tranfverfely, fo as that the
fibres made right angles: in this date they were glued
together by the muddy waters of the Nile ; or, when
thofe were not to be had, with pade made of the fined
wheat-flour mixed with hot water and a fprinkling of
vinegar. The pellicles were next prefled to get out the
water, then dried, and laftly flatted and fmaothed by
•Lhating them with a mallet: this was the Egyptian paper,
which was fometimes farther polifhed. by rubbing it with
a glafs-ball, or the like.
Bark-paner was only the inner wbitifh rind, inclofed
between the bark and the wood of feveral trees, as the
maple, plane, beech, and elm, but efpecially the tilia, or
linden-tree, which, was that moflly ufed for this purpofe.
On this dripped off, flatted, and dried, the ancients wrote
books, feveral of which are faid to be dill e'xtant.
Chinefe paper is of various kinds. Some is made of
. the rinds or barks of trees, efpecially the mulberry-tree
and elm, but chiefly of the bambu and cotton-tree. la
fa<d, almod each province has its feveral paper. The pre¬
parations of paper made of the barks of trees, may be
indanced in that of the bambu, which is a tree of the cane
or reed kind. The fecond fltin of the bark, which is foft
and white, is ordinarily made ufe of for paper : this is
beat in fair water to a pulp, which they take up in large
moulds, lb that fome fheets are above twelve feet in
length; they are completed, by dipping them fheet by
fheet, in alum-water, which ferves indead of the fize a-
mong us, and not only hinders the paper from imbibing
the ink, but makes it look as if varmthed over. This pa¬
per is white, foft, and clofe, without the lead rougbnefs;
though it cracks more eafily than European paper, is very
fubjedt to be eaten by the worms, and its thinnefs tnakes
it liable to be foonworn out.
Cotton-paper is a fort of paper which has been in ufe
upwards of fix hundred years. In the French king’s libra¬
ry are manuferipts on this paper, which appear to be of
the Xth century ; and from the Xllth century, cotton
manuferipts are more frequent than parchment ones. Cot¬
ton-paper is dill made in the Ead-Indies, by beating cot¬
ton rags to a pulp.
Linen or European paper appears to have been fird in¬
troduced among us towards the beginning of theXIVth
century; but by whom this valuable commodity was in¬
vented, is not known. The method of making paper of
linen or hempen-rags, is as follows. The linen-rags being
carried to the mill, are fird forted, then wafhed very
clean in puncheons, whofe fides are grated with Jdrong
wires, and the bottoms bored full of holes. After this
they are fermented, by laying them in heaps clofe covered
with facking, till they fweat and rot, which is conjmonly
done in four or five days. When duly fermented, they are
twilled into handfuls, cut fmall, and thrown into oval
mortars, made of well-feafoned oak, about half a yard
deep, with an iron-plate at bottom, an inch thick, eight
inches broad, and thirtylong; in the middleis a wafhing-
block, grooved, with five holes in it, and a piece of hair-
fieve fadened on the infide; this keeps' the hammers from
touching it, and prevents any thing going our except the
foul water. Thefe mortars are continually fupplied with
water, by little troughs from a ciftern* fed by buckets
fixed to the feveral floats of a great wheel, which raifes
the wooden hammers for pounding the rags in the mor¬
tars. When the rags are beaten to a certain degree, cal¬
led the fird fluff, the pulp is removed into boxes, made
like corn-chand» ?rs bins, with the bottorrf-board aflant^
and a little reparation on the front for the water to
drain away. The pulp of the rags being in; they take a-
way as many of the front boards.as are needful, and
p-refs the mafs-hard down with their hands; the next day
they pur on another board, and add more pulp, till the
box is full; and here it remains mellowing a week, more
or lefs, according to the weather. After this, the duff is
again put into clean mortars, and is beaten afrefh, and
removed into boxes, as before, in which date it is called
the fecond dyff. The iflafs is beat a third time, till fome
of it being mixed with fair water, and brewed to and fro,
appears
PAP (454
appears Uke flour and water, without any lumps in it: it
is then fit for the pit-mortar, where it is perfectly diilbl-
ved, and is then carried to the vat, to be formed into
fheets of paper. But lately, inftead of pounding the rags
to a pulp with large hammers, as above, they make ufeof
an engine, which performs the work in much lefs time.
This engine confifts of a round folid piece of wood, into
which are faftened feveral long pieces of (led, ground
very (harp. This is placed in a large trough with the
rags, and a fufficient quantity of water. At the bottom
of the trough is a plate with fled bars, ground fharp like
the former; and the engine being carried round with
prodigious velocity, reduces the rags to a pulp in a very
fhort time. It muft be obferved, that the motion of the
engine caufes the water in the trough to circulate, and
by that means conllantly returns the (luff to the engine.
The trough is conltantly fed with clean water at one end,
while the dirty water from the rags is carried of at the
other, through a hole, defended with wire gratings, in
order to hinder the pulp from going out with the dirty
water.
When the fluff is fufHciently prepared as above, it is
carried to the vat, and mixed with a proper quantity of
water, which they call priming the vat. The vat is
rightly primed, when the liquor has fuch a proportion
of the pulp, as that the mould, on being dipped into it,
will juft take up enough to make a fheet of paper of the
thicknefs required. The mould is a kind of fieve ex-
affly of the fize of the paper to be mide, and about an
inch deep, the bottom being formed of' fine brafs wire,
guarded underneath with flicks, to prevent it bagging down,
and to keep it horizontal; and further, to flrengthen
the bottom, there are large wires placed in parallel lines,
at equal diflances, which form thofe liaes vifible in all
white paper when held up to the light: the mark of
the paper is alfo made in this bottom, by interweaving a
large wire in any particular form. This mould the ma¬
ker dips into the liquor, and gives it a fhake as he takes
it out, to clear the water from the pulp. He then Aides
it along a groove to the coucher, who turns out the fheet
upon a felt laid on a plank, and lays another felt on it;
and returns the mould to the maker, who by this time
has prepared a feeond fheet in another mould: and thus
they proceed, laying alternately a fheet and a felt, till
they have made fix quiresof paper, which is called a port;
and this they do,with fuch fwiftnefs, that, in many forts
of paper, two men make twenty pofls or more in a day.
A poll of paper being made, either the maker or coucher
whiffles ; on which four or five men advance, one of
whom draws it under the prefs, and the reft prefs it with
great force, till all the water is fqueezed from it; after
which it is feparated fheet by fheet f^om the felts, and
laid regularly one fheet upon another; and having under,
gone a fecond prefling, it is hung up to dry. When
fufficiently dried, it is taken off the lines, rubbed fmooth
with the hands, and laid by till fized, which is the next
operation. For this they chufe a fine temperate day ; and
having boiled a proper quantity of clean parchment, or
vellum (havings, in water, till it comes to a fize, they
prepare a fine cloth, on which they drew a due propor¬
tion of white vitriol and roch-alum finely powdered,
and drain the fize through it into a large tub; in which
tie/ dip as much paper at once as they can conveniently
) PAR
hold, and with a quick motion give every fheet its {hare
of the fize, which muft be as hot as the hand can well
bear it. After this, the paper is prefled, hungup flieet
by fheet to dry; and being taken down, is forted, and
what is only fit for outfide-quires laid by themfelves*
it is then told into quires, which are folded and preffed.
The broken fheets are commonly put together, and two
of the word quires-are placed on the outfide of every
ream or bundle ; and being tied up in wrappers, made of
the fettlingof the vat, it is fit for fale.
Paper is of various kinds, and ufed for various pur-
pofes : with regard to colour, it is principally diflinguiih-
ed into white, blue, and brown; and with regard to its
dimehfions, into atlas, elephant, imperial, fuper-royal,
royal, medium, demy, crown, foolfcap, and pot-paper.
Paper-office, an office in the palace of Whitehall, !n
which all the public writings, matters of date and councl,
proclamations, letters, intelligences, negotiations'abroad,
and generally all difpaches that pafs through the offices of
the fecretaries of (late, are lodged, by way of library.
PAPHLAGONIA, an ancient province of the lefler Afia,
fituated on the Euxine-fea, now part of the province of
Amafia in Turky.
PAPHOS, once an elega-.t city at the weft end of the ifland
of Cyprus ; but the little town of Baffo is now all that
remains of it.
PAPILIO, the butterfly, in zoology, a genus of in-
fedts belonging to the order of lepidoptera. It has four
wings, imbricated with a kind of downy feales ; the tongue
is convoluted in a fpiral form; and the body is hairy.
There are 273 fpecies, principally diftinguifhed by the
colour of their wings,
PAPILIONACEOUS, among botanifts, an appellation gi¬
ven to the flowers of plants belonging principally to the
diadelphia clafs, from their refembling the figure of a
butterfly.
PAPOUS, or New Guinea, a large continent in the Pa¬
cific ocean, a little fouth of the equator; fituated eaft of
the Spice iflands, in 130° eaft long, but how far it ex¬
tends farther to the eaftward or fouthward, is uncertain.
PAPPUS, in botany, a foft downy fubftance, that grows
on the feeds of certain plants, as thirties, hawksveed, &c.
ferving to fcatter and buoy them up in the air.
PAR, in commerce, fignifies any two things equal in value.
See Commerce.
PARABLE, a fable, or allegorical inftruflion, founded
on fomething real or apparent in nature or hiftory, from
which a moral is drawn, by comparing it with fomething
in which the people are more immediately concerned;
fnch are the parables of Dives and Lazarus, of the Pro¬
digal Son, of the Ten Virgins,
PARABOLA. See Conic Sections.
PARACENTESIS, an operation in furgery, commonly
called tapping. See Surgery.
PARACLET, the Comforter, a name given to the Holy
Ghofl.
PARADISEA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of pirae. The beak is covered with a belt or collar
of downy feathers at the bafe ; and the feathers on the
fides are very long. There are three fpecies, viz. 1. The
apoda, has the feathers on the fides longer than the body,
and two long briftly feathers in the tail. It is the great¬
er bird of paradife, and feeds upon butterflies. They
are
PAR ( 455 ) PAR
are Found in large flocks in the Molucca iflands. 2. The
regia, has two intermediate prime tail-feathers like threads
and feathery at the points. It is found in Amboina. 3.
The triftis, has a naked triangular Tpot behind the eyes;
and the head and neck are of a duflty colour. It is a na¬
tive pf the Philippine ifles, and feeds upon grafs-hop-
pers and other infedls.
PARADISE, a term principally ufe;d for the garden of
Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed immediately
upon their creation.
As to this terreftria! paradife, there have been many
inquiries about it£ fituation. It has been placed in the
third heaven, in the orb of the moon, in the moon itfelf.
In the middle region of the air, above the earth, under
the earth, in the place poflefl'ed by the Cafpian fea, and
under the arflic pole. The learned Huetius places it
upon the river that is produced by the conjunftion of the
Tigris and Euphrates, now called the river of the Arabs,
between this conjundHon and the divifion made by the fame
river before it falls into the Perfian fea. Other geogra¬
phers, have placed it in Armenia, between the fources of
the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Araxis, and the Phafls,
which they fuppofe to be the four rivers defctibed by
Mofes.
The celeflial paradife is that place of pure and refined
delight, in which the fouls of the blefled enjoy everlafting
happinefs.
Bird ^Paradise. See Paradisea.
PARADOX, in philofophy, a propofition feemingjy abfurd,
as being contrary to fome received opinion, but yet true
in fa<5t.
No fcience abounds more with paradoxes than geome¬
try : thus, that a right line fnould continually approach
to the hyperbola, and yet never reach it, is a true para-
<!ox ; and in the fame manner, a fpiral may continually
approach to a point, and yet not reach it, in any number
of revolutions, however great.
PARAEA, in zoloogy. See Coluber.
PARAGOGE, in grammar, a figure whereby a letter or
fyllable is added to the end of a word ; as med, for me;
dicier, for diet, &c.
PARAGUAY, or La Plata, a province of South Ame¬
rica, fubjedt to Spain, lies between 120 and 370 S. lat.
and between 50° and ,75° W. long.
PARALIPOMENA, in matters of literature, denotes a
fupplement of things omitted in a preceding work.
PARALLACTIC, in general, fomething relating to the
parallax of heavenly bodies. See Parallax.
PARALLAX, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 452.
PARALLEL, in geometry, an appellation given to lines,
furfaces, and bodies every where equidiflant from each o-
ther. See Geometry.
Parallels of latitude, in aftronemy, are lefier circles of
the fphere parallel to the ecliptic, imagined to pafs
through every degree and minute of the colures.
Parallels of altitude, ox almu.caltars, are circles
parallel to the horizon, imagined to pafs through every
degree and minute of the meridian between the horizon
and ^enkh, having their poles in the .zenith.
Parallels of declination, in aftronomy, are the fame with
parallels of latitude in geography.
Parallel sphere, that fituation of the fphere, wherein
Vol. Ill, N° 88. .2
the equator coincides with the horizon, and the poles
with the zenith and nadir.
Parallel sailing. See Navigat i on.
Parallelopiped, in geometry, a regular folid compre¬
hended under fix parallelograms, the oppofite ones where¬
of are fimilar, parallel, and equal.
PARALLELOGRAM, in geometry, a quadrilateral right-
lined figure, whofe oppdfite fides are parallel and equal
to each other.
PARALLELOPIPEDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
genus of fpars, thus called, becaufe regularly of a paral¬
lelepiped form.
They are pellucid cryftalline fpars externally of a de¬
terminate and regular figure, always found loofe, detach¬
ed, and feparate from all other bodies, and in form of an
oblique parallelopiped, with fix parallelogram fides and
eight folid angles, eafily fiflile either in an horrizontai
or perpendicular direction, being compofed of numbers
of thin plates, and thofe of very elegantly and regslaily
arranged bodies, each of the fame form with the whole
mafs, except that they are thinner in proportion to their
horizontal planes ; and naturally fall into thefe and no
other figures, on being broken with a flight blow.
PARALOGISM, in logic, a falfe reafomog, or a fault
committed in demonftration, when a confequence is drawn
from principles that are falfe, or, though true, are not
proved ; or when a propofition is palled over that fixould
have been proved by the way.
PARALYSIS, the Palsy. See Medicine, p. 97.
PARAMECIA, in natural hiftory, a name given to fuch
animalcules as have no vifible limbs or tails, and are of
an irregularly oblong figure.
PARAMETER, in conic fefHons, aconftant line, other.wife
called latus reftum See Conic Sections.
PARAMOUNT, in law, fignifies the fupreme lord of the
fee.
PARANYMPH, among the ancients, the perfon who wait¬
ed on the bridegroom, and directed the nuptial folemni-
ties ; called alfo pronubus, and aufpex, "becaufe the cere¬
monies began by taking aufpicia. As the paranymph
officiated only on the part of the bridegroom, a woman
called pronuba officiated on the part of the bride.
PARAPET, in fortification, an elevation of earth defigned
for covering the foldiers from the enemies cannon or fmall
{hot. See Fortification.
PARAPHERNAL goods in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
vi. 8.
PARAPHIMOSIS, in medicine, a diforder in the penis,
wherein the prepuce is ffirunk, and withdrawn behind the
glans, fo as not to be capable of being brought to cover
the fame; which generally happens in venereal diforders.
See Medicine.
PARAPHRASE, an explanation of fome text, in clearer
and more ample terms, whereby is fupplied-wha.t the au¬
thor might have faid or thought on the fubjeft ; fuch are
efteemed Erafmus’s paraphrafe on the New Teftament,
the Chaldee paraphrafe on the Pentateuch,
PARAPHRENITIS, in medicine, an inflammation of the
diaphragm. See Medicine.
PARAPHROSYNE, a word ufed by medical writers to
exprefs a delirium, or an alienation of mind in fevers,
or from whatever caufe.
5 X
PARA*
P A It (
PAHAPLEGIA, a fpecies of palry. See Medicine.
P- 97 . , '
PARASELENE, in phyfinlogy, a mock moon, a meteor,
or phasnomenon, encorhpaiSng, or .adjacent to, the moon,
in form of a.luminous ring ; wherein are fomfitim.es ob-
ferved one, fometimes two. apparent imagefof the moon.
PARASITE, among the Greeks, was originally a very re¬
putable title ; the parafites being a kind of priefls, at
leaf! mi aiders, of the gods, in the fame manner as the
Epulones were at Rome. They took care of the facred*
corn, or the corn dedined for theTervice of the temples,
and the gods, viz. facrifices, feafts; <bc. they had even
the intendance over facrilices, and took care that they were
duly performed. At Athens, there was a kind of col¬
lege of twelve parafiteS ; each people of Attica furnifbing
one, who was always chofen out of the bed families.
Polybius adds, that a parafite wa’s alfo an honourable.,
title among the ancient' Gauls, and was given to their
poets ; but of late it has been made a term of reproach,
and ufed for a flatterer and mean dependant.
PARASITES, or parasitical plants, in botany,
fuch plants as are produced out of the trunk or branches
of other plants, from whence they receive their nouriih-
ment, and will not grow upon the ground, as the mifleto,
'be.
PAR ASTATT,, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 270.
PARASYNANCHE, in medicine, a kind of angina, or
quinfey See Medicine, p._ 84.
PARATHENAR, in,anatomy. See Anat. p. 212.
PARBUNCLE, in a (hip, the name of a rope almod like
a pair of flings : it is feized both ends together, and
then put double about any heavy thing that is to-be hoid-
ed in or out of the (hip ; having the hook of the runner.,
hitched into it, to hoife it up by.
PARCEE, in the heathen mythology, goddefles, who were
fuppofed to prelide over the accidents and events, and to
determine the date or period, of human life. See My¬
thology.
PARCHMENT, the'fleins of Iheep or goats prepared after
fuch-a manner as to render it proper for writing upon, co¬
vering books, be.
The manufadtare of parchment is begun by the (kinner,
and finilhed by the parchment-maker.
The (kin having been dripped of its wool, and placed
in the lime pit, the (kinner dretches it on a kind of frame,
and pares 6ff the flefti with an iron indrument: this done,
it is moidened v/ith a rag ; and powdered chalk being
fpread over it, the (kinner takes a large pumice-done, flat
at bottom, and rubs over the (kin, and thus fcowers oflf-
the fle(h: he then goes oVer it again with the iron in¬
drument, moidens it as before, and rubs it again with
the pumice-done without any chalk underneath : this
fmooths and foftens the flefh-lide very confiderably. He
then drains it again, by palling over it the iron indru¬
ment as before. The flefh-fide Eeing thus drained, by
feraping off the moidure, he in the fame manner paffes
the iron over the wool or hair fide: then dretches it tighjt
on a frame, andferapes the flefli fide again : this (inilhes
its draining ; and the more it is drained, the whiter it
becomes. The (kinner now. throws on more chalk,
fvveeping it over with a piece of lamb (kin that has the
wool on ; and this fmoothsit dill farther. It is now left
to dry; and when dried, taken off the frame, by cutting it
455 3 P A 11
alf round- The (kin, thus far prepared'by'the Iklnne^,
is taken out of his hands by the parchment-maker; who
fird, while it is dry, parep it on a dimmer (which is
a calf-(kin dretched in a frame) v/ith a (harper indrument
than, that ufed by the Iki'nner, and, working with the arm
from the top to the bottom of the (kin, takes away about
one half of its thicknefs. Thelkin, thus equally pared on
.the flefli-fide, is again rendered fmooth, by being rubbed
with the pumice-done on a bench covered with a fack
duffed with flocks, which leaves the parchment in a
condition fit for writing upon. The parings thus taken
off the leather,, are ufed in making glue, fize, be.
What is called vellum, is only parchment made of the
(k:ns of abortives, or at lead fucking calves. This has
a much finer grain, and is whiter and fmoother than
parchment; but is prepared in the fame manner, except
its not being paffed through the lime-pit.
PARDALUS. See Leo.
PAREGORICS in pharmacy, medicines that affwage pain,
otherwife called anodynes.
PAREIRA b rava, in the materia mcdica, a kind of ob¬
long and large root, brought from the Brafils.
It is certainly a diuretic of no mean character, and
has done great lervice in nephritic cafes; and in pleurifies
and quinfeys it has been attended with more fuccefs than
almod any medicine we know of fingly.
PARELCON, in grammar, a figure by which a word or
fyllable is added to the end of another.
PAREMBOLE, in rhetoric, a figure wherein fomething
relating to the fubjeff is inferted in the middle of a pe¬
riod. All the differences between the parembole and pa-
renthefis, according to Voflius, is, that the former re¬
lates to the fubjeft in hand, whereas the latter is foreign
to it.
PARENCHYMA, in anatomy, a term introduced by Era-
lidratus, fignifying all that fubdance which is contained
in the interdices betwixt the blood-vjlTels of the vifeera,
which he imagined to be extravadued and concreted blood.
Parenchyma of plant*. Grew applies the term paren¬
chyma to the pith or pulp, or that inner part of a fruit
or plant through which the juice is fuppofed to be didri-
buted. See Agriculture.
PARENT, a term of relation applicable to thofe from
whom we immediately receive our being.
PARENTALIA, in antiquity, funeral obfequies, or the
lad duties paid by children to their deceafed parents.
PARENTHESIS, in grammar, certain intercalary words,
inferted in a difeourfe, which interrupt the fenfe, or
thread, but feem neceffary for the better underdanding
of the fubjeft.
PARElNZO, or Pirenzo, a port-town of Idria, in the
territory of Venice, fituated _on a bay of the gulph'of
Venice, twenty-five miles fouth of Cabo de idria,
PARESIS, in medicine, is defined to be a palfy of the
. bladder, wherein the mine is either fupprelTed, or dif-
charged involuntarily.
PARETONIUM, in natural hidory, the name of an earth
anciently found on the (bores of Egypt, Cyrene, and the
idand of Crete, and ufed by the ancients in pairping.
PARGET, in natural hidory, a name given to feveral
kinds of gypfum, or plader-done.
PARGETING, in building, is ufed for the pladering of
walls, and fometimes for flatter itfelf.
PAR-
V A Vi <{ 457
PARTTELIUM, or Parhelion, in phyfioTogy, a moek
Tun, or meteor, in form of a very blight light, appear¬
ing on one fide of the fun.
The parhelia are formed by the reflexion of the fun’s
beams on a cloud properly pofited. They ufuaily ac¬
company the coronse, or luminous circles, and are placed
in the fame circumference and.at the fame height. Their
colours referable-that of the rajnbow, the red arid yel¬
low are on the, fide towards the fun, and the blue and
violet oh the other. There are cororise fometiraes feen
without parhelia, and vice verfa\
Parhelia are double, triple, 'be. and in 1629 a Par‘
helion of five funs was feen at Rome, and in i666'ano-
ther at Arles of fix.
M. Mariotts accounts for parhelia from an infinity of
little particles of ice floating in the air, that multiply the
image of the fun by refraction or -reflection ; and by a
geometrical calculus he has determined the precife figure
of thefe little icicles, their iituation in the air, and the
fize of the corona of circles which accompany the parhelia,
and the colours wherewitb-they are painted.
PARIA, a lake of Peru, in South America, in the province
of Los Charcas, fituated in 67° W. long, and 220 S.
PARIETALIA ossa, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
154' „
PARIETARTA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia mo-
ncecia glafs. The calix, both in the female and herma-
phredite, confifis of four fegments; none of them have
any corolla; the hermaphrodite has four (lamina; and
both have one flylus, and ore long feed. There are fix
fpecies, only one of them, viz. the officinalis, or pelli-
tory of the wall, is a native of Britain. It is elteemed ast»
cooling and abftergent.
PARIS, in botany, a genus of the oCtandria trigynia clafs.
The calix confifts of four leaves, and the corolla of four
narrow petals,; and the berry has four cells. There is
but one fpecies, viz. the quadrifolia, herb-paris, or true-
love, a native of Britain.
Paris, in geography, the metropolis of the kingdom of
France, and of the principality or government of the ifle
of France, fituated in E. long. 20 , N. lat 48° 50’,
two hundred miles fonth-eaft of London, fix hundred and
eighty north-eaft of Madrid, five hundred and fifty wed
’of Vienna, one thoufand three hundred north-wefhof
Conffantinople, and feven hundred north-weft of Rome.
PARISH, the precinCt of a parochial church, or a circuit
of ground inhabited by people who belong to one church
and ate under the particular charge of its minifter.
PARK, a large inclofure privileged for wild beafts of chace,
either by'prefcriptioi^or the king’s grant.
PARKINSONIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mo-
nogynia ciafs. The calix confifts of four fegments, and
the corolla of four oval petals, the loweft being kidney-
fhaped; it has no ftylus ; and the pod is cylindrical.
PARLEY, a conference with an enemy.. Hence to beat-
or found .a parley, is to give a fignal- for holding fuch a
conference by beat of drum on found of trumpet.
PARLIAMENT, is the grand affembly of the three ftates
of this .kingdom, fummojied together, by the king’s au¬
thority, to confult of matters relating to the public wel¬
fare, and particularly to enaft and repeal laws. It con-
-fifts of. the king, the lords fpiritual and temporal, and
) P A It
the commons, and is at once the feat of tin- b gifl.uve
authority, and the highefl court of juftice in Great-jBri-
rain. In the-houfe of lords, criminal caufies are tried on
the impeachment of the commons; and this boufe has an
original jurifdiftion for the trial of peers upon indl<51merits'
found by a grand jury-, the .lords likewife try fuch cau-fes
as come rhiiher on appeals from the court cf chancery,
and all their decrees ate as judgments. The houfe of
commons examine the right of elections; reg1 late difputes
concerning them ; may expel their own members, and
commit them to prifon. They are the grand inqueft of the
nation ; and pre-fent public grievances or delinquents to
the king and lords, in order to their being punifhed. la
fliort, they are the reprefentatives of all the commons in
the kingdom; and in them their conftituents have placed
the higheft confidence, by invefting thern with the power
of making laws, and entrufting them with all their liber¬
ties and privileges.
Originally, new parliaments were called every year ;
but by degrees their term grew longer. In the reign of
king Charles II. they were held a long time, with great
interruptions between : but both methods were found of
fuch ill confequence, that, in the beginning of the reign
of king William III. an aft was pafied, by which the term
of all parliaments was reftrained to three fefiions, or three
years ; this was hence called the triennial a<5t: but fince
that time, from other views, the period of parliaments
has been lengthened to feven years. A parliament is
called by the king’s writ or letter dire&ed to each lord,
commanding him to appear; and by other writs, diresfted’
to the fheriffs of each county, to fummon the%peop!e to
eledf two knights for eaoh county, and one or two bur-
geffes for each borough. Tne number of the members
in the houfe of lords is uncertain, as increafing at the
king’s pleafure. ''The members of the houfe of commons*,
when full, are five. hundi;ed and fifty-three ; wz. ninety-
two knights of the (hires ; fifty-two deputies for twenty-
five cities, London having four ; fixteen for the eight
cinque-ports; two for each univerfity; three bundled'
and thirty-two for an hundred and eighty boroughs ;
twelve for the boroughs in Wales, and (orty-five mem¬
bers for Scotland. If three hundred of tfiefe members
are met, it is reckoned a full houfe ; and forty may com-
pofe a houfe for the difpatch of bufinefs.
Upon the holding of a parliament, the king, the firfir
day, fits in the upper-houfe, under a canopy, with the
crown on his head, and drefled in his royal robes ; and
there, by himfelf, or the lord chancellor, declares the .
reaforis of their meeting, in the prefence of both the lords
and commons; and then the. commons are required to
chufe a fpeaker, who is prefented to the king, and being
approved by his majefty, the bufinefs of the parliament
goes on.
The lords and commons fit each in a difimift apart¬
ment : in the boufe of lords, the princes of the blood fit
by themfelves on the fides Of the throne ; at the wall,
on the king's right hand, the two archbilhops fit by them¬
felves on a form. Below them, the bifhops of London,
Durham, and Winchefter,* and all the other bifhops, fit
according to the priority of their confecration. On the
king’s left hand the lord-treafurer, lord prefident, and
lord privyrfeal, fit upon forms above all dukes, except the
royal blood ; then the dukes, marquifles, and earls, ac¬
cording,:
^ortling -<o their creatioq-1 A-crofs the room are wo.o!-'
lacks, continued from an ancient ctiftom ; and the chan¬
cellor, or keeper, - being of ca„urfe the fpeaker of the hoofe
of lords, fits on the firft wool-fack before the throne,
with the great feal- or mace lying by him; below thefe
are-forms for the vifcounts and barons. On the ot(ier
woolsacks are feated the j-udges, mafters in chancery,
and king’s, council, who are only to give their advice in
points of law1: but they all ftand up till the king gives
them leave to fit. The commons fit promifcuoafly ; only
the fpeaker has a chair at the upper end of the houfe,
and the clerk and his affiflant fit at a table near.him. Be¬
fore any bufinefs is done, all the members of the houfe
of commons take the oaths of allegiance and fiipremacy^
Oc. and fubfcribe their opinions againtt tranfubftantiation,
err. and if any member of that houfe votes, or fits there
daring any debate, after the fpeaker is chofen, without
having firfl: taken thefe oaths, between the hours of nine
and four, in a full houfe, he is adjudged a Popilh recu-
fant convict, and incapable of any office, and forfeits five
hundred pounds. The fame teft the lords too, though
they do not take the oaths, are obliged t& comply with.
When the parliament is thus met, no members are to
depart from it without leave. Upon extraordinary oc-
cafions, all the members are fometimes fummoned ; in
which cafe every lord fpiritual and temporal, and every
knight, citizen, and burgefs, is to come to parliament,
except he can reafonably and honeftly excufe himfejf;
or be amerced ; that is, refpeftively, a lord by the lords,
and a commoner by the commons.
Ail members of parliament, in order that they may
atteild the public fervice of their -country, have the pri¬
vilege for tbemfdves of being free from arrefts, attach-'
ments, imprifonment/ &c. for debts, trefpafles, ejro.
but not from arrefts for treafon, felony, and breach of
the peace.
As to thede&ionof members, it is enadled, That can¬
didates (hall not make any prefents of money to, or treat
the eleflors, after the teft of the writ of the fummons, or
the iffuing out of the writs forele&ions, or after any feat
for a member of parliament is become vacant; in cafe
they do, they are declared incapable of ferving as mem¬
bers, by 7 W. Ill c. 4. And farther, an oath is to be
taken by ele&ors, That they have not either received, or
hadany money, gift, reward, orany office, place, employ¬
ment, or even promife of money, gift, to them or
their ufe, to give their votes; and in thefe cafes,
if they aik, take, or contradt for money or reward,
either by gift or other device, to give or refufe their
votes for any one; or if perfons, by gift, foe. cor¬
ruptly procure any eledtor to give his vote; they fhall
forfeit five hundred pounds, and be totally difabled
to vot,e at any eledtion of members of parliament, as alfo
to hold'any office, franchife, foe. Likewife officers who
admit perlons to vote without their taking the aforemen-
tioned#ath, in cafe the fame be demanded, incur a for¬
feiture of one hundred pounds ; and an oath is to be ad-
miniftred to all the returning officers, that they have not
received any money, gift, or place, for the making of
their returns : 2 Geo. II. c. 24. 9 Geo. II. c. 38. A
knight of the ffiire: muft be worth fix hundred pounds a-
■year in land, and all other members three hundred
pounds.
) PAR
Anciently all the people had votes in eledlions, till it
was enadted by Henry VI. that none but freeholders,
who had a yearly revenue of forty Ihillings, ffiould be
admitted to vote for knights of the ffiire.
The manner of debating upon, and palling bills in par¬
liament, is as follows: Any member may move,to have a
bill brought in, which, upon a queftion put, being agreed
to by the majority, this perfon, with others, is ordered
to prepare and bring in the fame. When it is ready, a
time is appointed for its being read; and after the clerk’s
reading it, the fps^ker reads an abftradt of it, and puts the
queftion whether or no it ffialt have a fecond reading ;
and after a fecund reading, the queftion is put whether or
no it ffiall be committed, which is either to a commitee
of the whole houfe if it be of importance, or to a pri¬
vate commitee, any member naming the perfons. The com¬
mittee being appointed, and ajehairman chofen, the chair¬
man reads the bill paragraph by paragraph, puts every
claufe to the queftion, fills up the blanks, and makes a-
mendments, according to^he opinion of the majority.
The bill thus gone through, the chair-man makes his re¬
port at the fide-bar of the houfe, reads all the additions
and amendments, foe. and moves for leave to bring up
the report to the table ; which granted, he delivers it to
the clerk, who reads the amendments, foe. The fpeaker
then puts the queftion whether they ffiall be read a fe¬
cond time; and, if agreed to, he reads them himfelf.
To fo many of the amendments as the houfe acquiefces in,
the queftion is now put, Whether the bill, thus amended,
ffiall be ingrofled and written fair upon parchment, and
read a third time? and (he bill being ingroffed, the fpeak¬
er holds it in his hand, and afks if it ffiall pafs. If the
majority be for it, the clerk writes on it, Soit bailie aux
feigneurs, “ Let it be delivered to the lords ;” or if in the
houfeof lords, Soit bailie aux communes, “Letit bedeli-
veredto the commons.” If a bill berejedted, it cannot be
any more propofed during that felllon. A bill for a gene¬
ral pardon has but one reading.
When a member of the houfe of commons fpeaks, he
ftands up uncovered, and diredts his fpeech to the fpeak¬
er only. If what he fays be anfwered by another, he is
not allowed to reply the fame day, unlefs perfonal reflec¬
tions have been caft upon him: but when the commons,
in order to have a greater freedom of debate, have re-
folved themfelves into a comittee of the whole houfe, e-
very member may Ipeak to a queftion as often as he
thinks neceflary. In the houfe of lords they vote, begin¬
ning at the puifne, or lowed baron and fo up orderly to
the higheft, everyone anfwering Content or Not content.
In the houfe of commons they vote by^f^r and wayr ; and
if it be dubious which are the greatermumber,' the houfe
divides. If the queftion be about bringing any thing into
the houfe, the yeas go out; but if it be about any thing
the houfe already has, the nays go out. In all divifions
the fpeaker appoints four tellers, two of each opinion. In
a committee of the whole houfe, they divide by chan¬
ging Tides, the yeas taking the right and the nays the left
of the chair ; and then there are but two tellers. If a
bill pafs one houfe, and the other demur to it, a confe¬
rence is demanded in the painted chamber, where certain
members are deputed from each houfe; and here the lords
fit covered, and the commons ftand bare and debate the
cafe. If they difagree, the affair is null; but if they a-'
PAR ( 459 ) PAR
gree, this, with the other bells that have paffed both
houfes, is brought down to the king in the houfeof lords,
who comes thither cloathed in his royal robes; before
him the-clerk of the parliament reads the title of each
hill, and as he reads, the clerk of the crown pronounces
the royal aflent or diffent. If it be a public bill, the royal
afient is given in thefe words, Le royle vaut, “The king
will have it fo if private, Soil fait comme il eft dcftre,
“Let the requeftbe complied with:” if the king refufes the
bill, the anfwer is, Le roy s'avifera, “The king will
think of it;” and if it be a money-bill, the anfwer is,
Le roy remercie fes loyaux fujets, accepte leur benevo¬
lence, & aujfi le veut; “The king thanks his loyal fub-
jefts, accepts their benevolence, and therefore grants his
confent. ”
Parliaments of France, arefovereign courts, eftablilhed
by the king, finally to determide all difputes between par¬
ticular perfons, and to pronounce on appeals from fen-
tences given by inferior judges. There are ten of thefe
parliaments in France, of which that of Paris is the chief,
its privileges and jurifdiftion being of the greateft extent.
It confifts of fix chambers,’ viz. the grand chamber,
where caufes of audience are pleaded; and five chambers
of inqueft, where procefies are adjudged in writing. This
parliament enjoys the privileges of verifying andtregiftring
the king’s arrets or edidts, without which thole editts are
of little or no value.
Parliament of Sweden, confifts of foureftates, with the
king at their head: Thefe ftates are, i. The nobility and
reprefentatives of the gentry; with whom the colonels,
lieutenant-colonels, majors, and captains of every regi¬
ment, fit and vote. 2. The clergy; one of which body is
eledfed from every rural deanery of ten parilhes ; who,
with the bilhops and fuperintendants, amount to about
two hundred. 3. The burghers, eledted by the magiftrates
and council of every corporation as their reprefentatives,
of whom there are four for Stockholm, and two for every
other town, amounting in the whole to about an hun¬
dred and fifty. 4. The peafams, chofen by the peafants
out of every diftridl; who chufe one of their own rank,
and not a gentleman, to reprefent them: thele amount
to about two hundred and fifty.
All thefe generally meet at Stockholm; and after the
ftate-affairs have been reprefented to them from the throne,
they feparate, and fit in four feveral chambers or houfes,
in each of which'affairs are'carried on by majority of votes;
and every chamber has a negative in the palling any law.
PARMA, the capital of the duchy of Parma, in Italy, fixty
miles north-eaft of Genoa, is pleafantly fituated on a ri¬
ver to which it gives name: E. long. ii°, N. lat. 440
4?'-
PARNASSIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria tetra-
gynia clafs. The cahx confifts of five fegments, and the
corolla of five petals; it has five cordated nedtaria, with
round buttons on their points ; and the capfule has four
valves. There is but one fpecies, viz. the paluftris, or
grafs of Parnaflus, a native of Britain.
PARNASSUS, a mountain of Greece, much celebrated by
ancient poets, fituated near Caftro in Livadia.
PARODY, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb.
Parody is alfo a poetical pleafantry, confiding in ap¬
plying the verfes written on one fubjedt, by way of ri
thcule to another; or in turning a ferious work in\p a
Vol. HI. N* 88. 2
burlefque, by affedling to obferve, as nearly as pofiible,
the fame rhymes, words, and cadences.
PARONOMASIA, in rhetoric, a pun ; or a figure where¬
by words nearly alike in found, but of very different
meanings, are affedtedlyor defignedly ufed.
PAROS, one of the fmalleft illands of the Cyclades, fa¬
mous for its marble, fituated in E. long. 2j° 30', N.
lat. 36° 30'.
PAROTIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 270;
PAROXYSM, in medicine, the fevere fit of a difeafe, un¬
der which it grows higher, orexafperates, as of the gout,
<bc.
PARRELS, in a Ihip, are frames made of trucks, ribs,
and ropes, which having both their ends faftened to the
yards, are fo contrived, as to go round about the mails;
that the yards, by their means, may go up and down up¬
on the mail; thele alfo, with the breaft-ropes, fallen the
yards to the mails.
PARRICIDE. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 19.
PARROT, in ornithology. See Psittacos.
PARSLEY, in botany. SeeApiim.
PARSNEP, in botany. See Pastinaca.
PARSON, the redlor or incumbent of a parilh-church.
PARSONAGE, a redtory or parilh-church, endowed with
a houfe, glebe, lands, tithes, fee. for the maintenance
of a minilier, with cure of fouls within fuch parilh.
PARTS of fpeech, in grammar, are all the forts of words
which enter the compofition of difeourfe. See Gram¬
mar.
PARTERRE, in gardening, a level divifion of ground,
which, for the moft part, faces the fouth and belt front
of an houfe; and is generally furnilhed with greens, flow¬
ers,
PARTHENIUM, in botany, a genus of the monoecia pen¬
tandria clafs. The common calix of the male confifts of
five leaves ; and the corolla of the dilh are monopetalous.
The corolls of the radius in the female are five; two of
each fide are males, and the intermediate one female, a-
bove a naked feed. There are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britaib.
PARTHIA, a country of Alia, formerly fo called, fituated
almoft in the middle of the modern Perlia.
PARTI, Partie, Party, or Parted, in heraldry, is ap¬
plied to a Ihield or efcutcheon, denoting it divided or
marked out into partitions.
Parti per pale is when the fhield is divided perpendi¬
cularly into two halves, by a.cut in the middle from top
to bottom. See Plate CXXXIV. fig. n.
Parti per fefs is when the cut is acrefs the middle,
from fide to fide.
Parti per bend dexter, is when the cut comes from the
upper corner of the (hield, on the right hand, and de¬
fends athwart to the oppofite lower corner.
Parti per bend finifter, is when the cut, coming from
the upper left corner, defeends acrofs to the oppofite
lower one.
From thefe four partitions have proceeded an infinite
number of others, of various and extravagant forms.
PARTICIPLE, in grammar, an adjeftive formed of a
verb, fo called becaufe it participates partly of the pro¬
perties of a noun, and partly of thofe of a verb. See
Grammar.
PARTICLE, in phyfiology, the minute part of a body,
5 Z aa
PAR ( 460 ) PAS
an affemblagc of which conftitute all natural bodies.
It is the various arrangement and texture of thefe par-
tides, with the difference of cohefion, that confti¬
tute the various kinds of bodies. The fmalleft particles
cohere with the ftrongeft attraction, and compofe bigger
particles of weaker cohefion; and many of thefe cohering
compofe bigger particles, whofe vigour is ftill weaker ;
and hereupon the operations in chemiftry, and the colours
of natural bodies, depend, and which, by cohering, com¬
pofe bodies cf fenfible bulk. The cohefion of the particles
of matter, the Epicureans imagined, was effected by means
of hooked atoms; the Ariftotelians, by reft; but Sir Ifaac
Newton (hews, that it is done by means of a certain pow¬
er, whereby the particles mutually attraCt and tend to¬
wards each other. By this attraction of the particles, he
fhews, that moft of the phaenomena of the leffer bo¬
dies are affeCted, as thofe of the heavenly bodies are, by
the attraction of gravity.
Particle, in grammar, a denomination for all thofe
fmall words that tie or untie others together, or that ex-
prefs the modes or manners of words. See Grammar.
PARTNER, and Partnership. See Arithmetic,
p. 386.
PARTRIDGE, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
PARTURITION. See Delivery.
PARULIDES, in furgery, tumours and inflammations of
the gums, commonly called gum-boils.
They are to be treated with difeutients, like other in¬
flammatory tumours.
PARUS, in ornithology. SccCerthia.
PASCHAL, fomething belonging to the paffover or eafter.
See Passover, and Easter.
PAISLEY, a town of Scotland, in the county of Renfrew,
fix miles weft of Glafgow.
PASQUIN, a mutilated ftatufe at Rome, in a corner of the
palace of the Urfini: it takes its name from a cobler of
that city called Pafquin, famous for his fneers and gibes,
and who diverted himfelf with palling his jokes on all the
people who went through that ftreet. After his death,
as they were digging up the pavement before his Ihop,
they found in the earth the ftatue of an ancient gladiator,
well cut, but maimed, and half fpoiled : this they fet up
in the place where it was found, and by common confent
named it Pafquin. Since that time, all fatires are attri¬
buted to that figure ; and are either put into its mouth, or
palled upon it, as if they were wrote by Pafquin redivi-
vus ; and thefe are addrefled by Pafquin to Marforio, a-
nother ftatue at Rome. When Marforio is attacked,
Pafquin comes to his afliftance; and when Pafquin is at¬
tacked, Marforio affifts him in his turn.
PASQUINADE, a fatirical libel faftened to the ftatue of
Pafquin : thefe are commonly Ihort, merry, and pointed ;
and from hence the term has been applied to all other
lampoons of the fame call.
PASS ADE, in the menage, is a turn or courfe of a horfe
backwards or forwards, on the fame fpot of ground.
Birds of Passage, a name given to thofe birds which at
certain ftated feafons of the year remove from certain
countries, and at other ftated times return to them a-
gain, as our quails, woodcocks, ftorks, nightingales,
fwallows, and many other fpecies. Among the birds of
paffage, the fieldfare, the redwing, the woodcock, and
the fnipe, come to us in the autumn, at the time when the
fummer-birds are leaving us, and go from ns again in
fpring, at the time when thefe return ; and of thefe the
two laft often continue with us through the fummer, and
breed ; fo that the two firft feem the only kinds that cer¬
tainly leave us at the approach of fpring, retiring to the
northern parts of the continent, where they live during
the fummer, and breed; and at the return of winter,
are driven foutherly from thofe frigid climes, in fearch
of food, which there the ice and fnow muft deprive
them of.
PASSANT, in heraldry, a term applied to a lion, or other
animal, in a fhield, appearing to walk leifurely : for moft
beafts, except lions, the term trippant is frequently ufed
inftead of paflant.
PASSAO, or Cape Passao, a promontory of Peru, juft,
under the equator : W. long 8i°.
PASSAU, the capital of the bilhopric of the fame name,
in the circle of Bavaria, fituated on the confluence of the
rivers Danube, Inn, and Iks : E. long. 130 jo', N. Ikt.
48° 30'.
Pas seres is the name of a clafs of birds. Sfee Natural
History.
PASSERINA, in botany, a genus of the o&andria mono-
gynia clafs. It has no calix ; the corolla confifts of ftiur
fegments, and the ftamina lie upon the tube. There are
eight fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
P iSSIFLORA, in botany, a genus of the gynandria pen-
tagynia clafs. It has three ftyli ; the calix confifts of-
five leaves, and the corolla of five petals; and the nedta-
rium is a corona ; and the berry is fupported on a pedi¬
cle. There are 26 fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain, but are cultivated in gardens for the beauty of their
flowers.
PASSIONS, in moral philofophy, are certain motions of
the foul, which make it purfue what appears to be good,
arid avoid whatever threatens evil.
By refle&ing, fays Mr Locke, on the various modifi¬
cations or tempers of the mind, and the internal fenfa-
tions which pleafure and pain, good and evil, produce in
us, we may thence form to ourfelves the ideas of our
paflions. Thus, by refledting upon the thought we have
of the delight which any thing is apt to produce in us,
we form an idea which we call love. Defire is that un-
eafinefs which a man finds in himfelf upon the abfence of
any thing, the prefent enjoyment of which caufes delight.
Joy is a delight of the mind, a ifing from the prefent, or
affured approaching, poff flion of fome good. Sorrow is
an uneafinefs of the mind, upon the thought of a good-
loft, or the fenfe of a prefent evil. Hope is a pleafure
in the mind, upon thfc thought of a probable future en¬
joyment of a thing which is apt to delight. Fear is an
uneafinefs of the mind, upon the thought of a future evil
likely to befal us Anger is a difeompofure of the mind,
upon the receipt of injury, with a prefent purpofe of re-
venge. Defpair is the thought of the unattainablenefs of
any good. Envy is an tmeafinefs of mind, caufed by the
confideration of a good we defire, obtained by one we.
think fliould not have had it before us.
On the jnft regulation and fubordination of the paflions,
depends, in a great meafure, the happinefs of mankind.'
See Moral Philos.ophy.
Passions, in medicine, make one of the non-naturals,
and produce very fenfible dfefts. Joy. anger, and fear,
are
PAT ( 4(51 ) P A T~
are the principal. In the two firft, the fpirits are hurried
with too great vivacity; whereas, in fear or dread, they
are is it were curbed and concentrated : whence we may
conclude, that they have a very bad effect upon health ;t
and therefoie it will be bell to keep them within bounds
as much as poflijole, and to preferve an inward ferenity,
calmnefs, and tranquillity.
Passions, in painting, are the external expreflions of the
different difpolitions and affeftions of the mind': but par..,
ticularly their different effe&s upon the feveral features
of the face : for though the arms, and indeed every part
of the body, ferve likewife, by their quick, languid, and
varioufly diverfified motions, to exprefs the paffions of
the foul ; yet, in painting, this difference is moft con-
fpicuous in the face.
In forrow, joy, love, lhame, and compaffion, the eyes
fwell all of a hidden, are covered with a fuperabundant
moifture, and drop tears ; and in grief efpecially, the
corners of the mouth hang down, the eye-lids are half
fliut, and the pupil of the eye is elevated and half cover¬
ed ; and all the other mufcies of the face are relaxed,
fo that the vifage appears longer than ordinary.
In fear, terror, fright, and horror, the eye-brows are
greatly elevated ; the eye lids are expanded as wide as
poffible, fo as to difcover the white of the eye; and the
pupil is depreffed, and half covered by the lower eye-lid;
the hair Hands an end; the mouth is at the fame time
wide open ; and the lips fo far drawn back, that the
teeth both of the upper and under jaw appear.
Contempt is expreffed by raifing one fide of the upper
lip, fo as to difcover the teeth, whilft the other fide
has a movement like that in laughter; the eye, on that
fide where the teeth appear, is half Ihut, whilft the other
remains open ; however, both the pupils are depreffed.
In jealoufy, envy, hatred, and malice, the eye brows
are knit; and, in laughter, all the parts agree, tending
as it were towards the centre of the face.
Passion, or crofs of the Passion, in heraldry, is fo call¬
ed, becaufe refembling the lhape of that on which our
Saviour is thought to have fuffered ; that is, not croffed
in the middle, but a little below the top, with arms (hort
in proportion to the length of the lhaft. See plate
CXXX1V. fig. 12.
PAssioN-FtowER, in botany. See Passiflora.
Passion-week, the week immediately preceding the fefti-
val ©f Eafter: fo called, becaufe in that week our Sa¬
viour’s paffion and death happened.
The Thurfday of this week is called MaundayThurf-
day; the Friday, Good Friday ; and the Saturday, the
great Sabbath.
PASSIVE, in general, denotes fomething that fuffers the
aftion of another called an agent or aftive power.
In grammar,,the verb or word that expreffes this paffian,
is termed a paffive verb : which, in the learned languages,
has a peculiar termination, ns amor. doceor,!kc. in Latin.
Passive title, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxvii. 30.
PASSOVER, a folemn fertival of the Jews, celebrated on
the fourteenth day of the month next after the vernal e-
quinox, and inftituted in commemoration of their coming
Wit of Egypt ; becaufe on the night before their depar¬
ture the deftroying angel, who put to death the firft born
of the Egyptians, paffed over the houfes of the Hebrews,
which werefptinkied with the blood of aJamb.. The whole
tranfadlion is related in the twelfth chapter of'Ekbdus*
PASS PAROLE, a command given kr the head of an ar¬
my, and thence communicated to the rear by palling it
from mouth to mouth.
Pass-port, or Pass, a licence or writing obtained from
a prince or governor, granting liberty and fafe condpift
to pafs through his territories without mbkftation.
PASTEBOARD, a kind of thick paper formed of feveral
■ ftieets of paper pafted together.
The chief ufe of pafteboard is in binding books, making
letter-cafes,
PASTERN of a horfe, in the manege, is the diftance be-r
tween the joint next the foot, and the coronet of the hoof.
This part Ihould belhort, dpeciallyin middle.fized horfes,
becaufe long pafterns are weak, and cannot fo well endure*
• travelling.
Pastern-joint, the joint next a horfe’s foot.
PASTIL, or Pastel, among painters, a kind of pafte
made of different colours, ground up with gum-water, in?
order to make crayons
Pastil, in pharmacy, is a dry compofition of fweet-fmell-
ing refins, aromatic woods, <bc. fometimes burnt to clear
and fcent the air of a chamber.
PASTINACA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digy-
nia clafs. The fruit is elliptical, and compreffed. There
are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain ; but-
the fativa, or parfnep, is cultivated in gardens for the
fake of its root, which we ufe as food.
PASTORAL, in general, fomething that relates to Ihep-
herds; hence we fay, paftoral life, manners, poetry, <bc3,.
The original of poetry is afcribed to that age which
fucceeded the creation of the world : and as the keeping
of flocks feems to have been the firft employment of man¬
kind, the moft ancient fort of poetry was, probably, paf¬
toral. It is natural to imagine, that the leifure of thofsr
ancient ftiepherds admitting and inviting foiqe diverfion,
none was fo proper to that folita,ry and fedentary life as
finging ; and that in their fongs they took occafion to ce¬
lebrate their own felicity. From hence a poem was in¬
vented, and afterwards improved to a perfeft image oB"
that happy time ; which, by giving.us an efteem for the
virtues of a former age, might recommend them to the
prefent. And fince the life of fhepherds was attended
with more tranquillity than any other rural employment,
the poets chofe to introduce their perfons, from whom it
received the,name of Paftoral..
A paftoral is an imitation of the adtion of a fliepherd,
or one confidered under that charafter. The form of thisr
imitation is-dramatic, or narrative, or mixed with
both ; the fable fimple ; the manners not tod polite, nor
too ruftic; the thoughts are plain, yet admit a little'
qnicknefs and paflion, but that Ihort and flowing ; the
expreffion humble, yet as pure as the language will afford;;
neat, but not florid ; eafy,. and yet lively. In (hort, the
fable, manners, thoughts, and exprelKons, sre full of the
greateft fimplicity in nature.
The complete character of this poem confifts in (impli-i-
fity, brevity, and delicacy ; the two firft of which render
an eclogue natural, and the laft delightful.
P ASTRY, that branch of cookery, which is chiefly taken
up in making pies, parties, cakes, <bc.
PASTURE,- or Pasture-land, that referved for feeding^
■ cattle. .
Paftuce.
PAT ( 460 PAT
P aft are land is of fuch advantage to huftandry, that
many prefer it even to corn-land, becanfe of the fmall
hazard and labour that attends it, and as it lays the
foundation for moft of the profit that is expefted from the
arable land, becaufe of the manure the cattle'afford which,
are fed upon it. Where dung is not to be bought, as is
often the cafe in places diftant from large towns, the far¬
mer is forced to proportion his arable to his pafture-land,
in fuch manner, that the cattle fed on the latter may be
fufficient for a fupply of dung, fo neceffary for producing
the fruits of the former.
PATAGONIA, the moft fouthern part of fouth America,
extending from the mouth of Rio di la Plata, in 36° of
S. lat. to Cape Horn, in 550 30'.
PATAGONULA, or Patagonica, in botany, a genus
of the pentandria monogynia clafs. The corolla is ro¬
tated ; and the ftylus is dichotomous. There is but one
fpecies, a native of America.
PATAN, the capital of a province in the Eaft Indies, fi-
tuated two hundred miles north of Huegly in Bengal: E.
long. .89°, N. lat. 3o/.
PATAV1NITY, among critics, denotes a peculiarity of
Livy’s diftion, derived from Patavium, or Padua, the
place of his nativity ; but wherein this patavinity confifts,
they are by no means agreed.
PATCHUGA, or Patioqjje, a city of Mexico, W.
long. 103°, N. lat. 210 ; fubjedf to Spain.
PATE, in' fortification, a kind of platform, refembling what
is called an horfe-fhoe.
PATE''E, or Patte'e, in heraldry, a crofs, fmall in the
centre, and widening to the extremes, which are very
broad. See Plate^CXXXIV. fig. 13. which is a crofs
patee, argent, upon a field fable.
PATELLA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 185.
Patella, the Limpet, is a genus ofinfeds belonging to
the order of vermes teftacea. It is an animal of the fnail
kind ; the Ihell confifts of one conical valve, without any
fpiral. There are 36 fpecies, principally diftinguiftied
by peculiarities in their (hells.
PATENT, in general, denotes fomething that (lands open
or expanded: thus a leaf is faid to be patent when it
(lands almoft at right angles with the ftalk.
Patent, or Letters-patent, See Letter.
PATER patratus, in Roman antiquity, the principal
perfon among the feciales or college of heralds.
Pater noster, the Lord’s-prayer, fo called from the
two firft words thereof in Latin.
PATH, in general, denotes the courfe or trad marked out
or run over by a body in motion. For the path of the
tnoon, <bc. fee Astronomy, p. 465.
PATHETIC, whatever relates to the pafiions, or that is
proper to excite or awake them.
PATHOGNOMONIC, among phyficians, an appellation
for a fymptom, or concourfe of fymptoms, that are infe-
parable ftom a diftemper, and are found in that only, and
in no other,
PATHOLOGY, that part of medicine, which explains the
► nature of difeafes, their caufes and fymptoms.
PATHOS, a Greek term, literally fignifying paflion, is
fometimes ufed for the energy of a difeourfe, or its
power to move the palfions.
PATMOS, one of the lead of the iflands of the Archipe¬
lago, fubjedto the Turks: E. long. 270, andN. lat. 370.
PATNA, a city of the hither India, the capital of the
territory of the fame name, in the province of Bengal;
E. long 8j°, and N. lat. 26°.
PATANCE, in heraldry, is a crofs, flory at the ends ;
from which it differs only in this, that the ends, inllead
. of turning down like a fleur-de-lis, are extended fome-
what in the pattee-form. ' See Flory.
PATOWMAC, a great river of Virginia, which arifes in
. the Apalachian mountains, and after feparating Virginia
from Maryland' falls into the bay of Chefepeak.
PATRAS, a city and port-town of European Turky, in
the province of the Morea : E. long. 210 30', and N,
lar. 38° 20'.
PATRES conscripti. See Consript and Senator.
PATRIARCHS, among Chriftians, are ecclefiaftical dig¬
nitaries, or bilhops, fo called from their paternal autho¬
rity in the church. The power of patriarchs was not
the fame in all, but' differed according to the different
cuftomsof countries, or the pleafures of kings and coun¬
cils : thus the patriarch of Conftantinople greyv to be a
patriarch over the patriarchs of Ephefus and Caefarea,
and was called the oecumenical and univerfal patriarch ;
and the patriarch of Alexandria had fome prerogatives,
which no other patriarch befides himfelf enjoyed, fuch as
the right of confecrating and approving every fingle bi-
fhop under his jurifdiftion.
PATRIARCHAL cross, in heraldry, is that where the
(haft is twice croffed ; the lower arms being longer than
the upper ones. |j»Plate CXXXIV. fig. 14. is a patriar¬
chal crofs, gules, on a field argent.
PATRICIAN, among the ancient Romans, a title given
to the defeendants of the hundred, or, according to o-
thers, of the two hundred firfl fenatorschofen by Romu¬
lus, and by him called Patres, Fathers.
PATRIMONY, a right or eftate inherited by a perfon
from his anceftors.
PATRINGTON, a market-town ofYorkfhire, fituated at
the mouth of the Humber, fifty miles eafl of York.
PATRIPASSIANS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian fedt,
which appeared about the latter end of the lid century;
fo called from their aferibing the paflion to the Father ;
for they afferted the unity ef God in fuch a manner as to
deftroy all diftindtion of perfons, and to make the Father
and Son precifely the fame; in which they were followed
by the Sabellians, and others. The author and head of
the patripaflians was Praxeas, a philofopher of Phrygia
in Afia.
PATROL, in war, a round or march made by the guards,
or watch, in the night-time, to obferve what paffes in the
flreets, and to fecure the peace and tranquillity of a city
or camp.
PATRON, among the Romans, was an appellation given
to a mailer who had freed his Have, As foon as the re¬
lation of mafter expired, that of patron began for the
Romans, in giving the (laves their freedom, did not de-
fpoil themfelves of all right and privileges in them ; the
law flill fubjedted them to confiderable fervices and duties
towards their patrons, the negledt of which was very fe-
verely punifhed.
Patron, in the church of Rome, a faint, whofe name a
perfon bears, or under whofe protedtion he is put, and
whom he takes particular care to invoke ; or a faint, in
whofe name a church or order is founded.
Patron,
P A U ( 4^3 ) PEA
Patron, in Scots Jaw. See Law, Tit. v.
PATRONAGE, the right of difpohng a church or benefice,
and enjoying feveia) other piivileges,-fuch as having the
honourable rights of the church, being interred in the
chancel, <be.
Arms of Patronage, in heraldry, are thofe on the top
of which are fome marks of fubjedtion and dependance :
thus the city of Pans bears the fLurs de lis in chief, to
fhew her fubjedticn to the king ; and the cardinals on the
top of their arms, bear thofe of the pope, who gave them
the hat, to (hew<bat they are his creatures.
PATRONYMIC, among^ grammarians, is applied to fuch
names of men and women as are derived from thole, of
parents^rr anceftors.
PAVETTA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confilis of one funnel-fhaped pe¬
tal ; the ftylus is crooked ; and the berry contains one
feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of India.
PAVIA, a city of Italy, in the duchy of Milan, capital of
the Parefan, the fee of a bilhop, and nniverlity; fituated
in E. long. 90 40', and N lat. 450 15'.
Pavia, in botany. See AiscuLus
PAULIONISTS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics of
the Hid century, difciples of Paul Samofatenfis bilhop
of Antioch, who denied Chrill’s divinity, maintaining
that when we call him the Son of God, we do not there¬
by mean that he is really and truly God; but only that
he was fo perfect a man, and fo fuperior in virtue to all
others, that he had this name given .him by way of e-
minence.
PAULICIANS, Chrilfian heretics of the Vllth century,
difciples of one Conilantine, a native of Armenia, and a
favourer of the errorsr of Manes ; who, as the name Ma-
nichees was become odious to all nations, gave thofe of
his fedt the title of Paulicians, on pretence that they fol¬
lowed only the doArine of St Paul.
PAULTNIA, in botany, a genus of the odlandria trigy-
nia clafs. The calix confilts of four leaves, the corolla
of four petals, and the nedtarium of four unequal leaves ;
it has three comprefled, membranaceous capfules. There
are fe.ven fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
PxAVO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of
gallinas. The head is covered with feathers which bfend
. backwards ; and The feathers of the tail are very long,
and beautifully variegated with eyes of different colours.
There are three fpecies, viz. 1. The crillatus,• or com¬
mon peacock of Englifh authors, has a comprefied creft,
pnd folitary fpurs, and is a native of Ceylon. 2- The bi-
calcaratus has a fmall creft, and douhle-fpurs: It is a
native of China. 3. The muticus, has a flrarp pointed
creft, and no fpurs, ■and the orbits of the eyes are red.
It is found in Japan.
Pavo, in aftroBomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
PAURAiEDRASTYLAS, in natural hiltory, the name of
a genus of perfedjt cryftals, with double pyramids, and
no intermediate column, compofed of twelve planes, or
two hexangular pyramids, joined bafe to bafe.
PAUSANIA, in Grecian antiqwty, a feftival, in which
were fplemn games, wherein nobody contended but free-
, barn Spartans; in honour of Paufanias, the Spartan ge-
, neral, under whofe condudt the Greeks overcame Mar-
donius, in the famous battle at Plateas.
PAUSE, a flop or ceffation of fpeaking, finging, playing,
V01.. III. N°. 88. 2
or the like. The ufe of pointing in grammar, is to make
proper paufes, in certain places. There is a paufe in the
middle of each verfe; in an hemiftich it is called a reft
or repofe.
PAW, in the menage. A horfe is fard to paw the ground,
when his leg, being either tired or painful, he does not
teff it upon the ground, and fears to hurt himfelf as he
walks.
PEA, in,botany. SeePisuM.
PEACH, in botany. See Amydalus.
PEACOCK, in ornithology. See Pavo.
PEAK, a rocky mountainous country in the weft of Der-
byfhire, remarkable for its mines of lead and iron, (be.
PEAN, in heraldry, is when the field of a coat of arms is
fable, and she powderings or.
PEAR, in botany. See Pyrus.
PEARCH, in ichthyology. See Perca.
Pearch-glue, the name of a kind of glue of remarkable
ftrength and purity, made from the fliins of pearches.
PEARL, in natural hiftory, a hard, y/hite, fhining body,
ufually roundilli, found in a teftaceous fifh refembiing an
oyftef, - '
Pearls, though efteemed of the number of gems by
our jewellers, and highly valued, not only at this time,
but in all ages, proceed only from a diftemper in the crea¬
ture that produces them, analogous to .the bezoars, and
other ftony concretions in feveral-animals of other kinds.
The filh in which thefe are ufualiy produced is the
Eaft-Indian pearl-oyfter, as it is commonly called. Be-
lides this {hell, there are many others that are found to
produce pearls ; as the common oyfter, the mufcle, and
feveral others ; the pearls of which are often very good ;
but thofe of the true Indian berbeti, or pearl-oyfter, are
in general fuperior to all. The fmall or feed-pearls, ai-
fo called ounce-pearls, fromrtheir being fold by the ounce,
and not by tale, are vaftly the moft numerous and com¬
mon ; but as in diamonds, among the multitudes orfmall
ones, there are fmaller numbers of larger found, fo in
pearls there are larger and larger kinds ’; but as they in-
creafe in fize, they are proportionably lefs frequent, and
this is one reafon of their great price. We have Scotch
pearls frequently as big as a little tare, fome as big as a
large gea, and fome few of the fize of a horfe-bean ; but*
thefe are ufuaily of a bad ftiape, and of little value in pro¬
portion to their weight. . Philip II. of Spain, had a pea;I
perfedt in its ftrape and colour, and of the fize of a pi¬
geon’s egg. The fineft, and what is called the true fhape
of the pearl, is a perftdt round ; but if pearls of a con-
fiderable fixe are of the ihape of a pear, as is not unfre-
quently the cafe, they are not lefs valued, as they ferve
for ear-rings and other ornaments. Their colour ought
to be a.gpreTvhite, and that not a dead and lifelefs. but
■& clear Ind'brilliant one; they muft be perfectly free from
any foulnefs, fpot or (lain ; and their lurfaces muft be na¬
turally fmooth and glofly, for they bring their natural po-
lilh with them, which art is not able to improve.
All pearls are formed of the matter of the {hell, and
confift of a number of coats fpread with perfefl regularity
one over another, in the manner of the feyeral coats of
an onion, or like the feveral ftrata of the ftonds.. found is
the bladders or ftotnaohs of animals, only much' thinner.
Manner of fijhing for Pearls in the Eaft-Indies. There
are two feafons for pearl-filhing: the firft is in March and
6 A April*-
PEA ( 464 ) FED
April, and the lafl: in Augufl and September ; and the
more rain there falis in the year, the more plentiful are
thefe fifheries. At the beginning of the feafon there are
fometimes two hundred and fifty barks on the banks; the
larger barks having two divers, and the fmaller one. As
foon as_the barks arrive at the place whece the .filh lie,
and have cafl anchor, each diver binds a ftone fix inches
thick, and a foot long, under his body ; which ferves him
as ballad, prevents his being driven away by the motion
of the water, and enables him to walk'more fteadily un¬
der the waves. They alfo tie another very heavy done
to one foot, by which they are very fpeedily lent to the
bottom of the fea: and £S the oyders are ufuaily firmly
fadened to the rocks, they arm their hands with leather
mittens to prevent their being wounded in pulling them
violently off; but this talk fome perform with an iron-
rake. In the lad place, each diver carries down with
him a large net in the manner of a fack, tied to his neck
by a long cord, the other end of which is fadened to the
fide of the bark. This net is to hold the oyders gather¬
ed from rhe rock, and the cord is to pull up the diver
when his bag is full or he wants air.
In this equipage he fometimes precipitates himfelf fix-
ty feet under water; and as he has'no time to lofe, he
no fooner arrives .at the bottom, than he begins to run
from fide to fide tearing up ail the oyders he meets with,
and cramming them into his budget.
At whatever depth the divers are, the light is fo great,
that they eafily fee whatever paffes in the fea: and to
their great condernation fomefimes perceive mondrous
filhes, from which all their addrefs in mudding the wa¬
ter, ebc* will not always fave them, but they unhappily
become their prey : and of all the dangers of the filhery,
this is one of the greated and mod ufual. The bed di¬
vers will keep under water near half an hour, and the red
do not day lefs than a quarter. During this time they
hold their breath without the ufe of oils, or any other
liquors; only acquiring the habit by long practice. When
they find themfelves firaightened, they pull the rope to
■which the bag is fadened, and hold fad by it with both
hands ; when thofe in the bark, taking the fignal, heave
them up into the air, and unload them of their fifh, which
is fometimqs five hundred oyders, and fometimes not a-
v bove fifty. Some of th& divers need a moment’s refpite
.to recover breath ; others jump in again indantly, con¬
tinuing this violent exercife without intermiffion for feve-
ral hours.
On the diore they unload their barks, and lay their
oyders in an infinite number of little pits dug in the fand
four or five feet fq,uare ; raifing heaps of fand over them
to the height of a man; and in this condition they are
left, till the rain, wind, and fun have obliged them to
open, which foon kills them : upon this the flefh rots and
dries, and the pearls, thus difengaged, fall into the pit,
©n their taking out the fhells. After clearing the pits of
the groffer filth, they lift the fand feveral times in order
to find the pearl: but whatever care they take, they al¬
ways lofe a great many. After cleaning and drying the
pearls, they are paffed through a kind of fieve,. according
to their fizes; the fmalled are then fold as feed-pearls,
and the red put up to au&ion, and fold to the higheft
bidder.
Artificial 3?ear.vs, are made by reducing feed-pearls to a
pade, by means of a chemical preparation called nurcn-
rial water, making the beads in filver-moulds, boring
them with a hog’s bridle, and drying them in a clofed
. glafs In the fun. .
Beads, in imitation of pearls, are alfo made of wax,
and covered with the'fcales of feveral kinds of fidies.
Mother ofiPearl, is thediell, not of the pearl-cyder, but
of another fea-fifh of the oyder-kind. This fhell on the
infide is extremely fmooth, and of the whitenefs and wa¬
ter of pearl itfelf; and it has the fame ludre on the out-
fide, after the fird laminae or fcales have been cleared off
with aquafortis and the lapidaries mill. Mother of pear}
is ufed in inlaid works, and in feveral toys, as fnuff-
boxes, fee. w-
Pearl-islands, feveral fmall idands fimated in the bay
of Panama: W. long. 8i°, and between 70 and 90 of
north lat.
PEAT, a kind of turf ufed for fuel in feveral countries.
PEBBLES, the name of a genus of fofiils, didinguiihed
from the flints and Homochroa by theif having a variety
of colours. Thefe are defined to be dones, compofed of
a crydalline matter, debafed by earths of various kinds
in the fame fpecies, and then fubjeft to veins, clouds;
and other variegations; ufuaily formed by incrudations
round a central nucleus, but fometirnes the effedl of a
Ample concretion, and veined like the agates, by the dif-
pofition the motion of the fluid they were formed in gave
their differently coloured fubdances.
PECCANT, in medicihe, a term ufed for thofe humours
of the body which offend either by their quantity or
quality.
PECK, a meafure of capacity, four of which make a bufhel.
PECORA, in natural hidory, the name of a clafs of qua¬
drupeds. xSee Natural History.
PECTORAL, an epithet for medicines good for diforders
of the bread and lungs.
PECTORALIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 194;
195
PECTORIS os, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 175.
PECULIUM, the dock or edate which a perfon in the
power of. another, as a Have, may acquire by hisindudry.
PEDAGOGUE, a tutor or mader, to whom is committed
the difeipline and diifftion of a fcholar.
PEDANT, is ufed for a rough unpolifhed man of letters,
who makes an impertinent ufe of the fciences, and abounds
in unfeafonable criticifms and obfervations.
PEDARlAN, in Roman antiquity, thofe fenators who
fignified their votes by their feet, not their tongues; that
is, fuch as walked over to the fide of thofe whofe opimon
they approved taf, in divifions of the houfe.
PEDESTAL, in architetfure. See Architecture,
P- 356
PEDICLE, among botanids, that part of a dalk which
immediately fudains the leaf of a flower or a fruit, and
is commonly called,a foot dalk.
PEDICULARIS, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix confids of five fegments ; the
capfule is fliarp-pointed, oblique, and has two cells ; and
the feeds are covered with a tunic. There are 14 fpe¬
cies, two of which are natives of Britain, viz. the fyl-
vatica, or common loufe-wort; and the paludris, or marfh
loufe-wort.
This plant is of a cooling and drying nature, whence
PEE ( 465 ) PEL
it is recommended in fiftulas and other finous ulcers.
PEDICULUS, louse, in zoology," a genus of infers be-
longing to the order of aptera. It has fix feet, two eyes,
and a fort of (ting in the mouth ; the feelers are as long
as the thorax ; and the belly is deprefied; and fublobated.
There are 40 fpecies, denominated from the different
creatures they inhabit. The belt antidote againft this
kind of vermin, is cjeanlinefs.
PEDILUVIUM, a bathing of the feet. This bath may
be prepared of the fame ingredients with other baths. It
may either confid of light pure water alone ; or, to cor-
redt the qualities ef heavy and hard water, a lixivium or
bran of wheat or chamomile-flowers may be added.
PEDIMENT, in architecture. See Architecture,
p.556.
PEDIR, a town in the ifland of Sumatra, in the Eaft In¬
dies, fituated in E. long 940 lat, 50.
PEDUNCLE, among botanifls. See Pedicle.
PEDUNCULI cerebelli, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
P- 287. ■ ' ■
PEEBLES, a town of Scotland, capital of the fhire of
Tweedale, fituated on the riverTweed, twenty-two miles
fou,th of Edinburgh^
PEEK, in thefea-langoage, is a word ufed in various fenfes.
Thus the anchor is (aid to be a-peek, when the (hip be¬
ing-about £0 weigh comes over her anchor in fuch a man¬
lier that the cable hangs perpendicularly betwixt the haufe
and the anchor. To heave a peek is to bring the peek
fo as that the anchor may hang a-peek.
PEER, in general, fignifies an equal, or one of the fame
rank and ftation.
The term peer is now applied to thofe who are impan-
neHed in an inquefl upon a perfon for convkfong or acquit¬
ting him of any offence laid to his charge ; and the reafon
why the jury is fo called, is, becaufe by the common
law, and the cuffom of this kingdom, every perfon is to
be rried by his peers or equals, a lord by the lords, and
a commoner by commoners. „
Peer of the realm, a noble lord who has a feat and vote in
the houfe of lords, which is alfo, called the houfe of
peers. Thefe lords are called peers, becaufe, though
there is a diftindlion of degrees in our nobility, yet in
public adlions they are equal, as in their votes in parlia¬
ment, and in trying any nobleman, or other perfon im¬
peached by the commons, &c. See Parliament.
Peers e/" France, the twelve great lords of that kingdom,
t ot which fix are dukes, and fix‘counts ; and of thefe, fix
are ecclefiaflics, and fix laymen: thus, the archbifliop
ofRheims, andthebilhop of Laon and Langres are dukes
and peers ; and the bifhops of Chalon on the Maro, Noy-
ons, and Beauvais, are counts and peers. The dukes of
Burgundy, Normandy, and Aquitain, are lay peers and
dukes; and the counts of FJanders, Champaign, and
Toloufe, lay peers and-counts. Thefe peers (till affifl at
the coronation of kings, either in perfon or by their re-
prefentatives, where each performs the functions attached
to his refpeClive dignity : but as the fix lay peerages are
all at prefent united to the crown except that of the count
of Flanders, fix lords of the firft quality are ch'ofen to
reprefent them ; but the ecclefiaflical peers ufually affift
in perfon. At prefent the title of peer is bellowed on e-
■Ssterjt lord whole effate is ereCledintoa peerage, the num-T
her of which is uncertain, and it deper.ds entirely on the
king.
PEERESS, a woman who is noble bydefeent, creation, or
marriage.
If a peerefs, by defeent or creation, marries a perfon
under the degree of nobiiity, (he (till continues noble ; but
if Ihe obtains that dignity only by marriage, (he lofes it
on. her afterwards marrying a commoner ; yet, by the
curtefy of England, (he always retains the title of her
nobility. <
PEEVIT, in ornithology. SccLarus.
PEGANUM, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five petals, and1 the
calix of five leaves ; the capfule has three cells, and three
valves, containing many feeds. There* are two fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
PEGASUS, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
PEGU, the capital of the kingdom of Pegu, and fituated
upon a river of the fame name, in 970 E. long, and N.
lat. 170 30'.
PEKIN, the metropolis of the empire of China, is fituated
in E. long. niQ, and N. lat. 40°.
It is about twenty miles in circumference, and is faid to
contain 2,000,000 of people.
PELAGIANS, a Chriflian fed who appeared about the
latter end of the fourth, or the beginning of the fifth
century.
Pelagius, the author of this fed, was born in Wales,
and his name was Morgan, which in the WeKh language
fignifies fea-born ; from whence he had bis Latin name
Pelagius. Some of our ancient hiltorians pretend that
he was abbot of Bangor : but this is impoffible, becaufe
the Britilh monafleries were of a later date. St Auftin
gives him the charader of a very pious mar,, and a Chri-
(tian of no vulgar rank: according to the fame father,
he travelled to Rome, where he affociated himfelf with
perfons ofthe greateft learning and figure, and wrote his
commentaries on St Paul’s Epiftles, and his letters to
Melania and Demetrias; but being charged with herefy, he
left Rome, and went into Africa, and from thence to Jeru-
falem, where he fettled. He died fomewhere in the eaft;
but where, is uncertain. He, was charged with maintain¬
ing the following dodrines : 1. That Adam was by na¬
ture mortal, and, whether he had finned or not, would.
certainly have died. 2. That the confequences of A-
dam’s fin were confined to his own perfon. 3. That new¬
born infants are in the fame condition, with Adam before
the fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the king¬
dom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promifes
with the gofpel. 5. That the general refurredion of the
dead does not follow it) virtue of our Saviour's refurrec-
tion. 6. That the grace of God is given according to
our merits. 7. That this grace is not granted for the
performance of every moral ad 5 the liberty of the will,,
and information in points of duty being fufficient, <&c.
PELICANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of anferes. The bill is ftrait, without teeth, and;
crooked at the point ; the face is naked;, and the feet:
are palmated. There are eight fpecies, principally diF-
tinguiftted by the (hape of their tails.
PELICAN, in ornithology. See ^elicanus.
Pelican, in chemiftry. See Chemistry, p. 109.
PELLETSj,
PEN ( 4^ ) P E N
PELLETS, in heraldry, thofe roundles that are black, cal¬
led aifoogrefies and^gunftones, and bytheFrench torteaux
de fable.
PELLICLE, among phyficiaris, fyc. denotes a thin fi-lm,
or fragment of a membrane.
PELVIS, in anatomy. See, Anatomy, p. 173.'
PEMBROKE, the capital ofPembrokeihn e, in fouth Wales:
W. long. 5°, N. lat, 51® 4J,> This town fends two
members to parliament.
PEbfAL a a ion, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxx 17.
PEN" \NCE, a punilhraent, either voluntary, or impofed by
authority, for the faulty a perfon has committed. Pe-
- nance is one of the fever, facraments of the Romilh church.
. Befides Falling, alms, abllinence, and the like, which are
the general cdnditions of penance ; there are others of a
more particular kind, as the repeating a certain number
of ave-marys, pater-nofters, and credos, wearing a hair-
(hirt, and giving one’s felf a certain number of llripes In
Italy and Spain itisufual to fee Chrifiiaos almoft naked,
loaded with’chains and a crofs, and lalhing themfelves at
every Hep. ,
PENdE A, in botany, a plant of the tetrandria monogynia
clafs. The calix confifts of two leaves ; the corolla is
bell lhaped ; the (tylus is quadrangular ; and the capfule
is triangular, with four cells containing eight feeds.
There are three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
PENATES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of tutelar deites,
either of couniri^s or particular houfes ; in which laft
fenfe, they differed in nothing from the lares. _ See
Lares.
PENCIL, an inflrument ufed-by painters for laying on
their colours. Pencils are of various kinds, and made
of various materials ; the larger forts are made of boars
brtflles, the thick ends of which are bound to a flick,
bigger or lefs according to the ufes they are defigned for :
thefe, when large, are called bfulhes. The finer forts
of pencils are made of camels, badgers, and fquirrels-
hair, and of the dowq of fwans ; thefe are tied at the
upper end with a piece of flrongthread^ and inclofed in
« the barrel of a quill. -
PENDANT, an ornament hanging at the ear, frequently
confiding of diamonds, pearls, and other precious flones.
Pendants, m heraldry, parts hanging down from the label,
to ihe number of three, four, five, or fix at mod, refem-
bling the drops in the Doric frieze. When they are more
than .three, they mud be fpecified in blazoning.
Pendants of a fhip, are thofe dreamers or long colours
which are fplit and divided into two parts ending in points,
and hung at the head of mads, or at the yard-arm ends.
PENDULOUS, a term applied to any thing that bends or
hangs downwards. *
PENDULUM, in mechanics^ denotes any heavy body, fo
fufpended as that it may vibrate of fwing, backwards and '
forwards, about fome fixed point, by the forqe of gravity.
See Mechanics.
PENETRALE, in R.oman antiquity; properly denoted
the chapel confecrated to the penates, or houfhold-gods.
PENGUIN island and bay, are fituated on the coad of
Patagonia in South America: W. long. 70°, S. lat 47°.
Penguin in ornithology. See ALca.
pENICHE, a port-town of Portugal, in the province of
Edrtmadura. fituated on the Ocean forty miles north
pf JLifton ; W. long. 90 6', N. lat. 39° 20'.
PENICILLUS, among furgeons, is ufed for a tent to he
' put into wounds or ulcers.
PENINSULA, in geography, a portion or extent of land,
joining to the continent Ay a narrow neck or ifthmus,
the red being encompaffed with water.
PENIS, in anatomy'. See Anatomy, p. 270.
PENI3COLA, a port-town of Spain, in the province of
Valencia, fituated on the Mediterranean, under the me¬
ridian of London, and in N. lat. 40° 29.
PENNY, an ancient filver coin, which, though now little
ufed, was the only one current among our Saxon ancedors.
Penny earth, in agriculture, denotes a hard, loamy, or
fandy earth, with a large proportion of fea-lheils inter¬
mixed with it.
Penny-weight, a troy-weight, containing twenty-four
grains, each of’which is equal in Weight to a grain of
wheat, gathe'redout of the middle of the ear, and-Well dried.
PENRISE, a port-town of Wales, in the county ol Gla¬
morgan, fituated on Briftoi channel, feventeen miles Youth
of Caermarchen.
PENRYN, a borough-town of Cornwal, near a bay of the
Engl fn channel : W. long. 50 35', N. lat. jo° 20/.
It lenos two members to parliament.
PENSANCE, a market-town of Cornwal, eight miles eaft
of the Land’s end.
PENSIL VANIA, one of the Englilh plantations in Ame¬
rica,’two hundred milts in length, and almod as much
in breadth : fituated between 74 and 78° of wed longi¬
tude, and between 39 and 42° of north latitude: a fine
fruitful country,, bounded by the five nations of the I-
roquois on the north, by-New-Jerfey and Neyv.York on
the ead, and by Maryland on the fouth and wed. It is
a proprietary government, the heirs of Mr. Penn, a qua--
ker, who fettled this country, appointing the governtjr.
PENSION, a fum of money paid annually for fervices or
cofifiderations already pad.. The yearly payment of each
member to the houfes of the inns of courts, are likewife
termed penfions; and the yearly affembly of the members
of the fociety of Gray’s Inn, to confult on the affairs, of
the houfe, is alfo called a penfion.
PENSIONER in general, denotes a; perfon who receives
a penfion, yearly falary, or allowan e. Hence,
The band of genileman-pehfioners, the nobled fort of
guard to the king’s perfon, confids of fo'ty gentlemen,
who receive a yearly penapn of one hundred pounds.
This honourable band was fird indituted by king Hen¬
ry VIII and their office is to attend the king’s per/on,
with their battle-axes, to and from his chapel-royal, and
to receive him in the prefence chamber, or-coming out of
his privy-lodgings; they are alfo told to attend at all great
folenioities, as coronations, St. George’s fead, public au¬
diences of ambaffadors, at the fovereign’s going to par¬
liament. &■£•.
They are each obliged to keep three double horfes and
a fervant. and fo are properly a troop of horfe. They
wait half at a time', quarterly; but pn Chridmas-da'y,
Eader-day, Whitfunday, cbe. and on extraordinary occa-
fions they are all oblige'd to give their attendance.
PENTACROSTIC, in poetry, a fet of verfes fo difpqfed
as that ffiefe are always five acrodics of theafame name, in
five divisions of each verfe.
PENTAEDROSTYLA, in natural hiftory, the name of
a genus-of fpars. See Spar,
The
PER ( 4^7 ) PER
The bodies.of this genes are fpars, in form of pentan¬
gular columns, terminated by pentangular pyramids at one
end, andirregularly affixed at the other to fome fo!id body.
PENTAGON, in geometry, a figure of five fides and five
angles. See Geometry.
PENTAGRAPH, an inftrument whereby defigns of any
kind may be copied in. what proportion you pleafe, with¬
out being {killed in drawing.
PENTAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verfe con¬
fiding of five feet, or metres *, whence the name.
The twofirft feet may be either daftyls or fpondees, at
pleafure f the third is always a fpondee, and the two laii
anapefts,
PENTANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
PENTAPETALOUS, an appellation given to flowers that
confid of five petals or leaves.
PENTAPETES, in botany, a genus of the monodelphia
decandria clafs. The calix is fimple ; the capfule has
five cells, containing many membranaceous feeds. There
are three fpecies, none of them, natives of Britain.
PENTASTYLE, in archite&ure, a building wherein there
are five rows of columns.
PENTATEUCH, an appellation given to the fird five
books of the Old Tedament, viz. Genefis, Exodus, Le¬
viticus, Nutribers, and Deuteronomy, &c.
PENTATHLON, in antiquity, a general name for the five
exercifes performed at the Grecian games, viz. wredling,
boxing, leaping, running, and playing at the difeus.
PENTECOST, a folemn fedival of the Jews, fo called
becaufe it was celebrated on the fiftieth day after the fix-
teenth of the month Nifan, which was the fecond day of
the paffbver. See Passover.
The feaft of pentecod was indituted in memory of the
Law’s being given on the fiftieth day after the Uradites
came out of Egypt..
PENTHORUM in botany, a genus of the decandria pen-
tagynia clafs. The calix confids of. five fegments; the
petals are from five to nine; and the caplule has five
cells. There is but one fpecies, viz. the fedoides, a na¬
tive of Virginia.
PENULTIMA, or Penultimate Syl^.able, in gram¬
mar, denotes the lad fyllable but one of a word , and
hence the anti-penultimate fyllable is the lad but two, or
that immediately before the penultima.
PENUMBRA, in adronomy, a partial dtade obferved be¬
tween the perfeft ffiadow and the full light in'fcn eclipfe.
It arifes from the magnitude of the fun’s body ; for
were he only a luminous point, thedhadow would be all
perfett ; but by reafon of the diameter of the fun, it hap
pens that a place which is not illuminated by the whole
body of the fun dues yet receive rays from a part thereof.
PEPLIS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria monogynia
clafs. The perianthium is bell-ffiaped, with twelve feg-
ments ; the petals are fix, inferted into the calix ; and the
capfule has two cell's. There are two fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
PEPO, in botany. See Cucurbita.
PEPPER, in botany, See Piper,
Pepper-mint, See Mentha.
PERA, one of the fuburbs of Condantinople, where am-
bafladors and Chridians ufually refide.
PERAMBULATOR, in furveying, an indrument for
Vol. III. N® ‘68. 2
meafuring didances, called al-fo peuomCtCT,
and fmrveying wheel.
It confifts of a wheel AA (Plate CXXXIV. fig. ly.
n° 1.) two feet feven inches and a half in diameter ; con-
fequently half a pole, or eight feet three inches, in cir¬
cumference. On one end of the axis is a nut, three
quarters of an inch in diameter, and divided into eight
teeth ; which, upon moving the wheel round, fall into
the eight teeth of another nut e (ibid. n° 2.) fixed on one
end of an iron-rod Q_, and thus turn the rod once round
in the time the wheel makes one revolution. This rod,
lying along a groove in the fide of the carriage of the in¬
drument, under the dotted line, has at its other end a
fquare hole, into which is fitted the end £ of a final! cy¬
linder P. This cylinder is difpofed (/£/*/ n° 3.) under
the dial-plate of a movement, at the end of the carriage
B, in fuch a manner as to be moveable about its axis s
its end a is cut into a perpetual ferew, which falling into
the thirty-two teeth of a wheel perpendicular thereto,
upon driving the indrument forward, that wheel makes
a revolution each fixteenth pole. On the axis of this
wheel is a pinion with fix teeth, which, falling into the
teeth of another wheel of fixty teeth, carries it round e-
very hundred and fixtieth pole, or half a mile.
This lad wheel, carrying a hand or index round with
it over the divifions of a dial-plate, whofe outer limb, is
divided into one hundred and fixty parts, correfponding
to the one hundred and fixty poles, points out the num¬
ber of poles paffed over. Again, on the axis of this lad;
wheel is a pinion, containing twenty teeth, which falling
into the teeth of a third wheel which hath forty teeth,
drives it once round in three hundred and twenty poles,
or a mile. On the axis of this wheel is a pinion of tw'elve
teeth, which, falling into the teeth of a fourth wheel having
feventy-two teeth, drives it once round in twelve miles.
This fourth wheel, carrying another index over the
inner limb of the dial-plate, divided into twelve for miles,
and each mile fubdivided into halves, quarters, and fur¬
longs, ferves to regider the revolutions of the other hand,
an.- to keep account of the half miles and miles pafied 0-
ver as far as twelve miles.
The ufe of this indrument is obvious from its eon-
dru&ion. Its proper office is in the furveying of roads
and large didances, where a great deal of expedition,
and not much, accuracy, is required. It is evident, that
driving it along, and obferving the hands, has the fame
effeid as dragging the chain, and taking account of the
chains and links.
Its advantages are its handinefs and expedition ; its
contrivance is fuch, that it may be fitted to the wheel o£
a coach, in which date it performs its office, and mea-
fares the road without any trouble at all.
PERCA, the Pearch, in ichthyology, a genus belonging
to the order of thoracici. The head is furniffied with
fcaly and ferrated opercula ; there are feven rays in the
membrane of the gills ; and the fins on the back are
prickly. There are 38 fpecies, principally diRinguilhed
by peculiarities in the back fins.
PERCEPTION, in logic, the fird and mod fimple aft of
the mind, whereby it perceives or is confcious of its ideas.
See Logic.
PERCH. See Perca.
6-B
PERCO-
PER ( 4^8 ) PER
■PnRCCH, ATT ON. See Filtration.
1'ERGUSSION, in mechanics, the impreflion a body makes
in falling or linking upon another, or the fhock of two
bodies in motion.
PERDIX SccTetrao.
PERENNIAL, in botany, is applied to thofe plants whofe
roots will abide many years, whether they retain their
leaves in winter or not : thofe which retain their leaves
are called evergreens ; but fuch as call their leaves, are
called deciduous, or perdifols.
PERFORANS manus, in anatomy. See Anatojay, p.
201.
Perforans pedis, in anatomy. See Anat-omy, p. 211.
PERFORATUS manus, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p 201.
Perforatus pedis, ip anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
211.
PERFUME, an agreeable odour, affe&ing the organ of
fmelling. The generality of perfumes are made up of
niulk, ambergreafe, civet, rofe and cedar-woods, orange-
flowers, jafmin, joaCjUils, tuberofes, and other odorifer¬
ous flowei s.' Thofe drugs commonly called aromatics, fuch
as llorax, frankincenfe, benzoin, cloves, mace, &c. en¬
ter the compofitiorr of a perfume : fome are alfo compo-
fed of aromatic herbs or leaves, as lavender, marjoram,
fage, thyme, hyffop, eSrc.
Perfumes were anciently very much in ufe : but fince
people are become fenfible of the harm they do to the
head, they are generally difufed among us ; however, they
are (till common in Spain and Italy.
PERG A, a po.rt-town of European Turkey, in the province
of Albina, oppofite to the ifland of Corfu, in E. long.
21,°, N. lat. 390. 20 .
PERGAMUS, an ancient city of the lelfer Alia, in the
province of Phrygia, lituated north of Symrna.
PERIAGOGE, in rhetoric, is ufed where many things are
accumulated into one period which might have been divi¬
ded into feveral.
PERIANTHIUM, in botany. See Botany, p. 637.
PERICARDIUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.*279.
PERICARPIUM, among botanifts. See Botany, p.
637.
PERICHORUS, in antiquity, a name given by the Greeks
to their profane games and combats, that is, to fuch as
were not confecrated to any of the gods.
PERICRANIUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 288.
PERIGEE, in aftronomy, that point of the fun’s-or moon’s
orbit wherein they are at their leaf! diftance from the
earth, in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to apogee.
PERIGRAPHE, a word ufually underftood to eXprefs a
carelefs or inaccurate delineation of any thing ; but in
Vefalius it isoifed to exprefs the white lines or imprefli-
ons that appear in the mufculus redlus of the abdomen.
PERIGUEUX, a city of France, in the province of Gui-
enne, capital of the territory of Perigord, fituated on the
river Lifle : in E. long. 25', N. lat, 45° 15'.
PERIHELIUM, in affronomy, that point of a planet’s or
comet’s orbit, wherein it is in its lead diftance from the
fun ; in which fenfe it Hands in oppofitlon to aphelium.
PERIMETER, in geometry, the bonds or limits of any fi¬
gure or body.
PERINjEUM, or Perineum, in anatomy, the fpace be¬
tween the anus and the parts of generation, divided into
two equal lateral divifions, by a very diftinfl line, which
is longer in males than in females.
PERIOD, in aftronomy, the time taken up by a ftar or pla¬
net in making a revolution round the fun ; or the duration
nfits courfe till it return to the fame point of its orbit.
See Astronomy,
Period, in grammar, denotes a fmail compafs of difcourfe,
containing a perfedl fentence, and diftingmlhed at the end
by a point, or full Hop, thus (.) ; and its membei's or
divifions marked by commas, colons, &c.
PERIODIC, or Periodical, fomething that terminates
and comprehends a period ; fuch is a periodic* month, be¬
ing the fpace of time wherein the moon difpatches her
period.
PERIOECI, in geograpy, fuch inhabitants of the earth, '
as have the fame latitudes, but oppofite longitudes; or
live under the fame parallel, and the fame meridian, but
in different femicircles of that mefidian, or in oppofite
points of the parallel.
PERIOPHTHALMIUM, in natural hiftcry. See Nic¬
titating MEMBRANE.
PERIOSTEUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 14J.'
PERIPATETIC philosophy, that fyftem taught and e-
ftablilhed by Ariftotle, and nnaintained by his followers
the peripatetics, called 3U0 Ariftoyilians.
PERIPETIA, in the drama, that part of a tragedy wherein
the adtion is turned, the plot unravelled, and the whole
concludes.
PERIPHERY, in geometry,, the circumference of a circle,
ellipfes, or any other regular curvilinear figure.
PERIPLOCA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digy-
nia clafs. The nieflarium furrounds the infide of the
flower, and includes the filaments and ftyli. There are
four fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
PERIPNEUMONY, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 91.
PERISC1I, in geography* the inhabitants of either frigid
zone, between the polar circles and the poles ; where
the fun, when in the fummer-figns, moves only round a-
bout them, without fetting, and confequently their fha-
dows, in the fame day, turn to all the points of the horizon.'
PERISTALTIC, a vermicular fpontaneous motion of the
inteftines, performed by the contradlion of the circular
and longitudinal fibres, of which the flefliy coats of the
inteftines is compofed; by means whereof the chyle is
driven into the orifices of the ladteal veins, and the fseces
are protruded towards the anus.
PERISTAPHYLINUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
P' 3°3- .
PERISTYLE, in ancient architeflure, a building encom-
paffed with a row of columns on the infide.
PERISYSTOLE, the interval of reft between the two
motions of the heart, v“tz. that of the fyftole or con¬
tradlion, and that of the diaftole or dilation.
PERITONAEUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 257.
PERITROCHIUM, in mechanics, denotes a wheel, or .
circle, concentric with the bafe of a cylinder, and move-
able together with it about an axis. See Mechanics.
PERJURY, in law, the crime of fwearing falfely, where
a lawful oath is adminiftered by one in authority, in a
matter relating to the iffue or caufe in queftion, whether,
it be a perfon’s own wilful adl, or done by the fubor-
nation of others.
At the common law, perjury, and the fubornation of
it*
PER (4*9
it, are puniftrable by fine, imprifonment, pillory, tranf-
portation, fee. See Law, Tit, xxxiii. 34.
PERMEABLE, a terra applied to bodies of fo loofe and
porous a (trucflure, as to let fomething pafs througli them.
PERMUTATION, in commerce, the fame with bartering.
See Commerce.
PERNAMBUCO, a province of BraGl, in America, bound¬
ed by the province of Tamera on tire north, by the At¬
lantic ocean on the eaft, by the province of Seregippa on
the fouth, and by the country of the Tapuyers on the
weft; being two hundred miles long, and one hundred
and fifty broad.
PERONaEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 209.
PERORATION, in rhetoric, the epilogue, or laft part of
an oration, wherein what the orator had infifted oh through
his whole difeourfe, is urged afrefti with greater vehe¬
mence and pallion.
PEROUSA, a townof Italy, in the province of Piedmont,
capital of one of the valleys of the Vaudois, fituated twelve
miles fouth-weft of Turin.
PERPENDICULAR, in geometry, a line falling drretftly
on another line, fo as to make equal angles on each fide.
See Geometry.
PERPETUAL motion. See Movement.
PERPIGNAN, a city of Spain, in the province of Cata¬
lonia, capital of the territory of Roufliilon, fituated on
the river Later : in E long. 20 N. lat. 43 °.
PERRUKE, or Perriwig, was anciently ufed fora head
of long natural hair, particularly fuch as was curled and
adjufted with great care. But it is now ufed for a fet
of borrowed^hair, curled, baked, interwoven between
four threads, and fewed together on a cawl.
PERRY, a drink made of pears, in the fame manner as
cyder is made from apples. See Cyder.
PERSECUTION, is any pain or afflidtion which a per-
fon defignedly inlli&s upon another ; and, in a more re-
ftrained fenfe, the fufferings of Chriftians.on account of
their religion.
Hiftorians ufually reckon ten general perfecutions ; the
firft of which was under the emperor Nero, thirty one
years after our Lord’s afeefifidn; when that emperor ha¬
ving fet fire to the city of Rome, threw the odium of
that,execrable aftion on the Chriftians, who under that
pretence were wrapped up in the Ikins of wild beafts, and
worried and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified;
and others burnt alive. The fecond was under Domi-
tian, in the yearly. In this perfecution St John the
apoftle was fent to the ifte of Patmos, in order to be em¬
ployed in digging in the mines. The third began in the
third year of Trajan, in the year 100, and was carried
oh with great violence for feveral years. The fourth
was under Antoninus the philofopher, when the Chri¬
ftians were banilhed'from their houfes, forbidden to (hew
P E R S P E
) PER
their heads, reproached, beaten,* hurried'from' placets
place, plundered, imprifoned, and ftoned. The uith be¬
gan in the year 197, under the emperor Severus. The
fixth, began with the reign of the emperor Maximinus^
in 23y. The feventh, which was the moil dreadful per¬
fecution that ever had been known in the church, began
in the year 2yo, in the reign of the emperor Decius,
when the Chriftians were in all places driven from their
habitations, ftripped of their eftates, tormented with
racks, fac. The eighth began in the year 2y7, in the
fourth year of the reign of the emperor Valerian. The
ninth was under the emperor Aurelian A. D. 274, but
this was very inconfiderable: and the tenth began in the
nineteenth year of Dioclefian, A.D. 303. In this dread¬
ful perfecution, which lafted ten years, houfes filled with
Chriftians were fet on fire ; and whole droves were tied
together with ropes, and thrown into the fea.
PERSEPOLIS, formerly a city of Perfia, but now in
ruins. Here are the moft magnificent remains of a pa¬
lace, or temple, that are now in-being on the face of the
earth : E. long. 34°, N. lat. 30° 30V
PERSEUS, in. aftronomy. See Asjronomy, p. 486.
PERSIA, a large kingdom oPAfia, 1200 miles long, and
almoft as much broad ; fituated between 43 and 67° of
E. long, and between 23° and 43° of N. lat. bounded:
by Circadian Tartary, the Cafpian Sea, and the river
Oxus, on the north; by Indi* on the eaft ; by the Iie-
dian .Ocean, and the gulphs of Ormus and Perfia, on the
fouth; and by the Turkilh empire on the weft.
PERSICA, in botany. See Amygdalus.
PERSICARIA, in botany. See Polygonum.
PERSON, an individual fubftance of a rational or intelligent
nature. Thus we fay, an ambaflador reprefents the per-
fon of his prince; and that, in law, the father and fon are
reputed the fame perfon.
Person, in grammar, a term applied to fuch nouns or pro<-
nouns, as, being either prefixtd or underftood, are the no¬
minatives in all inflexions of a verb ; or it is the agent:
or patient in all finite and perfonal verbs. See Grai.i>-
ma r.
PERSONAL right, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xx. i.
Personal verb, in grammar, a verb conjugated in all
the three perfons ; thus called, in oppofition to an imper-
fonal verb, or that which has the third perfon oiily.
PERSONALITY, in the fchools, that which conftitutes an
individual or diftinX perfon.
PERSONIFYING, the giving an inanimate being the figure,
fentimen s, and language of a perfon.
Perfonifying is-effemial to poetry, efpecially to the
epopceia: the poets hav£ therefore perfooified all the
paffions, and even reprefented them as deities; as the
goddefs Perfuafion, the god Sleep; the Furies, Envy,
Difcord, .and Fame, .Fortune, ViXory; Sin, Death,
C T I V E.
PERSPECTIVE teaches how to reprefent objcXs on a cular to the horizon, placed between theobjeXsand the eye.
plane fuperfides, fuch as they would appear at a certain In order to underftand this fubjeX, a general knowledge,
diftance and height, upon a tranfparent plane perpendi- of the principles of Optics is abfolutdy neceffary. The foun-
dat.i-00,:
P 1‘ R S P
-daiion of perfpeSlve may be underftood by fuppofing the
pantagon ABDEF (Plate CXLIIL fig. i.) were to be re-
prefented by the rules of perfpedive on the tranfparent
plane VP placed perpendicularly on the horizontal plane
HR ; dhtted lines are imagined to pafs from the eye C
to each point of the pentagon, as CA, CB, CD, <&c.
which are fiippoled in their paffage through the plane PV to
leave their traces or veftigia in the points a,b,d, See. on the
plane, and thereby to delineate the pentagon rtWi?/"; which,
as it ftriices the eye by the fame rays that the original penta¬
gon ABDEF does, will be a true perfpedive reprefenta-
tion of it.
The bufinefs of perfpe<£Hve, therefore, is to lay down
'geometrical rules for finding the points atb,d,e>f, upon the
plane ; and hence alfo we have a mechanical method of
delineating any obje£l very accurately.
Perfpeftive is either employed in reprefenting the ichno-
graphies or ground plots of obje&s ; or the feenographies,
or reprefentations of the objedts themfelves.
But before we give any examples of either, it will be pro¬
per {o explain fome techanical terms in regard to perfpec.
tive in general : and firft, the horizontal line is that fup-
pofed to be drawn parallel to the horizon through the eye
of the fpedlator ; or rather it is a line which feparates the
heaven from the earth, and which limits the fight. Thus,
A,B, {ibid fig. 2.) are two pillars below the horizontal
line CD, by reafon the* line is elevated above them; in
fig. 3. they are fard to be equal with it, and in fig. 4.
raifed above it. Thus, according to the different points in
view, the objedfs will be either higher or lower than the ho¬
rizontal line. The point of fight A (ibid, fig .5 ) is that
which makes the centrical ray on the horizontal line ab;
or, it is the point where all the other vifual rays DD
unite. The points of diftance, C,C, are points fet off in
the horizontal line at equal diftances on each fide of the
point of fight A ; and in the fame figure BB reprefents
the bafe line, or fundamental line : EE is the abridgment
of the fquare ; of which D,D, are the fides ; F,F, the dia¬
gonal lines, which go to the points'of diftance C.C. Ac¬
cidental points are thofe where the objedls end: thefe may
be call negligently ; becaufe neither drawn to the point or
fight, nor to thofe of diftance, but meeting each other in the
horizontal line. For example, two pieces of fquare tim¬
ber G and H {ibid. fig. 6.) make the points I,I,I,I on
the horizontal line ; but go not to the point of fight K, nor
to the points of dillance C,C ; thefe accidental points ferve
Jikewife forcafements, doors, windows, tables, chairs, ebc.
The point of diredf view, or of the front, is when we have
the objedl diredtly before us ; in which cafe, it Ihews only
the forefide ; and, if below the horizon, a little of the top;
but nothing of the fides, unlefs the objedt be polygonous.
Thus the plan ABCD, {ibid. fig. 7.) is all in front, and-
if it were raifed we Ihould not fee any thing of the fides AB
or CD, but only the front AD: the reafon is, that the
point of view E being diredtly oppofite thereto, caufes a di¬
minution on each fide; which however is only to be under-
flood where an elevation is the objedt; for if it be a plan,
it Ihews' the whole, as ABCD.
The point of oblique view, is when we fee an objedt a-
fide of us, and as it were aflant, or with the corner of the
■•ye; the eye, however, being all the while oppofite to the
jfioint of fight; in which cafe, we fee the objedt laterally,
S,Dd it jprefents to ,us two fides or faces.
E C I V E.
For inftance, if the point of fight be in F, {ibid. fig. 8 )
the objedt GHlE wdl appear athwart, and fhew two faces
GK and GH, in which cafe it will be a fide point.
We (hall now give iome examples, by which it will ap¬
pear, that the whole pradtice of perlpedtive is built upon the
foundation already laid down. Thus, to find the perfpec-
tive appearance or a triangle ABC (ibid. tig. 9.) between
the eye and the triangle draw the line DE, which is called
the fundamental line ; from 2 draw 2 V, reprefenting the
perpendicular diftance of the eye above the fundamental line,
be it what it will; and through V draw, at right angles to
2 V, HK parallel to DE : then will the plane DHKE re¬
present the tranfparent plane on which the perfpedtive re-
prefentation is to be made. Next to find the perfpedtive
points of the angles of the triangle, let fall perpendicula;s
A 1, C 2, B 3, from the angles to the fundamental DE :
fet off thefe perpendiculars upon the fundamental oppofite
to the point of diftance K, to B, A, C; from 1, 2, 3,
draw lines to the principal point V; and from the points A,
B, and C, on the fundamental line, draw the right lines AK,
BK, CK, to the point of diftance K, which is fo called,
becaufe the fpeftatdr ought to be fo far removed from the
figure or painting, as it is diftant from the principal point V.
The points a, b, and c, where the vifual lines V 1, V 2,
V 3 interiedt the lines of diftance AK, BK, CK, will be the
angular points of the angle a b c, the true reprefentation of
ABC.
To draw a fquare pavement in perfpettive. See fig. 10,
and 11. of Plate CXLIII.
Suppofe your piece of pavement to confift of 64 pieces
of marble, each a foot fquare. Your firlt bufinefs is, to
draw an ichnographical plan or ground-plot of it, which is
thus performed. Having made an exadt fquare of the fize
you intend your plan, divide the bafe and horizon into eight
equal parts; and from every divifion in the bafe to its oppo¬
fite point in the horizon, rule perpendicular lines: then di¬
vide the fides into the fame number, ruling parallel lines a-
Crofe from point to point: fo will your pavement be divided
into 64 fquare feet; becaufe the eight feet in length, mul¬
tiplied by the fame in breadth, give the number of fquare feet
or pieces of marble contained in the whole: then rule dia¬
gonals from corner to corner; and thus will your ground-
plot appear as in fig. 10.
Now, to lay this in perfpedtive, 4lraw another fquare to
your intended fize, and divide the bale line AB into eight
equal parts, as before ; then fix your point of‘fight C in
the middle of the horizon DE, and from the fame point rule
lines td every divifion in the bafe AB ; after which, rule
diagonal lines from D to B, and from E to A, anfwerable
to thofe in the ground-plot, and your fquare will be reduced
to the triangle ABC ; then from the point F, where the
diagonal DB interfe&s the line AC, to the oppofite inter-
fedtion G, where the diagonal EA croffes the line CB, rule
a parallel line which is the abridgment of the Iquare.
Then through the points where the diagonals crcfs the
reft of the lines which go from the bafe to the point of fight,
rule parallel lines, and your fquare pavement will be laid in
perlpeftive, as in fig. 11.
To diminifh a fquare viewed by the angle D. See Plate
CXLIII. fig. 12.
Having deferibed the plane ABCD, draw a line to touch
or
Plate CXI. I!,
P E H S P
or rafe the angle E,' and falling perpendicularly on BD.
1 his being continuedas a bale line, lay your ruler on the
fide of the ft)uare AD and DC, and where the ruler cuts
■the terreflrtal line make the points H J.
Then from H and B draw lines to the point of diftance
P, and from I draw a line to the other point of diftance G;
and in the interfe&iOn of thofe lines, make points, which
will give you the fquare KLMB.
To do without the plan : fet off the diameter each way
from the middle point B] as to H and I. But in either
cafe no line is to be drawn to the point of fight O.
To diminijh a Circle. So? Plate CXLIII. fig. 13.
Draw a fquare ABCD about it, and from the angles
AD and CB draw diagonals, d^'ding the circle into eight
parts, and through the points where they cut it 00, draw
lines from the bale line perpendicular to DEF.
Then draw two diagonals QR, SP, interfering each o-
fher at right angles in the centre G.
Having thus difpofed the plan, draw lines from all the
perpediculars to the point of fight H ; and where they are
interfered by the diagonals AK and BI, make points; the'
two laft of which M,N give the fquare, which is to be di¬
vided into four by diagonals, interfering each other in the
point P.
In the laft place, from the extremes of this crofs, draw
curve lines through the faid points, which will give the form
of the circle 'va perfpettive.
Of the meafures upon thehafe in perfpettive, PI. CXLIV.
By the bafe line alone any depth may be given, and in any
place at pleafure, without the ufe of fquares ; which is a very
•expeditious way.
As for example, fuppofe the bafe line BS, (fig. 1.) the
point of view A, and the points of diftance DE; if now you
would make a plan of a cube BC, draw two occult or dot¬
ted lines from the extremes BC to the point of fight; then
to give the breadth, take the fame meafure BC, and fet it
off on the terreftrial line CF, and from F draw a line to the
point of diftance D ; and « here this line interfers the firft
jay C in the point G, will be the diminution of the plan of
the cube BHGC.
If you would have. an objer farther towards the middle,
take the breadth, and the diftance of the bafe line, as IK;
and to have the depth, fet it as you would have it on the
fame bale as LM, and its width both pn LM. Then from
L and M draw occult lines to the point of diftance D, and
from the p'oints NO, where thofe lines interfeA the ray K,
draw parallels t.o the terreftrial line, and you will have the
fquare QPON.
After the fame manner you may fet off the other fide of
the fquare which Ihould be on the bafe, as BHGC is here
transferred to V. The points M and T> which are only
twp feet from the point S, afford a very narrow fig-ure in
X, as being very near.
Of' the bafe line, and a Jingle paint of diflance.
Since the depths and widths may be had by the means of
this bafe line, there is no need of any further trouble in
making of Iquares ; as fhall be fhewn in this example.
Suppcfe a row of trees or columns is to be made on each
fide ; on the bafe line lay down the place, and the diftartce
between them, with their.breadth or diameters, as ABC*
VoL. III. N°. 88. 2
r. € T I V E. 471,
DEFG ; then laying a ruler from the point of diftance 0
to each of the points ABCDK FG, the interfedtions it makes
on the vifual ray^AH will be the bounda of the obje&s de*>
fired. Fig. 2.
To fet them off on the other fide upon the ray GH, fet
one foot of the compaffes upon the point*of the eye H,~an<F
with the other ftrike an, arch ; the point wherein this cuts
the ray GH, will be the correfponding bound.
Thus M will be the fame with N, andfo of the reft ;
through which drawing parallels, you will have the breadths.
And as for the length, you may make it at pleafure :
fetting it off from A, as for inftance, to P, and then from
P drawing a line to .H; and where this cu s the other ,
parallels, will he formed the plan required; which you m iy,
make either round or fquare.
To find the height and proportion of any objstts, as they ap~
pear above the horizon on a fuppofed plane. See Plate
CXLIV. fig. 3.
Firft rule your horizontal line NO, and fix your point, of
fight, as at M ; then mark the place of your neareft pillar,
by making a dot for the bafe or bottom, as at A ; and ano¬
ther for the fummit or top, as at B : rule a line from A to
the point of fight M, abd another from B to M, and thefe
two lines will give the height of any number of pillars. As
for example ; Suppofe you would have a pillar at C, fix
your .dot for the bafe, and rule from thence a parallel line
to meet the diagonal AM at D r then rule the perpendicular
DE to the diagonal BM : which perpendicular is the height
of your figure required at C. Or, if you would place pil¬
lars at F and I, obferve the fame method, ruling the pa-
rallele FG and IK, and the perpendiculars GH and KL will
give their heights at the diftancers required. '
To find the diameter or thicknefs of pillars at any parti¬
cular diftances, you are'alfo to be guided by that near eft,
the bafe. For inftance : Suppofe your neareft pillar AB ta
be ten feet high, and one foot in diameter; divide it from
top to bottom into ten equal parts, and fet off one of them
upon the bafe of the pillar : then rule a line from the poinE
of fight M to the diameter P, and you will haye the thick-:
nefs of all your pillars on their refpe<5live parallels or bafes/
The fame rule exemplified in oh]efts below the horizon. -
See Plate CXLIV. fig. 4.
If you would know the heights of a number of figures
below the horizon, rule your horizontal line QR, and iix
your point of fight, as at P : then place your neaieft figure,
or mark the dots for the head and feet, by the points A and
B, which anfwers the .fame purpofe ; and rule from thefe
dots to the point of fight the lines AP and BP : and if you
would find the height of a figure to be drawn at r, rule from
thence the parallel cd to the diagonal BP, and the pe.rpe.n7
dicular de will give the height requited. The fame direc¬
tions will (hew the height of a figure at any other diftanca
you have a mind to place it, as at /, /, and m, by ruling
the parallels^, ik, and mn ; and from each of thefe their
refpe<ftive perpendiculars gh, kl, and no ; which perpen¬
diculars will -Ihew the heights of the figures at f i, and m.
4. To draw a dir eft view. See Plate CXL'IV. fig, 4. >
To illuftrate this example, fuppofe you were to dyaw the
infide of a church, 'as reprefented in this figure : Fi ft take
your ftation at the point A, in the centre of the bale line
6 C BC ■
472 PER S P E
BC : from which you have a front view of the whole body
cf the church, with all the pillars, fee. on each fide: then
fix your horizon at any height you think proper, as at DE :
btfetft it by the perpendicular EA: and where thefe two
lines inferfeil, is the point of fight F. This perpendicu¬
lar will ptfs through the centres of all the arches in the «
dome or cupola: which centres may be found by any three
given points. Next divide your bafe line into any given
ngtnbeF-of feet; and the vifual lines, ruled from thefe di-
vifions to the point of fight, will reduce all your obje&s to
tireir juft proportion, by fetting off their height upon a per¬
pendicular raifed at their refpedtive diltances. The bafe,
in the example here given, is divided into twelve equal parts
of five feet each ; from which (fuppofingyour front column
to be. 35 feet high) take feven divifions from the bafe line of
your'drawing, and fet them off upon the perpendicular GH;
then (fuppofing this column to be five feet thick at the bafe)
fet off one of thofe divifions,upon the parallel IK, which is
the breadth required. So that, by proportioning this fcale
to any diftance by the foregoing diredfions, you may not
only find the dimenfions of ail your columns, but alfo of e-
very dtftindf part of them, as well as of all the doors, win¬
dows, and other objedls that occur. Forinftance: Having
found the height and breadth of your firft or nearefl: column
G, draw from the top and bottom t)f the faid column to
the point cf fight the lines FIF and KF; after which', rule
the line IF from the bafe of the column to the point-of fight,
and you have the height and breadth of all the reft of the co¬
lumns, as has been already (hewn in fig. 3.
By ruling lines from the points a,b,c,d, See. to the point
of fight, you will fee that all the fummits and bafes of
your columns, doc ,, windows, &c. muft tend immediate¬
ly to that point; and by lines drawn from the points 1,2,3,
4, &c. on each fide, to the correfpondent points on the op-
ppfite fide, may be feen all the parts of your building lying
upon the fame parallel.
To draw an oblique view. See fig. 6. of Plate CXLIV.
Firft draw your horizontal line AB ; then, if your favou¬
rite obje<ft be on.the right hand, as at C, place yourfelf on
the left hand upon the Hafe line, as at D; then from that fta-
tion erteft a perpendicular DE, which will pafs through the
horizon at the point of fight F; to which rule the diagonals
GF and HF, which will fhew the roof and bafe of your
principal building C, and will alfo, as before direfted, ferve
as a ftandard for all the reft.
Obferve alfo, either in direfl or oblique views, whether
the profpeft before you make a curve ; for if it does, you
muft be careful to make the fame curve in your drawing.
To draw a perfpecUve view, wherein are accidental points.
See fig. 7. of Plate CXLIV.
Rule your horizoptal line ab, and on one part of it fix
your point of fight, as at r; from which rule the diagonals
cd and ce on the one fide, and cf and cq on the other; which
will (hew the roofs and bafes of all the houfes in the ftreet
directly facing you ; (fuppofing yourfelf placed at A in the
centre of the bafe line :) Then fix your accidental points g
apd h upon the horizontal line, and rule from them to the
angles /l and Im, (where, the ftreets on each fide take a dif¬
ferent direftton, towards the accidental points^ and h) and
the lines p/ and^l give the roofs and bafes of all the build¬
ings on one fide, as lb and do .on the other..
C T 1 V E.
Accidental points feldom intervene where the difiance is
fmall, as in noblemens feats, groves-, canals, 6r. which
may be drawn by the ftrid rules of perfpedive : but whete
the profped is extenfive and varied, including mountains,
bridges, caftles, rivers, precipice*, woods, cities, 6r. it
will require fuch an infinite number of accidental points,
that it will be better to do them as nature fhai! didate, and
your ripened judgment approve.
To findthe centrefor the roof of 'ahoufe, in an oblique view.
See fig. 8. of Plate CXLIV.
Suppofe from the point of fight A, the vifua! lines AB
and,AC be drawn, BC being one perpendicular given, and
DE the other, rule the diagonals from D to C, and from
E to E, and the perpendicular FG, raifed through the
point of their interfedion, will fliew the true centre of the
roof, as will appear by ruling the lines GE and GC.
For want of being acquainted with this neceffary rule, many
who have been well verfed in other parts of perfpedive, havs
Ipoiled the look of their pidure, by drawing the roofs of
their houfes out of their true perpendicular.
We ftnll conclude by giving a few pradical rules. 1.
Let every line, which in the objed, or geometrical figure,
is ftraight, perpendicular, or parallel to its bafe, be To alfo
in its fcenographic delineation. 2. Let the lines, which
in the objed return at right angles from the fore-right fide,
be drawn fcenographjcally from the vifual point. 3. Let
all ftraight lines, which in the objed return from the fore¬
right fide, run in a fceriographic figurejnto the horizontal
line. 4. Let the objed you intend to delineate, ftanding
on your right-hand, be placed alfo on the right hand of the
vifual point; and that on the left-hand, on the left-hand of
the fame point; and that which is juft before, in the mid¬
dle of it. 5. Let thofe lines which are (in the objed) e-
quidiftant to the returning line be drawn in the fcenogra¬
phic figure, from that point found in the horizon. 6. In
fetting off the altitude of columns, pedeftals, and the like,
tneafure the height from the bafe line upwards, in the front
or fore-right fide ; and a vifual ray down that point in the
front (hall limit thcs-altitude of the column or pillar, all the
way behind the fore-right fide, or orthographic appearance,
even to the vifual point. This rule you muft obferve in all
figures, as well where there is a front or fore-right fide,
as where there is none. 7. In delineating ovals, circles,
arches, croffes, fpiralr, and crofs-arches, or any other fi¬
gure in the roof of any room, firft draw ichnographically,
and fo with perpendiculars from the moft eminent points
thereof, carry it up unto the deling; from which feverat-
points, carry on the figure. 8. The centre in any fceno¬
graphic regular figure is found by drawing lines from oppo-
fite angles : for the point where the diagonals crofs, is the
centre. 9. A ground-plane of fquares is alike, both above
and below the horizontal line ; only the more it is diftant
above or beneath the horizon, the fquares will be fo much
the larger or wider. 10. In drawing a perfpedive figure,
where many lines come together, you may, for the dired-
ing of your eye, draw the diagonals in red ; the vifual lines
in black ; the perpendiculars in green, or other different co¬
lour, from that which you intend the figure (hall be of,
11. Having confidered the height, diftance, and pofition of
the figure, and drawn it accordingly, with fide or angle a-
gaioft the bafe; raife perpendiculars from tfie feveral angles.
Plate rxL nr
&
Tlate CXL1\
P E R S P E
or defigned points, from the figure to the'bafe, and transfer
the length of each perpendicular, from the place where it
touches the bafe, to the bafe on the ltdeoppofiie to the point
ofdtllance; fo will the diametrals drawn to the perpendi¬
culars in the bafe,' by interfeftion with the diagonais, drawn
to the feveral transferred diftances, ^five the angles'of the
figures, and fo lines drawn from point to point will circum-
fcribe the fcenographic figure. 12. If in a landflcip there
be any ftanding-waters, as rive-rs, ponds, and the like,
place the horizontal line level with the farthefi: fight or ap¬
pearance of it. 13. If there be any houfe, or the like, in
the picture, confider their pofition, that you may findTrom
what point in the horizontal lines to draw the front and
fides thereof. 14. In defcribing things at a great dirtance,
cbferve the proportion, both in magnitude and diftance, in
draught, which appears from the object to the eye. 15.
In colouring and lhadowing of every thing, you mult do
the fame in your pidture, which you obferve with your eye,
efpecially in objedls lying near ; but, according as the di-
ftance grows greater and greater, fo the colours muft be
fainter and fainter, till at laft thejpjofe themfelves in a dark-
ife Iky-colour. 16. The catoptrics are beft feen in a com¬
mon Ipoking-glafs, or other’polifhed ipatter ; where, if the
PER
PERSPECTIVE glass, in optics, differs from a tele-
fcope in this : inftead of the convex eye-glafs placed be¬
hind the image, to make the rays of each pencil go pa¬
rallel to the eye, there is placed a concave eye-glafs as
much before it ; which opens the converging rays, and
makes tliem emerge parallel to the eye. See Optics.
PERSPIRATION, in medicine, the evacuation of the jui¬
ces of the body through the pores of the fltin. Perfpi-
ration is diftinguifhed into fenfible and infenfible: and
here fenfible perfpiration is the fame with .fweating, and
infenfible perfpiration that which efcapes the notice of
the fenfes ; and this laft is the idea affixed to the word
perfpiration when ufed alone.
The matter of infenfible perfpiration, is a fine fubtle
fluid, which exhales from the body in the form of a va¬
pour, and proceeds from the whole furface and from e-
very cavity ; it is of an aqueous and faline nature, and
feems to have a great analogy with urine ; becaufe in a
healthy ftate, theincreafe of the.onediminiffies the other.
Many experiments prove,its exi/tence. San&orius found,
in Italy, under thecircumltances of a moderate diet, mid¬
dle age, and eafy life, that the matter infenfibly perfpired
was five-eights of that taken in for food; fo that there
only remained three-eights for nutrition, and for the ex¬
crements of the nofe, ears, inteflines, bladder, 6'c. The
fame author Ihews^qhat as much is evacuated by perfpi-
iation in-one day, as by (tool in fourteen days.
But Dr, Bryan Rofeinfoo, of Dublin, has found the
, cafe very different, both in England and Ireland, and
even in South Carolina', in all which places he found that :
the quantity of urine exceeds that of perfpiration; and
that it the meat and drink of one day be four pounds and.
a half, the perfpiration of that day will be two pounds,
the urine two pounds five oances, and the (tool three
ounces.
C T I 77 E. .473
glafs be exaflly flat, the object is cxaffly like its original;
but, if the glafs be not-flat, the-refemblance alters from the
original; and that more or lefs, according as the glafs dif¬
fers from an exafl: plane. 17. In drawing catoptric figures,
the furface of the giafs is to be confidered, upon which you
mean to have the reflection: for which you muit make m
particular ichnographical draught, or projection ; which on
the glafs muft appear to be a plane full of fquares, on which
projection transfer what ffiall be drawn on a plane, divided
into the fame number of Idee Iquares ; where though the
draught may appear very confuted, yet the reflection of it
on the glafs will be very regular, proportional, and regu¬
larly compofed. 18. The dioptric, or broken beam, may
be feen in a tube through.a cryftal or glafs, which hath its
furface cut into many others, whereby the rays of the ob¬
ject are broken. For to the flat of the cryftal, or water,
tlie rays run ftraight ; but then they break and make an an¬
gle, which alfo by the refracted beams is made and cortti-
tinued on the other fide of the fame flat. 19. When thefe
faces on a cryftal are returned towards a plane placed di-
retftly before it, they feparate themfelves at a good diftance
on the plane; becaufe they are all directed to various far
diftant placfes of the fame. See Optics.
P E S
The matter of fweat is feparated from the blood by
the miliary glands, and is therefore much more grofs
than that of infenfible perfpiration; for as there are no
glands which ferve for the excretion of this laft fluid, it
is fuppofed to proceed from the extremities of the capil¬
lary arteries.
The ufe of perfpiration is to preferve the fupplenefs of
the papillae of the fkin ; to carry the faline particles off
from the blood, and by this means to renderit more pure;
to preferve the body from various difeafes; and to contri¬
bute to the cure of the moft dangerous' diftempers. It
may be promoted by exercife, by dry friCHons with a
coarfe linen-cloth or a flefh-bruffi, by warm baths, and
wathing the hands, feet, head, &c.
PERTH, the capital of the county of the fame name in
Scotland, thirty miles north of Edinburgh.
PERTHAMBOY, a port-town of New-Jerfey, in North
America: W. long. 74°. N. lat. 40° 45'.
PERTINENT of lands, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
xiii. 18.
PERU, formerly a powerful empire in-South America, but
now a province of Spain, isfituated between 6o° and 819
of weft longitude, and between the equator and 250 6f
fouth latitude, being near 2000 miles in length from
north to fouth, and from 200 to 500 broad: it is bound¬
ed by Popayan, oh the north; by the mbunvains of An¬
des, on the eaft ; by Chili and La Plata, on the fouth ;
and by the Pacific Ocean, on the weft.
PERUGIA, a city of Italy, in the territories of the pope :
E. long. 13°* 16', N. lat.. 430.
PERUVIAN bark. See Cinchona.
PESARO, a city of Italv, in the province of Urbino, fitu-
ated on the gulph of Venice: E. long. 140, N. lat. 440.
PESSARY, in medicine, a folid fubftance compofed of
wool, Hat, or linen, mixed with powder, oils, wax,
made e
PET . ( 474 ) PET
‘rratle roan;! and long like a finger, in order to be intro¬
duced into the exterior nerk of the matrix, for the cure
, of feveral diforders incident to the nterus.
TESd', a city of upper Hungary, fituated on the Danube:
» E. long. 190 ty', N. lat. 42'.
PESTILENCE, in m.-dieine. See Medicine, p. 71.
PETAL, among botanifts. See Botany, p- 637.
PETALISM, in antiquity, a kind of banifhment pradfifed
at Syracu-fe, by writing the perlon’s name on a leaf; whence
the name,
PETARD, in the art of war. See Gunnery, p. 761-
PETAGITES, in botany. See Tussilago.
PETECHIAL, in medicine, denotes fpots in the Ikin like
flea-bites, which comeout in malignant fevers, hence cal¬
led petechi.i! or fpotted fevers. See Medicine, p. (s'].
PETER, or Ei'i/lles of St. Peter, two canonical books
of the New Teftament, written by the apcflle St. Peter,
and addrefled to thofe Jewifli converts who were fcattered
throughout Pontus, Galatia, <&c. not only upon the per-
fecubon raifed at Jerufalem, but upon former difperfions
of the Jew's-into thofe places. The firll of thefe epiflles
is principally defigned to comfort and confirm them, un¬
der thofe fiery trials they were then fubjedt to; and to
diredt them how to behave in the feveral Hates and rela¬
tions,' both of thp civil and ihe'Chriftian life. In the fe-
cond epiftle, the.apoftle profecutes the fame fubjedt, to
prevent their apoftacy from the faith, and guard them a-
gainfl the corrupt principles of the gnoftics, and thofe who
fcoffed at the promifedf Chrilf’s coming.
■St. Peter’s day, a feftival of the'Chriftian church, ob-
ferved on the twenty-ninth of June.
PETERBOROUGH, a city of Northamptonfhire, fituated
on the river Nem thirty-four miles north-e'afl of North¬
ampton: W. long. 15', N. lat. 520 S3- ■^t lends two
members to parliament.
Peter-pence, an ancient tax of a penny on each houfe,
paid to the pope.
It was called peter-pence becaufe colledfed on the day
-of St.-Peter ad vincula, and fent to Rome; whence it
was alfo called Rome-fcot and Rome-penny.
(PETER'SBURG, the capital city of Ruffia, and one of
the largefl and mod populous cities in the world, fituated
on both fides the river Nieva, in the provinces of Care-
lia and Ingria, between the gulph of Finland and the lake
of Ladoga: E. long. 31°, N. lat. 6o°. There were no lefs
than fixty-five thoufand houfes.built within three or four
years after the foundation was laid, which was in the
year 1753. '
PETERSFIELD, a borough-town of Hampftiire, fifteen
miles foiuh-ealt of Winchefter.
PETERSHAGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia and duchy of Minden, thiriy-feven miles well
of Hanover: fubjedt to Pruflia.
PETHERTON, a market-town of Somerfet/hire, 16 miles
foun-wett of Wells.
PE HOLE, in botany, the flender ftalks that fupports the--
leaves of a plant.
PETITGUAVES, a port-town of H'fpaniola, fituated on
a bay at the weft end of the ifland: W. long. 76®, N. lat.
l8° s- hibjedt to France.
PETITIO principii, in logic, the taking a thing for
true,Land drawing conclufions from it as iuch ; when it
is really falfe, or atleaft wants to be proved, before any
inferences can be. deduced from it.
PETITORY action, in Scots law. See Law, Tit,
xxx. 18.
PETITVERIA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria tetra-
gynia dais. The calix confifts of four fegments; it has
no corolla; and but one feed with refleded prickles at
the point. There are two fpecies, pone of them natives
of Britain.
PETRE, orsALT petre. See Chemistry, p. 73, 119.
PETREA, in botany, a genus of thedidynamia angiofper-
mia clafs. The ca-iix is large, open, coloured, and divi¬
ded into five fegments ; the corolla is open and rotated.
There is but one fpecies, a native of America.
PETRIDIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of fcrupi, of a
plane, unirorm ftruiflure,'of no great variety of colours,
and emulating the external form oi pebbles.
PETRIFACTION, in phyfiology, denotes the converfion
of wood, bones, and other fubftances into ftone.
The foffile bodies found petrified are principally either
of vegetable or animal origin, and are more or Jefs alter¬
ed from their original ftate, according to the different
fubftances they have lain buried among in the earth ; fome
of them having fullered very little change, and others be¬
ing fo highly impregnated with cryrtalline, fparry, pyri-
ticai, or other extraneous matter, as to appear mere
mafles of ftone or Jumps of the matter of the common
pyrites ; but they are generally of the external dimen-
iions, and retain more or Jefs of the internal figure of the
bodies into the pores of which this matter has made its
way.
The animal fubftances thus found petrified are fea-
fhells; the teeth, bony palates, and bones offilh; the bones
of land animal's, (fac. Thefe are found varioufly altered,
by the infinuktion of ftony and mineral matter into their
pores ; and the fubflance of fome of them is now wholly
gone, there being only ftony, fparry, or other mineral
matter remaining in the Ihape and form.
PETR0BRUSS1 AbJS, inchurch-hiftory, a religious fe<ft
which arole in France and the Netherlands, about the
year 1126, fo called from their leader Peter Bruys. They
denied that children, before the'ufe of reafon, can be
juftified by baptifm. They alfb condemned all places of
public wofhip, crofles, crucifixes ; and are laid to have
rejected the faerament of the eucharift, and piayers for
the dead.
PETROLEUM, alfo called rock-oil, is an extremely fub-
tle and penetra-ing fluid, and is much the thinnefl of all
the native bitumens. If is very light and very pellucid 4
but though equally bright and -clear under all circum-
ftances, it is liable to a very great variety in its'colour.
It is naturally almoft colourlefs, and in its appearance
grealy refembles the moft pure oil of turpentine: this is
called white petfbleum, though it has no more colour
than water ; it is fometimes tinged of abrowniftr reddifh,
yeJlowifh, or faint greenifli colour j but its moft frequent
colour is a mixture of the reddilh and blackilh, in fuch
a degree that it looks black when viewed behind the light,
but purple when placed between the eye and a candle or
window. It is of a pungent and acrid tafte, and of a
very ftrong and penetrating fm'ell, which very much ap¬
proaches to that of thediftilled oil of amber. The white
P H A ( 475
Is mod adeemed. It is fo very inflammable, that while
it floats on the Surface of the water, as it does in many
parts of Italy, it takes fire at the approach of a candle.
Petroleum is found in rivers, in wells, and trickling
down the fides of hills along with little dreams'of water.
In fhort, it is the mod frequent of all the liquid bitu¬
mens, and is perhaps the mod valuable of them all in
medicine. It is to .bechofen the pured, lighted, and
mod pellucid that can be had, fueh as is of the mod pej
netrating fmell.and is mod inflammable.
It is principally ufed externally, in paralytic cafes, and
in pains of the limbs.
PETROMYZON, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to
the amphibia nantes clafs. It has feven fpiracula at the
fide of the neck, no gills, afidula on the top of the head,
and no bread or belly fins. There are three fpecies,
didinguifhed by peculiarities in the back-fins.
PETROSA ossa, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 295,
be.
PETTAW, a city of Germany, in the circle of Audria : -
E. long 160 8', N. lat. 47°.
PETTIPOLI, a port-town on the coad of Cormandel, in
the hither India, where the Dutch have a fa&ory : E.
long So'1, N. lat, i6°45/.
PETUNSE, in natural hidory, one of the two fubdances
whereof the porcelain or china-ware is made.
The petunfe isa coarfe kind of flint or pebble, the fur-
1 face of which is not fo fmooth, when broken, as that of
our common flint.
PEUCEDANUM, in botany, a.genus of the pentandria
digynia clafs. The fruit is oval, dreaked on each fide,
and furrounded with awing; and the involucrum is very
fhort. There are five fpecies, two of them natives of
Britain, viz. the officinale, or hogs-fennel, the root of
which is recommended indiforders of the bread ; and the
minus, orrock-parfley.
PEWTER,' a factious metal, ufed in making domedic
utenfils, as plates, diffies, foe.
The bafis of this metal is tin, which is converted into
pewter, by mixing at the rate of an hundred weight of
tin with fifteen pounds of lead and fix pounds of brafs.
See Metal.
Befides this, compofition, which makes the common
pewter, there are other kinds compounded of tin, regu-
lus of antimony, bifmuth and copper, in feveral propor¬
tions.
PEZIZA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fungi
clafs. It is feffile and bell ffiaped. There are eight fpe¬
cies, fix of them natives of Britain.
PHACA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The legumen or pod is fomewhat bilocular. There
are three fpecies, npne of them natives of Britain.
PHENOMENON, in philofophy, denotes any remarkable
appearance, whether in the heavens or on earth ; and whe¬
ther difeovered by obfervation or experiments.
PHAGEDENA, denotes a corroding ulcer.
PHAGEDAINIC medicines, thofe ufed to eat of fun¬
gous or proud fleffi : fuch are all the caudics.
PH ALENA, in zoology, a genus of infe&s belonging to
the order of lepidoptera. The feelers are fetaceoas, and
taper gradually to the points ; the wings are often bent
backwards ; and the fpecies of this genus fly about inahe
Vol. Ill, N° 88. 2
) P II A
night. There are no lefs than 460 fpecies, conprebend-
ing all the moths.
PHALANGIUM, in zoology, a genus of infeSs belonging
to the order of aptera. They have eight feet, two eyes
on the top of the head placed very near each other, ;?nd
other two on the fides of the head ; the feelers refemble
legs ; and the belly is round. There are nine fpecies.
Phalangium, in botany. See Anthericum.
PHALANX, in Grecian antiquity, a fquare battalion, con-
fifting of eight thoufand men, with their fliields joined,
and pikes croffing each other ; fo that it was next to im-
poffible to break it.
PHALARIS, in botany, a genus of the triandria digyr.ia
clafs. It has two carinated valves, of equal lengths, and
including the corolla. There are 10 fpecies,' three of
them natives of Britain, viz. the cananenfis, or manured
canary-grafs ; the arenaria, orfeacanary-grafs • and the
arundinacia. Or reed canary-grafs.
FHALEUCIAN verse, in ancient poetry, a kind of verfe
which confifts of five feet, thefirft of which isa fpondee,
the fecond a da&yl,, and the three laft trochees.
PHAJEUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fun.
gi clafs. It is woven like a net above, and fmooth be¬
low. There are two fpecies, both natives of Britain,
viz. the efculentus, or efculent morel; and the impudi-
cus, or (linking morel.
PHANATIC, or Fanatic, a term of reproach formerly
given to the diflenters, from a falfe fuppofition that they
pretended to vilions, foe.
PHANTASM, a term fometlmes ufed in a fynonymous
fenfe with idea, or the notion retained in the mind of an
external object.
PHARISEES, a famous feft of the Jews, who diftin-
guiffied themfelves by their zeal for the traditions of
the elders, which they derived from the fame foun¬
tain with the written word itfelf; pretending that
both were delivered to Mofes. from Mount Sinai, and
were therefore both of^ equal authority. From their ri¬
gorous obfervance of thefe traditions, they looked upon
themfelves as ipore holy than other men, and therefore
feparated themfelves from thofe whom they thought 'fin-
ners 01; prophane, fo as not to eat or drink with them;
and hence, from the Hebrew word pbaris, which (igni-
nifiesto feparate, they had the name of Pharifees or Se-
paratifts.
PHARMACY, the art which teaches the e-ledion, prepa¬
ration, and mixture of medicines; conftitutingbnepart of
the therapeutic branch of medicine, the objeds of which
are all natural bodies.
PHARNACEUM, in botany, a genus of the pentatsdB'a
trigynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves ; it has
no corolla; and the capfule has three cells, containing
many feeds. There are five fpecies ; none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
PHAROS, a fmallifland in the mediterraneanfea, oppofite to
Alexandria, in Egypt.
Pharos, or Phare, a light-house, ?. pile railed near a
port, where fire is kept burning in the night, to guide
and GiredWeflels near at hanyl.
PHARSALUS, a town of ancient Theflaly, fituated in
European Turky, a little fouth ofLariffa, in E. 100.23°,
and N. lat. 30°.
6 D
PHARYNX,
P H E ( 476 ) PHI
PHARYNX, in anatomy. SeeilNATOMV, p.302.
PHASCUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogainia mufci
giafs. The antherje are operculated, and the caiyptra is
wanting, There are four fpecies, ali natives of Britain.
PHASEOLOUS,' in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
eandria ciafs. The carina, ftamina, and ftylus, are
twiifed like a fcrew. There are 13 fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
PHASES, in aftronomy, the feveral appearances or quan¬
tities of illumination of the moon, venus, mercury, and
the other planets. See Astronomy.
PHASIANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of gallinse. The cheeks are covered with a fmooth
naked Ikin. There are fix fpecies, viz. 1 The.gallus, or
dunghill cock and ben, with a comprefled caruncle or
Hefhy-comb on the top of the head, and a couple of ca¬
runcles or wattles under the chin ; the ears are naked ;
and the tail is comprefled, and erefted. This bird,
though now one of the domertic fowls, was originally
brought from the Eaft-Indies. They feed upon grain,
grafs-feeds, and worms. The cock or male is perhaps
the boldeft and mort heroic of all the feathered tribe.
He claps his wings before he fings or crows. He begins
to crow about midnight, and feldom ceafes till break of
day. He is fo exceedingly falacious, that one cock is
fuflicient for 10 hens His light is very piercing, and.he
never fails to cry in a peculiar manner when he difcovers
any bird of prey in the air. The hen is very prolific :
fhe makes her neft on the ground ; and the young, imme¬
diately after they are hatched, follow her, and pick up
their food themfelves. There are fix or eight varieties
of this fpecies. 2. The motmot, or Guinea pheafant, is
brownifli, fomewhat red below, with a wedge-1 ke tail,
and wants fpurs It is a native of Guinea and Brafil.
3. The colchicus, is red, with a blue head, a, wedge
ihaped tail, and papillous cheeks. It is a native of Alia,
4. The argus is yellowilh, with black fpots, a red face,
and a blue creft on the back part of the head. It is found
in Chinefe Tartary. 5. The pidtus. has a yellow creft,
a red breaft, and a wedge-lhaped tail. It is a native of
China 6. The ny&hemerus, is white, with a bla k
creft and belly, and a wedge-lhaped tail. It is a native
of China. See Plate CXLII.
PHASMATA. in phyfiology, certain appearances arifing
from the various tindhires of the clouds, by the rays of
the heavenly luminaries, efpecially the fun and moon.
Thefe are inhnitely diverfitied by the different figures and
fituation of the clouds, and the appulfes of the rays of
light.
PHASSACHATES, in natural hiftgry, the name of a fpe¬
cies of agate, which the ancients, in its different appear¬
ances, fometimes called alfo leucachates and penleucos.
See Agate.
PHEASANT, in ornithology. See Phasianus.
PHELLANDRIUM,' in botany, a genus of the pentan-
dria digynia ciafs. The fruit is oval and fmooth. There
are two fpecies, one of them, viz. the aquaticum, or
water hemlock, is a native of Britain.
PHELYPAlA, in botany. See LathA.
PHENICIA, a fubdivifion or province of Syria, fituated
on the Levant, or eaftern part of the Mediterranean fea,
on the confines of Paleftine
PHEONS, in heraldry, the barbed heads of darts, arrows,
or other weapons, and ufually reprefented as in Plate
CXLV. fig. 1.
PHID1TIA, in Grecian antiquity, fe^fts celebrated with
great frugality at Lacedaemon. The phiditia were held
in the public places, and in the open air: rich and poor
affifted at them alike, and on the fame footing; their de-
fign being to keep up peafce, frieudlhip, and a good un-
derftanding and equality among all the Citizens, great
and fmall. It is faid, that they who attended this feaft,
brought each a bulhel of flour, eight meafures of wine
named chorus, five minae of cheefe, and as much figs.
PHILADELPHIA, the capital of the province of Penfil-
vania, in North Amenca, iituated on the rivers Delawar
and Schoolkill: W long. 74°, N. lat. 40° 50 .
Philadelphia is alfo the name of an ancient town of the
Leffer Alia, fituated in E. long. 290, N. lat, 38°.
PHILADELPHC/S, in botany, a genus of the icofandria
monogynia clals. The calix confifts of four or five feg-
ments, and the corolla of four or five petals ; and the
capfule has four or five cells, containing many feeds. There
are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
PHILIP-FOR.T, a fortrefs in Dut.h Brabant, fituated on
the eaft fide of the Sclxsld, oppofite to Pearl-fort, five
miles north-weft of Antwerp.
PHILIPPI, an ancient town of Macedonia, a province of
European Turky, fituated in E. long. 250, N lat. 41*.
PHILIPPICS, in literature, a name given to the orations
of Demofthenes again!! Philip king of Macedon; being
efteemed the mafter pieces of that great orator.
Philippic is alfo a term applied to the fourteen orations
of Cicero againft Mirk Anthony.
PHILIPPINE islands, arefitua ed in the Pacific ocean,
in Afia. between 1140 and 131° eaft longitude, and be¬
tween 3° and 190 north latitude : there are a great num¬
ber of them, and fome very large.
Philippines, a religious fociety of young women, at Rome;
fo called from their taking St. Philip de Ncri for their
protestor: they confift of an hundred poor girls, who are
brought up till they are of age to be married, or become
nuns, under the direftion of fome religious women, who
teach them to read, write, and work; and inftrud them
in the duties of Chriftianity. They wear a white veil,
and a black crofs.on their breafts.
PHILIPPOPOLI, a city of European Turky, in the pro¬
vince of Romania, fituated on the river Mariza: in E.
long. 25°, and N. lat. 420 20 .
PHILIPiBURGH, a city of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine fituated on the eaft bank of the river Rhine,
in E long. 8° 16', N. lat. 490 8'.
PHILIPSTAT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Gothland and territory of Wermeland, firuated in E.
long. 140. N. lat 590 50 .
PHILLYREA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mono¬
gynia dafs. The corolla confifts of four fegments, and
the berry contains four feeds. There are three fpegies,..
none of them natives of Britain.
PHILOLOGY, a fcience, or rather aflemblage of feveral
fciences, confifting of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, anti¬
quities, hiftory, aid criticifm.
Phylology is a kind of univerfal literature!, converfant
about all the fciences, th-.ir rife, progrefs, authors,
If makes what the French call the belles Uttres.
PHILOMATHES, a lover of learning or fcience,
PHILQNIUM,
P II L ( 477 ) P II O
PHILONIUM, in pliarmacy, a kind of fomniferous ano¬
dyne opiate, taking its name from Philo the inventor.
PHILOSOPHER, a perfon verfed in philofophy ; or one
who makes profeffion of, or applies himfelf to, the ftudy
of nature and morality.
Philosopher’s store, the greatefl objedl of alchymy,
is a long fought for preparation, which, when found, is
to convert all the true mercurial part of metal into pore
gold, better than any that is dug out of the mines, or
perfected by the refiner’s art ; and this only by calling a
little quantity thereof upon metals- in fufion, whilft that
part of the metal which was not mercury is immediately
burnt ot blown away. But this like every other fcien-
tific chimera, will for ever elude the refearches of man¬
kind.
PHILOSOPHIC, or Philosophical, fomething that
relates to plnlofophy. See Philosophy.
PHILOSOPHICAL egg, among chemilts, a thin glafs-
body, or bubble, of the Ihape of an egg, with a long
ne:k or ftem, ufed in digelhons.
PHILOSOPHY, the knowledge or ftudy of nature and mo¬
rality, founded on reafon and expei ience. See Mecha¬
nics, Optics, Astronomy Logic, Morals, drc.
PHILYCA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogy-
niaclafs. The penanthium is turbinated, and divided in¬
to five fegments ; it has no petals, but five fcales fortify¬
ing the ftamina. There are fix fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
PHIMOSIS, in medicine, a diforder of the penis, in which
the prepuce is rendered fo drift or tenfe, that it cannot
bedrawn back over the gians. See Medicine.
PHLEBOTOMY the opening a vein with a proper (harp
edged and pointed inftrumem of fteel, in order to let out
a proper quantity of blood, either for the prefervation or
recovery of a perfon’s health.
PHLEGM, in the animal oeconomy, one of the four hu¬
mours whereof the ancients fuppofed the blood to be com¬
pared.
The chemifts make phlegm, or water, an elementary
body, the charafters of which are fluidity, infipidity, and
volatility.
PHLEGMAGOGUES, in pharmacy, fuch medicines as
purge off phlegm: fuch are bermodaftyls, agaric, turbith,
jalap, &c.
PHLEGMATIC, among phyficians, an appellation given
to that temperament or habit of the body, wherein phlegm
is predominant ; which gives rife to catarrhs, coughs,
&c.
PHLEGMON, denotes an external inflammatioi) and
tumour, attended with a burning heat, &c.
PHLEUM in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calix confifts of two linear, truncated valves;
there are five fpecies, three of them natives of B itain,
viz the pratenfe, or meadow each-tail-grafs : the pani-
culatum, or branched catVtail-grafs ; and the nodofum,
or bulbofe cat’s-tail-grafs.
PHLOGIDIAUGIA a clafs of foffils, the charafters of
which are, that the bod!es,comprehended in it are tranf-
parent and inflammable : fuch are fulphur, orpiment,
zarnick, and amber.
PHLOGISCIERIA, another clafs of foflils, whLh are
inflammable bodies of a cqarfej and more impure texture.
and not pellucid : fuch are arabergreafe, jet, afphal'i,
ampelites, and lithantbrax.
PHLOGISTON. See Chemestry, p 68.
PHLOGONIAL, a clafs of compound, inflammable, and
metallic foffils,. found in fmaii rnaffes of determinately an¬
gular figures; comprehending the pyricubia, pyroftegonia,
and pyripolygonia.
PHLOMIS, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gymno-
fpermia clafs. The calix is angular ; and the fuperior
lip of the corolla is compreffed, incumbent, and haifys
There are twelve fpecies, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
PHLOX, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogyniar
clafs. The corolla is Ihaped like a jug ; the filaments
are unequal ; the ftigma is trifid; and the capfule has
three cells, and contains but one feed.
PHL YCTEENiE, in medicine, fmall eruptions on the Ikin.
PHOCA, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds of the order
of the ferae. It has fix parallel fore-teeth in the upper
jaw, the outermoft being larger ; and four blunt, paral¬
lel, diftinft, equal fore-teeth m the under jaw: It has
but-one dog-tooth, and five or fix three pointed grinders ;
and the hind-feet are united fo as to refemule a lilh’s tail.
There are three fpecies, viz i. The urfina, orfea-bear,
has external ears. This animal fwims with incredible
fwiftnefs : The males have often i 20 females, Ions, and
daughters, in their train. They copulate on the ftiore,
the female lying on their backs. They are hardly afraid .
of men, and bite ftones when thrown at them. Each has
a particular ftone for his bed, which they feldom defert.
. They often fight for their wives and beds ; when, one is
beat off, another makes a frelh attack, and thus fucceed
alternately, two never attacking one, till the whole be
engaged, when they make a hideous wailing notfe. They
are found in the northern leas. 2. The leonina, or fea-
lion, has a creft on his forehead. They are found near
the fouth pole They fwim in troops, and fight for their
wives. 3 The vitulina, or fea-calf, has a linooth head,
without external ears. They inhabit the European a-
cean * They generally fleep upon ftones above the water,
and areeafily killed by a itroke above the nofe.
PHOCEA, a city of Ocolis, on the weft co^ft of the leffer
Alia, anciently, fo called
PHOENICOPTERUS,. or Flamingo, in ornithology,
a.genus of birds belonging to the order of grallae. The
be,*k is naked, teethed, and bent as if. it were broken;
the noftrils ate linear ; and the feet, are palmated, and
four-toed. There is but one,fpecies, amative of Africa .
and America.
PHOENIX, in aftronomy. See Astronqmy, p. 487. .
Phoenix, the great pal.m, or date-tree, in botany,
a genus of plants, the charafters of which are’not yet
perftftly afeertained : the male and-female flowers are
on diftinft plants, or on the fame fpadix. .
PHOLAS, a genus of .infefts belonging . to ,the order of
vermes, teftacea. The fhell is double-valved and divari¬
cated ; thecardo is turned backwards,-and connefted by
a cartilage. There are .fix Xpecies, diftingujlhed by the
figure of their Ihells.
PHONICS, the dpftrtne or fcience of founds, otherwife .
called acouftics. See Pneumatics.
PHOSPHORUS, See Chemistry, p. 123-
PHRENES*
PIC (4
PHRENES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 2>3.
PHRENSY, in medicine, an inflammation of the membranes
of the brain, attended with an acute fever and delirium.
See Medicine, p. 88.
PHRYGIA, the Greater and Lefler, uvo provinces ancient¬
ly of Afi r Minor ; having the Hellefpont on the north.
PHTHIRIASIS, in medicine, the pedicularis morbus, or
loufy difeafe, is mod incident to children, though adults
are not who!ly«exempt from it.
PHTHISIS, a fpecies of confumption, arifing from an ulcer
of the lungs. See Medicine, p. 103.
PHYLLANTFIUS, in botany, a genus of the rnonoecia
triandria clafs. The calix both of the male and female
eonfifts of eight fegments ; neither of them have any co¬
rolla; the female has three bifid ftyii; the capfuie has
three cells, and contains one feed. There are fix fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
PHYLLIS, in botany, a genus of the perttandria digynia
.clafs. The digmata are rough ; and the fruit is fparce.
There are two fpecies none* of them natives of Britain.
PHYSALIS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is rotated; the feeds are conni-
vent; and the berry has two cells, and is contained with¬
in an inflated calix. There are ten fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
PHYSETER, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order
of Cete. It has teeth in the under jaw, and a fiftula in
in the head orfdout. There are four fpecies, viz. 1. The
catodon, with a fifiula in the fnout, and having no back-
fin. 2. The macrocephalus has a fiflula in the neck, and
no back-fin. The fpermaceti is extrafted from the ven¬
tricles of its brain. 3. The microps, with along fin on the
back, and the upper jaw'much longer than the under one.
.4. The turfio, with a very high fin on the back; and the
points of the teeth blunt. All the four fpecies are inha¬
bitants of the northern Ocean.
PHYSIC. See Medicine.
PHYSICAL, fomething relating to nature.
PHYSICIAN, a perfon who profefles medicine, or the art
of healing difeafes.
PHYSICS, a denomination fometimes given to natural phi-
lofophy,
PHYSIOLOGY, properly denotes a difcourfe of nature,
and natural bodies; or, it is that part of natural pbilofo-
phy which treats of the various phenomena of nature in
a fcientifica! and fpeculative way.
Among phyficians, the term phyfiology denotes the hi-
flory of the human body and its feveral conflituent parts,
with their relations and fumfHons.
PHYTEUMA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is rotated, with linear laciniae;
the ftigma is trifid ; and the capfuie has two or three cells.
The fptcies are fix, only one of them, viz. the orbicula¬
ris, or horned rampions, a native of Britain.
PHYTOLACCA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
decagynia clafs. It has no calix; the petals are five; and
the berry has ten cells, and ten feeds. There are four
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain. '
PHYTOLOGY, a difcourfe concerning the kinds and vir¬
tues of plants.
PIA mater, in anatomy, See Anatomy, 283.
PICA, in ornithology. SeeCoRvus.
Pica, in medicine, e depravation of appetite, which makes
8 ) PIG
the patient long for what is unfit for food, or incapable
of nouriihing, as chalk, afhes, coals, plafter, lime, &c.
PlCiP, the name of a clafs of birds. See Natural Hi¬
story.
PICARDY, a province of France, bounded by the French
Netherlands, and the ftraights of Dover, on the north and
call; by the ifle of France, on thefouth ; and lay Nor¬
mandy, and tbeEnglifh channel, on the Weft.
PICKLE, a brine or liquor, commonly compofed of fait,
vinegar, 6v. fometimes with the addition of fpices ;
Wherein meat, fruit, and other things are preferved and
feafoned.
PICKERY, in Scots law, petty theft, or ftealing things of
fmall value.
PICQUERING, ajlying war or lkirmifh made by foldkrs
detached from two armies for pillage, or before a main
battle begins.
PICRIS, in botany, a.genus of the fyngenefia polygamia
{equalis clafs. The receptacle is naked; the calix is ca¬
lculated ; the pappus is feathery; and the feeds are fur¬
rowed tranfverfely. There are four fpecies, two of them
natives of Britain, u/z. the echioides, or ox’s tongue;
and the hieracioides, or yellow fuccory.
PICTS wall, in antiquity, a wall begun by the emperor
Adrian, on the northern bounds of England, to prevent
the incurfions of the Pitfts and Scots. It was firft made
only of turf, {Lengthened with paliifadoes, till the em¬
peror Severus coming in peffon into Britain built it with
folid ftone. This wall, part of which ftill remains, begun
at the entrance of Sol way-frith in Cumberland, and run¬
ning N. E. extended to the German ocean
PICTURE, a piece of painting, or a fubjefl reprefented in
colours, cn wood, canvas, paper, or the like.
PICUS, the Wqod-pecker, in ornithology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of picas. The beak is ‘ftrait, and
confifts of many fides, and like a wedge at the point; the
noftrils are covered with briftiy feathers; the tongue is
round likk a worm, very long, ftiarp at the point, which
is befet withbriftles bent backwards. There are 21 fpe*
cies, diftinguiftied by their colour.
PIECE, in heraldry, denotes an ordinary or charge. See
Charge.
PIEDMONT, a principality of Italy, fo called from its
lying at the foot of the Alps. It is bounded by Savoy,
from which it is feparated by the Alps, on the north; by
the duchies of Milan and Montferrat, on the eaft; by the
territories of Genoa, and the county of Nice, on the fouth ;
and by France, on the weft ; being about 100 miles long,
and 70 broad.'
PIER, in building, denotes a mafs of ftbne, &c. oppofed
by way of fortrefs againft the force of the fea, or a great
river, for the fecurity ©f {hips that lie at harbour in any
haven.
PIETISTS, a religious fedlfprungup among the proteftants
of Germany, feertiing to be a kind of mean between the
quakers of England, and the quietifts of the Romifh
church.
PIG, iri zoology. See Sus.
Guinea-^\g. See Mus.
Pig of lead, the eighth part of a father, amounting to two
hundred and fifty pounds weight.
PIGEON, in ornithology. See Columba.
PIGMENTS, preparations uled by painters, dyers, fcc. to
impapt
P 1 M (4
impart colours to bodies, or to imitate particular colours,
PIGUS, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
PIKE, in ichthyology. See Lucius.
PILASTER, in architecture. See Architecture, p.
313- -
PILCHARD, in ichthyology. See Clupea.
PILE, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of a wedge, con¬
tracting from t ie chief, and terminating in a point to¬
wards the bottom of the (hield. See Plate CXXXIV.
fig. 16.
The pile, like other ordinaries, is borne inserted, in-
graded, idrtr. and iffues indifferently from any point of the
verge of an efcutcheon.
Piles, in medicine. See Medicine, p. iq^.
PILGRIM AGE, a kind of religious difcipline, which con-
filts in taking a putney to fome holy place, in order to
, adore the relics of fome deceafed faint. Pilgrimages be¬
gan to be made about the middle ages, of the cliurch ;
. but they were moft in vogue after the end of the eleventh
century, when every on? was for vifuing places of devo¬
tion, not excepting kings and princes themfelves ; and
even bifhops made no difficulty, of being abfent from their
churches on the fame account. The places raoft vdited
were Jerufalem, Rome, Compoftella, and Tours ; but
the greatefl numbers now refort to Loretto, in order to
vi-fit the chamber of the blefled virgin, in which fhe was
born, and brought up her fon Jefus, till he was twelve
years of age.
PILL, in pharmacy, a form of medicine refembling a lit¬
tle ball, to be fwailowed whole, invented in favour of
fuch as cannot take bitter and ill-tafted medicinal draughts,
u« alfo to keep in readinefs for occafional ufe without
decaying.
PILLAR, in architecture, a kind of irregular column,
round and infulated, but deviating from the proportions
of a juft column. See Architecture.
PILLORY, was anciently a poll: ereCted in a crofs road,
by the lord of the manor, with his arms upon it, as a
mark of his feignory, and fometimes with a collar to lix
criminals to.
PILOT, a perfon employeid to cond Ct fhips over bars and
fands, or through intricate channels, into a road or har¬
bour.
PIMIlNTO, in botany. See Myrtus, of which it is a
fpecies.
The fruits are gathered when green, and are expofed
to the fqn for many days on cloths, frequently (baking
and turning them, nil thoroughly dry; they t*ke great
care they are no* wetted by the morning and Evening
dews and when thus dried, are lent over to us.
Pimento abounds' with a fragrant effential oil, which
is feparated, in great quantity, in dtftillation; and is fo
heavy that it finks in water. This fpice is much ufed in
our foods, and fometimes in medicine: it is, indeed, a
very good afomatic, and fo well imitates the mixed fla¬
vour of all the reft, that it has long been a common prac¬
tice to make the aqua mirabilis, v hich Was ordered to be
diftiiled from a!l the fpices, of this ingredient alone ; and
the tafte of the water thus made, when carefully done,
is fo near the genuine, that a very nice palate can only
• diftinguifh it .
PIMPiNELLA, in botany, a plant of the tpehtaodria'di-
gynia clafs. The fruit is oblong ; and the corolla xs fub-
Vol. III. N*'%. . 2
79 ) PIT
radiated. There are Your fpecies, two of them natives
of Britain, v/z. the major, or great burnet faxifrage;
and the faxifraga, or fmall httrnet, faxifrage.
PIN, in commerce, a little necefiary implement made of
brafs-wire, ufed chiefly by the women in adjufting their
drefs.
The perfection of pins confifts in the ftiffnefs of the
wire and its whitenefs, in the heads being well turned,
and in the finenefs of the pbints. Tiie London pointing
and whitening are in nioft repute : becaufe our pin-ma¬
kers, in pointing, ufe two fteel-mills,-the firft of which
forms the point, and the latter takes of all irregularities,
.and renders it fmooth, and as it were polifhed; and in
whitening, they ufe block-tin granulated ; whereas in o-
ther countries they are faid to ufe a mixture of tin, lead,
. and quick filver,
PINDaRIC, in poetry, an ode formed in imitation of the
manner of Pindar.
PINE, in botany. See Pinus.
Pine-apple. See Bromelia.
PINEAL gland, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 286.
PINGUICULA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is ringent ; the calix is hi-
Jabiated ; and the capfule has but one cell. There- are
four fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz. the
vulgaris, or butter-wort; and the lufotanica, or Corn¬
wall butter-wort.
PINION, in mechanics, an arbor, or fpindle, in the body
whereof are feveral notches, which catch the teeth of a
wheel that ferves to turn it round : or it is a lefler wheel
which plays in the teeth of a larger.
PINK, a veflll ufed - at fea, mafted and rigged like other
flups, only that this is built with a round ftern ; the
bends and ribs compaffing fo as that her ribs bulge out
very much.
Pink, in botany. See Dianthus.
PINNACE, -a fmall veflcf ufed at fea, with a fquare ftern,
having fails and oars, and carrying three mafts, chiefly
ufed as a fcout for intelligence, and for landing of
men, dr. . . .
PINNACLE, in architecture, the top or roof of an houfe*
terminating in a point.
PINNATED leaves, in botany^ See Botany, p. 64c.
PINUS, in botany, a genus of the moncecia monade'phia
clafs The calix of the male confifts of four leaves ; it
has no corolla; the ftamina are numerous, with naked
amberar. The calix of the female is a ftrobiius,contain^
ing two flowers; it has one piftiflum; and the nut is enif
braced by a membranaceous wing. There are 12 fpe¬
cies, three of them natives of Biita tr, viz the fylveff
tris, or Scotch fir; the picea, or yellow-leaved fir; and
the abies, or common fir.
PIONEER, In the art of war, a labourer employed in an
army to fmooth the roads, pals the artillery along, and
dig lines and trenches, mines, and other works.
PIPE, in law, is -a roll in the exchequer, called alfo the
great roll. See the next article.
Pipe-office, is an office, wherein a perfbn, called the clerk
of the pipe, -makes out leafes of crown-lands, by warrant
from the lord-treafurer, or commiffioners of the tr'eafury,
or chancellor of the exchequer.
PIPER,- pepper, in botany, a genus of the diandria tri-
,gyni;» ejafs. It has neither calix nor corolla ; the .berry
6 E contains
p i s ( 4nc
contains but one feed. There are 20 fpecies, all natives
of warm countries.
Piper, in ichthyology. SeeTuiGLA,
PIRACY, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxiii.
PIRATE, a perfon, or veffej, that rob? on the high Teas,
without permiffion or authority of any prince or llate.
PISA, a city, of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany, fnutted
on the river Arno, four miles eafl of the Tea, and ten
miles north of Leghorn.
PISCARY, in our ancient ftatutes, the liberty of fifhing in
another man’s waters.
PISCES, in aftronomy, the twelfth fign or conllellation of
the zodiac. See Astronomy, p. 487.
PISCINA, in antiquity, a large bafon 111 a public place or
fquare, where the Roman youth learned to fwim, and
which was furrounded with a high wall, to prevent call¬
ing of filth into it.
PISSAPHALTUM, earth pitch, a fluid, opake, mi¬
neral body, oTa thick confidence, of a ftrong fine 11, rea¬
dily inflammable, but leaving a refiduum of greyilh afhes
after burning. It arifes out of the cracks of rocks, in
feveral places in the ifland of Sumatra, and in fome other
parts of the Eaft-Indies, and is much efteemed there, in
paralytic diforders.
PISSELAHUM Indicum, Barbadoes tar, a mineral
fluid, of the nature of the thicker bitumens, and of all
others the mod "approaching in appearance, colour, and
confidence, to the true piflafphaltum, though differing
from it in other refpedls. It is very frequent in many
parts of America, where it is found trickling down the
fides of mountains in large quantities, and fometimes
floating on the furface of the waters. It has been great¬
ly recommended internally in coughs and other ddorders
of the bread and lungs.
PISTACIA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia pentandria
clafs. The calix of the amentum in the male confids of
five fegments ; it has no corolla : The calix of the fe
male confids of three fegments ; it has no corolla ; there
are three dyli; and the drupa contains one feed. There
are five fpecies, ail natives of warm climates.
Pidachia-nuts abound with a fweet and well-taded oil,
which they will yield in great abundance, on being preffed
after bruifing them : Urey are reckoned wholefome andnu-
tritive, qnd are very proper to be preferibed by way of
redoratives, eaten in a moderate quantity, and to people
emaciated with long illneffes.
PISTIL, among botanids. See Botany, p. 637.
PISTOL, the fmalled piece of fire-arms, born at the fad-
dle bow, on the girdle, and in the pocket.
PISTOLE, a gold-coin, ftruck in Spain, and in feveral
parts of ItJy, Switzeiland, <bc.
The pidole has its augmentations and diminutions,
which are quadruple pidoles, double pidoles, atfd half
pilloles.
PISTON, in pump-work, is a fhort cylinder of metal, or
other folid fubdance, fitted exaftly to the cavity of the
barrel or body of the pump. See Hydrostatics.
PISUM, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The dylusis triangular, carinated and downy a-
bove; and the two upper laciniae of the calix are (hotter
than the red. The fpecies are four, only one of them,
viz. the marinunp, or fea-peafe, a native of Britain.
Peas are nutritive, and accordingly ufed for foadj but
) P L A
rarely for any medicinal purpofes, except to Iceep iffues
open ; for which purpofe they are rubbed with bafilicoa,
or linimentum Arcaei.
PITCH, a tenaceous oily fubdance, drawn chiefly from
pines and firs,” and ufed in (hipping, medicine, and vari¬
ous other arts: or it is more properly tar, infpiffated
by boiling it over a flow fire.
The method of procuring the tar, is by cleaving the
trees into fmall billets, which are laid in a furnace that
has two apertures, through one of which the lire is put,
and through the other the pitch is gathered, which,
ouzing from the wood, runs along the bottom of the
furnace into places made to receiveit. When thefmoke,
which is here very thi'.k, gives it blacknefs, this is called
tar; which, on being boiled, t-o confume more of its moi-
flure, becomes pitch.
There' is another method of drawing pitch, ufed in the
Levant: a pit is dug in the ground, two ells in diame¬
ter at the top,’ but ocntradlmg as it grows deeper ; this
is filled with branches of pine, \clovtn into (hivers ; the
wood at the top of the pit is then feton fire, and burning
downwards, the tar rms from it out of a hole made ia
the bottom; and this, is boiled, as above, to give it the
confidence of pitch.
PITH, in vegeiation, the foft fpungy fubftance contained
in the central parts of plains and trees. See Agricul¬
ture, Part I.
PITUITARY gland, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 286.
PLACE, in war, a general name for all kinds of fortreffes
where a party may defend tbemfelves.
Place. See Common place.
PLACENTA, in anatomy. and midwifery, a fdft roundifli
mafs found in the womb of pregnant women ; which,
from its refemblance to the liver, was called by the an¬
cients hepar uterinum, the uterine liver. See Midwifery,
p 208.
PLACENTIA, a city of Spain, in the province ofEftre-
madura: W. long. 6°, N. lat. 390 45'.
PLAGIARY, in philology, the purloining another perfon’s
works, and putting them off for a man s own. Among-
the Romans, plagiarius was prbpeily a perfon who
bought, fold, or retained a freeman for a Have ; and was
fo called, becaufe by the Flavian law fuch perfons wero
condemned, ad plagas, to be whipped.
PLAGIURI among ichthyologifts, a clafs of fiflus com¬
prehending all thole which have the tails not perpendicu¬
lar, but placed in an horizontal direffion.
PLAGUE, Pestilence, or Pestilential fever.
See Medicine, p. 71.
PL AISE, the Englifli name of a fpecies of the pleuroneftes.
See Plewronectes.
PLAN, in general, denotes the reprefentation of fomething
i^rawnon a plane : fuch are maps, charts, ichnographies,
<bc.
The term plan, however, is particularly ufed for a
draught of a building, fuch as it appears, or is intended
/to appear, on the ground; (hewing the extent, divifion,
and diflribution of its area, or ground-plot, into apart¬
ments, rooms, paffages, <bc.
PLANE, in geomelry, denotes a plain furface, or one that
lies evenly between its bounding lints : and as a right lina
is the fliortelt extenfion from ons point to another, fo a
P L A ( 4S i
plain furFace is the fliorteft extenGcn from one line to
another.
Plane, in joinery, an edged tool, or inftrument for parting
and /having of wood fmopth.
It conlifls of a piece of wood, very fmooth ^t bottom,
as a flock or fhaft ; in the middle of which is an aperture,
through which k fteei-edge, or chiffel, placed obliquely,
paffes ; which being very fharp, takes off the inequalities
of the wood it is Aid along.
PLANE-TREE, in botany. SeePLATANus.
PLANET, a celeftial body, revolvipg.round the fun as a
centre, and continually changing.iis pofition, with refpeift
to the fixed ffars; whence the name -planet, which is a
Greek word, fignifying 'wanderer." See Astronomy.
PLANETARIUM, the fame with orrery. See Astro¬
nomy, p. 495,
PLANIMETRY, that part of geometry which confiders
lines and plain figures, without confidering their height or
depth. See Geomet/Ry.
PLANISPHERE, fignifies a projection of the fphere, and
its various circles on a plane ; in which fenfe maps, where¬
in are exhibited the meridians, and other circles >of ths
fphere, are planifpheres.
PLANT, is defined to be an organical body, defHtvue of
fenfe and fpontaneous motion, adhering to another body
in fuch a manner as to draw from it its nourifhment, and
having power of propagating itfelfby feeds. See Agri¬
culture and Botany. ,
/W Plant. See Mimosa,
PLANTA, in anatomy, the foot. See Anatomy, p. 185.
PLANTAGO, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix and corolla has each four feg-
ments ; the ftamina are very long ; and ihe capfule is bi¬
locular. There are 21 fpecies, eight of them natives of
Britain.
The root, leaves, and feeds of plaintain, are reckoned
cooling and ailringent. It is likewife accounted a great
healer of frefh wounds.
Water Plaintain. See Ranunculus.
PLANTARIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 210.
PLANTATION, in the Weft-Indies, denotes a fpot of
ground which a planter or perfon arrived ima new colony,
pitches on t® cultivate for his own ufe, or is affigned-for
that purpofe. However, the term plantation is often, u-
fed in a fynonymous fenfe with colony.
PLASTER, in pharmacy, is defined to be an external ap¬
plication, of a harder confiftence than our ointments
thefe are to be fpread according to the different.circum-
ftances of the wound, place, or patient, either upon lin-
nen or leather.
Plaster, among builcjers, 6t. The plafter of Paris is a
preparation of feveral fp^ecies of gypfums, dug near Mont
Maitre, a village in the neighbourhood of Paris ; whence
the name.
The bed fort is hard, white,'ftiining, and marbly ;
known by the names of plafter-ftone, or parget of Mount
Maitre It will neither give fire with-Reel, nor ferment
with aqua fortis; but vehy freely and readily calcines in
the fire, into a very fine plafter ; the ufe of which in
building, and calling ftatues, is well known.
PLASTIC, denotes a thing endued with a formative power^
or a faculty of forming or fafhioning a mafs of matter,
after, the likenefs of a.living being ; fuch a. virtue as fame.
) F L £
of the ancient Epicureans, and perhaps''the Peripatetics'
too, imagined tp refidein the earth, or at leaft to have
anciently refided therein, by means whereof, and without
any extraordinary intervention of a creator, it put forth
plants, Some of them feem to be of opinion, that
animals, and even man himfelf, was the effeft of this plaftic
power.
Plastic art, a branch of fculpture,, being the krt of
forming figures of men, birds, beafts, fifties, in'plafter,
clay, ftuc, or the like.
PLATA, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the coaft
of Peru, fituated W. long. 8l°, S. hit. i°. It is alfo
the name of a city of Peru, capital of the province of La
Plata, fituated in W. long. 66° 3c/, S. Jat. 220 3c/ :
and alfo the name of a great river of Peru, which riling
in the province of La Plata, and running fouth-eaft till
it joins the river Paragua, difcharges itfelf into the At¬
lantic ocean, below the city of Buenos Ayres.
PLATALEA, or fpoon-bill, in ornithology, a genus be¬
longing, to the order of grallse. The beak is plain, and
dilates toward the point into an orbicular form ; the feet
have three toes, and are half palmated. There are three
fpecies, diftinguiftied by their colour.
PLATANUS, the Plane-tree, in botany, a genus of
the moncecia polyandria clafs. The cahx both of the
male and female is a roundifti amentum; the male has no
corolla ; the corolla of the female confifts of many petals.;.
the ftigma is bent backward ; and the feeds are round.
The fpecies are two, none of them natives of Britain.
PLATBAND, in gardening, a border or bed of flowers
along a wall, or the fide of a parterre frequently edged
with box, eirc.
Platband of a door or window is ufed fertile, lintel, where
that is made fquare or not much arched.
PLATFORM, in the military art, an elevation of earth;
on which cannon is placed, to fire on the enemy ; fuch
are the qiounts in the middle of curtains.
Platform, in archite&ure, is.a row of.beams, which fop-
port the timber-work of a roof, and lie on the top of the
wall, where the entablature ought to be raifed.
PLATONIC, fomething. that relates to Plato, his fchool-
philoiophy, opinions, or the like.
Platon 1 c year, or the great ye-ar, is a period of time
determined by the revolution of the equinoxes.. See A-
stronomy, p. 563.
PLATOON, in the .military art, a final I fquare body of
forty or fifty men, drawn out of a battalion of foot, and
placed between the fquadrons of Jiorfe, to fuftain them;
PLATYSMA myoides, in anatomy.. See Anatomy,
p. 195.
PLEA, in law, is what either party alledges for himfelf in
court, in a caufe there depending; and in a more reftrain-
ed fenfe, it is the defendant’s anfwer to the plaintiff’s de¬
claration.
C&urt if Cotqtnon Vtn'&s; See Common-pleas.
PLEASURE and pain, fays Mr Locke, are fimple ideas,
which we receive both from fenfation and refl&ftion; there
being thoughts of the mind,, as well as fenfations, accom¬
panied with pleafote'or pain. See MeYaphysics.
PLEBEIAN, any perfon of the rank of the common peo¬
ple. It is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the ancient Ra¬
mans, who were divided into fenaters, knights, and ple¬
beians.
PLEDGE,.,
P L O ( 482 ) P L U
PLEDGE, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xx. 13.
PLEDGET, Bolster, or Compress, in furgery, a kind
of flat tent, laid over a wound,'•to imbibe the 1'uperfluous
humours, and keep it clean.
PLEIADES, in allronomy, an afTemblage of ftars in the
neck of the conllellation taurus. See Astronomy, p.
487. '
PLENARY, fomething complete or full.
PLENIPO PENT!ARY, a perfon veiled with full power
to do any thing. See Embassador.
PLENITUDE, the quality of a thing that is full, or that
fills another. In medicine, it chiefly denotes a redundancy
of blood and humours.
PLENUM, in phyfics, denotes, according to the Cartefians,
that (late of things, wherein every part of fpace is luppo
fed to be full of matter ; in oppolkion to a vacuum.
PLEONASM, a figure in rhetoric, whereby we ufe words
feemingly fuperfluous, in order to exprels a thought with
the greater energy : fuch as, I Jaw it with my own eyes,
6c.
PLETHORA, in medicine, a greater redundance of laud¬
able blood and humours than is capable of undergoing
thofe changes’which mud neceflarily happen for the pur-
ppfes of life without inducing difeafes.
PLEUR^, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 278.
PLEURISY, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 89.
PLEURONECTES, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to
the order of thoracici. Both eyes are on the fame fide
of the head ; there are from four to feven rays in the
gill-membrane; the body is compreffed, the one fide re-
lemhli'ng the back and the other the belly. There are ; 7
fpecies.
PLEXUS, among anatomids, a bundle of fmall veflels in¬
terwoven in the form of net-work.
PLIMOUTf-f, or-pLYMOUTH, a port-town of Devonfhire,
and a Hatton for the building and .laying up of fhips of
war belonging to the royal navy : W, long. 40 2r]', N.
lit. ^6° 26'. It fends two members to parliament.
PLIMTON, a borough town of Devonfhire, lituated near
theEnglifh Channel, thirty-fix miles fouth-wed of Exeter.
It fends two members to parliament.
FLIN1A, in botany, a genus 6f the poiyandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla conlids of five petals, and the calix
of five fegments; the berry is furrowed, and contains one
feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of America.
PLINTH, in architedure, a flat fquare member, in the form
of a brick.
PLOCSKOW. the capital of a palatinate of the fame name,
•in Poland fifty miles north-wed of Warfaw.
PLOT, in dramatic poetry, is fometimes ufed for the fable
of a tragedy or comedy, but more particularly the knot
or intrigue, which makes the embarras of any piece.
Plot, in furveying, the plan or draught of any field, farm,
or manor furveyed with an indrument., and laid down in
the proper figure-and dimenfions.
PLO TTING, among furveyors, is the art of laying down
on paper, 6c. the feveral angles and lines of a trad of
ground furveyed by a theodolite, 6c. and a chain. ■ See
Geometry.
-PLOVER, in ornithology. SeeCnARADRius.
PLOUGH, in agriculture, a machine for turning up the
foil, contrived to fave the time, labour, and expence, that
without this indrument mud have been employed in dig¬
ging land, to prepare it for the flawing of all kinds of grain.
See Agriculture, p. 54.
PLOUGHMAN, the perfon who guides the plough in
in the operation of tilling. '
PLOUGHING, in agriculture, turning up the earth with
a plough. See Agriculture, p. 57.
PLUKNETIA, in botany, a genus of themonoecia mono-
delphia clais. Neither the male nor tire female have any
calix; the corolla of each has four petals; th’e male has
four glandular bearded nedaria ; the dylus is filiform ;
the digma is peltated ; and the capfule has four cells, con¬
taining one feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of
India.
PLUM-tree', in botany. SeePauNus.
PLUMAGE, the feathers which ferve birds for a cover¬
ing.
PLUMB-LINE, among artificers, denotes a perpendicular
to.the horizon; fo called, as being commonly ereded by
means of a plummet.
PLUMBAGO, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The corolla is bell fhaped; the damina
are inferred into feales at the bafe of the corolla ; the
digma is quinquefid ; and there is but one oblong trunca¬
ted feed. The fpecies are four, none of them natives of
Britain
PLUMBERY, the art of cading and working lead, and u-
fing it in buildings, 6c.
As this metal melts very eafily, it is eafy to cad it into
figures of any kind, by running it into moulds of brafs,
clay, plader, 6c. But the chief article in plumbery is
fheets and pipes of lead : and as tbefe make the bafis of
the plumber’s work, we fliall here give the procefs of
making them. In cading fheet-lead, a table or mould is
made ufe of, which confids of large pieces of-Avood well
jomted, and bound with bars of iron at the ends, on the
lides of which runs a frame confiding of a ledge, or bor¬
der of wood, two or three inches thick, and two or three
inches high from the mould, called the (harps; the ordi¬
nary width of the mould, within thefe (harps, is from
three to four feet; and its length is fixteen, feventeen,
or eighteen feet. This (hould be fometbing longer than
the (heets are intended to be, in order that the end
where the metaTruns off from the mould may be cut ofi*,
becaufe it is commonly th n or uneven, or ragged at the
end. It mud (land very even or level in breadth, and
fomething falling from the end in which the metal is
poured in, vtz. about an inch, or an inch and a half, in
the length of fixteen or feventeen inches. At the upper
end of the mould (lands the pan, which is a concave tri¬
angular prifm, compdfed of two plank's nailedJogether at
right angles, and two triangular pieces fitted in between
them at the ends. The length of this pan is the whole
breadth of the mould in which the (beets are cad: it
Hands with its bottom, which is a (harp edge, on a form
at the end of the mould, leaning with one fide againll it ;
and on the oppofite fideisa handle to lift it up by, topour
out the melted lead ; and on that fide of the pan next the
mould, are two iron hooks to take hold of themould, and
prevent the pan from flipping, while the melted lead is
pouring uut of it into the monld. This pan is lined on the
infide with moidened fund, to prevent it from being fired
by the hot metal. The-mould is alfo fpread over, about
two thirds of an inch thick, with fand fifted arid moid-
€ned
1 P L XT ( ' 4^.;
ened, which is rendered perfeftly level by moving over
it a piece of wood called a llrike,‘by trampling upon it
with the feet, and loroothing it over with a fmoothing
plane, wh ch is a thick plate of poldhed brals, about nine
inches fquare, turned up on all the.four edges, and wi.h
a handle fitted on to the upper or concave fide* The land
being thus fmoothed. it is fit for calling fheets of lead:
but if they would caff a ciftern, theymealure out the big-
hefs of the "four fides; and having taken the dimenfions of
the front, on fo e-part, make mouldings by preffing long
flips of wood, which contain the fame mouldings, into the
level fand, and form the figures of birds, beads, &c. by
prefitng in the fame manner leaden figures upon it, and
then taking them off, and at-the fame time fmoothing the
furface where any of the fand is railed up, by making-
thefe impreffions upon it. The reft of the operatiorris the
fame in calling either ciflerns or plain iheets of lead : but
before we proceed to mer.tion the manner in which that
is performed, it will be neceflary to give a more particular
defcription of the flrike. The (trike then Is a piece of
board about five inches broad, and ionething longer^than
.the breadth of the mould oh the infide ; and at each end
is cut a notch, about two inches deep, :o that when it is
ufed, itrides upon the (harps with thofs notches'. Before
they begin to caflj the ftiike. is made re<-.dy by tacking on
two pieces of an old hat on the notches, or by flipping a
ca(i of leather over cacb end. in order to raife the under
fid^about one eighth of an inch, or fomething more, above
the fand, according as they would have the fheet to be in
thicknefs ; then they tallow the under edge of the flrike,
and lay it acrofs the mould. The lead being melted, it is
laddled into the pan, in which, when there is a fuflicient
'quantity for the prefent purpofe, the fcum of the metal is
fwept off with a piece of board to theedge of the pan letting
it fettle on the fand, which is by this means prevented from
failing into the mould at the pouring out of the metal.
When the lead is cool enough, which is known by its be¬
ginning to ftand with a (hell or wall on the fand round
the pan, two men take the pan by the handle, or elfcbns
of them lift it up by a bar and chain fixed to a beam in
the ceiling, and pour it into the mould, while another man
ftands ready with the flrike, and, as foon as they have done
pouring ir, the metal, puts on the mould, fweeps the lead
forward, and draws the overplus into a trough prepared
to receive ir. The fheetsd>eing thus call, nothing remains
but .to planifh the edges ;n order to render them fmooth
and/lraight: but if it be a cittern, it is bent into fourfides,
fothat the two ends may join the back, where they are
folden d together, after which the bottom is foidered up.
The method of catting thin flieets of lead. Inflead of
fa d, they cover the mould with a piece of woolen fluff
naded down at the two ends to keep it tighy, and over this
lava very fine linen cloth. In this p.rocefs great regard is
had rt> tfie juft degree of heat, fo as that the lead may
run well, and yet not burn the linen. This they judge of
by a piece of paper; for it takes fire in the liquid lead if it
is too hot, and if it be not (blank and fcorched a little, it
is no? hot enough. They have herb a ftrike different from
th.it defenbed above: it is a wooden cafe, only clpfed on
three fides: it is pretty high behind; but the two fides, like
two acute angles, fl 11 diminifh to the tip from the place
whf're they are joined to the third or middle^ piece, where
they are of the flume height therewith", V/z. feven or eight
Vol. III. N°, S9. 2
! ) . L U
inches high, the width, of the middle makes that of "the
flrike, which again makes that of the fheet to the caff.
This flrike is placed at the top of the mould, which in that
part is firft covered^wlth a pafleboard that ferves as a bot¬
tom to the cafe, and prevents the linen from being burnt
W'hile the lead'is pouting in. The flrike is now filied with
lead, according to the quantity to be ufed ; which dene,
two men, one at each fide, draw the flrike down the mould
with a velocity greater or jefs, as the fheet is to be more
or lei's thick.
The method ofcafting pipes wfithoutfoldering. To make
thefe pipes, they have a kind of little mill, with arms or
levers to turn it withal. The mouldsare of brafs, and con-
fiflof two pieces, which open and (hut by means of hooks
and hinges, their inward caliber, or diameter, being ac¬
cording to the fize of the pipb to be made, and their
length is ufaally two feet and a half. Iq the middle is
placed a core, or round piece of brafs or iron, fomewhat
longer than the -mould, and of the thicknefs of the inward
diameter of the pipe. This core is pafled* through two
copper-rundles, one at each end of the mould, which they
• ferve to ciofe ; and to thefe is joined a little copper-tube
about two inches long, and of the thicknefs the. leaden
pipe is intended to be of. By means of thefe tubes the core
is retained in the middle of the cavity of the mould. The
core being in the mould, with therundies at its two ends,
and the lead melted in the furnace, they take it up in a
ladle and pour it into the mould by a little aperture at one
end, made in th? form of a funnel. When the mould is
full they pafs a hook into the end of the core, and turning
the mill, draw it out; and then opening the mould, take
out the pipe. If they defire to have the pipe length¬
ened, they put one end of it in the lower end of the mould, ,
and pafs the end of the-core into it; then (hue the mould
again, and apply its rundle and tube as before, the pipe
jufl cart ferving for rundle, at the other end. Things
being thus replaced, they pour in frefb metal, and repeat
the operation till they have got a pipe of the length re¬
quired.
For making pipes of fheet-lead, the plumbers have
wooden cylinders of the length and .thicknefs required;
and on thefe they form their pipes by wrapping the facet
around them, and foldering up the edges all along them.
PLUMBUM, lead See Chemistry, p. 84.
Plume, in botany See Agriculture, p. 41.
PLUMMFT, plumb rule, or plumb ljne, an inflru-
ment ufed by carpenters, mafons, &c. in order to judge
whether walls, dtc. be upright planes, horizontal, or the
like. It is thus called from a piece of lead, falfened to" the
end of a cord, which ufually conflitutes this infirument .
Sometimes the firing def ends along a wooden ruler, <£?£.
raifed perpendicularly on another; in which cafe it be¬
comes a level.
TPLU AIMING, among miners, is the method of ufing-a■mine-
dial, in order to know the exadt place of the work where
to fink down an.air-fhaft, or to bring an adit to the wo k,
or to know which way the load inclines when any flexure
haprens in it.
It fs performed in this manner: A fitilful peyfoo, with
ah iifiplar.r, and with pen, ink and paper, and a long line,
and a kin-dia!; after his guefs of the place above',ground,
defeends into the adit or work, and there fattens ore end
. of the lineto fame-fixed thing imit.; then -the-inehed p red h
6 F is
P L U ( 484 ) FLU
is let to reft, .'nd the exaft point where it refts is marked
with a pen: he then goes on farther in the line fttll fatten¬
ed, and at the next flexure of the adit he makes a mark
on the line by a knot or otherwife; and then letting down
the dial again, lie there like wife notes down that point at
which the needle ftands in- this fecond pofition. In this
manner he-proceeds, from turning to turning, marking
down the points, and marking tB'e line, till he comes to
the intended place: this done, he afcends, and begins to
work on thefurfaceof the earth what he did in the adit,
bringing the firft knot in the' line to fuch a place where
the mark of the place of the needle will again anfwer its
pointing, and continues this till he come to the defired
place above ground, which is certain to be perpendicu¬
larly over the part of the mine into'which the air-fnaft is
to be funk.
PLUMOSE, fojnething formed in the manner of a feather,
with a ftem and fibres iflulng from it oh each fide ; fuch
are the antennae of certain moths, butterflies, &c.
PLURAL, in grammar, an epithet applied to that number
of nouns and verbs which is ufed when we fpeak of more
than one thing. See Grammar.
PLURALITY, a difcrete-quantity, confifting of two or a
greater number of the fame kind , thus we fay a plurality
of gods,
PLUS, in algebra, acharafter marked thus+, ufed for the
fign of addition.
PLUSH, in confmerce, a kind of fluff having a fort
of velvet knap, or ihag, on one fide, compofed regularly
of a woof of a fingle woolen thread, and a double warp;
the one wool, of two threads twitted; the other goats or
camels hair; though there are fome plufhes entirely of
worfled. and others compofed wholly of hair-,
PLUVIALIS, in zoology. See Charadrius.
PNEUMATICS.
rT^HIS fcience treats of the nature, weight, and preffure
Jl of the air, and the effetts arifing from it.
The air is that thin tranfparent fluid body in which we
live and breathe. It-encoitipaffes the whole earth to a coiifi-
derable height ; and, together with the clouds and vapours
that float in it, is called the attnofphere. The air is juttly
reckoned among the number of fl lids, becaufe it has all the
properties by which a fluid is diltinguiflvd. (See Hydro¬
statics.) For it yields to the leatt force impreffed, its
parts are eafily moved am mg one another, it preffes ac¬
cording to its perpendicular height, and its preffureis every
way equal.
That the air is a fluid, confittingof fuch particles as have
no cohi fion betwixt them, but e^fily glide over one another,
and yield to the flighted impreiEon, appears’from that eafe
and freedom with which animal* breathe in r, and move
through it without any difficulty or f.nfible refiflance.
But it differs from all other fluids in the three following
particulars. It 'an be comprefled into a lefs fpaee than what
it naturally poff.fll-ih. which no other fluid can. 2 It can¬
not be congealed or fixed, as other fluids may. 3. It is of a
diff.rent denfity in every part, upward from the earth’s fur-
face, decrealing in its weight, bulk for bulk, the higher it
rifes ; ami therefore rauil alio decreafe in denfity. 4 It is of
an elafticor fpnngy nature, and the force of its fpring is e-
qual to its weight.
That air is a body, is evi 'em from its excluding al' other
bodies out of the fpace it pofllffes ; for, if a glals jar be
plunged with its mouth downward into a veffel of water, there
will but very linle Water get into the jar, becaufe the air of
which it is full keeps the water out
As air is a body, it mutt needs have gravity or weight:
and that it is weighty, is demonttrated by experiment. For.
let the air be tsken out of a veffel by means of the air pump;
then, having weighed the veffel, let in the air again ; and
upon weighing it, when re-lilled with air, it will be found
confiderably heavier. Thus, a bottle that holds a wine
quart, being emptied of air, and weighed, is found to be a-
bout 17 grams lighter than when the air is let into it again;
which ihews that a quart of air weighs 17 grains. But
a quart of water weighs 14625 grains; this divided, by
17, quotes 860 in round numbers ; which ffiews, that
water is 860 times as heavy as air near the furface of the
earth.
As the aT rifes above the earth’s furface, it grows ra¬
rer, and confequently lighter, bulk for bulk. For fince it is
of an elattic or fprmgy nature, and its lowermoft parts are
preffed with the weight of all that is above them, it is plain
that the air mutt be more denfe or compaft at the earth’s
lurface, than at any height above it; and gradually rarer
the higher up. For, the denfity of the air is always as
the force that compreffeth it: and therefore, the air to¬
wards the upper parts of the atmofphere being lefs prefs-
ed than that which is near the earth, it will expand itfelf,
and thereby become thinner than at the furface of theeaith.
Dr Cotes has demonttrated, that if altitudes in the air
be taken in arithmetical proportion, the rarity of the air
will be in geometrical proportion. For inilance,
f 71M r 4i
14 " ..... 16
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• • 256 | -5
• • 1024.I -
• • 4096 I a
. . 16384 | -5
• • 65536 | fc «
. 262144
. 1048576!
. 4194304 [ £
16777216 ™
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126 £ 68719476736 1
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I140J L 1099511627776J
And hence it is eafy to prove by calculation, that a cu¬
bic inch of fuch air as we breathe, would be to much lare-
fied at the altitude of 500 miles, that it would fill a Jphere
equal in diameter to the orbit of Saturn,
105
The
P N E U M
The weiglit or preffureof the air is exactly determined by
the foliowing experisnent.
77;/f TORICELLIAN EXPERIMENT.
Take a glafs tube about three feet long, and open atone
end fill it with quichfilver; and putting your linger upon
the open end, turn that end downward, and immerfe it into a
fmall veflel of quiekfiiver, without letting in any air: then
take away your linger, and the quickfilver wdi remain fuf-
pended in the tube 29^ inches above its furfaee in the
•veffel; fometimes more, and at other times lefs, as the
weight of the air is varied by winds and other caufes. That
.the quickfiiver is kept up in the tube by the preffure of the
atmofphere upon that in the bafon, is evident ; for, if the
bafon and tube be put under a glafs, and the air be then
taken out of the glafs, all the quickfiiver in the tuoe will
fall down into the bafon ; and if the air be let in again, the
quirkfilver will rife to the fame height as before. There¬
fore the air’s preffure on the furface of the earth, is equal
to the . eight of 29^ inches depth of quickfiiver all over the
earth’s furface, at a mean rate.
A fquare column of quickfilver, 29^ inches high, and
one inch thick, weighs ju ! 15 pounds, which is equal to
the preffure of air upon every fquare inch of the earth’s
furfac" ; and 144 times as much, or 2160 pounds, upon
every fquare foot; becaufe a fquare foot contains 144 Iquare
inches. At this rate, a middle-fized man, whofe furrace
Ttiay be about 14 fquare feet, fuftains a preffure of 3024O
pounds, when the air is of a mean gravity : a preffure which
would be infupportable, and even fatal to us. were it not
equal one very part, and counterbalancedby the fpring of the
air within us, which is d.ffufed. through the whole body,
and re-adls -vith an equal force againff the outward preffure
Now fince the earth’s furface contains (in round num¬
bers) 206 000,000 fquare miles, and every fquare mile
27,878,400 fq arc feet, there rnufl be 51575,680.000,006,
000 fquare feet on the earth's furface ; wnich multiplied by
2.160 pounds (the preffure on each fquare foot) gives 12,
043,468.800 oco.ooo.ooo pounds for the preffure or
weight of the whole atmo phere.
When the end of a pipe is immerfed in water, and the air
is taken out of the pipe, the water will rife in it to the
height of 3 3 feet above the furface of the water in which it
is immerfed ; but will go no higher : for it is found that a
common primp will draw water no higher than 33 feet a-
bove the furface of the well: and enlefs the bucket goes
within that diftan e from the well, the water will never get
above it Now, as it is the preffure of the atmofphere, on
the furface of the water in the well, that caufes the water
to afcend in the pump, and follow the pillon or bucket,
when the air above it is lifted up it is evident, that a co¬
lumn of water 33 feet high, isequ d in weight to a column
of quici.fi!ver of tire fame diameter29i inches high ; and to
as thick a column of air, reaclring from the earth's furface
to the top of the atmofpbere. See Hydrostatics.
Of the. BAROMETER.
In ferene calm weather, the air has weight enough to
fupport a column of quickfiiver 31 inches high ; butintem-
peffuous ftormy weather, not above 28 inches. The quick¬
fiiver, thus f ipported in a glafs tube, is found to be a nice
counterb alance to the. weight or preffure of the air, and to
&ew its alterations at different times. And being now ge-
A T I C S. 49.5
nerally ufed to denote the changes in the welghr of the air,
and of the weather confequent upon them, it is called the
barometer, or weather-glafs.
The mercury ’will flan'd at the fame height either in an in’’
clined barometer or in an erett one.
If the mercury at any time (lands at tbeheigbt of 30 inches
in the barometer D, (Plate CXLV. fig. 6.) then by incli¬
ning this barometer into the pofitiCn E, the perpendicular
height of the mercury will not be altered; for it will frill Hand
at the height of 30 inches : fo that if the level AB is 30
inches from the furface EG, the mercury will Hand at tins
level, either in the ereft tube D or in the inclined one E*
Nowhere it is evident, that if NL is the heigln-of the mer¬
cury when the tube li eredt, and NM is the height of U.e
mercury in the fame tube or an equal one when it rs in¬
clined, there muH be more mercury in the inclined tube
thamhere is in the eredt one. For we may confider NL as
the fide, and NMas the diagonal, of aright-angled parallelo¬
gram. But the diagonal of a right angled parallelogram is
longer than the fide. Therefore, though either L or M are
at the fame perpendicular diHan e from FG| yet NM will
be .longer,than NL. Since then the column of mercury is
longer in the inclined tube than in the eredt one, there will be
more mercury in the inclined than in theereaone. The que-
ftion therefore is, How the prtffu e of the atmofphere caa
fupport a greater quantity of matter in one lituation of the
tube than in the other. We ca- not fay, that though in the
inclined tube there is a greater quantity of mercury than in
the eredt one, yet a part of this greater weight will be fup-
ported by the fide of the tube as 1 y an inclined plane. The
true anfwer is, that the column of a.r which fupports the
mercury in the inclined tube, is greater than the column
which fupports it ia the eredi one. The height of the co-
lum of air is indeed the fame in both cafes ; for in either
cafe it is equal to the height of the atmofphere-. But the bafe
of the column of air, and confequently its weight, is greater
when the tube is inchned than when it is eredi. For the
bafe of the column of air which fupports the mercury in the
tube, is equal to as much of the Hagnant mercury’s furface as
the bafe of the tube covers. Now, if the diameters of the
tubes D and E are equal; the bafe of the inclined tube E
will cover a greater part of the fur'ace FG than the eredt
tube D covers, or the baft of the tube E will be greater'
than the bafe of the tube D. For the contents of the in¬
clined tube are greater than thofe of the eredt one, as has .
been fnewn already But the column of mercury in each
of the tubes are- cylinders of the fame height. Therefore
their bafes are as their contents. Euc b. XII. prop. 11.
Since then the contents or the weights of mercury in each
tube are as their bafes, when their heights are equal; and
the bafe of the column of air, which fupports the mercury,
and confequently the weight of this column, is proportional
to the bafe of the tube ; it follows, that the weight of 1 lie
air will always be proportion-,! to the weight of the mer¬
cury when it Hands at a given height, whether the tube is
inclined or eredi.
Though'we have here {hewn, that the contents of the in¬
clined tube are greater than thofe of-the eredi one. and con¬
fequently that their bafes muH be unequal, fince their per¬
pendicular heights are the fame; yet it will not be impro¬
per to fhew what we mean by the bafe of the inclined tube,
or rather of the inclined column of mercury, and why this
iliould be greater thrm the bafe of the eredi one. Now by.
4U P N E U
the bafc of tbir !r,dined colamn we do not mesn the bottom
of the inclined tube, but the low eft horizontal fe&ioh 6f it.
Thus, if we con fid,er the fur face FG as a plane palling through
-the'two tuht;s Dand E, this plane will cut.the t'i.be D per¬
pendicularly, and the tube E obliquely. But a perpendrcu-
].if fedtion of a cylinder is a circle, and an oblique fection
of it is an ellipfis. Therefore the bafe of the ere£t column
is circular, and the bafe of the inclined tube is elliptical.
Now, by the fivppofition, the two tubes have equal diame¬
ters, and confeqnentiy the fhort'er axis of the elliptical bafe
•will be equal to the diameter of the circular one.
There is another fort of inclined barometer, fu 'h an one
as ABR, (ibid, fig. 7.) which is ereft for 28' inches from
A to B, and then is inclined froovB to C. The mercury
will (land at the fame height in this barometer, as if it had
been a (trait one AS : for the column of air prefiing at the
bafe A. would be the time in either cafe : and though there
is more mercury in the tube ABR than there would be in
the tube ABS ; yet, fuppofing the mercury to hand at the
fame level DC in either cafe, the preflare of the mercury
'•downwards will in either cafe be the fame. For, the pref
fare of fluids is as their bafe and perpendicular height: and^
here the bafe A is the fame, and the perpendicular height is
-the fame, whether the tube is eredt all the'way up as AS,
or is inclined at the top as ABR.
The advantage which is propofed by thefe diagonal ba-
Tometers, as they are called, is to make the variation of
the mercury greater, and confequentiy more apparent, upon
a given change in the weather. Thus fuppole AB or 28
' inches to be the leaft height of the mercury, and AD or 31
inches to be the greateft height of it: then the whole varia¬
tion will be within the compafs BD, or 3 inches.- But if
the barometer, indead of being ereift 'at the top, is inclined
ihto the politico BC ; then, as the mercury ftandsTt the
fame perpendicular height in this diagonal barometer as in
an ereff one, AB will be the lead height, and ABC will
be the greateft height, fince D and C are on the fame le¬
vel of at the fame perpendicular diftance from A. Now
though BD, one fide of the parallelogram, is but 3 inches
long ; yet BC may be 30 inches long, or more ; and con¬
fequentiy licce AB is the lead height, and ABC is the great-
ed height-, the variation of the mercury will be much greater
than in an erefl barometer; in particular, if BC is 30 inches
long, the variation will be 30 inches indead of 3, or will
be 10 times greater in the diagonal barometer than it would
have been in an eredt one.
The barorn,eter (lands at the fame perpendicular heightt
•whether the tube is large or fmall.
If the mercury dands at the fame height either in the
large tube C or in' the fmall tube D, there mud be more
.mercury in the large one than in the fmall one. But fines
the heights are equal, the quantities of mercury contained in
thefe tpbes will be as their bafes. Now fince the columns
■ of air, by which the mercury is fupported in thefe tubes,
■are as the refpe&ive bafes of the tubes, the columns of air
.will be proportional to the weights in each tube, when the
perpendicular heights are equal.
But though the heights of the mercury would be the fame
In ftnall tubes as in large ones, if, as we muft fuppofe in
; the .propofition, the mercury moved equally free in.both;
yet in fadt, upon any change of weather, the variation will
.bAgteapsr in a large tube than in a fmall one : becaufe, in
A T I _ C S.
a large tube, the weight of mercury is fogreat, that the mo¬
tion of it will not be hindered by any attra&ion or repullion
of the glafs upon it; wherca-, in a fmall tube, where the
weight of mercury is iefs, the adlion of the glafs is confide-
rtble in proportion to that weight, and conlcquently'the^
variations will be kfs upon a given change of the weather.
The barometer •will commonly be lew in rainy •weather.
From what has been faid already about the barometer, it
appears, that the mercury will be low when the weight of
the atfnofphere is dimmilhed ; and' fuch a diminution of
the atmofphere will occafion rain. Therefore, iince rain
is occafioned by the fame caufe that makes the mer. ury fall,
the barometer will commonly ftand low in rainy weather.
The barometer is theloDsefi of all in violent florms of wind.
When the air moves horizontally with a great velocity,
as it does in violent dorms of wind, its weight, or rather its
preflure downwards occafioned by its weight, will be dimi-
nifhed. For as any heavy body may have fuch a velocity
given it, when it is thrown down horizontally, as may ei¬
ther carry it quite olf from tlxe earth’s centre, or fu n a ve¬
locity as will make it move round the earth in a circle with¬
out either departing from ths'centre or approaching to if’;
fo every degree of velocity given to the*air will make it
tend or^prefsjefs towards the centre ; and for this reafon,
as the mercury in the bafon will be lefs pieffed, the height
of it in the tube will be lels in ftorms than n is any other
When a form of wind is over, the mercury will rife very faft:
Becaufe as the horizontal velocity of the air ceafes the
prefiure downwards will be fuddenly reltored, and conffc-
q itntly the mercury in the barometer will keep nfiug as this
preflure is redored.
Of the THERMOMETER.
The variations of different thermometers are feldom equal,
upon equal variations of beat or cold.
A thermometer is a well-known indrument for edi-
nrning different degrees of heat or cold. It conlids of a
tube or dem, with a hollow ball at one end o’ it. The ca¬
vity of the ball, and part of the tube, is filled with fpirits of
wine, or wijh linfeed oil, or with mercury. The upper
end-of the tube is- commonly fealed hermetically. But in
fealing this end, the liquor in the thermometer is rarefied
by heating it till it almod fills the tube ; fo that when it
is fealed', and the liquor contrails again as it cools, there
will be a vacuum left in the upper part of the tube. Any
of thefe fluids will rarefy by heat, and will contradf again
when th y cool: and confequentiy in warm weather, the
fpirits, or the oil, or the mercury, whichever the thermo¬
meter is made of, will Hand higher than in cold weather.
Thus far thermometers may be faid to vary alike : they
will either rife or fink from the fame cau.’es. But then, up¬
on an equal increafe of heat, they feldom vaiy equally,
though they are made of the lame liquor. One thermome¬
ter made with fpirits of wine qiay vary upon an equal in¬
creafe of heat m h more than another that is marie with
the fame fort of fpirits ; fo that if one rifes an inch, ano¬
ther may rife but 4 or -j inch. .
The variation of a thermometer is direflly as the capacuy
of
P N E U M
©f the ball, and inverfely as the bafe of the ftem. Firft, If
the bafe of the ftem or cyfiodrical tube is given, the varia¬
tion, when the fpirits are equally tvarmed, will be diredtly
as the capacity of the ball. For when the fpirits are equal¬
ly warmed, and confequently are equally rarefied in the balls
or two different thermometers, whatever proportion tt e bulk
of the fpirits in one ball bears to the bulk of the fpirits
in the other ball before they were rarefied, the fame
proportion thefe bulks will (fill bear to each other after
they are rarefied. Thus, if one ball is double the other,
and confequemly the bulk of fjpints in one ,is double the
bulk of fpirits in the other before they are warmed ; then,
upon being warmed equally, their denfities will diminilh e-
qually , But if their denfities dimindh equally, their bulks
will ftdl have the fame proportion to each other ; or the bulk
of fpirits in one thermometer will ftill be double the bulk in
: the other. But if the bulks continue in the fame proportion
to each other, after they are fwelled as they were before ;
the fpi'i's muft fwell in proportion to their refpeftive bulks,
or the fpirits in one muft fwell twice as much as in the o-
ther. But if the fpirits fwell in this proportion, and by
fwelling life into equal tubes in each, they muft rife twice
as high ip the tube of one of thefe thermometers as they do
in the tube of the oiher. And fo, in all other inftances, the
fpirits, upon being equally warmed, will fwell in proportion
to their bulk, that is, in proportion to the capacity of the
ball that contains them. But the heights, t® which they
rife in equal tubes, will be as the increafe of their bulk.
Therefore the heights to which they rife, or the variations
in equal degrees of heat, will be as the capacity of the ball,
when the tubes are equal. We have here fuppofed that
the fpirits m the balls of the thermometers are equally heat¬
ed quite through. In fudden changes of heat and cold, it
will be otherwife : for the fpirits in a fmall ball will be
foonfer heated quite through than in a large one. And con¬
fequently, if the heat doesjnot laft long enough to warm the
fpirits in a large ball as much as they are warmed in a fmall
one, the fpirits will not be equally rarefied in both, and
will not fwell in proportion to their refpetftive bulks ; but
thofe in the fmall ball will fwell more in proportion than
thofe in the large one. Secondly, If the balls are equal,
the variations will be inverfely as the bafes of the ftems.
For if the balls are equal, then, upon being equally heated,
the fpirits contained in them will fwdl equally; and con¬
fequently equal qaantities will rife into the ftems. Now
the fpirits which rife into a cylindrical ftem are a cylindri¬
cal column. But the heights of equal cylinders are inverfe-
Jy as their bafes. Therefore, when the balls are equal, and
equal cylinders of fpirits rife into the ftems, the h-eights to
which they rife, or the variations, will be inverfely as the
bafes of the ftems.
Anuniverfal'fcalemay he made, by which the variations of
" different thermometers may be compared with one another.
Let the ball of a theimomerer be put into water when
it is beginning to freeze, or, which is the fame as to heat or
cold, into fnow when it is beginning to melt ,; and let the
place where the fluid in the thermometer ftands be marked.
The p|ace where the fluid ftands.in fuch a trial is the free¬
zing point. Let the ball of the fame thermometer be put
into water juft hot enough to let wax, that fwims upon it,
begin to coagulate. This again is ano’her determinate de
£ree of heat, and is to be marked upon the thermometer.
Vol. Ill N» 89. 2
A T I C S. 487
Divide the diftance between thefe two points Into no.equal
parts ; and each.of thefe parts we call a degree. Now a
thermofneter often finks lower than the freezing point; be-
caufe the cold is frequently more intenfe than what is juft
fufficient to make water freeze : for this reafop, the fcale muft
not begin from the freezing point. This point, therefore,
ftiould not be marked o, nor (hould the point where melted
wax begins to coagulate be marked no. In this fcale,
which from the inventor is called Farenheit’s fcale, the
freezing point is marked 32 ; and then the point, where
melted wax begins to coagulate, being 1 ib degrees above
it, muft be marked 142. When the length of a degree is
thus found in one part of the fcale, 32 degrees of the fame
length are fet off below the freezing point, and as many
fuch 'degrees as we pleafe are fet off above the point where
melted wax begins to coagulate. If the thermometer is
made with fpirits of wine, only 33 degrees need be fet off
or marked above 142 : and then the fcale will begin from
o ; 32 degrees, will be the freezing point; 142 will be the
point where melted wax begins to coagplate; and 142+3 3”
175: degrees will be the higheft point marked in the fcale.
The reafon why no higher degree need be marked in a fcale
applied to a thermometer made with fpirits, is, that at this
degree of heat the fpirits will boil, and confequently the
thermometer would burft. But if the thermometer is made
with mercury, the fcale {hould contain at leaft 2i2 degrees
from the bottom to the top, or 32 degrees below the free¬
zing point, and 180 above it. The heat of boiling water,
at the middle height of the mercury in the barometer, or
in the middle weight of the atmofphere, will raife the mer¬
cury in the thermometer to 2 12 degrees, or 180 degrees a-
bove the freezing point. A thermometer made with mer¬
cury will not burft in fuch a degree of heat as this ; for
mercury requires a greater degree to make it boil.
In thermombters with fuch a fcale, or, as they are called,
in Farenheit’s thermometers, the greateft degree of heatin
the external parts of the human body is commonly about 96.
Boerhave imagined that air, if its heat exceeded 80 or 90
degrees at molt, would he deftruftive to the life of animals.
But in this he was miftaken. For in the year 1732 the -
thermometer in Penfylvania was at the height of 96 or 97;
and in the year 1734 the height of it at Petetftsurgh was 98
degrees. The thermometer in our own climate is fcarce e-
ver higher than 78 degrees, and feldom lower than 1 &; fo that
we may reckon 48 degrees io be the middle temperature of
our air.
The variations of different thermometers, though they
are not,equal, may be compared with one another by Fa¬
renheit’s fcale. For each degree upon different thermome¬
ters is proportional to their relpeflive variations , and con-
{equently, though in equal heats one may vary more than a-
nother, yet each will vary an equal number of degrees.
Thus, if, upon any given increafe of heat, one thermome¬
ter will vary twice as much as another, then the diftance
between the freezing point and the point where melted
wax begins to noagulate will be twice as great, or no de¬
grees will be twice ss long, in one as in the other. Th. re-
fore each degree wit! be twice as long in the formei ther¬
mometer as in the latter. But by the fuppofition, one of
thefe thermometers in a given degree of heat will vary twice
as much as the other does; and confequently, whatever heat
raifes the former one degree, will iikewife raife the latter one
degree.
6 G If
P N E U M
V18
If the ball, of a thermometer is dipped into hot ’water, the
fluid In the thermometer ’will fink a little before it begins
to rife.
Not only fluids, fuch as fpirits, oil, or mercury, but
likewife glafs, or iron, or almoft any hard bodies, will ex¬
pand when they are heated, and will contraft again when
they grow cold. Now, when the ball of a thermometer is
dipped into hot water, the heat will be commiinicated to
the glafs of which the ball is made, before it is communi*
cated to the fluid contained in the ball. By this means the
ball will be expanded, and the capacity of it will be increa-
fed, fo that fome of the fluid will fink out of the flem into
it. But when the ball has been long enough in the water
for the fluid within it to be heated, this fluid will be expand¬
ed; and then it will rife into the Item, and will continue to
fife as the hea^increafes.
Of SOUND.
Sound, in the body that produces it, is a trembling motion:
this motion is communicated to the air, and the air con¬
veys it to the ear.
When anyelaftic body is ftruck, fo as to produce a found,
the body, or fome pa t of it, is made to vibrate This is e-
vident to fenfe in the (trings of a violin or harpfichord; for
either the eye may fee, or the hand may feel, the trembling
of the firings, when by ftriking them they are made to found.
See Musick.
If a bell is fttuck by its clapper on the infide, the bell is
made to vibrate. The bafe of the bell is a circle ; but by
ftriking any part of this circle on the infide, the part which
is ftruck will fly out a little way, fo that the diameter, which
pafies through this part of the circular bafe, will become
longer than another diameter which crofles this at right
angles. Therefore by the ftroke the b.afe will be changed
into an ellipfis, whofe longer axis will pafs through the part
again It which the clapper ftruck. But the elafttcity of the
bell will reftore the figure of the bafe, and will make the
part which was forced out of its place return back. This
part in returning will acquire velocity in the fame manner
as an elallic firing would in the fame c rcumflances. And
fince it acquires velocity in returning to its place, it will not
flop at that place, but will over-run it. Thus the circular
figure of the bafe will be changed into an el'lipfis again ; on
ly now the fhorter axis will pafs through the part that was
firfl flruck. If the bell wafc to be ftruck at firft by a ham¬
mer on the outfide, the part ftruck would move inwards ;
and fuch a motion would likewife change the bafe into an
ellipfis : only in this cafe the fhofter axis of the ellipfis
Would pafs through that part where the„ blow was given.
The elafticity of the bell will reftore its figure ; and as the
part which was ftruck will acquire velocity in returning
to its proper fituation, the acquired velocity will not fuffer
it to reft there, but will carry it farther out from the oppo-
fite fide : and the bafe will by this means be again changed
into an ellipfis; having the longer axis at that part where the
blow was iidt given. Thus we have feen, that where-ever
the bell is ftruck the parts of.it will perform one vibration;
the part, which, is ftruck will yield to the blow ; the elafti¬
city of the bell will bring it back .to its former fituation ;
in returning, it will acquire velocity; and as far as the blow
had driven it one way, fo far the acquired vdocity will car-
A T I C S.
ry it the other. But fince, after one ribration is thus per¬
formed, the figure of the bafe will be elliptical; the parts
of the bell will vibrate a fecond. time; and fo on, in the fame
manner that an eiaftic firing vibrates.
The/ame ftroke which makes a bell vibrate makes it
found too; and as the vibrations decay, the found grows
weaker. Our fenfes may convince us that the parts of a
bell are in a trembling or vibratory motiom whilft the bell
founds : for if we lay our hand upon it, we may fee! it jar j
or if fmall flraws or pieces of paper are thrown upon it, we
may fee that the jarring or trembling of the bell will pus
them in motion. •
But the air muft convey this vibratory motion to the ear:
for otherwife, though the founding body is made to vibrate^
no. found will be heard. Thus if a bell is rung in the re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, the found will grow weaker as the
air is exhaufled ; ani when all the air is drawn our of the
receiver, no found at all will be heard. When the air is
admitted again into the receiver, the found will at the fifft
entrance of the air begin to be heard, and will grow louder
as more air returns. If fhe bell vas to be rung in like mana
ner in a veflel where the air is condenfed, the found of it
would be much louder than it is in common air. And ac¬
cordingly, when divers are let down to any great depth of
water, becaufe the air in the diving-bell is much conden¬
fed, they feem to one another to fpeak much louder than
ufual.
The intenfity of found, at different diflances from the found¬
ing body, is invsrfely as the jquares of the diftances.
Sounds may differ from one another, bath in refpedt of
their tone, and in refpedt of their intenfity or ftrength. Iri
refpeft of their tone, they are diftinguilhed into grave and
acute; in refpeft of their intenfity, they are diftingui/hed
into loud or ftrong, and low of weak. The tone of any
found depends upon the time that an impreflion continues,
and is not altered by the diftance of the ear from the found¬
ing body. But the intenfity or ftrength of any found de¬
pends upon the force with which the particles of air, as they
are condenfed. ftrike the ear ; and th s force is found to be
different at different diftances,, fo that a found which is
very loud if we are near the body that pioduces it, would
be weaker if we were farther fro n it, and our diftance from
it may be fo great that we cannot hear it at dll.
The proportion in which the intenfity of found decrea-
fes, as the diftance of the ear from the founding body in-
creafes, is this: If the different di'lances at which the ear
is placed are to one another as i, 2, 3, 4, J ; then the
fquares of thofe diftances are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 ; and the in¬
tenfity of found will be inverlely as thele fquares, or as the
reciprocals of thefe fquares ; that is, the ftrength of the
found will decreafe in the fame proportion with the fradlions,
which are the reciprocals of 1,' 4, 9, 16, 25.
This is what we mean when we lay that the intenfity of
found is inverfely as the fquares of the diftances, or that it
decreafes in the departure of the ear from the founding bo¬
dy in the fame proportion that the fquares of the diftances
increafe.
The intenfsty of found decreafes as the vibrations' in the
founding body grow weaker.
If an eiaftic ftring was to ftop all at once, the found pro¬
duced by it would ceafe immediately. But if the vibrations
of
P N E U M
ot tfie ftrlng decay gradually, the found will Jikewife keep
growing weaker, till it becomes too weak to be heard.
The (tring pertorms all its vibrations from the hrlt to the
lalf in equal times, and conlequentiy each p'ulfe that the
firing produces is produced in an equal time, and upon that
account each pulfe from the firft to the lall will have the
fame tbicknefs. But when the thicknels of the pulie is gi¬
ven, the quantity of air, or number of particles, by which
the ear is ftruck, will likewife be given; and the moment-
with which it is ftruck, or the imenfny of the found, will
be as the velocity with which the particles move. Now the
velocity of the llnng is fucceffivdy communicated to the
particles of air, as they are-made to vibrate. Therefore,
as the velocity of the firing decays, the velocity of the par¬
ticles, and conlequentiy the tntentity of the found, will hke-
•wife decay.
. The intenjity of found is increafed by a fpeaking-trumpet.
When a man fpeaks without fuch a t umpet, the pulfes,
as they are produced, dilate themfelves in all diredfions, or
the motion is immediately communicated to the air all round
him But if he (peaks in a trumpet, h s voice, that is, the
motion produced by his voice, is contined to the fmall por-
tion of air contained in the trumpet. For this reafon, as
there are fewer particles to be moved than there are when
the motion dilates itfelf immediately in all diredions, the
motion that is communicated will be greater, and confe-
quently, when the voice comes out of the trumpet, its in-
ienfitv or ftrengtb will be greater, than it would have been
if it had been propagated in all directions at firft.
Sound moves 'with the fame vdocity at all diftances from
the founding body.
The found of a cannon, or of a bell, moves at the rate of
114-2 feet in a fecond at all difta'nces from the gun or the bell.
If it moves at this rate for the firft mile, it would move juft at
the fame rate for the fecond mile: fo that a perfon who is
within one mile of the cannon when it is difeharged, will
hear the repor juft as foon again as another who is at the
dillance of two miles. The velocity of the found does not
decreafe as it is propagated forwards, but connnu-s the
fame from the firft to the laft. This property of found has
been proved by repeated experiments.
When found firikes againfi an obfacle, is 'will be refieded.
j3y found We here mean the pulfes in the air, which are,
properly fpeaking, the caufes of found. If thefe puiies in
their prognefe ftrike upon any obftacle, fuch as a rock; a
thick wood, of the fide of a building, the air, which is con-
denfed at the obflacle, is prevented from expanding itfelf
forwards, or from propagating the found beyond the obfta
clef Therefor?, in expanding itfelf, the motion, which would
otherwife have been propagated forwards,^ will be returned
from the obftacle; and a perfon, who is placed fo as to re¬
ceive the pulfes in their return, will hear the found by re-
fleCfion Such a reflected found is called an echo.
The number of fyllables which an echo repeats diftinCt
!y depends upon the difta.nce of the obftacle from whence
the found is reflected. Thefyllables that we hear diftinCt-
ly . repeated are thofe which are returned after we have
done fpeaking. Therefore, if the obftacle isfo near to us,
that the firft fyllable we fpeak will be returned before we
can fpeak a fecond,. no reflected found at all can heard
A T I C S. 48.9
diftinCtly ;.becaufe the direCt and reflected found, or the
voice and the echo, will be confounded with one another.
If the obftacle is at fuch a diftance, that five fyllables may
be fpoken before one will be returned; then if we fpeak
a fentence confifting of ten fyllables, the firft five will be
reflected whilft v. e are fpeaking the live laft, fo that in
fpeaking the live laft fyllables the vo ce will be confounded
with the echo of the five firft, and we (hall hear the echo of
only the five laft fyllables diftinCtty, becaufe thefe only will
be returned after we have done fpeaking. But if the ob¬
ftacle is at fuch a diftance, that we may fpeak ten fyllables
before the firft of them will return to the fpeaker ; then if
we fpeak a fentence of only ten fj^labies, ws fhall have don?
fpeaking before the echo begins, and confequensly we may
hear the whole ientence diltinCUy repeated by the echo.
Sometimes the fame-found is frequently repeated by an
echo. This happens when there a.re feveral obftacles at dif¬
ferent diftances. For though there are fever. 1 obftacles,
yet'if all of them are at the fame diftance, the found will
be returned from them all at one and the fame time ; and
confequently the feveral reflected founds will be heard toge-
gether, and will make but one echo. But if the obftacles •
are at different diftances, each will return the found at a dif¬
ferent time, and as many echoes will be heard as there are •
obftacles that produce them.
The Diving Bell.
The air in a diving-bell is comprefted by the weight or
the atmofphere before the bell is let down into the water.
But when it has funk 35 feet below the furface, the air con¬
tained in it is comprefled by the weight of the atmofphere
as befo e, and by the weight of 35 feet of water befides,
which is equiv .lent to another atmofphere. Therefore the
comprefling force at this depth is doubled, and confequent¬
ly the air in the bell will then be twice as denfe as the com¬
mon air that we breathe. As much air, iikewife, as juft:
fills the bell, when it is at the furface of he water, will, at
the depth of 35 feet, only fill half of it ; for as the com¬
prefling force is doubled, the fame quantity of air will be '
reduced to half its ufual dimenfions. For this reafon, the
water would rife into the bell, through the bafeor bottom
of it, which is always open, and would fill the other half
of it, if there was not a contrivance for bringing down ad¬
ditional air enough to force out this water, and to keep the
whole capacity of the bell full of air. However, the air
which fills it will, at the depth of 35 feet, have twice the
derifity that common air has ; and at the depth of 70 feetj .
where it will be comprefTed-by the weight of anoth r atmo*
fplv.re.it will h. ve tuple the denfity of common air.
We fhall here give a ftiort account of the contrivance for
bringing down additional air to the diving-bell becaufe it
will ferve to fhew, that if a veflcrl full of air is funk into wa¬
ter, and the water communicates with the air in the vefleJ,
then the preflure upon that air will he fo much the greater
as the veflel is funk farther below the furface of the water.
The contrivance is this.' A barrel is made ufe ofi which
has one bung-hole in the lower part of it, and another in
the upper part. A leathern pipe is faftened to the hole in
the upper part; and this pipe is fo long, that, when it hangs
down on the outfide of the barrel, its orifice reaches below
the bung hole in the lower part. If this barrel, by the
help of . eights faftened to it, is made to fink with its bot¬
tom downwards* the water* by prefiing againft the lower
bung-
490 P N E tr M
bung hole, w'H corvknfe the air contained in the'barrel: for,
notwithfhnding' this ^prelFure, none of the air can efcape
throogh the upper hole, becaufe it is kept in by a greater
preffure againlt the orifice of the leathern pipe which hangs
below the bottom of the barrel, and confequently, being deeper
in the water, fuftains a greater preffure than what ads againft
the lowi r bung-hole If thebarreiis let down tnthis manner,
till it gets below the bell, and then the end of the leathern pipe .
is lifted up into the bell; the lower bung-hole will then be
■more prelfed than the orifice of the pipe; and therefore the air
•contained in the barrel will be driven up through the pipe,
and will be received into the bell. And becaufe the barrel
is deeper in the water than the bell is, the water will prefs
more againft the bafe of the barrel to. force ihe air out of it
than it does agtinft the bafe of the bell : for which reafon
-the air wiil rufli cut of the barrel with force enough to drive
out any water which had rifen into the bell whiiit it was
defcending.
By the fame contrivance, frCfh air is brought down to
the bell as often as there is occafion for it. The air,
which has been heated by frequeittly breathing it, is let out
•through a flop cock in the top of the bell and rifes in bub¬
bles to-the furface of the water, whilfl frefh air is received
tfrom the leathern-pipe of a barrel contrived in the manner
already defcribed.
A\k nectjary for the fe c/animals.
All common air is impregnated with a certain kind of
vivifying fpirit or quality, which is necefTary to continue the
lives of animals: and this, in a gallon of air, is fufficient
dor one man during the fpace of a minute, and not. much
.longer.
This fpirit in air is deftroyed by paffing through the lungs
of animals ; and hence it is, that an animal dies foon, after
being put under aveflel which admits no frefh air to come to.
it. This fpirit is alfo in the air which is in water ; for fiih
die when they are excluded from frefh air, as in a pond that
is clofely frozen over. And the little eggs of infers flopped
up in a ghtfs, do not produce their young, though aflifled by
a kindly warmth. The feeds alfo of plants mixed with good
earth, and inclofed in a glafs, will not grow.
This enlivening quality in air is alfodeltroyed by the air’s
palling through fire ; particularly charcoal fire, or the flame
of fulphur. Hence fmoking chimneys muft be very unwhole-
fome, efpecially if the rooms they are in be fmall and clofe.
See Smoks.
Air is alfo vitiated, by remaining clofely pent up in any
place for a confiderable time ; or perhaps, by being mixed
•with malignant fleams and particles flowmg from the neigh¬
bouring bodies ; or laflly, by the corruption of the vivifying
-fpirit ; as in the holds of fhips, inoil-ciflerns. or wine-cellars,
which have been fliut up for a confiderable time. The air
in any of them is foroetimes fo much vitiated, as to be im-
•tnediate death to any animal that comes into it.
Air that has loll its vivifying fpirit is called damp, not
only becaufe it is filled with humid or moift vapours but be-
caufe it deadens fire, extinguifhes flame, and deftroys life.
The dreadful efflftsof damps are fufficiently known to fuch
"as work in mines.
The atmofphere is the common receptacle of all the efflu¬
via or vapours arifing from different bodies ; of the fleams
and fmoke of things burnt or melted; the fogs or vapours
^proceeding from damp watery places; and of effluvia from
A T I C S.
fulphureous, nitrous, acid, and alkaline bodies. In fhort,
whatever may be called volatile, rifes in the air to greater
or lefs heights, according to its fpecific gravity.
When the effluvia which arife from acid and alkaline bo¬
dies meet each other in the air, there will be a ftrong con-
ftidt or fermentation between them ; which will fometimes
be fo great, as to produce a fire, ih:n if theeffluvia be com-
buftible, the fire will run from one part to another, juft as
the inflammable matter happens to lie.
Anyone maybe convinced of this, by mixing an acid
and an alkaline fluid together, as the fpirit of nitre and
oil of cloves; upon the doing of which, a hidden ferment,
with a fine flame, will arife; and if the ingredients be very
pure and flrong, there will be a fudden explofion.
Whoever confiders the effe&s of fermentation, cannot be
at a lofs to account for the dreadful effedls of thunder and
lightening-, (fee Electricity:) For the effluvia of fulphu¬
reous and nitrous bodies, and others that may rife into the
atmofphere, wiil ferment with each other, and, take fire
very often of themfelves ; fometimes by the affiftance of the
fun’s heat.
If the inflammable matter be thin and light, it will rife
to the upper part of the atmofphere, where it will flalh with¬
out doing any harm; but if it be denfe, it will lie nearer
the furface of the earth, where taking fire, it will explode
with a furprifing force; and by its heat rarefy and drive a-
way the air, kill men anfi cattle, fplit trees, walls, rocks,
&c. and be accompanied with terrible claps of thunder.
The heat of lightening appears to be quite different from
that of other fires ; for it has been known to run through
wood, leather, cloth, &c. without hurting them, while it
has broken and melted iron, fteel, filver. gold, and other
hard bodies. Thus it has melted or burnt afunder a fword,
without hurting the fcabbard; and money in a man’s pocket,
without hurting his dloaths: the reafon of this feems to be,
that the particles of the fire are fo fine, as to pafs through
foft loofe bodies without diffolving them; whilft they fpend
their whole force upon the hard ones.
It is remarkable, that, knives and forks which have been
(truck with lightening have a very ftrong magnetical virtue
for feveral years after.
Much of the fame kind with lightening, are thofe explo-
fions, called fulminating or fire-damps, which fometimes
happen in,mines; and ate occafioned by fulphureous and ni¬
trous, or rather oleaginous particles, rifing from the mine,
and mixing with the air, where they will take fire by the
lights which the workmen are obliged to make ufe of. The
fire being kindled will run from one part of the mine to a-
nother, like a train of gunpowder, as the eombuftible mat¬
ter happens to lie. And as the elafticity of the air is increa-
fed by heat, that in the mine will confequently fwell very
much, and fo, for want of room, will explode with a greater
or lefs degree of force, according to the denfity ofethe com-
buftible vapours. It is fometimes fo ftrong as to blow up
the mine; and at other times fo weak, that when it has ta¬
ken fire at the flame of a candle, it is eafily blown out.
Air that will take fire at the flame of a candle may be
produced thus. Having exhaufted a receiver of the air-pump;
let the air run into it through the flame of the oil of turpen¬
tine: then remove the cover of the receiver: and holding a
candle to that air, it will take fire, and burn quicker or flow¬
er, according to the denfity of the oleaginous vapour.
When fuch combuftible matter, as is above-mentioned,
kindles
P N E U M
kindles in xht bowels of the earth, where there is little or
no vent, it produces earthquakes, and violent (forms or hur¬
ricanes of wind when it breaks forth into the air
An artificial earthquake may be made thus. Take loor
15 ponnds of fulphur, and as much of the filings of iron, and
knead them with common water into'the confidence of a
pade : this being buried in the ground, will, in 8 or 10
hours time, burdoutin flames, andcaufe the earth to tiem-
fcle all around to a confiderable didance.
From this experiment we have a very natural account of
the fire of mount AEana, Veluvius, and oiher volcano’s, they
being probably fet on fire at firfl by the mixture of iiich me¬
talline and fulphureous particles.
Of the Air-pump.
The air-pump being in efFeft the fame as the water-pump,
(fee Hydrostatics,) whoever underdands the one will
be at no lofs tounderdand the other.
Having put a wet leather on the plate LL of the air-
pump, (Plate CXLV. fig. 8 ) place theglafs receiver M up¬
on the leather, fo that the hole i in the plate may be within
the glafs. Then, turning the handle F backward and for¬
ward, the air will be pumped out of the receiver; which will
then be held down to the plate by the predure of the exter¬
nal air or atmofphere. For, as the handle (fig. 9.) is turned
backwards, it raifes the pidon de in the barrel BK, by
means of the wheel F and rack Dd; and as the pidon is
leathered fo tight, as to fit the barrel exaSly, no air can
get between the pifton and barrel; and therefore, all the
air above d \n the barrel is lifted'up towords B, and a vacu¬
um is made in the barrel from <? to b; upon which, part of
the air in the receiver M (fig. 8.) by its fpnng, rdhes through
the hole i, in the brafs plate LL, along the pipe CC6:( which
communicates with both barrels by the hollow trunk IHK
(fig, 9) and, pudiing up the valve b, enters into the vacant
place be oi the barrel BK. For, wliere-ever the refidance
or preflure is taken off, the air will run to that place, if it
can find a paffage.—Then, as the handle F will be turned
forward, the pidon de will,be depieffed in the barrel: and, as
the air which had got into the barrel cannot be pudied back
through the valve b, it will afcend through a bole in the pi-
Bon, and efcape through a valve at d; and be hindered by
that valve from returning into the barrel, when the pidon is
again raifed. At the next railing of the pidon, a vacuum is
again made in the fame manner as before, between b and e\
upon which more of the air, which was left in the receiver
'M. gets but thence by its fpring, and runs itto the barrel
BK, through the valve B. The fame thing is to be under-
ftood with regard to the other barrel Al, and as the handle
F is turned backwards and forwards, it alternately raifes
and depreffes the pidons in their barrels, always raifing one
whtld it depreffes the other. And, as there is a vacuum
made iff each barrel when its pidon is rai(ed, every partiele
cf air in the receiver M pufhes out another, by its fpring
or eladicity, through the hole i and pipe GG, into the bar¬
rels, until.at lad the airin the receiver comes to be fo-much
dilated, and its fpring fo far weakened, that it can no longer
get through the valves: and then no more can -be taken
out. Hence there is no fuch thing as making a perfect
vacuum in the receiver: for the quantity of air taken out at
any one droke, will always be as the denfity thereof in the
receiver: and therefore it is impdfible to take it all out, be-
y.OL, III. N® 89. 2
A T I C S. 49t
caufe, fuppofing the receiver and barrels of equal capacity,
therewijl be always as much left as was taken out at the lad
turn of the handle.
There is a cock k below the pump-plate, which being
turned lets the ?ir into the receiver again ; and then the
receiver.becomes loofe, and may be taken off the plate. Th'e
barrels are fixed to the frame Eee by two jfcrew-nuts ff,
which prefs down the top piece E upon the barrels ; and
the hollow trunk H (in fig. 9.) is covered by a box, as 67/
in fig 8.
There is a glals tube lmmmn open at both ends, and a-
bout 34 inches long ; the upper end communicating with
the hole in the pump-plate, and the lower end immerfed in
quickfiiver at n in the veffel N. To this tube is fitted a
wooden ruler mm, called the gage, which is divided into
inches and parts of an inch, from the bottom at:« (where
it is even with the fur face of the quickfii ver) and continued
up to the top, a little below /-, to 30 or 31 inches.
As the air is pumped out of the receiver M, it is likewife
pumped out of the glafs tube Imn, becaufe that tube opens
into the receiver through the pump-plate ; and as the tube
is gradually emptied of air, the quickfilver in the veffel N
is forced up into the tube by the preffure of the atmofphere:
And if the receiver could be perfediy exhaufted of air, the
quickfilver would (land as high in the tube as it does at that
time in the barometer.: for it is fupported by the fame power
or weight of the atmofphere in both.
The quantity of air exhaufted put of the receiver on each
turn of the handle, is always proportionable to the afcent of
the quickfilver on that turn ; and the quantity of a7 re¬
maining in the receiver, is proportionable to the defed of
the height of the quickfilver in the gage, from what it is at
that time in the barometer.
EXPERIMENTS with the AIR-PUMP.
I. To Jhe’w the refijiance of the air.
1. There is a little machine, confiding of two njiHs, a
and b, [ibid. fig. 10.) which are of equal weights, inde¬
pendent of each other, and turn equally free on their axes
in the frame. Each mill has four thin arms or fails fixed
into the axis ; thofe of the mill « have their planes at .right-
angles to its axis, and thofe of b have their planes parallel
to it. Therefore, aj the mill « turns round in common air,
it is but little refilled thereby, becaufe its fails cut the air
with their thin edges : but the mill b is much refifled, be¬
caufe the broad fides of its fails move againft the air when
it turns round. In each axle is a pin near the middle of the
♦ frame, which goes quite through the axle, and (lands out
a little on each fide of it ; upon ihefe pins, the Aider d may
be made to bear, and fo hinder the mills from going when
.theilrong fpring c is fet on bend againd the oppofite ends of
the pins.
Having fet this machine upon the pump-plateXX (fig. 8.)
draw up the Aider d to the pins on one fide, and let the
fpring c at bend upon the oppolite ends of the pins ; then
pulh down the Aider d, and the fpring ailing equally (hong
on each mill, will fet them both agoing with equal forces
and velocities : but the mill a will run much longer than the
mill b, .becaufe the air makes much lefs-refiftance againft
the edges of its fails thin againd the .fides of the fails
of b.
6 H
'©raw
Dr.av/sp the (I der again, and fet the fpring upon the ■
pins as before ; then cover the machine with the receiver M
(fig. 8.) upon the pump-plate, and having exhaufted the
receiver of air, pufh down the wire PP (through the collar
of leathers in the neck q) upon- the Aider ; which will dif-
engage it from the pins, and allow the mills to turn round
by the impulfe of the fpring ; and as there is no air in the
receiver to make any fenfible refiftance againft them, they
will both move a'confiderable time longer than they did in
the open air; and the moment that one flops, the^ other
will do fc> too.—This fhews that air refifts bodies in mo¬
tion, and that equal bodies meet with different degrees of
reSflance, according as they prefent greater or lefs furfaces
to the air, in the planes of their motions.
2 Take off the receiver M (fig. n.) and the mills; and
having put the guinea a and feather b upon the brafs flap c,
turn up the flap, and flrut it into the notch d. Then, put¬
ting a wet leather over the top of the tall receiver AB (it
being open both at top and bottom) cover it with the plate
C, from which the guinea and feather tongs ed will then hang
within the receiver. This done, pump the air put of the
receiver ; and then draw up the wire f a little, which by a
fquare piece on its lower end will open the tongs ed ; and
the flap falling down,‘as at c, the guinea and fedther will
defcend with equal velocities in the receiver ; and both will
fall upon the pump-plate at the fame inftant. N.B. In this
experiment, the obfejvers ought not to look at the top, but
at the bottom of the receiver ; in order to fee the guinea
and feather fall upon the plate ; otherwife, on account of
the quicknefs of their motion, they will efcape the fight of
tire beholders.
II. To /hew the ’weight of the air.
1. Having fitted a brafs cap, with a valve tied over it, to
the mouth of a thin bottle or Florence flaflc, whofe con
tents are exa&ly known, fcrew the neck of this cap into the
hole / of the pump-plate ; then, having exhaufted the air
Out of the flaflc, and taken it off from the pump, let it be
fufpended at one end of a balance, and nicely counterpoifed
by weights in the fcale at the other end ; this done, raife
upythe valve with a pin, and the air will rufh into the flafk
with an audible noife ; during which time, the flafk will
defcend, and pull down, that end of the beam. 'When the
noife is over, put as many grains into the fcale at the other
end as will reflore the equilibrium; and theyfvill (hew ex-
aftly the weight of the quantity of air which has got into
the flaflc, and filled it. If the flaflc holds an exadf quart,
it wdl be found, that \q grains will reflore the equipoife of
the balance, when the quickfilver ftand$ at inches in
the barometer which fhews, that when the air is at a mean
fate of denfity, a quart of it weighs 17 grains ; it weighs
more when'the quickfilver flands higher, and lefs when it
ftands lower.
2. Place the fmall receiver (5 (fig. 8.) over the hole i
in the pump plate; and upon exhaufting the air, the recei¬
ver will be fixed down to the plate by the preffure of the
air on its outfide, which is left to aft alone, without any
air in the receiver to aft againft it: and this preffure will be
equal to as many times 1 5 pounds, as there are fquare inch¬
es in that part of the plate which the receiver covers; which
will hold down the receiver fo fafl, that it cannot be got
off.1 until the air be let into it by turning the co:k k ; and
then it becomes loofe.
A T I C S.
3. Set the little glafs AB (fig. 12 ) (which is open at
both ends) over the hole i upon the pump-plate LL, and
put your hand clofe upon the top of it at B : then upon
exhaufting the air out of the glafs, you will find your hand
preffed down with a great weight upon it; fo that you can
hardly releafe it, until the air be readmitted into the glais by
turning the cock k ; which air, by aftingas flrongly upward
againft the hand as the external sir afted tn prefling it down-\
ward, will releafe the hand from its confinement.
4. Having tied a piece of wet bladder b (fig. 13.) over
the open top of the glafs A (which is alfo open at bottom)-
fet it to dry, and then the bladder will be tight like a drum.
Then place the open end A upon the pump plate, over the
hole /, and begin to exhauft the air out of the glafs. As
the air is exhaufling, its fpring in the glafs will be weakened,
and give way to the preffure of the outward air on the blad¬
der, which, as it is prefled down, will put on a fpherical
concave figure, which will grow deeper and deeper, until
the ftreng-h of the bladder be overcome by the weight of
the air ; and then it will break with a report as loud as that
of a gun—Jfa flat piece of glafs be laid upon the open top
of this receiver, and joined to it by afldt ring of wet leather
between them ; upon pumping the air out of the receiver,
the preffure of the outward an upon the flat glafs will break-
it all to pieces.
j. Immerfe the neckcaf (fig. 14.) of the hollow glafs ball
eb in water, contained in the phial aa ; then fet it upon the
pump-plate, and cover it and the hole i with the dole recei¬
ver A-, and then begin to pump out the air. As the air
goes out of the receiver by its fpring, it will alfo by the
fame means go out of the hollow ball eb, through the neck'
dc, and rife up in bubbles to the furface of the water in the
phial; from whence it will make its way, with the reft of
the air in the receiver, through the air-pipe GG and valves
a and b, into the open air. When it has done bubbling in
the phial, the ball is fufficiently exhaufted; and then, upon
turning the cock k, the air will get into the receiver, and
prefs fo upon the furface of the water in the phial, as to
force the water up into the ball in a jet,', through the neck
cd, and will fill the ball almoft full pf-water. The reafon
why the ball is not quite filled, is becaufe all the air could
not be taken out of it"; and the fmall quantity that was left
in, and had expanded itfelf fo as to fill the whole ball, ix
now condenfed into the fame ftate as the outward air, and
remains in a fmall bubble at the topof the ball; andfo keeps
the water from filling that part of the ball.
6. Pour Avne quickfilver into the jar D (fig. 15.) and
fet it on the pump plate near the hole / ; then fet on the
tall open receiver AB, fo as to be over the jar and hole •
and cover the receiver with the brafs plate C. Screw the
open glafs tube fg (which has a brafs top on it at h) into
thefyringe i/; and putting the tube through a hole in the
middle of the plate, fo as to immerfe the lower end of the
tube e in the quickfilver at D, fcrew the end h of the lyringe
into the plate. This done, draw up thepifton in the fyringe
by the ring /, which will make a vacuum in the fyringe
below the pilfon; and as the upper end of the tube opens
into the fyringe, the air will be dilated in the tube, becaufe
part of it, by its fpring, gets up into the fyringe ; atld the
fpring of the undilated air in the receiver a&ing upon the
furface of the quickfilver in the jar, will force part ofit up
into the tube : for the quickfil.ver will follow the pifton in the
fyringe, in the fame way, and for the fame reafon, that wa¬
ter
P N E U M
ter follow the pifton of a common pump when it is raifed
in the pump-barrel ; and this, according to. fome, is done
by fuflion. Bu; to refute that erroneous notion, let the
air be pumped out of the receiver AB, and then all the
qqicktiiver in the tube will fall down by its own weight into
the jar ; and cannot be again raifed one hair’s breadth in
the tube by,working thq fyringe ; which fhews, that fuftion
had no hand in ratfing the quickfilver: and, to prove that
it is done by preffure, let the-air into the receiver by the
cock k (fig. 8.) and itsadion upon the furface of the quick¬
filver in the jar will raife it up into the tube, although the
pifton of the fyringe continues motionlefs. If the tube be
about 32 or 33 inches high, the quickfilver will rife in it
'very near as high as it Hands at that time in the barometer.
And, if the fyringe has a fmall hole, as near the top of
it, and the pifion be drawn up above that hole, the air will
ru(h tbioiigh the hole into the fyringe and tube, and the
quickfilver will immediately fall down into the jar; If this
part of the apparatus be air tight, the quickfilver may be
pumped qp into the tube to the fame height that it Hands
in the barometer ; but it will go no higher, becaufe then
•the weight of the column in the tube is the fame as the
weight qf a column of air of the fame thicknefs with the
quickfilver, and reaching from the earth to the top of the
atmofphere.
7. Having placed the jar A (fig. 16.) with fome quick¬
filver in it, on the pump-plate, as in the laH experiment,
cover it with the receiver B then pufh the open end of the
glafs-tube fife through the collar of leathers in -the brafs neck
C (which it fits fo as to be air-tight) almoH down to the
quickfilver in the jar. Then exhauH the air out of the re¬
ceiver, and it will alfo come out'of the tube, becaufe -the
tube is clofe at top. When the gauge mm fhews that the
receiver is well exhauHed, pu(h down the tube, fo as to
immerfe Its lower end imp the quickfilver in the jar Now,
although the tube be exhauHed of air, none of the quick¬
filver will rife into it, becaufe there is no air left in the re¬
ceiver to prefs upon its furface in the jar. But let the air
into the receiver by the cock k, and the quickfilver will im¬
mediately rife m the rube ; and Hand as high in it, as it was
pumped up in the laH.experiment.
Both thefe experiments fhew., that-the quickfilver is fup-
ported in the barometer by the preflure of the air on its
furface in the box, in which the open end of the tube is
placed : and that the more denfe and heavy the air is, the
higher does the qpickfilver rife ; and, on the contrary, the
thinner and lighter the.air i$, themore will the quickfilver
fall. For, if the handle F be turped ever fo little, it takes
fome air put of the receiver, by raifing one orotherof the
piflons in its barrel-. and confequently, that which remains
in the receiver is fo much the rarer, and has fo much the
lefs fpring and weight; and thereupon, thequickfilyer fails
,a little in the tube; but upon turning the cock, and re-ad¬
mitting the air into the receiver, it becomes as weighty as
before, and the quickfilver rifes again to the fame height.
—Thus we fee the reafon why the quickfilver in the baro¬
meter falls before rain or fnow, and rifes before fair wea¬
ther ; for, in the former cafe, the air is too thin and light
to- bear up the vapours, and in the latter too denfe and
heavy to let them fall.
N. B. In all'mercurial experiments with the air-pump,
a (hort pipe mufi be fcrewed into the hole fo as to rife
about-an inch above the plate, to prevent the quickfilver
A T 'I C S. 493
from getting into the air-pipe and.barrels, in cafe-any of it
111 ou Id be accidentally fpilt over the jar; for if it once gets,
into the pipes or barrels, it fpoils them, bjMoofening the '
folder, and corroding the brafs.
8. Take the tube out of the receiver, and’put one end
of a bit of dry hazel-branch, about an inch long, tight in-)
to thehole, and the.other end tight into a hole quite through;
the bottom of a Imall wooden cup : then pour fome quick-,
filver into the cup, and exhauH the receiver of air ; and the;
preflure of the outward air, on the furface of the quickfii-
ver, will force it through the jiores of the hazel, from
whence it will defcend in a beautiful (hower into a cup placed
under the receiver to catch it.
9. Put a wire, through the collar of leathers in the top of.
the receiver, and fix a bit of dry wood on the end of the
wire within the receiver; then exhauH the air, and pufir-
the wire down, fo as to immerfe the wood into ajar of quick¬
filver on the pump-pUte: this done, let in the air ; and up¬
on taking the wood out of the jar, and fplitting it, its pore§.
will be found full of quickfilver, which the force of the air,
upon being let into the receiver, drove into the wood.
10. Join the two brafs hemilpherical cups A and B (fig.
17.) together, with a wet leather between them, having a
hole in the middle of it;, then fcreW the end D of the pipe
CD into the plate of the pump at i, and turn the cock E,
fo as the pipe may be open all the way into the cavity of the
hemifpheres ; then exhauH the air out of them, and turn-
the cock a quarter round, which will fltut the pipe CD, and
keep out the air. This done, unfcrew the pipe at D from,
the pump, and fcrew the piece Fh upon it at Z) ; and let
two Hrong men try to pull the hemifpheres afunder by the
rings £ and h, which they will find hard to do; for if the
diameter of the hemifpheres be four inches, they will be
prefled together by the external air with a force equal to
188 pounds. And to fhew that it is the preflure of the air
that keeps them together, hang them, by either of the rings
upon the hook P of the wire in the receiver Tlf (fig. 8.),
and upon exhaufling the air out of the receiver, they will
fall afunder of themfelves.
it. Place a fmall receiver 0 (fig 8.) near the hole ion
the pump-plate, and cover both it and the hole.with the re¬
ceiver M; and turn the wire fo by the top P, that its hook
-may take hold of the little receiver by a ring at its top, air
lowing that receiver to Hand with its own weight on ths
plate. Then, upon working the pump, the air will coma-
out of both receivers ; but the large one /If will be forcibly
held down to the pump by the preflure of the external air;
whilH the fmall one 0, having no air to prefs upon it, will
continue loofe, and may be drawn up and let down at plea-
fure, by the wire PP But, upon letting it quite down to
the plate, and admitting the air into the receiver/If, by the
cock the air will prefs fo flrongly upon the finall recei¬
ver 0, as to fix it down to the plate ; and at the fame time,
by counterbalancing the outward pr--flure on the large re¬
ceiver Af* it will become loofe. This experiment evident¬
ly fhews, that the receivers are held down by prefiure, and
not by finffion, for the infernal receiver continued loofe
whilfl the operator was pumping, and the external one v/as
held down ; but the former became fafl immediately, by let¬
ting in the air upon it.
12 Screw the end A (fig. 18.) of the brafs pipe
into the hole of the pump-plate, and turn the cock ^ until
the pipe be open ; then put » wet leather upon the plate cE -
' which -
<494 P N E U M
which'is'Si;?d on the pipe, and cover it with the tall recei¬
ver GH, which is dole at top ; then exhauli the air out of
the receiver, and turn the cock e to keep it out; which
done, unicrew the pipe from the pump, and fet its end A
into a bafon of water, and turn the cock e to open the pipe ;
Gtrwhich, as there is no air in the receiver, the preffure of
the atm&fphere on the’water in the bafon will drive the wa¬
ster forcibly through the pipe, and make it play up in a jet
to the top of the receiver.
13. Set the fquare phial A (fig 21.) upon the pump-
plate; and having covered it with the wire-cage B, put a
clofe receiver over it, and exhault the air out of the recei¬
ver ; in doing of which, the air will alio make its way out
of the phial through a fmall hole in its neck under the valve
b. When the air is exhaufted, turn the cock below the
plate, to re-admit the air into the receiver ; and as it can¬
not get into the pciial again, becaufe of the valve, the phial
will be broke into fome thoufands of pieces by the prtflure
cf the air upon it. Had the phial been of a round form,
it would have futtained this prefTure like an arch, without
breaking ; but as its fides are flat, it cannot.
To Jheiv the elajhcity or fpring of the air.
14. Tie up a very fmall quantity of air in a bladder, and
put it under a receiver; then exhauft the air out of the re¬
ceiver, and the fmall quantity which is confined in the blad¬
der (having nothing to a<?t againft it) will expand itfelf fo
by the force of its-fpring, as to fill the bladder as full as it
could be blown of common air. But upon letting the air
into the receiver again, it will overpower the air in the blad¬
der, and prefs its fides almofl clofe together.
15. If the bladder fo tied up be put into a wooden box,
and have 20 or 30 pounds weight of lead put upon it in the
box, and the box be covered with a clofe receiver ; upon
exhauffing the air out of the receiver, that air which is con¬
fined in the bladder will expand itfelf fo, as to raife up
all the lead by the force of its fpring. ♦ *
16. Take the glafs-ball mentioned in the fifth experi¬
ment, ( fig. 14.), which was left full of water all but a fmall
bubble of air at top; and having fet it with its neck down¬
ward into the empty phial aa, and covered it with a clofe
receiver, exhauft the air out of the receiver, and the fmall
bubble of air in the top of the ball will expand itfelf, foas
to force all the water out of the ball into the phial. ^
17. Screw the pipe AB (flg. 18 ) into the pump-plate,
place the tall receiver GH upon the plate cd, as in the twelfth
experiment, and exhauft the air out of the receiver: then,
turn the cock e. to keep out the air; unferewthe pipe from
the pump, and ferew it into the mouth of the copper veflel
CC (fig. 22.) the veflel having firft been about half filled
with water. Then turn the cock e (fig. 18.) and the fpring
of the air which is confined in the upper veflel will force the
water up through the pipe AB in a jet into the exhaufted re-
-ceiver, as ftrobgly as it did^by its prelfure on the furface^of
*he water in a bafon, in the twelfth experiment.
18. If a fowl, a cat, rat, a moufe, or bird, be put un-
-der a receiver, and the air be exhaufted, the animal will be
nf firft opprefled as with a great weight, then grow convul-
fed, and at laft expire in all the agonies of a moft bitter
and cruel death.
19. If a butterfly be fufpended in a receiver, by a fine
thread tied to one of its horns, it will fly about in the re¬
ceiver, as-long as the receiver continues full of air; but if
A TICS.
the air be exhaufted, though the animal will not die, and
will continue to flutter its wings, it cannot remove itfelf
from the place where it hangs in the middle of the receiver,
until the air be let in again, and then the animal will fly a-
bout as before.
20. Pour fome quickfilver into the ftnall bottle A (fig.
19.) and ferew the brafs collar c of the tube BC into the
brais neck b of the bottle, and the lower end of the tube
will be immerfed into the quickfilver, fo that the air above
the quickfilver, in the bottle will be confined there, becaufe
it cannot get out about the joinings, nor can it be drawn
out through the quickfilver into the tube. This tube is al-
fo open at top, and is to be covered with the receiver G and
large tube EF, which tube is fixed by brafs collars to the
receiver, and is clofe at the top This preparatio'n-being
made, exhauft the air both out of the receiver and its tube ;
and the air will by the fame means be exhaufted out of the
inner tube BC, through its open top at C; and as the re¬
ceiver and tubes are exhaufting, the air that is confined in
the glafs bottle A will prefs fo by its fpring upon the fur-
fa-e of the quickfilver, as to force it up in the inner tube
as high as it was raifed in the ninth experiment by the pref¬
fure of the atmbfphere ; which demonftrates that the Jprfng
of the air is equivalent to its weight.
21 ■ Screw the end C (fig. 20.) of the pipe CD into the
hole of the' purtip-plate, and turn all the three cocks d, G,
and H, fo as to open the communications between alt the
three pipes E, F, DC, and the hollow trunk AB. Then,
cover the platesg and b with wet leathers, which have holes
in their middle where the pipes open into the plates; and
place the dole receiver I upon the plate £.• this done, Ihut
the pipe F by turning the cock H, and exhauft the air out
of the receiver 1. Then turn the cock d, to Ihut out the air;
unferew the machine from the pump; and having fere ved it
to the wooden foot L, put the receiver F” upon the plate h:
this receiver will continue loofe on the plate as long as it
keeps full of air-; which it will do until the cock H be turn¬
ed to open the communication between the pipes F and E,
through the trunk AB\ and then the air in the receiver K,
having nothing to aft againft its fpring, will run from K into
I, until it be fo divided between thefe receivers, as to be
of equal denfity in both; and they will be held down with
equal forces^ to their plates by the preflure of the at-
mofphere, though each receiver will then be kept down but
with one half of preflure upon it that the receiver I had
when it was exhaufted of air; becaufe it has now one half
of the common air in it which filled the receiver A* when it
was fet upon the plate; and therefore a force pqual to half
the force of the fpring of common air will aft within the
receivers againft the whole prdfure of the common air upon
their outfides Thisjis called transferring the air out of one
veflel into another
22. Put a cork into the fqaare phial A, (fig. 21.) and fix
it in with wax or cement; put the phial upon the pump plate
with the wire-cage B over it, and cover the cage with a
clofe receiver Then, exhauft the air out of the receiver;-
and the air that was corked up in the phial will break the
phial outwards by the force of its fpring, becaufe there is
no air left on the outfide of the phial to aft againft the air
within it.
22. Put a fhrivelled apple under a clofe receiver, and ex¬
hauft the air; then the fpring of the air withing the apple
will plump it out, fo as to caufe.ainhe wrinkles difappear -;
but
^v/ 2f?
I'/,/ S(>
F |
Xlafe (’XLV
P O MUE
.tty. 6J.
P N E U M
letting the air into the receiver again, to prefs upon
the apple, it will ihitantly return to its former decayed and
fhriveiled ftate.
23. Take a frefli egg, and cut off a little of the fliell and
film from its fmalleltend; then put the egg under a receiver,
and pump out the air; upon which, all ihe contents in the
egg will be forced out into the receiver, by{the expanfion of
a fmall bubble of air contained in the great end, between the
fliell and film.
34. Put fome warm beer in a glals; and having fet it on
the pump, cover it with a clofe receiver, and then exhauft
the air. Whilft this is doing, and thereby the preflure more
and more taken off from the beer in the glafs.'theair there¬
in will expand itfelf, and rife up in innumerable bubbles to
thefurface of the beer; and from thence it will be taken a-
way with the other air in the receiver. When the receiver
is near exhaufted, the air in the beer, which could not dif-
eatangie itfelf quick enough to get off with the reft, will now
expand itfelf fo, as to caufe the beer to have all the ap
pearance of boiling; and the greateft: part of it will go 9-
ver thegiafs.
25. Put fome warm water in a glafs, and put a bit of
dry waittfcot or other wood into the water. Then, cover
the giafs with a clofe receiver, and exhauft the air; upon
which, the air in the wood having liberty to expand it¬
felf, will come out plentifully, and make all the water to
bubble about the wood, efpecially about the ends, becaufe
the pores lie lengthwife. A cubic inch of dry wainfcot has
fb much air in it, that it will continue bubbling for near half
an hour together.
Of WINDS.
AS the air is afluid, fubj=&ed to the fame laws of gravi¬
tation as other fluids, it neceffarily has a conftant tendency
to preferve an equilibrium in every part; fo that, if by any
means whatever it is rendered lighter in any one place than
another, the weightier air will tuih in from every fide to¬
wards this place, till as much be there accumulated as makes
it of an equal weight with the reft of the atmofphere: It is
thefe currents of air which are called winds.
Many are the caufes which may vary the weight of the
atmofphere, and occafion particular topical winds.
Although Other caufes may occafion winds in certain cir-
cumftances, yet their principal and moft univerfal caufe is
the fun, which warmeth the air to a much greater degree
in fome places of the atmofphere than in others; and as the
air is fufceptime of a great degree of expanfion by heat in
thofe places where it is heated to any confiderable degree,
it is expanded fo much as to become lighter than the air in
thofe places where it is colder; fo that the weightier cold
air from all the circumjacent parts rufties towards this point
to reftore the equilibrium %vbich had been deftroyed So
that if there be any particular part upon the earth’s furface
where theTun afis conftantly with greater force than on any
other part, a furreot of air will conftantiy flow from thefe
towards the warmer region: but the fun a<3s with greater
for e upon thofe parts of the earth which are neareft the
Equator, than thofe which approach towards either iW^;
4b that we might naturally expeift that a wind would con-
ftanfty bio / from the polar regions towards the Equator ;
which is really found to be the cafe in the Torrid Zone,
where the influence of the fun overcomes almoft all the o-
ther Jeffer caufes which produce the variable winds in ofir
Vol. III. N°. 89. 2
A T I C S. 49s
more northerly regions. However, even in the Torrid Zone,
thefe north and fouth winds are varied in different ways.
Although the heat of the equatorial 'region 1$ greater
than any other; yet as the fun ads perpendiculaal’y in his
diurnal courfe upon one point of the equator only at one
time, and immediately paffes over it; and as the air retains
the heat communicated to it by the fun but for a ihort time,
cooling gradually as he retires, and continuing ftill to de-
creafe till his influence again returns the following day; the
degree of heat upon this great circle muft be very different
in different parts, and perpetually varying in every pointj
which muft in fome raeafure tend to diiiurb thofe winds co.
ming from the polar regions, which we have already men¬
tioned. To comprehend clearly what will be the effects of
this rotation, let us confider what effeift it would naturally
produce upon the equator with regard to wind, fuppofipg
no other caufe ftrould interrupt it. And here we muft qbfer ve,
that as the point upon which the fun a<Ss with the greateft
power is conftantly moving from eaft to weft,, the air to the
eaft of that point over which the fun has more lately pafled
will be more rarefied than that to the weft, and will natu¬
rally flow towards that point from eaft to weft with greater
velocity than from weft to eaft, as the cool air to the weft
of that point will be interrupted in its motion towards it by
the motion of the fun meeting it. Hence therefore it follows,
that from the diurnal motion of the earth from weft to eaft
a conftant eaft: wind would always be produced, were it not
obftruaed by other caufes. But as there is a conftant ftreara
of air flowing from the polar towards the equatorial regions,
a compofition of thefe two currents of air a fling at the
fame time will produce a north-eaft wind in all parts of the
northern hemifphere, and a fouth-eaft wind in all parts of
the fouthern one. Thefe winds are .known by the name of
the general trade-winds.
If there were no inequalities on the furface of our globe,
and if it werecompofedof afubitancejperfeflly homogeneous,
this wind would invariably take place at all times on every
part of the earth’s furface; but as this is -not the cafe, it is
liable to feveral very confiderable variations. In all thofe re¬
gions towards the poles, as the influence of the fun is there
but weak, other leffer caufes occafion particular winds, and
difturb that regularity which at firit view we might expeft,
fo that tht general trade wind does not invariably take place
beyond the 28tfl or 3©ttl degree of latitude ; and the regions
between that and the poles have nothing but variable winds.
Even in the Torrid Zone, there are many caufes whico in
particular places alter this direflion of the wind; fo that
the genuine trade-winds do not take place except in the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans on each fide the equator to the
diftance of 28 or 30 degrees, and in the greateft part cf the
Indian ocean to the fouth.of the Equator as appears, more cfi-
ftimftiy upon the Map ; fee Plate CXLVI. where the courle
of the winds are marked by the dire&ion of the ftroke;, the
darts pointing in the fame dire&ion as the wind blows.
Haring thus explained the nature and caufes dfthe gene¬
ral trade wind, we now proceed to rake notice of the prift-
cipal deviations which take place in the Torrid Zone. The
general trade-wind, when thus altered at particular fofons,
is known by the name of monfoom. There are other varia¬
tions, which, although as general, are yet of fmaller and more
limited influence. Thefe are known by the name of bree¬
zes •, and as they blow perio lically jfrom the fea, they
are denominated jea or land breezes, and take place mote
^9<5 P N E U M
or !efs in every fea coaft within the tropics. As the caufes
of the monfotyhs will be more clearly comprehended after
the nature of thefe breezes is explained, we fhail Grit con-
fider them.
The fea and land breezes of the Torrid ^one are gentle
periodical winds regularly fliifting twice every day, and
blowing from the fea towards the land daring the day time,
and from the land towards the fea in the night.- Thefe
breezes do not blow with an equal degree of force through¬
out the whole day and night, but are perpetually varying,
being always ftrongeft about mid-day and midnight, and be¬
coming gradually weaker till the time of change in the e-
vening and'morning ; about which time the air continues
for a fhort fpace perfeftly calm : but in a little the breeze
begins to be felt on the fide oppofite to that from which it
blew laft, fo faint at fird as hardly to be perceived ; but by
degrees acquiring greater ftfength, it goes on increafing for
liv^ or fix hours, after which it again as gradually finks and
dies aA'ay. ' They always blow diredly off or towards the
fiiore, and never extend their influence to a great didance
from it, although this is varied by particular circumdances
in different places ; as they never extend fo far from the
points of capes and promontories, as in deep bays ; nor up¬
on the windward, as lee-fhores.
Thefe breezes are produced by the fame caufe which gives
rife to the trade-wind, viz. the heat of the fun. In thefe
v/atm legions the days and nights are nearly of an equal
length throughout the whole year; the fun riling high in
the daytime, and defcending almod perpendicularly at night;
which occafions a much greater variation between the heat
of the day and night than is-experienced in the more tem¬
perate climates ; and it is this great difference between the
heat of the night and day which produces the breezes. For
the rays of the fun are reverberated from the land during
rhe day:time, much more powerfully than from the fea, whofe
furface is conftantly evaporating ; and the air above the land
is rendered much warmer, and confequently more rarified,
than above the fea; fo that a current of air neceffarily takes
place at that time from the fea towards the land, increa¬
fing and diminilhing in ftrength as the heat increafes or de¬
clines. But when the fun defcends below the horizon, the
evaporation from the furface of the fea is llopt, or greatly
diminilhed, and the cold which it occafioned is of eonfe-
quence- removed : the reverberation of the fun’s rays from
the furface of the earth is likewife removed, and the air a-
bove the land quickly refumes its natural degree of cold,
which is always greater than the fea, when the influence of
the fun is withdrawn ; fo that the ait above the fea becomes
warmer during the night than that above'the land, and a
current of air is of cdurfe eftablilhed from the land to the
fea, which forms the land-breeze, which ads as uniformly,
although lefs powerfully, than the fea-breeze; blowing at
fir ft gently as the air begins to cool, and gradually gathering
ftrength as the fun retires below the horizon ; till his influ¬
ence begins to be full again in the morning, when it gradu-
ally gives place to the more powerful influences of the fea-
breeze. Thefe breezes are not, however, entirely confined
to the Torrid Zone. They are even felt in more northern
regions : the fea breeze in particular being almoft as per¬
ceptible during the fummer feafon along the coafts of the
Mediterranean and the Levant, both on the African, and
European and Afiatic fhores, as within the tropics. Even
in our own colder- climate, the effeds of this are often fen-
A T I C S.
fibly felt during the fummer feafon; although, frCffi ths
length of the day and fhortnefs of the night, the difference
between the heat/of thefe is far lefs than in warmer climatesi
And although the fhortnefs of our nights prevents us from
feeling a rtodurnal breeze, fimilar to the land-breezes of thg
Torrid Zone ; yet in every ferene evening we have an op¬
portunity of obferving a phenomenon, proceeding from n
fimilar caufe with that which occafions them in warmer cli¬
mates. For as the waters retain their heat longer than th®
earth after the fun withdraws, the moifture which was rai-
fed during the hear of the day to a fmall diftance from the
earth’s furface is quickly condenfed by the cold of the e-
vening, and falls down in copious dews ; whereas that which
is above the furface of the water is more flowly, condenfed,
by reafon of the heat which that element retains longer,
and hovers at a fmall diftance above it in the form of a rienfft
vapour, which flowly fubfides as it lofes its heat. This is
the caufe of thofe low mills which are fo often feen hover¬
ing above the furface of rivers and other waters in the even¬
ings towards the end of fummt r.
It was already obferved, that in the Indian ocean the g e*
neral trade wind only took place in fome parts to the fouth
of the Equator. To the north of the line, and in feme
places to the fouth of it in that ocean, the general trade-wind
only blows regularly for fix months, and during the other
fix months rhe wind blows in a direftion entirely oppofice.
It is thele winds, which fhift thus regularly, which are called
Monfoom, although they are alio fomttimes called trade-
winds.
At the Equator the days and nights are always of an e-
qual length throughout the whole year; fo that the heat be¬
ing thus equally divided, it never arives to fuch an intenfe
degree as to be infupportable to the inhabitants. And as
there is no vicillitude of feafons at the Equator, fo at tb6
Poles they never experience the more pleafing viciflitudes
of day and night, the fun never fetting during the fum¬
mer feafo.n, nor rifing above the horizon during the winter;
and although the day decreafes in length as we recede from
the pole, from fix months to twenty-four hours ; yet in all
high latitudes the fun dpfeends for fuch a fhort fpace below
the horizon, and in fuch an oblique dife&ion, that the dif¬
ference between the heat of the day and night is but very
inconfiderable. From which it follows, that during this fea¬
fon, when the fun continues to aft with fuch uninterrupted
influence upon the furface of the earth, the air will then be
rarified more above the dry land than upon the furface of
the water; fo that a wind would naturally fet in at that time
from the fea towards the land, fimilar to the diurnal fea-
breezes in the warmer climates ; and on the confrary, du¬
ring the winter feafon, the air in thefe northern regions be¬
ing colder above the land than the wifter, the winds will
naturally blow from the land towards the fea, fimilar to the
land-breezes of the Torrid Zone But as the influence of
the fun, although of longer continuance, is in general more
languid in climates of a high latitude than in thofe near the
line, it is not to be expefted that thefe efftfts will follow
with the fame regularity as in the Torrid Zone; being more
apt to be interrupted by lefler caufes which aff-ft the at-
mofphere and produce winds in different direftions. Yet
thefe are not fo totally interrupted, but that we can eafily
trace their effefts even in our own cold climate : For du¬
ring the fummer fealon, the large continent to the eaft of us,
being more heated than the Atlantic ocean weftward, pro¬
duce*
P N E tJ M
fluces a general tendency of the current of air towards the
tjfl, infomuch that ’wejltrly winds are obfei ved to prevail
more than any other, not only here, but in all the frontier
fcountries on the continent, during they«iw;wrr feafon. And
eajierly winds become again more prevalent in the winter
and Jprivg- On the contrary, it is obferved in North Ante-
tic a, that the eafterly winds prevail more in fummer than at
any other time ; and the ivefi winds always prevail during
the cold, months of ’winter. The fame effefls take place
with a greater degree of conftancy in other parts of Europe,
particularly in Greece, and the countries in that neighbour'
hood; as the ancient Greeks have particularly remarked;
that the-winds blew from the foath during the heat offum
mer, particularly about the dog-dayt, and from the north
during the colder weather of ’winter.
' Any attentive reader, who has accompanied us thus far,
will readily fee. that the monfoons which take place in the
Indian oeean\ proceed from the fame general caufe. f For
•when the fun, in his annual courfe, has eroded the line, and
comes to aft very drongly upon the extenfive countries of
Arabia, Perjia, China, and the other parts of India, thefe
become heated to a much higher degree than the ocean to
the fouth of them ; and the air above thefe extenfive coun¬
tries being fo muJi rarefied, naturally draws the wind to¬
wards that place, which, by overcoming the general trade-
wind, produces the foutherly monfoons which take place in
all thofe feas during the months of April, May, June, Ju¬
ly. Augujl, and September, But- when the fun has again
retreated towards the fouthern hemifpbere, this great de«
gree of heat in thefe countries fu ofides, and the genuine trade-
wind again Vefumes its natural courfe ; forming what they
call the northerly monfoon, which blows in the months of
October, November, December, January, February, and
March : and as the continent of Afia now afiumes a great¬
er degree of cold than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans in the
fame latitude, it produces a bniker an l more-iteady gale
during the continuance of this monfoon, than is ever expe¬
rienced in the general trade wind.
Having thus'-explained the nature of the monfoons in ge
meral, we fhall proceed to confider the particulars which in¬
fluence the diregion of thefe in thofe parts where they take
place. In all that part of the Indian ocean which lies be¬
tween the ifland of Madagafcar and Cape Commorin, the
Wind blows conftantly from the W. S. W. between the
months oi April and October •, and in the oppofite diredion
from the month of Qftober till April, although with fome
Variation in different places, as thefe winds are neither fo
ftrong nor^onftant in the Bay of Bengal as in the Indian o-
■cean. And it is likewife remarkable, that the S. W. winds
in thefe feas are generally more foutherly on the African
fide,. and more nueflerly on the Indian, as appears dsftindly
in the map. But thefe variations are not repugnant to the
general theory. For it is fufficiently known, that high
lands in every part of the globe ire much colder than low
and Sat countries ; and as that part oF Africa is very high
and mountainous, the cold in thefe regions is much greater
than in the more flat countries of Arabia and India-, fo
that the wind naturally blows from thefe cold regions, in
the fummer feafon, towards the warmer continent of Aftas
which occafions thofe infledions of the wind to the eaftward
which take place in thefe feas during the fummer months;
and is ftill farther affilted by the peninfula of India, the
kingdom of Siam, and the iflands of Sumatra and Java,
A T I C S. 497
on the eaftern part of this ocean, lying fo much farther fouth
than the kingdonrso f Arabia and Perjia ; fo that thefe, bet
ing more heated than the ocean to the •wejf’ward, naturally
draw the wind towards them, and produce the eajlerly va¬
riation of the monfoon which takes place in this part of the
ocean, while the warm and fandy defarts of Arabia draw
the winds more diredly northward near the African coafL
In the eaftern parts of the Indian ocean, beyond the ifland
of Sumatra, through the gulf of Siam and bay of Ton-
quin, and along the fouthern parts of China, and among
the Philippine iflands, fsc. to the north of the Equator, ihe
monfoons oblerve a different direftion* blowing nearly due
fouth and north. Here the greateft part of the warm con¬
tinent is to the weft of this diftriA, which makes the wind
naturally affume this diredtion. A little to the eaft of this,
among the Mariamne iflands, the general trade-wind takes
place, there being no continent to the north of them to oc-
cafion monfoons.
The monfoons are as regular in the eaftern part of the
Indian Ocean to the fouth of the Equator, as thgg' are to tbo
north of it; as here northern monfoop fets, in from the
month of Oftober till April, and a fouthern from April u\\
Oflober. And here, as to the north of the line, we find the
diredtion of the monfoons varying according to particular
circumftances in different places: for about the ifland of Su¬
matra, and towards the weft end of Java, the monfoons
fet in nearly from doo north and fouth ; but toward Celebes
and Timur, they begin to tend a little more to the eaft and
wejl, gradually declining a's they approach the coaft of New
Guinea, near to which the northerly monfoon from Oftober
till April blows from the N. W. and the oppofite mon¬
foon from the S. E. between Ofiaber and April. The
reader will eafily perceive that thefe monfoons are occafion-
ed by the continent of New Holland and Guinea, which
being heated by the fun when in the fouthern figns, draws
the wind towards that in the fummer feafop, in the fame
manner as the continent of Ajia produces the monfdons to
the north of the line. And it is likewife fufficiently plain,
that the infledlion of thefe periodical winds about Celebes and
Timur is occafioned by that part of the continent called
New Guinea jutting out fo near to the Equator to the eaff
of thefe, and drawing the wind toward that quarter.
Thefe are the moft general and extenfive monloons which
take place in our globe. But there are other periodical
winds, which occut in particular places in thefe warm regions,
that delerve particular attention.
In the Rtd-Sea, the monfoon ffiifts as regularly as in o«
ther places; but being influenced by the coafis, it tends a
little more to the north and fouth than in the Indian ocean.
On the fouth coaft of Africa, to the fouth of C. Corientes,
and ab6ut the fouthern parts of the ifland of Madagafcar?
the regular trade-wind from the S. E. takes place between
October and April-, but from Apnl iiW October the wind
blows from the W. or N. W, arid is at that feafon exceed¬
ingly cold. This is evidently occafioned by a caufe alrea¬
dy taken notice of: for, notwithflanding the high and cold
nature of this continent, yet when the fun is to the fouth
of the line, his powerful influence at that feafon fo far a-
bates their natural degree of cold, as not to interrupt the
general tr^de-wind between the months of October and Apr ih
But when he returns to the northern hemii’phere, the high
mountains of Africa refume their native coldnefs, and re¬
pel the general trade-winds by their cojd and more power-
49$ P N E U M
f«l blad, To as -to produce the intemperate monfoon which
here takes place between the months of April and Oftober.
From Mozambique, to cap,e Guardafoy, at the mouth of
the Red Sea, the monfoons are a little more irregular than
in( the other parts of the Indian ocean. For it is oh
ferved, that between Oftober and January the winds are
variable, although chiefly from the\x\ January
N. E. moafoon fets in, and continues regular till the-month
oi May. From May till the winds again become
variable, but blow chiefly from ihefoutbern points; but in
the months of June, July, and Augujl, there are frequent
calms, efpecially about the bay of Melinda, which fome-
times continue for leveral weeks together, and extend only
about a hundred leagues from fhore.
Before we can explain the caufe of this irregularity clear¬
ly,; it will be neceflary to attend to the direftion of the wind
on each fide of this track at each particular feafon. In
the months of Oftober, November, and December, the
winds are here variable, but chiefly from the north. Now
during thefe three months, the wind to the fouth of this
beyond C. Cor tent es blows from the S. E. at the Red
Sea, and all to the north of this the wind during this
feafon of the year is from the N. E. And as the fun
is then perpendicular to the bay of Melinda, thefe op-
pofite winds here meeting and oppofing one another, and
being both of them llopt in their courfe weft ward by the
cold regions of Africa near the Mountains of the Moon,
will naturally produce the variable winds here obferved
according as the one or the other of thefe three balan¬
cing' powers {hall predominate: although, as the coaft here
runs away towards the fouth-nuejl, it is natural to expeft
that the northerly wind, which follows the fame direction,
fhould more frequently prevail than thofe which are oppo-
fed by it ; efpecially when we confider, that the ifland of
Jvladagafcar, now beginning to be warmed by the influence
of the fun, will concur in drawing the wind to the fouth
ward ; and when the continent of Africa is more heated in
the months of January and February, it does not oppofe
the eafterly monfoon, lo that the winds become then more
fixed than before., But in the months of June, July,
and Auguft, the wind to the fouth of C. Corientes is from
the N'. W. ; and near the Red Sea, and throughout the
northern part of the the S. W. monfoon is
then in its greateft vigour; fo that on each end of this
diftridt the wind is blowing in an oppofite diredion; from
which refults thefe calms about Melinda, which we juft
now mentioned.
This much may fufSce for the fhifung winds on the
African and Afiatic coafts. As to America, the only
places where the wind fliifts regularly are, the bays of
Honduras and Campeachy on the cajl, and that of Pana¬
ma and fome parts on the coaft of Mexico on the ouejl.
With a fmall track upon the coaft of Brazil. In the fouth
part of the bay of Honduras, between C. Gratia de Dios
and C. la Bela, the common trade-wind between E and
NE blows between March November \ fromOftoberi\\\
March, there are wefterly winds ; not conftant or violent,
but blowing moderately fometimes two or three days, or a
week; and then the eafterly breeze may again prevail for
an equal length of time. The reafon of the peculiarity
Tsere obferved is this. During the fummer feafon the high
.land on the IJlhmus of Darieruis fo much warmed as not
rtc interrupt the eo.orfe of the general trade-winds. But
A T I C s;
when he retires to the fouthern hemifphere, the cold upon
the IJlhmus at that feafon becomes fo great, as to condenfe
the air to fuch a degree as to repell the trade-wind for iorrie
time : but not being cooled to fuch an intenfe degree as in
fome of the larger continents, the trade-wind at times o-
vercomes and-repelis thefe land breezes in its turn, and
products the phenomena above defcribed. And that this is
really the cafe, appears evident from this circumftance, that
the land-breezes are moft prevalent and of longeft duration
in thecoldeft months olDecember and January ; before and
after which two months, the trade-wind being generally
checked, only a day or two about the full or change-of the
moon. As thefe weftern breezes on this coaft take their
rife from the fame caufe as the duirnal land breeze in warm
climates, they may be conlidered as land-breezes of two or
three days continuance, and forming an intermediate ftep
between the land-breezes and monfoons. Although the in¬
fluence of thefe breezes is felt farther off at fea than the
common diurnal breeze, yet they do not extend a great way,
being feldom felt above twenty or thirty or forty leagues
from fhore ; and about C. La Vela, which is much expo-
fed to the eaft wind, thtfe breezes feldom extend above eight
or ten leagues from fhore. Land breezes of the fame na¬
ture, andp oceeding from fimilar caafes, are alfo experienced
in the winter feafon in the bay of Campiachy which are there
kn»wn by the name of 5winds. Beyond C. la
Vela thefe weftern brec zes are not felt, which is undoubt¬
edly occafioned by the whole of that coaft as far as C.
St Augtijline being Co much expofed to the general trade,
wind, which here fweeps along the coaft with fo much
violence as almoft total y to reprets the weaker influence
of the breezes. But between C. St Augufine and St
Catharine's ijland, or a l.ttle farther, we again meet with
a variation of the wind at different feafons, as it is here
obferved to blow in an E or NE diredion from September
till April; and from April till September from the SW.
This variable wind, or monfoon, like the others on this
coaft, extends but for a very fhort way from Ihore, and
is evidently occafioned by the fame caufes as the other
periodical winds. For, in the fummer-months, (which iis
this climate is between September and April, the land of the
continent being heated by the fun, draws the trade-wind
from its common courfe of SE, a little to the weftward;
and as the coaft here tends towards the SW, the wind
in fome meafure (as it always does) follows the fame direc¬
tion, and produces this ENE monfoon. But, in the win¬
ter, when this region becomes more cool, the eaft wind
is repelled by the denfe cold air from the mountains ; by
which means it is bent to the northward, and is forced along
the coaft to C. St Auguflin\ where meeting with no far¬
ther hindrance, it again falls in with the general trade-wind,
and is carried along with it in its proper direction.
We have purpofely omitted mentioning! the winds on
the weft coafts of Africa and America, till the others were
explained, as the caufes of the peculiarities here obferved
will be now more eafily comprehended. On the coafts
of Chili and Peru, in America, from 250 or 30° of fouth
latitude to the line ; and on the parallel coaft of Angola,
&e. in Africa, the wind blows all the year from the loath,
varying in its direftion a little in different places according
to the diretftion of the coaft, towards which it always in¬
clines a little. But whatever is the dire&fpn at any one place,
it continues the fame throughout the whole year without
any
P N E V M
aoyVanation, and always blows from fome foatberly point.
But there is this difference between this wind upon the
coafts of Chili and Angola, that it extends much farther
out to fea upon the former than upon the latter.
In order to explain the caufe of this Angular phenome¬
non, it is neceffai y to recoiled, that the general trade-wind
is produced by the concurrence of two feparate caufes.
One is the great heat of the equatorial tegion, by which
alone would be produced a eonftant north or fouth wind.
The other is the diurnal revolution of the earth, which
would caufe a perpetual tendency of the air in thefe warm
regions from eaft to weft. From the concurrence of thefe
two caufes refult the general trade-wind, which would
conftantly blow from the SE or NE, as we have already de-
monlfrated. But if any one of thefe two caufes, in any
particular place, is prevented from producing its full effeft,
while the other continues to exert its influence, the general
direftion of the wind will be varied, and it will aifume ano¬
ther. Thus, if xht eaji wind was prevented from acting in
any particular place, while nothing interrupted the fouth or
north wind, it is evident that the air would rufti towards
the equator in that direftion which was heareft and eafieft,
whether that fheuld be pointing eaft ward or weftwatd.
Now as the high mountains in the internal parts of Africa
and America interrupt the courfe of the eaft wind near
thefurface of thy earth, while thefe coafts of which we now
treat are entirely open to the fouth, the wind naturally
rulhes along the coafts of Chili and Angola from north to
Touth ; and as the low lands near the fhore, in thefe warm
regions, is generally warmer than the fea, the wind will
naturally point in towards the Ihore, as is generally obferved
to happen.
This, then, is the obvious caufe of the fouth wind which
always prevails upon the coafts of Chili and Peru, as well
as along the fhores of Angola. Loango. &c. But it is
only near the fhore that this can take place; nor can it ex¬
tend to a great height above theft low and fertile regions.
For as the internal parts of^theft countries are exceedingly
high; but more efpecially the Andes of America, which
experience a perpetual degree of cold more intenft than fome
polar regions ever experience; the air muft here be conden-
fed to a very great degree, and fend forth from theft high
regions a perpetual wind to every fide, which occafions al-
moft all the peculiarities that have been remarked in thefe
climates : Forbyoppofing the general current of the trade-
wind upon the eaftern part of thefe continents, they pro-
produce thefe deluges of rain which fuppiy the immenft ri¬
vers of the Amazons, La Plata, fyc. theft do not, like the
Nile and Gambia, fwell only at a particular feafon, and
tbenftmnkintoadiminutive fize again, but continue through¬
out the whole year, with lefs variation of fize, to pour their
immenfe floods of water into the ocean. Theft cold winds
likewift ftretching to the weftward, at a confiderable dif-
tance above the warmer regions of the fta-coaft, at length
defeend as low as the ocean, and form the general trade-
wind, and otcafiqn that umifual degree of cold which mari¬
ners have fo often complained of even under the line to
the weftward of America. To the fame caufe alfo muft we
attri' ute the thick fogs fo common upon the fouthern parts
,of i67’i//and along the coafts of Peru, with the other peculi¬
arities of that fingular climate about Lmn* and the kingdom
of Valles in South America ; for the vapours which are ex¬
haled in fuch great abundance in the warm regions on the
Vol. Ill, N0' 89. 2
A T I C S. 499
fea fhore, are, at a little height above the earth, condenfei
by the cold winds which come from the mountainsKan<i
form theft thick mirts which are fo often obferved in this
climate. The fame effe<9s are felt in fome degree on the
fimilar coaflr of Africa. But as the mountains or Africa
are not fo high as the Andes of America, nor approach fo
near the weftem coaft, the efFe&s are Ids ftnfible here than
in America. The great height of the Andes above the
mountains of the fimilarly fituated country of Africa, is the
only reafon why the effeds on that coaft are not felt to an
equal degree, although fimilar in kind.
A more fingulkr deviation from the general trade-wind is
obferved to take place on the African and American coafts
to the north of the line, than thoft we have taken notice of
to the fouth of it. For it is obftrved, that from California
to the bay of Panama, all along the coafts of New Spain,
the winds blow almoft conftantly from the weft or SW,
nearly diredly oppofite to the trade-wind; and on the coaft
of Africa from C. Bayador to 77. Verde, they blow chiefly
from theNW, (landing in upon the fhore; from thence the
wind bends gradually more and more from the north to the
weft, and fo round to the SW,. all along the coaft of Gui¬
nea, as will be diftindly ften by the map. After what we
have faid of the winds on the fouthern parts of theft regi ons,
it will be unneedfary to fpend much time in explaining the
caufe of theft peculiarities, as it will evidently appear that
they are nearly the fame, the variations here obferved be¬
ing occafioned by the particulardiredion of thecoaft. Thus,
along the coaft of New Spain, the wind blows nearly the
fame diredion in every place, as there are no remarkable
bendings on the coaft ; being uniformly drawn towards the
fhore, by the great heat of the low part of the continent
near the fta ; which in theft regions is alwaj'S more heated
than the water of the ocean, and occafions that infledion.
But as the coaft of Africa is more irregular, the winds alfo
are found to be more different in their diredion. To the
north of C. Verde, as the coaft ftretches nearly fouth and
north, the wind, being drawn towards it a little, blows
from the NW. But beyond that, the'coaft bends more
eaft ward to C Palmas; from which it runs E or NE all along
the coaft of Guinea, the wind fhifting gradually more and
more to the weft, ftill pointing in upon the coaft. And as
there is nothing to oppoft the current of air, which comes
from the fouth, along the coaft of Angola, it ftretches for¬
ward till it comes within the influence of the coaft of Guinea,
and is there drawn in towards the fhore in a SW dired on.
But as it is only the lower regions of the coaft of Guinea
which are fo much warmed, the high mountains within
continuing cold ; the northerly wind coming from thefe
meeting and oppofing the foutherly winds in the higher re¬
gions of the air, by their mutual conflids occafion fhoft
inceffant rains and tremenduous thunder fo remarkable alortP
the whole of this uncomfortable coaft.
It has been often obferved by mariners, that there is a
track of fea to the weft of Guinea from five to ten degrees
of •north latitude, in which the trade-wind blows with left
fteadinefs titan in any other part of that ocean, beingnlmoft:
conftantly trouided with calms and tornadoes ; the caufe of
which the reader will perceive by infpeding the map; as he
will eafily fee that the winds are drawn from this quarter
almoft in every drredion; fo that there can be here no con-
ftant wind ; but being exhaufted of its air, it muft become
lighter than the circumjacent parts, and muft then be Tup-
6 K plied
5 co P N E U M
plied From either fiije, as chance or occafional circuinftances
may direft, which occafions ihofe fudden Hurries and tor¬
nadoes Here obferved.
Before we take our leave of this fubject, it is neceffary
toobferve, that in the Bay of Panama, the winds between
September and March are eafterly ; but from March till
September they blow chiefly from the SSW ; that is, du¬
ring the winter months, while the fun is far from them, the
winds are off flrore ; and during the fummer months, the
land- being heated to a cortfiderable degree, they are drawn
towards the flrore as ufual. It is remarkable, however, that
this is the only part on the weft of a large continent where the
wind fhifts regularly at different feafons; which feems to be
occafioned by the great height of xhe. IJihmusof Darien, and
the Terra Firma to theeaft of it, and the nearnefs of thefe to
the fea, in comparifon of the mountains near Benin on the
fnnilarly fituutedcoaft of Africa; which is greatly afliftedby
jhe deepnefs of the bay, which, by bending fo much to the
eaftwaid from C. Lorenzo, is in a great meafure fereened
from the force of the fouth winds, which allows the winter
breeze to extend itfelf upon the bay with mote facility. We
ought here alfo to remark, that along the coaft of Mexico.
between C Pelanco Guatimala, there are land winds
which blow in the months aLMay, June, and July, called
by the Spaniards Popogaios. They greatly referable the
Summafenta winds in the Bay of Campeacky, as they blo w
both night and day a modera:e breeze without intermiffion,
Ihmetimes three or four days or a week, together. But as
thefe blow from the land in/am#?r only, whereas the Suni¬
on a fen t a's blow only in winter, they mull be occaftoned by a
different caufe ; which feems to be this : As the continent
which divide the fouth fea from the Bay of Mexico and Gulf
tf Hunduraj, is but of very fmall breadth, and in many
places very high ground, the heat which (it receives from
the fun in fummer is not fo great as on the fimilar coaft -of
Africa: and as the trade-wind coming from the
ocean fweeps along the eaftern part of the American coaft
from C. St Augufine to the Bay oj Honduras with very
great violence at that feafon, the fmati heat of this narrow
continent,, is not fufficient to ftop it entirely during that
feafon; fo that at fome times it blows for a fhort time quite
acrofs it, and occafions thofe winds cA\td Popogaios.
Befldes thefe more general winds, there arelikewife fome
particular winds which are only felt in particular places at
certain times, whofe effeAs are fo Angular as to merit at-
tetlon ; fome of which we (hall here take notice of. In the
Gfslf of Perjia, particularly at Ormuz, during the months
of June and July, there fometimes blows from the weft,
for a day or two together, a hot fuffocating fiery wind,
which fcorches up and deftroys any animal that may be
expofed to it; for which reafon, almoft every body leave
their habitations at Ormuz during thefe two months, and
retire to the mountoins near Schiras in Perfa, where they
enjoy a more comfortable climate. To explain the caufe
©f which, it is neceffary to obferve, that along alfthecoafts
©f Afia, to the north of the Indian ocean, the diurnal Vea
and land breezes take place, as in every part of the torrid
zone; by means of which, the pionfoons are not felt clofe in
upon the ftiores. But as the monfoon continues to blow
regularly at a fmall diftaince from (bore, fo in all probability
k continues its courfe without interruption at a fmall dif-
tance above the furface cf the earth Now when the mon¬
foon is in its greateft vigour, its influence vyillfometimes de~
A T I C S.
feend even as low as the furface of the earth, and, inter¬
rupting the conrfe of the breezes, hurry along with it thefe
Warm vapours, which ought tohaveafeended upwards, and
produced the falutary fea-breeze ; and a? the earth is thuk
deprived of the refrelhing influence and nioifture of the fea-
breeze, the air, by the ftrong reverberation of the fun-beams
from fuch dry and fandy countries as Arabia, muft foon
be heated to an amazing degree, and produce thefe hot and
fuffocating winds. It is alio remarkable, that thefe hot
winds are more often experienced near headlands, where
the fea-breezes are weakeft, whi :h feems to confirm this
hypothefis Winds fimilar to thefe in kind, though notin de¬
gree, afe felt upon the coaft of Coromandel during the months
of June, July, and Augufl, while the <wejl monfoon reigns;
and on the Malabar co.il they are likewife felt in the
months of December and January, white the i?i?/? nfonfoon
reigns ; but thefe are much lefs powerful than either of
the others. As thefe hot winds always come from the
land, they are known upon thefe coalls by the name of
Terreno's.
It has likewife been obferved, that on the coaft of Africa to
the north of C. Verde, during the months of December, Ja¬
nuary, tioA February, there fometimes blows, for a day or
two together, an eajlerly wind, fo very intenfely cold as to
be almoft as deftrudhve as the warm winds it Ormuz. We
have already in fome meafure explained the caufe of this
phenomenon. During thefe months, when the fun is far
from them, his influence is lefs felt than at other feafons,
and the northerly w'ind upon the coaft is ofcdurfe weaken¬
ed, infomuch that the cold produced by the mountains in
the heart of the country being now in its greateft degree of
force, burfts its ufual confinement for a time, fpreadlng to the
weft with great violence, and producing thofe uncommon
effefts already mentioned. Thofe who fail on thefe coafts,
diftinguifh this particular wind by the name of Hermatan.
Theie are the principal winds, whether conftant or perio¬
dical, that take place within thz tropics-, and thus Ample ^tre
their caufes.
The fucceflion of fea and land breezes renders the Tor¬
rid Zone not only habitable but comfortable. Befides, as
thefe currents pf cold air, rulhing from each fide of the
globe, and carrying along with themvaft quantities of aque¬
ous vapours which they colleA from the furface of the
earth in their courfe, meet and oppofe one another at that
part of the atmofphere where the influence of the fun is
greateft the time, the water is there forced from the clouds
in luch prodigious quantities, as to produce a diverfity of
feafons in the Torrid Zone, fomething fimilar to what is ex¬
perienced in more temperate climates ; with this difference
however, that whereas, in temperate climates, the warmeft
and moft comfortable feafon is when the fun approaches
neareft perpendicular to them, in thefe warmer climates
the Heavy rains which fall upon, them at that feafon mode¬
rates the heat, and prevents the fun from having.fuch an effefl
as at other times ; fo that their coldeft and moft incontiant
weather, which they call winter, is at that feafon, whea,
without this caufe, they would be expofed to the fun’s moft
powerful influence
We ih ill only take notice of one other inftance of thp
happy effe&s produced on our gloVe, by the laws of nature
with refpedt to winds. We have feen, that in the gresx. At-
lanticnad Pacifc o^e&as, the trade-wind blows conftantly
from the eajlerly points throughout the whole year, fqAhatf
dps
P N E V M
Slips fail from My? to •twry? within the tropics with the ut-
nioft facility; but it is ab'olutely impoffible in thefe feas to
fail from we/f to taft, as the wind would be conftahtly a-
gainft them* fo that Ihips bound for any port to the eafiward
in thefe regions, muft ftard to the north op fouth till they
are beyond the limits of the ■trade-'u-inds, where they meet
with variable breezet, by the help of which they fail to the
tajl'ward. But if the fame conftant trade-'wind had taken
place in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, it would
have been impoiTible to have failed to the eajlnu/trd at all;
becaufethe continent of Afia would have prevented the (hips
from failing far enough north to fin'd the variable winds.
But here, as in almod every cafe in which the operations of
nature are concerned, we find, that what produceth the dif-
eafe, at the fame time furnifheth a remedy: for that veryjcon-
ticent which would have flood in our way going northward,
POE
’PNEUMATOCELE. See Medicine and Surgery.
PNEUMONICS, in pharmacy,' medicines proper in dif*
eafes of the lungs, in which refpiration is affeAed.
PO, a great river of Italy, rifing in the Alps, and running
firft eaft, foon after turns diredtly north, through Pied¬
mont, where it receives the Doria; then palling north ea(l,
it difebarges itfelf by feveral channels into the gulph of
Venice.
POA, in botany, a genus of the triandna digynia clafs.
The calix has two valves including feveral flowers ; the
fpike is oval, with pointed valves. There are 20 fpecies,
twelve of them natives of Britain.
POCHARD, in ornithology. See Anas.
PODAGRA, in medicine, the gout in the feet. See Me¬
dicine.
PODALIA, a province of Poland, founded by Volhinia,
and tl^e Ruffian Ukrain;, on the north and,north-eaft; by
Budziac Tartary, on the fouth-eafl ; by the river Niefter,
Which feparates it from Beffarabia and Moldavia, on the
fouth-weft; and by the province of Red-Ruflia, on the
north-wefl.
PODENSTIEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
E-ranccnia: fituated in E. long. ix° jj', N. lat. 490
ponfex, in anatomy. See Antis.
PODOPHYLLUM, in botany, a genus of the polyan-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla has nine petals, amf
the calix three leaves ; the capfule is oval and unilocu¬
lar. There are two fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
POEM, a compofition in verfe of a due length and mea-
fure.
Poems are'generally denominatedYrom thefubje6l mat¬
ter, as the apobaterion, epibaterion, epinicion, epithala-
raiunv genethliac, elegiac, fatiric, epitaph, panegyric,
lyric, palloral, fee. and others from the manner of nar¬
ration, as epic, dramatic, fee. to which may be added
edes, eclogues, and idyliiums To this head may alfo be
referred feveral other compofitions of a lets ferious kindy
as the acroftic, enigma anagram, cento, echo, fe'e.
POET, the author of a poem. See Poem.
POETRY, the art of compofing poems, or pieces in verfe;
• or, as defined by Voffius, the art of reprefenting aftions
in metre.
A T I C S. 50-r
draws the wind towards itfelf at one feafon, Which makes
that epurfe of navigation unnecefiary, the ffiiftipg of the
manfoons fupplying a nearer and more commodious courfe.
Thus we fee, that where-ever the fea is open to the fouth
or north, near the tropicf, k> as ;hat (hips, are at freedom t©
reach the variable ’winds,' the trade-wind cenflantly blows
in one direction; but' where-ever there-is any extent of con¬
tinent within the verge of the Torrid Zone, fo as that they
could not be at liberty to reach the variable winds, there the
courfe of the trade-wind is altered, being drawn towards it
in fummer, and from it in winter, forming that fhifting
wind called monfoons. From which we may naturally infer^
that as there are no tnonfoons in the Pacific or Atlantic, or
in the wertern part of the Indian ocean, to the fouth of the
line, the/e are no extenfive continents near the, tropics in ei¬
ther of thefe places.
POE
Voflius thinks that love was the firft occafion of poetry;
which is not improbable, confidering that this affedtioa
is coeval with mankind, is univerfal, and naturally pro-
dudtive of poetry. Yet it undoutedly owes its increafe and
progrefs to religion. Dacier indeed calls it the offspring
of religion ; and it is certain, in the earlied ages of the
world, that it was ufual to (ing hymns to the honour of
the gods upon foHmn feftivals. Du Bos thinks that
poetry has been employed in all ages, even by the mod .
unpolilhed nations, to preferve the memory of pad events.
Its principal aim is to Hatter our fenfes and imagination :
for, according to Plato, it awakes the (piritual empire of
the foul. Every kind of poetry charms us in.proportion
to its objed, fays Du Bos : and to be very affefting, it
ought to be very exadf. It is not the fame with poetry
as with other arts ; for an ignorant perfon ipay judge of
poetry by the impreffion it makes on him : whence all
men have a right to give their opinion concerning a piece
of poetry, and this judgment ought to be founded on ex¬
perience rather than on argumentation. Poetry is an art
where every thing (liould pleafe. It is not enough to ex¬
hibit nature, which in certain places and circumdances is
rude and unpleafant; but the poet mull chufe in her what
is beautiful from what is ndt : whence a poet ought to
chufe, for the fubjed of his imitation, fomethjng that is .
naturally affeding. There is a particular rhetoric for
poetry, which conftds in difeerning very precifely what :
ought to be faid figuratively, and what to be Ipoken
■{imply ; and in knowing where ornament is required, and
where not : yet the dyle fhould be copious, and every
fpecies of writing in this art fhould have a didion'proper
to itfelf. The qualifications, then, nece'dary for poetry,
or tbofe which form a good poet, are feidom fouhd uni¬
ted in one perfon : he mud have an extraordinary genius-,
gfeat natural gifts, a wit jud, piercing, (olid, and uni¬
verfal ; an underdanding clear and didind 5 an imagina¬
tion neat and pkafant ; an elevation of foul that depends
not on art, or dudy, and which is purely a gift of hea-
van, and mud be fudained by a lively fenfe and vivacity,
a great judgment, to confider wifely of things, and a vi¬
vacity to exprefs them with that grace and abundance
which gives them beauty In fine, to accomplidi a poet,
is required a temperature of wit and fancy, of drength
and fweetnefs, of penetration and delicacy ; but, above
POL ( <
be mnfl have a fovereign eloquence, and a profound
capacity. Theie are the qualities that mud concur to¬
gether to form the genius of a poet, and luftain his cha*
rafter.
POICTIERS, the capital of Poiffou,-in France, fituated
on an eminence, near the river Clain: E. long, ij', N.
lat. 46° 4c/.
jPOICTOU, a territory of France, in the province of Or-
leanoisy fituated fouth of the river Loire, being bounded
by the provinces of Anjou and Britany on the north, by
Touraine and Berry on the eaft, by Santoign, Angoumois,
and Aunis on the fouth, and by the ocean on the wed.
It is one hundred and fifty miles long, and feventy broad.
POINCIANA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confirts of five leaves, and the
corolla of five petals; the ftamina are long. There are
three fpecies, all natives of India.
POINT, a term ufed in various-arts.
Point, punttum', in geometry, as defined by Euclid, is a
. quantity which has no parts, or which fs indivrfible.
Po int, in grammar, a charafter ufed to mark the divifions
of difcourfe.
Points, in-heraldry, are the feveral different parts of an
efcutcheon, denoting the local pofitions of any figure.
There are nine principal points in an .efcutcheon, as repre-
fented in Plate CXLV. fig. 2. where A fhews the dexter
chief; B, the precife middle chief; C, the finifter chief;
D, the honour-point ; E, the fefs-point, called alfo the
centre; F, the nombril-point, that is, the naveUpoint ;
G, the "dexter bafe.; I, the finifter bafe; H, the precife
• middle bafe.
POISON, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 152.
rPOLAND, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated between
16° and 340,eaft longitude,, and between 46° and 570
north latitude ; bounded by Ruffia on the north and eaft;
by Beffarabia, Moldavia, Tranfilvania, and Hungary, on
the fouth ; and by Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Silefia,
on the weft; being almoft fquare, and feven hundred miles
over either way.
POLAR, in general, fomething relating to the poles of the
world, or poles of the artificial globes : tbns we meet
with polar circles, polar dial, polar projection, (sc.
POLARITY, the quality of a thing confidered as having
poles ; but chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the magnet.
POLE, in aftronomy,’ one of the extremities of the axis
on which the fphere revolves.
Pole, Perch, or Rod, in furveying, is a meafure con¬
taining fixteen feet and a half.
Pole, or Polar star, is a ftar of the fecohd magnitude,
the laft in the tail of urfa minor. See AstronotMY,
p 486.
Pole cat. See Mustela.
POLEMICAL, in matters of literature, an appellation
given to books of controverfy, efpecially tbofe in divinity.
POLEMONIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five fegments ;
the ftigma is trifid ; and the capfule has three cells. The
fpecies are five, only one of which, viz, the cseruleum,
or great valerian, is a native of Britain.
POLIANTHES, in botany., a genus of fhe hexandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The corolla is bell-fhaped ; and the fila¬
ments are inferred into the faux. There is but one fpe-
sties.
02 ) POL
POLICY, or Polity, in matters of government. See
Polity.
For policies of aflurance, or infuranceon ihips, houfes,
lives, (sc. fee Insurance.
POLISHER, or Burnisher, among mechanics, an in-
ftrumenr for poliftiing and burnilhing things proper to take
a polilh. The gilders ufe an iron-poliftier to prepare their
metals before gilding, and the blood-ftone to give them
the bright polifti after gilding.
POLISHING, in general, the operation of giving a glofs
or luftre to certain fubftances, as metals, glafs, marble,
(sc. See Metal, Glass, (sc.
POLITICS, the firft part of ceconomy, confiding in the
well governing and regulating the affairs of a Hate, for
the maintenance of the public fafety, order, tranquillity,
and morals.
POLITY, or Policy, denotes the peculiar fprm and con-
ftitution of the government of any date or nation; or,
the laws, orders, and regulations, relating thereto.
Polity differs only from politics, as the theory from
the practice of any art.
POLL, a word ufed in ancient writings for the head : hence
to poll, is either to vote or to enter down the names of
thofe perlons who give in their votes at an election.
POLLACK, in ichthyology. See Gadus.
POLLEX, in anatomy, denotes either the thumb or great
toe, according as either manus or pedis is added to it.
See Anatomy.
POLLUX, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond mag¬
nitude in the conftellation gemini, or the twins. See A-
stronomy, p. 487;
POLOCZK, the capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
in the duchy of Lithuania, in Poland : E. long. 290, N.
lat. 56° 30'.
POLYACANTHA, in botany. SccCarduus.
POLYADELPHIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
POLYANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
POLYANTHUS, in botany. See Primula.
POLYCHREST, in pharmacy, fignifies a medicine that
ferves for many ufes, or that cures many difeafes.
iSu/Polychrest, a compound fait made of equal parts
of falt-petre and fulphur, laid on a red-hot crucible.
POLYCNEMUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria mo¬
nogynia clafs. The calix confifts of three leaves, and
the corolla of five petals; and it has but one round feed.
There is but one fpecies, a native of Germany.
POLYGALA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia oftan-
dria clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves; and the
pod is cordated, and has two cells. There are 24 fpe¬
cies, only one of them, viz. the vulgaris, or milk-wort,
a native of Britain.
POLYGAMIT, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
POLYGAMY, a plurality of wives or hulbands, in the
poifeffion of one man or woman, at the fame time.
Many arguments have been offered to prove the unlaw-
fulnefs of polygamy; one of the principal of which is,
that the males and females brought into the world are
nearly on a balance; only abating for a fmall e'xcefs on
the fide of the males, to make up for the extraordinary
expence thereof in war and at fea: whence it evidently
follows, that nature only intends one wife, or one huf-
band, fqr the fame perfon ; fince if they have more, fome
muft go without any at all. Hence it’is juftly concluded,
that
PON 505 ) P O R
lliat the CtmRian law, which prohibits polyganTy., is more
' "agreeable to the'JaW of nature than tbe ‘Mahbmetan, and,
we may add, than the Jewifh law, by which polygatey
was tolerated.
POLYGLOTT, among divines and critics, chiefly denotes
a bible printed ir^feveral languages. See Bible.
POLYGON, in geometry, a figure with many fides, or
whofe perimeter confifts of more than four Tides at lead:
fuch are the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, <&c.
POLYGONATUM, in botany. See Convallaria.
POLYGONUM, in botany, a genus of the odtandria iri-
gynia clafs. It bas no calrx j the corolla has five feg-
ments; and there is but one angular feed. -The fpecies
are 27, eleven of them natives of Britain.
POLYGYNIA, among botanids. See Botany, p. 637.
POLYHEDRON, in geometry, denotes a body or folid
comprehended under many fides or plants.
Polyhedron, in optics, is a multiplying glafs1 or lens,
confiding of feveral plane furfaces difpofed into a convex
form. See Optics.
POLYMATHY, denotes the knowledge of many arts and
. fciences.
ipOLYMNIA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-:
gamia neceflaria clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous; it
has no pappus ; and the calix confids of ten leaves. There
are two fpecies, both natives of America.
POLYPUS, in zoology, a fpecies of the hydra, which,
although cut in a thoufand pieces, and in every diredtion,
dill exids, and each fedtion becomes a cpmpleat animal.
POLYPETALOUS, among botanids, an epithet applied
to fuch flowers as confifl of feveral petals, or flower-leaves.
POLYPODIUM, in botany, a genus belonging to the cryp-
togamia Alices clafs.. The frudfifleations are difpofed in
round fpots on the margin of the leaf. There are 65
fpecies, 14 of them natives of Britain.
POLYPREMUM, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The calix confids of four leaves, and
the corolla, which is rotated, of four fegments ; the cap-
fule is comprefled, and bilocular.
POLYPUS of the heart. See Medicine, p. 178.
POLYSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word confiding of more
fyllables than three; for when a word confids of one,
two, or three lyllables, it is called a monofyllable, dif-
fyllable, and trifyllable.
POLYTHEISM, in matters of religion, the dodlrine or
belief of a plurality of gods.
POLYTRICHUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
mufei clafs. Tha anthera is operculated, and the calyp-
tra hairy. There are three fpecies, one of them, viz.
the commune, or great golden maidenhair, a native of
Britain *,
POMEGRANATE. See Punica.
POMERANIA, a province of Upper Saxony, in the north
of Germany.; bounded by the Baltic-fea, on the north ;
by Poland, on the eafl; by another part of Poland, and
Brandenburg, on the fouth ; and by the duchy of Meck¬
lenburg, on the wed. e'
POMME', or Pommette', in heraldry, is a crofs with
one or more balls or knobs at each of the ends.
POMMEL, or Pummel, in the menage, a piece of brafs,
or other matter, at the top and in the middle of the fad-
a dle-bow.
PONB-WEED, in botany. See Potamogeton.
Vol. III. N° 90. 2
PONDICHERRY, a town of India, on the Coromandsl-
; fcdadj' fixty miles fouth of port St.1 George; ' -
PONTEDERIA, in botany, a genus of the bexandriamd-
nogynia clafs. The corolla donfifts of one bilabiated pe¬
tal cut into fix fegments ■ and the.capfule has three ceils.
There are three Ipecies, none of them natives of Britain.
PON I'EFRACT, a borough-town, eighteen miles fouth-
wed of York. It fends two members'to parliament.
PONTIFICATE, is ufed for the date or dignity of a pon-
tif, or high-pried ; but more particularly, in modern wri¬
ters, for the reign of a pope.
PONTON, or Pontoon, in war, denotes a little floating
bridge made of boats and planks.
PONTUS, the ancient name of the countries fituated on the
fouth fide of the Euxine fea, now a part of Afiatic Turky.
POOL, in geography, a borough and port town of Dorfet-
Ihire, fituated on a bay of the Englifh channel, twenty
miles ead of Dorcheder. It fends two members to par¬
liament.
POOLOWAY, one of the Banda or nutmeg-iflands in the
Indian ocean: E. long. 128°, S. iat. 30 30'.
POOP, the dern of a Ihip, or the highed, uppermod, and
hinder part of the fliip’s hull.
POOR, in law, an appellation given to all perfons who are
in fo low and mean a condition, as that they dither are,
or may become a burden to a parifh.
POPAYAN, a province of South America, bounded by
Terra-Firma, on the north ; by New Granada, on the ead
by Peru, od the fouth ; and by the pacific ocean, bn the
wed; fituated between 77 and 80 degrees wed longitude,
and between the equator and 7 degrees of north latitude,
being four hundred miles long, and about three hundred
broad.
POPE, the fovereign pontiff, or fupreme head of the.Ro-
mifti church. The appellation of pope was anciently gi¬
ven to all Chridian bifhops ; but about the latter end of
the eleventh century, in the pontificate of Gregory VIL
it was ufurped by the bifhop of Rome, whofe peculiar
title it has ever fince continued.
Pope’s territories, in Italy, are bounded by the Ve¬
netian territories, on the north ; by the gulph of Venice,
on the nortb»ead ; by Naples, on the fouth-ead ; by the
Tufcan fea, on the fouth-wed ; and by the duchy of Tuf-
cany, on the north-wed, almod encompaffing that duchy
on the land fide ; being about two hundred and twenty
mile? long, and from twenty to one hupdred and forty in
breadth.
Pope, in ornithology- See Alca.
POPLAR, in botany. See Populus.
POPLFTVEUS, in,anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 208.
POPPY, in botany. See Pa paver.
POPULAR, fomething that relates to the common people,
POPULUS, tbe poplar, in botany, a genus of the dicecia
cxflandria .clafs. The corolla of the mate is-turbinated,
oblique, and entire ; the digma of the female is quadri-
fid ; and the capfule has two cells, containing many pap-
pous feeds There are five fpecies, three of them na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the alba, or white poplar; the ni¬
gra, or black poplar ; and the tremula, or trembling pop¬
lar, or afp.
PORCELAIN, a fine fort of earthen-ware, chiefly manu-
fa&ured in China, and thence called china-ware. The
mod jud idea we can form of the porcelain, or china-
6 L ware.
P O R ( 504 ) FOR
ware, is, that it is an half verified fubftance, or manu-
faftnre, in a middle ftate between the common baked
earthen ware of our vulgar manufadures, and true glafs.
This is the eflential and diftmdive charader of porcelain ;
and it is only by confidering it in this light, that we are
to hope of arriving at the perfed art of imitating it in
Europe. This attempt is to be made on thefe principles
in two different manners The one by finding fom; appro¬
priated matter, on which fire ads with more than ordi¬
nary (irength, in the time of its paffing from the common
baked ftate of earthen ware into that of glafs. The 0-
ther is to corapofe a pafte of two fubftances, reduced to
a powder ; the one of which ftiall be of force to refill a
very violent fire, fo as not to become vitrified in it; and
the other a matter very eafily vitrifiable. In the firk cafe,
the matter is to be taken out of the fire at the^ime when
it is imperfediy vitrified ; and in the other, the compound
mafs is to remain in the furnace, till the one fubltance
which is the more eafily vitrifiable is truly vitrified ^ and
being then taken out, the whole will be what porcelain is,
a fubftance in part vitrified, but not wholly fo. The firft
method is that by which the European porcelain has been
generally made, which though it may be very beautiful,
yet it is always eafy to diflinguilh even the fined of it
from the china-ware : and the nature of the two fubftan¬
ces appears evidently different : thefe owing all their
beauty to their near approach to vitrification, are made
to endure a long and violent fire, and are taken from it
at a time when a little longer continuance ftiould have
made them perfed glafs; on the contrary, the china
ware being made of a pafte, part of which is made of a
fubftance in itfelf fcarce poilible to be vitrified, bear& the
fire in a yet much more intenfe degree than ours, and is
in no danger of running wholly into glafs from it.
The two fubftances ufed by the Chinefe, are well
known by the names of petunfe and kaolin ; and on exa¬
mining thefe, it appears very evident, that we have in
Europe the very, fame fubftances, or at lead fabftances
of the very fame nature, capable of being wrought into
porcelain equally beautiful and fine..
Torch 1. Ain-shell. See Cypr^ea.
PORCUPINE, in zoology. See Histrix.
PORE, in anatomy, a little interftice or fpace between the
parts of the fkin, ferving for perforation,
PORELLA, in botany, a genus of moffes, the anthera of
which is multilocular and foraminofe. See Moss.
PORIA, a genus of fungufes, growing'honzon\ally ; but
having its under fide not formed into lamellae, but full
of little holes or pores.
There are a great many fpecies of poria, among which
is the agaric of the drops. See Agaric, and Styptic.
PORPESSE, in ichthyology. See Delphinus.
PORPHYRY, in natural hiilory, a kind of (tone of a plain
uniform netfs, fpotted with feparate concretions, of great
hardnefs, giving fire with fteel, not fermenting with a-
‘ cids, and very ftowly and difficultly calcining in a ftrong
fire.
Porphyry is of feveral forts ; as, 1. The porphyry of
the ancients, which is a moft elegant mafs of an extreme¬
ly firm and com pad ftrudure, remarkably heavy, and of
a fine ftrong purple, variegated more orlefs with pale,
Ted, and white: its purple is of all degrees, from the cla¬
ret-colour to that of the violet; , and its variegations are
rarely difpofed in veins, but fpots, fometimes very fmall,
and at others running into large blotches. It is lefs fine
than many of the ordinary marbles; but it it excells them
all in hardnefs, and is capable of a moft elegant poliffi.
It is ftill found in immenfe ftratain Egypt. 2. The hard
red lead-coloured porphyry, variegated with black, white,
green. This is a molt beautiful and valuable fubftance.
It has the hardnefs, and all the other charaders of the 0-
riental porphyry; and even greatly excells it in brighrnefs,
and in the Beauty and variegation of its colours. It is.
found in great plenty in the iftand of Minorca; and is
extremely worth importing, for it'is greatly luperior to all
the Italian marbles. 3. The hard, pale-red porphyry,
variegated with black, white, and green. This is of a
. pale fleffi-colour; often approaching to white. It is va¬
riegated in blotches from half an inch to an inch broad.
It takes a high poliffi, and emulates all the qualities of
the oriental porphyry. It is found in immenfe ftrata in
Arabia Petraea, and in the Upper Egypt: and in fe|fa-
rate nodules in Germany-,. England, and Ireland.
Porphyry-shell. SccMurex
PORRUM, in botany, See Allium.
PORT-GREVE, or Port-grave, was formerly the-prin-
cipal magiftrate of maritime towns. The chief magiftrate
of London was anciently called by this name, till Richard
I. caufed the city to be governed by two baliffs ; foon
after which king John granted the city a mayor.
Port-l’ orient, in geography, a fortrefs and port-town
of Briiany in France, at the mouth of the river Blavet t
W. long. 3" 1'5', N. lat. 470 42-.
Port-louis, a-port-town of Britany in France, fituated
in the bay of Bifcay ; W. long 30 6', N. lat. 47° 42/.
Port mahon, a port-town of the ifland of Minorca, fitu¬
ated on a fine bay at the call end of the ifland, in E. long.
40 6', N. lat. 390 50.
Port royal, the name of two monafteries of Ciftercian
nuns, in the diocefe of Paris ; the one near Chevreufe,
at the diftance of five leagues from Paris, called Port-
Royal of the fields; and the other in Paris, in the fuburbs
of St James.
The nuns of the former of thefe monafteries, proving
refra&ory, were difperfed; when many ecclefiaftics, and
others who were of the fame fentiments as thefe religious,
retired to Port Royal, took apartments there, and print¬
ed many books : hence the name of Port-Royalifts was
given to all of their party, and their books were callect
books of Port-Royal: from hence we fay the writers of
Port Royal, Meffieiirs de Port Royal, and the tranfla-
tions and grammars of Port-Royal.
Port-royal, in geography, a port-town, fituaied in the
extremity of a long point of land, in the fouth-eaft part
of the ifland of Jamaica: W. long. 770, N. lat. 1.7° 307,
Port-royal, an ifland on the coaft of South-Carohna,
which, with the neighbouring continent, forms one of
the moft commodious harbours in the Britiffi plantations:
W. long. 8o°, N lat. 310 45.
PORTA, or vena porta, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 244
PORT ATE, or a Cross portate, in heraldry, a crof*.
which does not ftand upright, as croffes generally do,
but lies acrofs the efcutcheon in bend, as if it were
carriect
P o s
carried on a man’s.fliou'dars, See Plate CXLV. fii
PORTRENTRU, a city of Switzerland, in the bilhopucK
of Hafil: E. long’ y°, N. lat, 47° 30'.
PORTER, a kind of malt-liquor, which differs from ale
and pale-beer-in its being made with high-dried malt.
See Brewing.
PORTICO, in archite&ure, a kind of gallery on the
ground, fupported by columns, where people walk under
covert.
PORTLAND, a peninfula in Dorfetfhire, fituated in the
Englilh channel, ten miles fouth of Dorchefter, famous
for producing the belt free-ftone.
Porto Bello, a port-town of America, fituated on the
narrowell part of the ifthmus of Darien s W. long. 82°,
N. lat. io°.
Porto-Rico, an ifland in the American ocean, one hundred
and twenty miles Ibng, and fixty broad, which produces
fugar, rum, and ginger: fituated between 64° and 68°
of W. long, and in 8° ofN. lat. It is fubjeiS to Spain.
The capital is alfo called Porto Rico, and St John’s city.
Porto santo, the leaft of the Madeira tflands, eighteen
miles in circumference : W long. 16°, N. lat 330.
PORTRAIT, in painting, the reprefentation of a perfon,
and efpecially of a face, done from the life.
In this fenfe we ufe the term portrait-painting, in con-
tradiftin&ion to hiftory-painting, where a refemblance of
perfon is ufually difregarded. Portraits, when as large
as the life, are ufually painted in oil-colours : fometintes
they are painted in miniature with water-colours, crayons,
paftils, <bc
PORTSMOUTH, a borough and port town of Hamplhire,
fituated on a fine bay of the Englilh channel ; it has one
of the moft fecure, capacious, and bed fortified harbours
in England : W. long i° d', N. lat 50° 48'. It fends
two members *o parliament
PORTUGAL, the moft wefterly kingdom in Europe: it
is about three hundred miles long, and one hundred
broad; and is fituated between 70 and io° ofW long,
and between 370 and 42° of N. iat. being bounded by
Spain on the north and eaft-, and by the Atlantic ocean
on the fouth and weft. This country is neither fo hot
nor fo fruitful as Spain ; it however produces plenty of
grapes, olives, oranges and lemons
PORTUGALLICA terra, earthef Portugal, thtmmz
of a fine aftringent bole, dug in great plenty in the nor
them parts of Portugal, and efteemed a remedy againft
poifons and venomous bites, and malignant, fevers-
PORTULACA, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five petals,
and the calix of twoTegments. There; are fix fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
POSE', in heraldry, denotes a 3ion,.horfe, or other beaft
(landing ftiil, with all his four feet on the ground.
POSITIVE, a term of relation, oppofed to. negative. It
is alfo ufed in oppofition to relative or arbitrary : thus
we fay, beauty is no pofitive thing, but depends on the dif¬
ferent taftes pf people^
P.ositive degree,* in grammar, is the adjective in its
^ Ample fignification, without any comparifon. See Gram¬
mar.
POSSE comitAtus, in law, fignifies the, power of the
county, or the aid and afliftance of all the knights,
( 505 ) POT
gentlemen, yeomen, labourers, fervants, apprentices,
&o. and all others within the county that are above the
age of fifteen, except women, ecclefiaftical perfons, and
Inch ' are decrepit and infirm.
This poffe comitatus is to be raifed where a riot is
committed, a poffeffion kept upon a forcible entry, or
any force nf refcue ufed, contrary to the king’s writ, or
in oppofition to the execution of juftice ; and it is the
duty of all (henffs to aflift juftices of the peace in thefup-
preffion of riots,- &C. and to raife the puffe comitatus, or
to charge any. number of men for that purpofe.
POSSESSION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. viii. n.
POSSESSIVE, in grammar, a term applied to pronouns
which denote the. enjoyment or poffeffion pf any thing
either in particular or in common : as meus, mine ; and
tuus, thine.
POSSESSORY attion, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
xxx. 18.
POSSIBILITY, in law, is defined to be any thing that is
altogether uncertain, or what may or may not be.
Possibility alfo denotes a non-repugnance to exifting,
in any thing that does not any way exift.
POSSIBLE, is fometimes oppofed to real exiftence; and
is underftood of a thing which, though it does not a&ually
exift, yet may exift; as a new (lar.
POST, a courier or letter-carrier, or one who frequently
changes horfes, polled or placed on the road, for quick¬
er difpatch. The word is alfo applied to the houfe»
where fuch a perfon takes up and lays down his charge.
In England, ports were firft eftanliftied by adt of par¬
liament in the twelfth year of .the reign of Charles II.
which enabled the king to fettle a port-office, and appoint
a governor.
Penny Post, a pod eftabliffied for the benefit of London
and the adjacent parts . by which any letter or parcel not
exceeding fixteen ounces weight, is fpeedily conveyed to
and from all parts within ten miles of London.
POSTD \M or Potsdam a town of Germany in the
marquifate of. Brandenburg, ten miles fouth-weft of
Berlin.
POSTHUMOUS, a child born after the death of his fa¬
ther, or taken out of the body of a dead mother ; from
whence it is frequently applied to the works of an author
not publiffied till after Jiis deceafe.
POSTING, among merchants, the putting an account for¬
ward froTn one book to another, particularly from the
journal or wafteTook to the ledger. See Book-keep¬
ing.
POSTLIMINIUM, among the Romans, the return of one
who had gone to fojourn elfewhere, or had been baniffied '
or taken by an enemy to his own country and (late,
POSTULATE", in mathematics, <b.c is deferibed to be
fuch an eafy and felf-evident fuppofition. as needs no
explication or illuftration to render it intelligjble ; ass
that a right line may be drawn from one point to ano¬
ther.
POTAMOGETON, in botany, a genus of the tetrahdria
tetragynia clafs. It has .no calix, nor ftylus ; but has
four petals, and four feeds There are 12 fpecies, 10 of
them natives of Britain.
POTANCE, in heraldry, a crofs like that reprefented in
Plate CXLV. fig. 4.
PQT=-
POT ( 506.
POT-ASH, tlie Ilxivious-aftes of certain vegetables, safed
in the making of glaf?, foap,
The method of making pot-aih is diredied by Dr Shaw,
as follows. Born a quantity of billet-wood to grey allies;
and taking feveral pounds of thefe allies, boil them in
v/ater, fo as to make a very ftrong lixivium, or lye. Let
this lye be (framed through a coarfe linen cloth, to keep
. out any black parts of the half-burnt wood, that might
happen to remain in the allies : then evaporate this drain¬
ed.lye in an iron-pan over a qipck fire almod to drinefs:
then taking out the matter remaining at the bottom, and
putting it into an iron-crucible, fet it in a drong fire till
the matter is melted, and then immediately pour it out
upon an iron-plate, where it foon coofs, and appears in
the form of a folid lump of pot-afh. - Much after this
manner is pot-afh made in theflkrge way. of bufinefs, for
the fervice of the foap-boiler,’ gtafs-maker, fuller,
but according to the difference of the wood or corn-
budible mate# employed, with the manner of turning.it,
and condu&ing the procefs, different kinds of pot-afh are
prepared.
POTATOE, in botany. See Convolvulus, of which
it is a fpecics.
POTENT, or Pqtknce, in heraldry, a term for a kind
of a crofs, whofe ends all terminate like the headmf a
crutch'. It is o.therwife called the Jerudilern crofs, and
is teprefented in Plate CXLWfig. 5.
POTENTIA, Power, that whereby a thing is capable
either of adling, or being ached upon.
POTENTIAL, in the fchools, is ufed'to denote and dif-
tinguifh a kind of qualities, which are fuppofed to exifl
in the body in potentia only, by which they are capable
in fome manner of affedling and impreflingon us the ideas
of fu:h qualities, though not adhially inherent in them-
felves ; in which feme we fay, potential heat, potential
cold.
Potential, in medicine. Cauteries arediflinguifhed in¬
to achua! and potential. See Cautery.
Potential, in grammar, an epithet applied to one of the
moods of verbs. The potential is the fame in form with
the fubjundtive. See Grammar.
POTENTILLA, in botany, a genus of the icofandria po-
lygynia clafs. The calix confifts of ten fegments, and the
corolla of five petals ; the feeds are round, naked, and
fixed to the receptacle. There are 27 fpecies, 8 of them
natives of Britain.
This plant is faid to poffefs in a great meafure the vir¬
tues of the p.eruvian bark.
POTERIUM, in botany, a genus of the moncecia poly-
andria clafs. The calix of the male confifts of five feg¬
ments, that of the male has but one entire rough leaf.
Neither of them have any corolla ; the ftamina of the
male are from five to ten ; and the ftyli of the female are
from two to five ; and the feed isfingle and oval. There
are three fpecies, one of which, vfz. the fanguiforba,
or burner, is a native of Britain.
POTHOS, in botany a genus of the gysandria polyandri-
clafs. The fpatha and fpadix are roundifh; it has no ca¬
lix; the corolla has four petals; and the berry contains
'many feeds. There are feven fpecies, node of them na¬
tives of Britain.
PQTJON, a liquid medicine, confifting of as much as can
be drank atone draught.
) POT
POTOSI, a city of Peru in South America, fitaated at
the bottom of a mountain of that name, in which is the"
richeft filver-mine ever difcovered : W. long. 67®, S.
lat. 220,
POTTERY, the manufadture of earthen ware, or the art of
making earthen veffels.
The wheel and lathe are the chief, and almoft the on-i
ly inftrumenYs ufed in pottery; the firft for large works,
and the laft for fmall. Tne potter’s wheel confifts princi¬
pally in the nut; which is a beam or axis, whofe foot or
pivot plays perpendicularly on the free-ftone f’ole or bot¬
tom. From the four corners of this beam, which does not
exceed two feet in height, arife four iron-bars, called the
fpokes of the wheel; which forming diagonal lines with
the beam, defeend, and are faftened at bottom to the
edges of a ftrong wooden circle, four feet in diameter,
perfedtly like the felloes of a coach-wheel, except that it
has neither axis nor radii, and is only joined to the beam
which ferves jt as an axis by the iron-bars. The top of
th£ nut is flat, of >a circular figure, and a foot in diame¬
ter; and on this is laid the clay which is to be turned and.
fafhiohed. The wheel, thus difpofed, is encompaffed with
fonr different pieces of wood faftened on a wooden frame.
The hind-piece, which is that on which workman fits, is
made a little inclining towards the wheel: on.the fore¬
piece are placed the prepared earth: on the fide-pieces he
refts his feet; and thefe are made inclining, tergive him
more or lefs room. Having prepared the earth, the potter
lays a round piece of it on the circular head of the nut;
and fitting down turns the wheel with his feet, till it has
got the proper velocity: then, wetting his hands with
water, heprefles his fill or his fingers-ends into the mid¬
dle of the lump, and thus forms the cavity of the veflel,
continuing to widen it from the middleand thus turn¬
ing the infide into form with one hand, while heqiropor-
‘ tions the outfide with the other, the wheel conflantly turn¬
ing all the while, and he wetting his hands from time to
time. When the veflel is too thick, he ufes a flat piece of
iron, fomewhat fharp on the edge, to pare off what is re¬
dundant: and when it is finifhed, it is taken off from the
circular head, by a wire paffed underneath the veffel.
The potter’s lathe is dlfo a kind of wheel, but more fim-
ple and flight than the former. Its three chief members
are an iron-beam or axis, three feet and a half high, and
two feet and a haft diameter, placed horizontally at the
top of the beam, and fe- ving to formjthe veffel upon ; and
another larger wooden wheel, all of a piece, three inches
thick, and two or three feet broad, faftened to the fame
beam at the bottom, and parallel to the horizon. The
beam or axis turns by a pivot at the bottom in an iron-ftand.
The workman gives the motion to the lathe with his feet,
by pufhing the great wheel alternately with each foot, ftill
giving it a greater or lefler degree of motion, as his work
requires. They work with the lathe, with the fame in-
ftruments, and after yhe fame manner as with the wheel.
The mouldings are formed by holding a piece of wood or
iron cut in the form of the moqiding to the veffel, while
the wheel is turning round; but the feet and handles are
made by themfelves, and fet on with the hand ; and if
there be any fculpture in the work, it is ufually done in
wooden moulds, and ftuck on piece by piece on the outfide
of the veffel.
POTTLE, an Englifh meafure containing two quarts.
POULTRY,
POULTRY, all kinds of domeftic birds brought up in yards,
as cocks, hens, capons, ducks, turkeys, &c.
POUND, a landing weight. See Money.
Pound alfo denotes a money of account; fo called, becaufe the
ancient pound of filver weighed apoundtroy. SeeMoNEY.
POUNDAGE, a fubfidy of 12 d. in the pound granted to
the crown on all goods and merchandizes exported orim-
ported; and if-by aliens, one penny moro.
POURPRESTORE, in law, is a wrongful inclofure, or
encroachment upon another perfon-’s property.
POURSUIVANT, or Pursuivant, in heraldry, the
lowed order of officers at arms.
The pourfuivants are properly attendants on the he-
raids, when they marffial public ceremonies. Of thefein
England, there were formerly many , but at prefent there
are only four, viz. blue-mantle, roage-crofs, rouge-dra¬
gon, and portcullice. In Scotland, there is only one king
at arms, who is dyled Lion; and has no lefs than fix he¬
ralds, and as many purfuivants, and a great n^any mef-
fengers at arms, under him.
POURVEYANCE, or Purveyance, in law, the pro¬
viding corn, fuel, vidtual, <bc. for the king’s houffiold ;
and hence the officer who did fo was termed pourveyor.
POWDER, in pharmacy, a dry medicine well broken,,
either in a mortar by grinding or by chemical operations.
POW7ER, the faculty of doing or fuffenng any thing.
Power therefore is two fold, viz. confidered as able
to make, or able to receive any change ; the former where¬
of may be called sudive power, and the latter paffive pow¬
er. See Metaphysics.
Power, in mechanics See Mechanics.
Power, in law, figmSes, in general, a particular authority
granted by any perfon to another to reprefent him, or aft
in his Head.
Powers, in arithmetic and algebra, are nothing but the
produdts arifing from the continual multiplications of a
number, or quantity, into itfelf. See Algebra, p. 81.
and Arithmetic, p. 420.
POX, or small pox, in medicine. See Medicine, p.75.
FrenchVoyi See Medicine, p.133.
PRACTICE, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, p. 393.
PRAGMAi'lC sanction, in the civil Jaw, is definedhy
Hottoman to be a refcript, or anlwer of the fovereign,
delivered^by advice of his council, to fome college, or¬
der, or body of people, upon confulting him on fome
cafe of their community! The like anfwer given to any
particular perfon, is called (Imply tefcript. The term
pragmatic fanftion, is chiefly applied to a fetrlemenr of
Charles VI. emperor of Germany, who, in the year 1722,
having no fons, fettled his hereditary dominions on his
; eldeft daughter, the archduchefs Maria Therefa which
was confirmed by the diet of the empire, and guaranteed
by Great Britain, France, the States general, and moft
of the powers in Europe.
PRjECEPTIO hereditatis, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xx-vii. 33.
PRAGUE, rhe capital of Bohemia, fituated on the river
Mulda, in E. long. 140 20', N lat. 50°. This is a flrong
fine city; and next to London, Paris, and Conftantinople,
the largeft in Europe.
FRAMNiON, in natural hiftory, the name of a femi-pel¬
lucid gem.
This is ajvery fingular Hone, and of a very great ccn-
Vol. III. N°. 90. 2
') PEE
cealed beauty; our lapidaries, when they meet with It>
call it by the name of the black agate. Jr is of an extreme¬
lydole, compaft, and firm texture, of afmooth and equal
furface, and in fhapevefy irregular , being fometimesround,
fometimes oblong, andoftenflat; in fize it feldom exceeds
two inches. It appears, on a common infpeftion, to be
of a fine deep black ; but held up againft the fun, or the
light of a candle, it is an elegant red, clouded by a quan¬
tity of fubtile black earth. We have it from the Eaft-
Indies,
PRASIUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gymno-
fpermia clafs. The berries are four, each containing one
feed. There are two fpecies, none of tham natives of Bri¬
tain. .
PRATIQUE, or Prat#Ac, in commerce, a negotiation,
or communication, of‘commerce, which a mer .hant vef-
fel obtains in the port it anives in, and the countries it
difeovers : hence to obtain a partique, is to obtain a li¬
berty to frequent a port, to go affiore, to buy and fell,
<bc.
PREAMBLE, in law, the beginning of an adl of parlia¬
ment, which ferves to open the intent of the ad, and
the mifehiefs intended to be remedied by it.
PREBEND, the maintenance a prebendary receives out of
the eftate of a cathedra! or collegiate church.
PREBENDARY, any eccieiiaftic who enjoys a prebend.
PRECARIUM, in Scots law. See Law, Tit xx. 9.
PRECEDENCE, a place of honour to which a perfon is
entitled. This is either of courtefy or of right The for¬
mer is that which is due to age, edate, 6v. which is re¬
gulated by cuftem and civility; the latter is fettled by au¬
thority, and, when broken in u_ on, gives anadion at law.
PRECEDENT, inlaw, a Cafe which has been determined,
and which ferves as a rule for all of the fame nature.
PRECEPT, in law, a command in writing fent by a chief
judice, juftice of the peace, &c. for bringing a perfon,
record, or other matter, before him.
Pre-cept of glare constat, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xxvii 28.
Precept of seisin, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.x. 15.
PRECESSION, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, pi 562.
PRECIPITANT, in chemiftry, is applied to any liquor,
which, when poured on a folution, leparates why is dif-
folved, and makes it precipitate, or fall to the bottom of
rheveffcl. See Chemistry.
The term precipitant is alfo ufed, in medicine, to de¬
note any remedy that moderates the Heat of the blood,
by feparating, as is fuppofed, any heterogeneous matter
contained therein.
PRECIPITATE, in chemiftry, a fubftance which, having
been diffiolved in a proper menftrum, is' again feparated
from its folvent, and thrown down to the bottom of the
vefTel by pouring fome other liquor upon it.
PRECIPITATION. See Chemistry, p. 69, 107.
PRECOGNITION, in Scots law See Law, Tit. xxxiii.
PRECORDIA, in anatomy, a general name for the parts
fituated about the heart, in the fore-part of the thorax; as
the diaphragm, pericardium, and even the heart itfelf,
with the fpleen, lungs, ebr. SccAnatomy.
PREDECESSOR, properly fignifies a perfon who has pre¬
ceded or .gone before another in the fame office or em¬
ployment ; in which fenfe, it is didinguilhed from aa-
ceftor.
6 M
PILE-
P J! E
FREDESTINATiOJt, in general, fignifies a decree of God,'
whereby, from all erernity, he ordained fuch a concate¬
nation of caufea as muft produce every event by a kind of
neceliity,
In this fenfe, the Turks are great predeftinarians; and
on this'account are much more daring in battle, and wil
lingly encounter greater daggers than they would other-
tviie do. See Mahometan ism.
Predeftination. among Chriftians, is ufed, in a more li¬
mited ftnfe, for a judgment or decree of God, whereby
he has refo’lved, from all eternity, to fave a certain num¬
ber of perions, from thence called eledl; fo that the reit
of mankind being left in a Hate of impenitence, are faid
to be reprobated,
PREDICABLE among logicians, denotes a general qua¬
lity which may be predicated or afiertedof feveral things:
thus animal is predicable of mankind, beads, birds, fillies,
&c. See Logic.
PREDICAMENT, among logicians. See Logic.
PREDIC ATE, in logic, that patt of a propofition which
_ affirms or denies fomethmg of the fubjedi. See Logic.
PREENING, in natural.hiltory, the adtion of birds drefs-
ing their feathers, to enable them to glide the more rea¬
dily through the air, foe.
For this purpofe they have two peculiar glands on their
rump, which fecrete an undtious matter into a bag that is
perforated, out of which the bird occafionally draws it
with its bill.
PRE-EXISTENCE, the Hate of a thing a.dtuallyin being
before another.
PREFACE, fomething introdudlory to a book, to inform
the reader of the delign, method, foe. obferved therein,
and generally whatever is neceffary to facilitate the un-
derftanding of a book.
PREFECT, in ancient Rome, one of the chief magidrates
who governed in the abfence of the kings, cdnfuls, and
emperors.
Prefect of the pretorium, the leader of the pretorian
bands dedined for the emperor’s guards, confiding, ac¬
cording to Dion, of 10,000 men, This officer, according
to Suetonius, was indituted by Augudus, and ufually ta¬
ken from among the knights.
PREGNANCY, the date of a woman who-has conceived,
or is with child. See Midwifery.
PREJUDICE does not mean a judgment merely as prior
to another in refpedt of time, but as being palled before
the things were duly confidered and fully underdood.
.Hence prejudice is fometimes called anticipation, and a
preconceived opinion. ' ,
PRELATE, an ecclefiadic raifed to fome eminent and fu-
perior dignity in the church; as bilhops, arebbilhops, pa¬
triarchs, foe.
PRELIMINARY, in general, denotes lomething to be ex¬
amined and determined, before an affair can be treated
of to the purpofe.
PRELUDE, in mafic, is ufually a flourifh or irregular air,
which a mufician plays eff-hand, to try if his indrument
be in tune, and fo lead him into the piece to be played.
PRjEMISSES. in logic, an appellation given to the two firft
propofinonsof a fyllogifm. See Logic.
PRENANTHES, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamb a:qualis clafs. The receptacle is naked ; aad
the pappus is limple. There are feven fpccies, only one
P RE
of them, viz. the muralis, or ivy-leaved wild lettuce, is a
native o£ Britain.
PREPQSITA negotiis domesticis, in Scots law.
See Law, Tit. vi. 18
PREPOSITION, in grammar. See Grammar,
PREPUCE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.274.
PREROGATIVE of the king, that power which the king
hath, not only over other'perfohs, but over the ordinary
eourl'e of the common law, in right of his crown.
Such as, that he may pardon a perfon condemned to
die, that the king’s perfon is fubjeft to no man’s fuit, his
poffeffions cannot be taken from him by any .violence, his
goods are fubjeft to no tribute, nor dtdrainabie, foe.
PRESAGE, in antiquity, denotes an augury, or fign of
fome future event; which was chiefly taken from the
flight of ifirds, the entrails ofyiftims, See Augury,
and Aruspices.
PRESBURG, the capital of Hungary, a large city on the
north fide of the Danube, fifty miles eaft of Vienna: E,
long. 17° 30’, N- lat. 48° 20.
PRESBYTA, in optics, a perfon whofe eyes being fiat,
can fee didant objefls didinffly, but thofe neaf confufed-
ly : w hich defeft of fight got this appellation, becaufeold
people are naturally fubjoft to it.
Spe<dacies, or convex glaffes, are the only remedy, for
this defeff.
PRESBYTER, in the primitive Chridian chur.ch, an el¬
der, and of the fecond order of ecclefiadics; the other
two being bilhops and deacons. ..
PRESBY I ERIANS, protedant's, fo called from iheir main¬
taining that the government of the church appointed in'
the New Tedament was by prefbyteries ; that is, by mini-
ders and ruling elders, adociated for its government
and difcipline.
The prelbyterians affirm, that there is no order in the
church as edahlilhed by Chrid and his apodles fuperior
to that of prefbyters ; that all miniders, being ambaffa-
dors of Chrid, are equal by their commilfion ; and that
elder or prefbyter, and biffiop, are the fame in name and
office : for which they alledge, Arts xx. 28, foe.
The only difference be ween them and the church
of England, relates to difcipline and church-government.
Their highed affembly is a fynod. which may be proving
cial, national, or oecumenical ; and they allow of appeals
from inferioy to faperior affemblies ; according to Ails
xv. 2, 6, 22, 23. The next affembly is compofed of a
number of miniders and elders, affociated for governing
the churches within certain bounds. This authority they
found upon Ails xi. 30. Ails xv. 4, 6, foe. The low¬
ed of their affemblies or prelbyteries confilts of the naini-
ftter and elders of a congregation, who have power to cite
before them any member, and to admoniffi, inllruft, re¬
buke, and fufpend him from the eucharift. They have
alfo a deacon, whofe office is to take care of the poor.
The ordination of their miniders is by prayer, fading,,
and impofiiion of the hands of the prelbytery. This is
now the difcipline of the church of Scotland.
PRESCIENCE, in theology, fore knowledge, or the know¬
ledge which God has of events before they come to pafs.
PRESCRIPTION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit xxvi. ’i.
PRESENCE, a termof relation ufedinoppofition to abfence, , K
and fignifying theexidenee of a perfon in a ertain place.
PRESENT tense, in grammar. See Grammar.
PRE-
( 508 )
P IT I
5°p 5;
r
PRESENTATION, in Scots law. SeeL, ■ ; Tit. v .7.
PRESS, in the mechanic arts, a, machine or vv o.i, or iron,
ierving to fqueeze any Body very clofe, generally >by
means of a fcrew^ See Mech an 1 cs.
PRESTER John,.or Jean, an appeUation given to the
king of Abyllinia' or Ethiopia.
This name is altogether unknown in Ethiopia, where
he is called the grand Negus.
PRESTO, in the Italian mulick, intimates to perform ve¬
ry quick, as prefiijjhno does extremely fo.
PRESTON, a borough-town, twenty,miles fouth of ,Lan-
cafter, which fends two members to parliament,
PRESUMPTION, in Scots lav/..See Law, Tit. xxxi. 18.
PRETERITE tense, in grammar. See Grammar.
PRETEXT, a colour or motive, whether real or feigned.,
for doing fomething.
Toga PRETEXTA, among the ancient Romans, a long
white gown, with a border of purple round the edges,
and worn by children of quality till the age of puberty,
viz. by the boys till feventeen, when they changed it for
the toga virilis; and by the girls till marriage.
PRETOR, a magiftrate among the ancient Romans, not
unlike our lord chief juitices, or lord chancellor, or both
in one : as being vefled with the power of dillributing
juflice among the citizens. At firft there was only one
pretor ; but afterwards another being created, the firft or
chief one had the title of pretor urbanus, or the city-pre-
tor ; the other was called peregrihus, as being judge in
all matters relating to foreigners. But, befides thefe,
there were afterwards created many provincial pretors ;
who were not only judges, but alfo ailifted the confuls in
the government of the* provinces, and even were inverted
with the government of provinces themfelves.
PRETORIAN guards, in Roman antiquity, were the
emperor’s guards, who at length were increafed to ten
thoufand: they had this denomination, according to fome,
from their being Rationed at a place in the palace called
praetorium : their commander was rtiled prsefe«rtus praeto
rii. See Prefect.
PRETORIUM, among the Romans, denoted the hall or
court wherein die pretor lived, and wherein he admini-
ftered juftice.
PREVENTION in Jurifdittion, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. ii. 7.
PRIAPISM, in medicine, a continual and painful ere<5Hon
of the penis.
PRIAPUS, in medicine, denotes the genital parts in men
It alfo denotes in antiquity, a fabulous deity, parti
cularly adored at Lamfpacus, the placeofhis birth, who
was revered very much for the extraordinary fize of his
parts.
PRIEST, a perfon fet apart for the performing of facrifice
and other offices of religion.
Priest, in the Chriftian church, is a perfon inverted with
- holy orders ; in virtue whereof he has a power to preach,,
pray, adminifter the facraments, <bc.
PRIM/E viamong phyficians, denote the whole ali¬
mentary duft ; including the cefophagus, rtomach, and
intertines, with their appendages.
PRIMAGE, in commerce, a fmall duty at the water fide,
ufually about twelve pence jThr tun, o, fix pence a bale,,
■due to the marter and mariners of a fhip.
PRIMATE, in church polity, an archbifhcp, who is in¬
verted with a jurifdiftisn oVer other bifhogs.
PRIME, an appellation given to whatever is firrt in order,
degree, or dignity, amongfievera! things of the fame or
. like kind ; thus we fay the prime ininirter, prime cort, <bc.
PRIMIPILUS, in antiquity, the centurion df the firit
cohort of a legion, who had charge of the Roman eagle.-
PRIMIT^JAl, the firft fruits gathered of the earth, whereof
the ancients made prefents to the gods.
PRIMITIVE, in grammar, is a root or-original word in a
language, in CGntradiftindfion to derivative: thus, 6W is
a primiti ve, godly a derivative, and gcd-likep. compound.
PRIMULA, in botany; a genus of the pentandria monogy-
nia clals. The tube of the corolla is cylindrical, with
an open mobth. There are eight fpecies, three of them’
natives of Britain, viz. the vulgaris, or common primrofe;
the veris, or cows-lips; and the farinofa, or birds-eye.
PRINCE, in polity, a perfon inverted with the fupreme
command of a ftate, independent of any other.
Prince alfo denotes a perfen who is a fovereign in his
own territories, yet holds of fome other as his fupe'rror ;.
fuch are the princes or Germany.
PRINCIPAL, the chief and mort necefiary part of a thing.
PRINC1PATE, a province of the kingdom of Naples, fitua-
ted on the Mediterranean, between the provinces of Lavoro
and Calabria; and divided into the Hither and Further
Principate, with refp<.<5t to the city of Naples.
PRINCIPLE, in general, is ufed for the caufe, fource,.'
or origin of any thing.
Principle, is alfofdinetimes ufed in a fynpnymous fenfe
with axiom or maxim.
PRINOS, in botany, a genus of the hexandria monogynia
clafs. The calix confifts of fix fegments, and the co¬
rolla of one rotated petal ; and the berry contains fix
feeds. There are two fpecies, both natives of America.
PRINT, the impreffion taken, from a copperplate. See
Rolling-prefs Printing.
PRINTER, a perfon who compofes and takes imprelfions
from moveable-charaders ranged in order, or front plates
engraven, by means of ink, and a prefs : or from blocks
of wood cut in flowers, &c. and taken off in various co¬
lours on calicoes, linens, filks, drc.
The moft curious of thefe arts,- and that which deferves
the moft particular explication, is the firft ; for to the
printers of books are chiefly owing our deliverance ffom
ignorance and error, the progrefs of learning, the revival
of the fciences, and numberlefs improvements,in arts, ,
which, withoutthis noble invention t would have been either
loft to mankind, or confined to the knowledge of a few.
The firft printers were Guttemberg* Fuft, Schoeffer,.
Mentel, and Kofter ; and the firft who pradtifed this arc
in England was Fred. Corfeilles, who brought it over
from Haeriem, in the reign of king Henry VI. The great
printers famous for the corre&nefs and elegance of their
works, were Aldus, and Paulus Manutius ; the two ■
Badii ; William and Frederic Morel ; Oporin ; Frobe-
nius; Robert, Henry, andCharles Stephens; Gryphius,
Turnebus,. Torres, Commelin, Plantin, Raphelengius,
Vafcofan, Bleau, Crifpin, and the two Elzevirs ; and
among thefe, the learned printers were the Manutii, the
Stephanies, the Bodii, Turnebus, Morel, Plantin
had the title of architypographus, or arch-printer, given :
•hiois
P Pv 1 (5(0
him by the king of Spain in confideration of his printing
the polyglot of Antwerp, The printers of Germany,
ere. generally Caft their own-letter, and fell their own
books Thele are in many places ranked among the mem¬
bers o.f uni verities, and entitled to the privilege of flu-
dents. In England,' they g.re efteemed a part of the com¬
pany of ftationers and bookfellers.
^PRINTING, the art of taking impreffions from characters
or figures, moveable or immoveable, on paper, 1‘nen, filk,
drc. There are three kinds of printing; the one from
moveable letters, for books ; another from copper-plates,
for pictures ; and the lafl from blocks, in which the re-
prefentatioh of birds, flowers, <&c. are cut, for printing
calicoes, linens, the firfl called common-prefs
printing, the fecond rolling-prefs printing, and the laft
calico, &c. printing. The principal difference between
'the three confifls in this, that the firff is cafl in relievo, in
diftinCt pieces; the fecond engraven in creux ; and the
third cut in relievo, and generally ftamped, by placing
the block upon the materials to be printed, and ftriking
upon the back of it.
■Progrefs of Printing. Who the firfl inventors of the
European method of priming books were, in what city
and what year it was fet on foot, are queffions long dif-
puted among the learned. In effeCf, as the Grecian cities
contended for the birth of Homer, fo do the German cities
for that of printing. Mentz, Haerlem, and Strafburg,
are the warmeft on this point of honour. John Guttem-
burg, and John Fuft of Mentz ; John Mentel of Straf¬
burg, and L. John Kofter of Haerlem; are the perfons
to whom this honour is feverally aferibed, by their re-
fpeftive countrymen ; and they have all their advocates
among the learned. However, their firfl efiays were
made on wooden, blocks, after the Chineie manner. The
book at HaeHem, -the vocabulary called Catholicon, and
the pieces in the Bodleian library, and that of Bennet-
college, are all performed in this way ; and the impref-
fion appears to have been only given on one fide of the
leaves, after which the two blank fides were pafled to¬
gether. But they foon found the inconveniences of this
method; and therefore bethought themfelves of an im¬
provement ; which was by making Angle letters diflimft
from one another: and thefe being firlt done in wood,
gave room for g fecond improvement, which was the
making them of metal; and, in order to that, forming
moulds, matrices, <bc. for. calling them.
* From this ingenious contrivance we ought to date the
origin of the preflnt art of printing, contradiflinguilhed
from the method pradlifed by the Chinefe. And of this
SchoefFer, or Scheffer, firftfervant, and afterwards part¬
ner and fon-in-faw of Fuft, atMentz, abovementioned, is
pretty generally allowed to be the inventor, fo that he
may properly be reckoned the firft printer, and the Bible
which was printed with moveable letters in 1450, the
firft printed book; thenext was Augufline de civitate Dei,
*hen Tally’s offices, printed about the year 1461. In thefe
books they left the places eof the initial letters blank, and
gave them to the illuminers to have them ornamented and
painted in gold and azure, in order to render the work
more beautiful, and, as fome think, to make their books
pafs for manuferipts.
Some authors; ted us, that Full carrying a parcel of
J3jbl.es with him to Paris, and offering them to fale as
) p p: i
manuferapts; the French. Upon confidering the number
of books, and their exarft conformity to each other even
to a point, and that it was impoffible for the beft book-
writers to be lo exatft, concluded there was witchcraft in
the cafe, and, by their atflually indi&ing him as a conjurer,
or threatening to do lo, extorted from him the fe ret:
and hence the origin of the popular (lory of Dr Fauftus.
From Mentz. the art of printing loftn fpread itfelf
throughout a good part of Europe: Haerlem and Straf¬
burg had it very early ; which, as the current of authors
r.eprefent it, occafioned their pretending to the honour of
the invention. From Haerlem it pafled to Rome in 1467;
and into England id 1468, by means of Thos Bdurchierr
archbifhop of Canterbury, who fent W. Turner mafter
of the robes, and W. Caxton merchant, to Haerlem to
learn the art. Thefe privately prevailing with Corfeiiles,
an under-workman, to come over, a prefs was fet up at
Oxford and an edition of Ruffinus on the creed was
printed the fame year in oftavo. From Oxford, Cax¬
ton brought it to.London about the year 1470, and the
fame year it was carried to Paris. Hitherto there had
been nothing printed but in Latin, and the vulgar tongues;
and this firfl in Roman charaflers, then in Gothic, and
at laft in Italic: but in 1480, the Italians caft a fet of
Greek types; and they have alfo the honour of the firft
Hebrew editions, which were printed about the fame time
with the Greek. Towards the end of the fixteenth cen¬
tury there appeared various editions of books in Syriac,
Arabic, Perfian, Armenian, Coptic or Egyptian charac¬
ters . fome to gratify the curiofity of the learned, and o-
thers for the ule of the Chriftians of the Levant. Out
of Europe, the art of printing has been carried into the
three other parts of the world : for Afia, we fee impref¬
fions of books at Goa, and in. the Philippines; at Mo¬
rocco, for Africa; at Mexico, Lima, Philadelphia, New
York, Boflon, tec. for America. The Turks, indeed,
rigoroufly prohibit printing throughout their empire, as
imagining - hat the too frequent communication with books
might occafion (ome change in their religion and govern¬
ment ; yet the Jews have feveral editions of their books
printed at Theffalonia, and even at Conflantinople.
Method ^/'Printing. The workmen employed in the art
of printing are of two kinds : compofitors, who range
and difpofe the letters into words, lines, pages, tec. ac¬
cording to the copy delivered them by the author ; and
preffmen, who apply ink upon the :ame, and take off the
impreflion. The types being cafl, the c mpofitor diftri-
betes each kind by ittelf among the divifionsof two wood¬
en frames, an upper and an under one, called cafes ;
each of which is divided into little cells or boxes. Thofe
of the upper cafe are in numbei ninety-eight: the'e are
all of the fame fize ; and in them are difpofed the capitals,
fmall capitals, accented letters, figures, tec. thecap tals
being placed in alphabetical order. In the cells of the
lower cafe, which are fifty-four, are placed the fmall let¬
ters, with the points, fpaces. tec. The boxes are here
of different fizes, the large/! being for the letters moft
ufed ; and.thefe boxes are not in alphabetical order, but
the ceils which contain the letter ofteneft wanted are
nearelt the compofitor’s hand. Each cafe is placed a lit¬
tle aflope, that the compofitor may the more eafily reach
the upper boxes. The inftrument in which the letter
are fet is called a compofing-ftick, \ihid. n° 2 ) which
confifls
P R I (51
ConTifls of a long and narrow plate of brafs, or iron, tic.
cc; on the right-fide of which arifes a ledge bb, which
runs the whole length of the plate, and ferves to fuftain
the letters, the fides of which are to reft againft it: a-
long this ledge is a row of holes, which ferve for intro¬
ducing the ferew f. in order to lengthen or fhorten the
extent of the line,- by moving the Aiders e d farther
from or nearer to the ftiorter ledge at the end a. Where
marginal notes are required in a work, the two fliding-
pieces e d are opened to a proper diftance from each
other, in fuch a manner as that while the diftance be¬
tween d and c forms the length of the line in the text,
the diftance between the two Qiding.pieces fofms the
length of the lines for the notes on the Ade of the page.
Before the pompofttor proceeds to compofe, he puts a
rule, or thin ftip of brafs-plate, cut to the length of the
line, and of the fame height as the letter, in the compo-
fing-ftick, againft the ledge, for the letter to bear againft.
Things thus prepared, the compofitor having the copy
lying before him, and his ftick in his left-hand, his thumb
being over the Aider d; with the right, he takgp up the
letters, fpaces, tic. one by one, and places them againft
the rule, while he fupports them with his left thumb by
prefting them to the end of the Aider d. the other hand
beingsconftantly employed in fetting in other letters : the
whole being performed with a degree of expedition and
addrefs not eafy to be imagined.
A little being thus compofed, if it end with a word or
fyllable, and exactly fill the meafure, there needs no
further care; otherwife, more fpaces are to be put in,
orj elfe the diftances leftened between the feveral words,
in order to make the meafure quite full, fo that every
line may end even. The fpaces here ufed are pieces of
metal exaftly ftiaped like the ftianks of the letters : thefe
are of various thickneftes, and ferve to fupport the let¬
ters, and to preferve a proper diftance between the words;
but not reaching fo high .as the letters, they make no im-
preffion when the work is printed. The firft line being
thus finiftied, the compofitor proceeds to the next ; in
order to which he moves the brafs-rule from behind the
former, and places it before it, and thus compofes ano¬
ther line againft it after the fame manner as before ; go¬
ing on thus till his ftick is full, when he empties all the
lines contained in it into the gaily.
The compofitor then fills and empties his compofing-
ftick as before, tillacomplete page be formed ; when he ties
it up with a cord or pack-thread, and fetting it by, pro¬
ceeds to the next, till the number of pages to be contain¬
ed in a ftieet is completed ; which done, he carries them
to the impofing-ftone, there to be ranged in order, and
faftened together in a framd called a chafe, and this is
termed impofing. The chafe is a reftangular iron-frame,
of different dimenfions, according to the fize of the paper
to be printed, having two crofs-pieces of the fame metal,
called a long and fhort crofs, mortifed at each end fo as
to be taken out occafionally. By the different fituation
of thefe croffes the chafe is fitted for different volumes :
for quartos and oflavos, one traverfes the middle length-
wife, the other broadwife, fo as to interfetf each other
in the centre: for twelves and twenty-fours, the Aiort -
crofs is ftiifted nearer to one end of the chafe : for folios,
the long crofs is left entirely out, and the Aiort one left
an the middle ; and for broad-fides, both croffes are fet
Vol. Ill, N° 9<j. 2
) P R I
afide. To drefs the chafe, or range and fix the pages
therein, the compofitor makes ufe of a fet of furniture,
confifting of Alps of wood of different dimenfions, and a-
bout half an inch high,, that they may be lower than the
letters : fome of thefe are placed at the top of the pages,
and called head-fticks ; others between them, to form the
inner margin ; others on the fides of the croffes, to form
the outer margin, where the paper is to be doubled; and
others in the form of wedges to the fides and bottom of
the pages. Thus all the pages being placed at their pro¬
per diftances, and fecured from being injured by the chafe
and furniture placed about them, they are all untied, and
faftened together by driving fmail pieces of wood called
quoins, cut in the wedge-form, up between the fianting
fide of the foot and fide fticks and the chafe, by means
of a piece of hard wood and a mallet ; and all being thus
bound faft together, fo that none of the letters will fall
out, it is ready to be committed to the the prefiman. In
this condition the work is called a form; and as there
are two of thefe forms required for every ftieet, when
both fides are to be printed, it is neceftary the-diftances
between the pages in each form ftiould be placed with,
fuch exadtnefs, that the impreftion of the pages in one
form ftiall fall exactly on the back of the pages of the
other, which is called regifter.
As it is impoftible but that there muft be fome mif-
takes in the work, either through the overfight of the
compofitor, or by the cafual tranfpofition of letters in the
cafes ; a ftieet is printed off, which is called a proof,
and given to the corrector ; who reading it over, and
rectifying it by the copy, by making the alterations in
the margin, it is delivered back to the compoGtor to be
corrected.
The compofitor then unlocking the form upon the cor¬
recting-Gone, by loofening the quoins or wedges which
bound the letters together, rectifies the miftakes by pick¬
ing out the faulty or wrong letters with a Gender Aiarp-
pointed fteel-bodkin, and puts others into their places.
After this another proof is made, fgnt to the author,
and corrected as before; and laftly, there is another
proof, called a revife, which is made in order to fee whe¬
ther all the miftakes marked in the laft proof are corrected.
The preffman’s bufinefs is to work off the forms thus
prepared and corrected by the compofitor ; in doing which
there are four things required; paper, ink, balls, and a
prefs. To prepare the paper for ufe, it is to be firft
wetted by dipping feveral ftieets together in water: thefe
are afterwards laid in a heap over each other ; and to
make them take the water equally, they are all pfeffed
clofe down with a weight at the top. The ink is made
of oil and lamp-black; for the manner of preparing which,
fee Printing Ink, The balls, by which the ink is ap¬
plied on the forms, are a kind of wooden funnels with
handles,, the cavities of which are filled with wool or
hair, as is alfo a piece of alum-leather or pelt nailed o-
ver the cavity, and made extremely foft by foaking in u-
rine, and by being well rubbed. One of thefe the preff-
man takes in each hand; and applying one of them to
thg ink-block, daubs and works them together to diftri-
bute the ink equally and then blackens the form which
is placed on the prefs, by beating with the balls upon the
face of the letter.
The printing-prefs reprefented in Plate CXLYII. fig. r.
6 N n° i.
P R I ( si2
c0 i. is a very curious, though complex machine. The
body fconlifts of two ftrong cheeks, <? a, placed perpen¬
dicularly, and joined together by four crofs-pieces; the
cap b ; the head c, which is moveable, being partly fu-
flained by two iron-pins, or long bolts, that pafs the cap ;
the ihelves d d, which ferve to keep fteady a part called
the hofe ; and the winter if, which bears the carriage,
and fuftains the effort of the prefs beneath. The fpindle
f is an upright piece of iron pointed with fteel, having a
male-fcrew which goes into the female one in the head
about four inches. Through the eye £ of this Iptndle is
fattened the bar k, by which the preffmantnakes the im-
preflxon. Part of the fpindle is inclofed in a fquare wood¬
en frame called the hofe b, and its point works into a
br .fs-pan fupplied with oil, which is fixed to an iron
plate let into the top of the platten. At each corner of
the hofe, there is an iron-hook fattened with pack-thread
to thofe at each end of the platten in fuch a manner
as to keep it perfeflly level. The carriage is placed
a foot below the piatten, having its fore-part fupporfed
by a prop called the fore-ftay, while the other retts on
the winter. On this carriage, which fuftains the plank,"
are nailed two long iron-bars or jibs, and on the plank
are nailed fhort pieces of iron or fteel called cramp-irons,
equally tempered with the ribs, and which Aide upon
them when the plank is turned in or out. Under the
carriage is fixed a long piece of iron called the fpit, with
a double wheel in the middle, round which leather-
girts are fattened, nailed to each end of the plank ; and
to the outfide of the fpit is fixed a rounce m, or han¬
dle to turn round the wheel. Upon the plank is a fquare
frame or coffin, in which is inclofed a polifhed ttone on
which the form n is laid ; at the end of the coffin are
three frames, viz. the two tympans and frifket: the
tympans d are fquare, and made of three flips of very
thin wood, and at the top a piece of iron ftill- thinner ;
that called the outer tympan is fattened with hinges to the
coffin: they are both covered with parchment; and be¬
tween the two are placed blankets, which are neceffary
to take off the impreffion of the letters upon the paper.
The frilket /> is a fquare frame of thin iron, fattened
with hinges to the tympan; it is covered with paper cut
in the neceffary places, that the ffieet, which is put be¬
tween the frifket and the great or outward tympan, may
receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt the margins.
To. regulate the margins, a ffieet of paper is fattened
c upon this tympan, which is called the tympan-fheet; and
on each fide is fixed an iron point, which makes two
holes in the ffieet, which is to be placed on the fame
points, when the. impreffion is to be made on the other
fide. In preparing the prefs for working, the parchment
which covers the outer tympan is wetted till it is very
loft, in order to render the impreflion more equable ; the
blankets are then put in, and fecured from flipping by the
inner tympan : then while one preffman is beating the
letter with the balls f, covered with ink taken from the
ink-block, the other perfon places a ffieet of white paper
on the tympan-ffieet, turns down the frifket upon it to
keep the paper clean and prevent its flipping ; then bring¬
ing the tympans upon the form, and turning the rounce,
he brings the form with the flone, &c. weighing about
300 pounds weight, under the platten ; pulls with the
tear, by which meaca the flatten preffes the blankets and
) P R I
paper clofe upon the letter, whereby half the form is
printed; then eafing the bar, he draws the,form ftijl for¬
ward, gives a fecond poll. and letting go the bar, turns
back the form, takes up the tympans and friiltet, takes
out the printed flteet, and lays on a freffi one ; and this
is repeated till he has taken off the impreflion upon the
full number of Iheets the edition is to ctmfift of. .One
fide of the (beet being thus printed, the, form for the o-
ther is laid upon the prefs, and worked off in the fame
manner.
Cbintfe Printing, is performed from wooden planks or
blocks, cut like thofe ufed in printing of cailico, paper,
cards he.
Roiling prd/s Printing, is employed in taking off prints
or impreffiyns from copper-plates engraven, etched, or
feraped as in mezzotihtos. See Engraving.
This art is faid to have been as ancient as the year
154Q. and to owe its origin to Finiguerra, a Florentine
goldfmlth, who pouringTome melted brimftone on an en¬
graven plate, found the exafi impreffion of the engraving
left in the cold brimftone, marked with black taken out
of the ftrokes by the liquid fulphur: upon this he at¬
tempted to do the fame on filver-plates wish wet paper,
by rolling it fmoothiy with a roller ; and this fucceeded :
but this art was not ufed in England till the reign of king
James I when it was brought from Antwerp by Speed.
The form of the rolling-prefs, the compofition of the ink
ufed therein, and the manner of applying both in .taking
off prints, are as follow.
The rolling-prefs AL (Plate CXLVII. fig. 2 ) may
be divided into two parts, thdbody and carriage: the body
confifts of two wooden cheeks PP placed perpendicular¬
ly on a ftand or foot LM, which (uttains the whole prefs.
From the foot likewile are four other perpendicular pieces
c,c,c,c, joined by other crofs or horizontal ones d,d,dt
which ferve to fuftain a fmooth even plank or table HIK,
about four feet and a half long, two feet and a half broad,
and an inch and a half thick. Into the cheeks go two
wooden cylinders or rollers, DE, FG, abotn fix inches
in diameter, borne up at each end by the cheeks, whofe
ends, which are leffened to about two inches diameter,
and called trunnions, turn in the cheeks about two
pieces of wood in form of half-moons, lined with
poliffied iron to facilitate the motion. Laftly, to one
of the trunnions of the upper roller is fattened a crofs,
confifting of two levers A;B, or pieces of wood, traver-
fing each other, the arms of which crofs ferve inftead of
the bar" or handle of the letter-prefs, by turning the up¬
per roller, and when the plank is between the two rollers,
giving the fame motion to the under one, by drawing the
plank forw'ard and backward.
The ink uled for copper-plates, is a compofition made
of the ftones of peaches and apricots, the bones of ffieep,
and ivory, all well fijirnt, and called Frankfort black,
mixt with nut-oil that has been well boiled, and ground
together on a marble, after the fame manner as painters
do their colours.
The method of printing from copper-plates is as fol¬
lows. They take a fmall quantity of this ink on a rubber
made of linen-rags, ftrongly bound about each other, and
therewith linear the whole face of,the platfe as it lies on
a grateover a charcoal-fire. The plate being fufficientl
inked, they firft wipe it over witb a foul rag, then with
jy. Surmounted. J6\ Tenne.
Tressuke .
C'lTPY. ^-VeRT.
Plate CXLVI1
4- Quartering.
S
^Rampant.
Remply.
/<(’ Rtbran.
R.u^tre
//{. 6altant .
d ' on»-«Uiw tW
PRO ( S
tlie palm of their left hand, and then with that of the
Tight; and to dry the hand and forward the wiping, they
mbit from time time in whiting. In wiping the plate per-
fe&ly clean, yet without taking the ink out of the engra¬
ving, the addrefs of the workman confiRs. The plate thus
prepared, is laid on the plank of the prefs; over the
plate is laid the paper, firil well moittened, to receive
the impreffion, and over the paper two or three folds
of flannel. Things thus difpofed the arms of the crofs
are pulled and by that means the plate with its furni¬
ture pafled through between the rollers, which pinching
very ftrongly, yet equally, prefles the moiftened paper in¬
to the ftrokes of the engraving, whence it licks out the
ink.
PRIOR, the fuperior of a convent of monks, or the next
under the abbot. See Abbot.
PRISCILLIANISTS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian here¬
tics, fo called from their leader Prifcillian, a Spaniard by
birth, and biihop of Avila. He is faid to have prafhfed
magic, and to have maintained the principal errors of the
Manichees ; but his peculiar tenet was, that it is lawful
to make falfe oaths, in order to fupport one’s caufe and
interett.
PRISM, an oblong folid, contained under more than four
planes whofe bafes are equal, parallel, and alike fituated.
PRIVATEERS, in maritime affairs, a kind of jpnvate
fhips of war, fitted out by private perfons at their own
expence; who have leave granted them to keep what
they can take from the enemy, allowing the admiral his
fljare. See Letter of Marque.
PRIVATION, in general, denotes the abfence or want of
fomething; in which fenfe, darknefs is only a privation of
light.
PRIVATIVE, in grammar, a particle which, when pre¬
fixed to a word, changes it into a contrary fenfe. See
Grammar.
PRIVET, in botany. See Ligustrum.
PRIVILEGE, in law, fome peculiar benefit granted to cer
tain perfons or places, contrary to the ufual courfe of the
law.
Privileges are faid to be perfonal or real. Perfonal pri¬
vileges are fuch as are extended to .peers, embaffadors,
members of parliament and of the convocation, and their
menial fervants, <bc. See Peer, Embassador, Par¬
liament, <bv.
Privileged debts, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxviii.
19-
PRIVY- council. See Privy council.
Privy seal. See seal.
PRIZE, in maritime affairs, a veffel taken at fea from
the enemies Qjf a ftate, or from pirates; and that either
by a man'of war, a privateer, <bc. having a commiflion
for that purpofe,
PROBABILITY, is nothing but the appearance of the a-
greement or difagreement of two ideas by the interven¬
tion of proofs whofe connedfibn h not conftant and im~
mutable, oris not perceived to be fo ; but is, or appears
for the moft part to beTo ; and is enough to induce the
mind to judge the propofition to be true or falfe, rather
than the contrary. See Logic and Metaphysics.
PROBATE of a will or teffament, in law, is the exhi¬
biting and proving of laft yvills and teffamentg before the
13 ) PRO
ecclefiaflical judge delegated by the bifhop who is ordin ary
of the place where-the party died.
PROBATION, in the univerfities, is the examination
and trial of a fludent who is about to take his degrees.
Probation, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxi. 1, et feq^
PROBATIONER, in the church of Scotland, a ftudent
in divinity, who bringing a certificate from a profeffor in
an univerfity of his good morals, and his having perform¬
ed his exercifes to approbation, is admitted to undergo
feveral trials.
PROBE, a furgeon’s inffrument for exanjining the cir-
cumftances of wounds, ulcers, and other cavities, fearch-
ing for ffones in the bladder, <bc.
PROBLEM, in logic, a propofition that neither appears
abfolutely true nor falfe : and, confequently, may be af*
ferted either in the affirmative or negative.
Problem, in geometry, is a propofition, wherein fome
operation or conftrudtfon is required ; as to divide a line
or angle, eredl or let fall perpendiculars, tec. See
Geometry.
PROBOSCIS, in natural hiftory, is the trunk or fnout of
an elephant, and fome other animals and infe&s.
PROCATARCTIC cause, in medicine, thepre-exifting,
or pre-difpofing caufe or occafion of a difeafe.
PROCELEUSMATICUS, in the ancient poetry, a foot
confiding of four ihort fyllables, or two'pyrrhichiufes; as,
hominibus,
PROCELLARIA, in ornithology, a genus of birds, be¬
longing to the order of anferes. The beak is fomewhat
comprefled, and without teeth ; the mandibles are equal,
the fuperior one being crooked at the point ; the feet are
palmated, the hind daw being feffil, witho„ut any toe.
There are fix fpecies, principally dilHnguiffied by their
colour.
PROCESS, in law, denotes the proceedings in any caufo,
real or perfonal, civil or criminal, from the original writ
to the end thereof.
Process, in chemiftry, the whole courfe of an experiment
or ieriesofoperations tending to produce fomething new.
Process, in anatomy, denotes any protuberance or emi¬
nence in a bone.
PROCESSION, a ceremony in the Romiffi church, con¬
fiding of a formal march of the clergy and people, put-
t;ng up prayers, fee. and in this manner vifiting fome-
church, fee. They have alfo proceffions of the hod or
facrament. See Host.
PROCLAMATION, a public notice given of any thing
of which the king thinks proper to advertife his fubjetts.
Proclamations are a branch of the king's prerogative;,
and no perfon can make therh without the king’s autho¬
rity, except mayors of towns, fee. by cudom of privi
lege. Proclamations which require the people to do or
not to do certain things, have the force of laws;' but.
then they are fuppofed to be confident with the laws al¬
ready fo being, otherwife they are fuperfeded.
PROCONSUL, a Roman magidrate, fent to govern a pro*
vince with confular authority
PROCREATION, the begetting and bringing forth chiL
dren. See Generation and Midwifery
PROCTOR, a perfon commtffioned to manage another per.
Ton’s caufe in any court of the civil or ecclefiadical law,
PROCURATION, an aft or indrument by which a perfon j
PRO
is impowered to treat, tranfaft, receive, &c:. in another
perfon’s name.
PROCURATOR, a perfon who has a charge committed
to him to aft for another.
PROCYON, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
PRODUCT, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, p. 371.
PROFAN ATION,the afting difrefpeftfully to facred things.
PROFANE, a term ufed in oppofition to holy; and, in
.general, is applied to all perfons who have not the facred
charafter, and to things which do not belong to the fer-
vice of religion.
PROFESSION, among the Romanifts, denotes the enter¬
ing into a religious order, whereby a perfon offers him-
felf to God by a vow ef inviolably obferving obedience,
chadity, and poverty.
PROFESSOR, in the univerfities, a perfon who teaches or
reads public Jeftures in fome art or fcience from a chair
for the purpofe.
PROFILE, in architefture, the draught of a building, for¬
tification, 6"c. wherein are expreffed the feveral neights,
widths, and thickneffes, fuch as they would appear were
the/building cut down perpendicularly from the roof to
the foundation.
PROFLUVIUM, in medicine, denotes a flux, or liquid
evacuation, of any thing.
.PROGNOSTICS, among phyficians, fignifies a judgment
concerning the event of adifeafe; as, whether it fhallend
in life or death, be fhort or long, mild or malignant, <bc.
-PROGRESSION, in general, denotes a regular advancing,
or going forward in the fame courfe and manner. See
Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry.
PROJECTION, in mechanics, the aft of communicating
motion to a body, from thence called projeftile. See
Mechan ics.
PROJECTURE, in architefture, the out-jetting, promi¬
nency, or embofling, which the mouldings and other
members have beyorid the naked wall, column, &c. See
Architecture.
PROLAPSUS, in furgery, a prolapfion, or falling out of
any part of the body from its natural fituation ; thus we
fay prolapfus inteftini, a prolapfion of the intefline, 6T.
See Surgery.
PROLATE, in geometry, an epithet applied to a fpheroid
produced by the revolution of a femi-eliipfis about its lar¬
ger diameter.
PROLEGOMENA, certain preparatory obfervations or
difcourfes prefixed to a book, <bc. containing fomething
neceflary for the reader to be apprifed of, to enable him
the better to underftand the book, or to enter deeper
into the fcience, fyc.
PROLEPSIS, a figure in rhetoric, by which we antici¬
pate or prevent what might be objefted by the adverfary.
PROLEP f IC, an epithet applied to a periodical difeafe
whiph anticipates, or whofe paroxyfm returns fooner
and. fooner every time, as is frequently the cafe in agues.
PROLIFIC, fomething that has the qualities neceflary for
generating.
PROLIXITY, in difcourfe, the fault of entering into too
minute a detail, of being too long, precife, and circum-
-ftantial, even to a degree of tedioufnefs.
PROLOGUE, in dramatic poetry, a difcourfe addrefled
to the audience before the drama or play begins. The
PRO
original intention was to advertife thfe audieftce of -the
fubjeft of the piece, and to prepare them to enter more
eafily into the aftton, and fometimes to make an apology
for the poet..
PROMETHEUS, in the ancient aftronomy, the name of
the conftelhuion now called Hercules. See Astronomy,
p. 487.
PROMISE, in law, is when upon any valuable confideration
one binds himfelf by word of mouth to another to perform
a thing agreed on.
PROMONTORY, in geography, a high point of land or
rock projefting out into the fea ; the extremity of u'hich
towards the fea, is called a cape, or headland.
PROMULGATED, fomething publifhed "or proclaimed,
and generally applied to a law, to denote the publifliing
or proclaiming to the, people.
PRONATION. See Anatomy, p. 179.
PRONATORS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p, 198.
PRONOUN, in grammar, a declinable part of fpeech,
which being put inftead of a noun, points out fome perfon
or thing. See Grammar.
PRONUNCIATION, in grammar, the manner of arti¬
culating or founding the "words of a language. See
Grammar.
PROOF, in law, denotes the mediums or arguments
ufed to evince the truth of any thing.
PROPAGATION, the aft of multiplying the kind. See
Generation,
PROPER, fomething naturally and eflentially belonging to
any thing.
PROPERTY, in a general fenfe, that which conftitutes or
denominates a thing proper ; or it is a particular virtue or
quality which nature Jias bellowed on fome things exclu.
five of all others : thus colour is a property of light; ex-
tenfion, figure, divifibility, and impenetrability, are pro¬
perties of body.
Property, in law, is defcribed to be the higheft right a
perfon has, or can have, to any thing.
PROPHECY, a prediftion made by divine infpiration.
PROPHET, in general, a perfon whoforetels future events;
but is particularly applied to fuch infpired perfons a-
mong the Jesi-s as were commiflioned by God to declare
his will and purpofes to that people Among the ca¬
nonical books of the OldTeftament, we have the writings
of fixteen prophets, four of which are denominated the
greater prophets, viz. Ifaiab, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
Daniel, fo called from the length or extent of their wri¬
tings, which exceed thofe of the others, u/z Hofea. Joel,
Amos. Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze-
phaniah, Haggai, Zechanah, and Malachi, who are called
the lefler prophets from the fliortnefs of their writings.
The Jews do not place Daniel among the prophets, be-
caufe, they fay, he lived the life of a courtier rather
than that of a prophet.
PROPITI ATION, in theology, a facrifice offered to God
to aflwagehis wrath, and render him propitious. Among
the Jews there were both ordinary and public facnfices-
as holocaufts, <bc. offered by way of thankfgiving; and
extraordinary ones, offered by particular perfons guilty
of any crime, byway of propitiation.- The Romiflr church
believe the mafs to be? a facrijice of propitiation for
the living and the dead. The reformed churches allow
( 5H •')
FRO (5
of ■no propitiation but that one offered by Jefus Chrift on
1 the crofs.
PROPOLIS, the name of a certain fubftance more gluti¬
nous and tenaceous than wax, with which the bees Hop
up all the holes or cracks in the fidesof their hives. See
Apis.
PROPONTIS, or Sea c/"Marmor A, divides Europe from
Alia; having the Bofphorus on the north-eaft, by which
it has a communication with theEuxine fea; and rheHt'-
lefpont on the fouth-weft, by which it communicates with
the Archipelago. It is one hundred and twenty miles
long, and in fome places upwards of forty broad.
PROPORTION. When two quantities are compared one
with another, in refpeifl of their greatnefs or fmallnefs,
the comparifon is called ratio, rate, or proportion. See
Algebra, Arithmetic, and Geometry.
PROPOSITION, in logic, part of an argument wherein
fome quality, either negative or pofitive, is attributed to
a fubjeft. See Logic.
Proposition, in mathematics, is either fome truth advan¬
ced, and (hewn to be fuch by demonilration; or fome o-
peration propofed, and its folution Ihewn.
PROPREFECT, among the Romans, the prefe&’s lieute¬
nant, or an officer whom the prefedt of the pretorium
commiffioned to do any part of his duty in his place.
PROPRETOR, a Romanmagiftrate, who, having difchar-
ged the office of pretor at home, was fentinto a province
to command there with his former pretorial authority.
PROROGATION, the adt of prolonging, adjourning, or
putting off to another time. The difference between a
prorogation and an adjournment of parliament is, that by
prorogation the feffion is ended, as fuch bills as paffed in
either houfe, or both houfes, and had not the royal affent,
muff at the next affemblyibegin again.
PROSCRIPTION, a publication made in the name of the
chief or leader of a party, whereby he promifes a re¬
ward to any orte who ffiall bring him the head of one of
his enemies.
PROSE, the natural language of mankind, loofe, and un¬
confined by poetical meafures, rhymes, <bc. in which
fenfe it Hands opposed to verfe.
PROSECUTOR, in law, he that purfues a caufe in ano¬
ther’s name. '
PROSELYTE, a new convert to fome religion or religi¬
ous fed!.
PROSPERPINACA, in botany, a genus of the triandria
trigynia clafs. The calix confifts of three fegments ; it
has no corolla, and but one feed. There is only one fpe-
cies, a native of Virginia.
PROSODY, that part of grammar which treats of the
quantities and accents of fyllables. See Grammar.
PROSOPOPOEIA, a figure in rhetoric, whereby we raife
qualities of things inanimate into perfor.s.
PROSTATAS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 273.
PROSTYLE, in architedhire, a range of columns in the
front of a temple.
PROTEA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogynia
clafs. The petal confifts of four fegments furrounding
the germen ; it has no proper calix; and the receptacle
is paleaceous. There are two fpecies, both natives of
the Cape of Good Hope.
Vol. III. N°. 90. 2
15 ) PRO
PROTECTOR, a perfon who undertakes to fi/dter tr.d
defend the weak, helplefs, and diftrdTed.
PROTESTANT, a name firft given in Germany to tho e
whoadhered to thedodlrineof Luther; becaufe, in 1529,
they proteffed again!! a decree of theemperor Char its V
and the diet Spires; declaring that they appealed to a ge¬
neral council. The fame name has alfo been given to
thole of the lentiments of Calvin, and is now become a
common denomination for all thofe of the reformed
churches.
PROTHONOTARY, a term which properly fignifies firf!
notary, and which was anciently the title of the principal
notaries of the emperors of Conftantinopie.
PROTOTYPE, is the original or model after which a
thing was formed; but chiefly ufed for the patterns of
things to be engraved, cafl, &c.
PROTRACTOR, the name of an inftrument ufed for pro¬
trading or laying down on paper the angles of a field, or
other figure. See Geometry.
PROTUBERANCE, is an eminence, whether natural or
preternatural, that psojeds or advances out beyond the
reft.
PROVEDITOR, an officer in feveral parts of Italy, parti¬
cularly at Venice, who has the diredion of matters rela¬
ting to policy.
PROVENCE, a province or government of France, bound¬
ed by Dauphine on the north; by Piedmont on the eaft;
by the Mediterranean on the fouth; and by the river
Rhone, which feparates it from Langiedoc, on the weft-:
it is about an hundred miles- long, and near a^pany'-
broad.
PROVERB, according to Camden, is a conctfe, witty,
and wife fpeech, grounded upon experience, and for the
moft part containing fome ufeful inftrudiom.
Book of Proverbs, a canonical bookof the-Old Tefta-
ment, containing a part of the proverbs of Solomon the
fon of David king of Ifrael, The fir!! twenty-four chap¬
ters are acknowieged to be the genuine work of that
prince; the next-five chapters are a eolledion of feveral
of his proverbs, made by order of king Hezekiah ; and!
the two laft feem to have been added, though belonging
to different and unknown authors, Agur the fon of Jakeh,
and king Lemuel.
In this excellent book are contained rales for the con-
duftof all conditions of life; for kings, courtiers, ma¬
ilers, fervants, fathers, mothers, children, he.
PROVIDENCE, the condudl and diredtion of the feveral
parts of the uni verfe, by afuperior intelligent Being. .
Providence-plantation, a colony of New-England,
which, with Rhode-ifknd, conftitutes a charter govern¬
ment: its chief town is Newport.
Providence is alfo one of the Bahama iflands, planted
and fortified by the Engliffi : W. long. 78°, N. lat. 2’f ,
PROVINCE, in Roman antiquity, a country of confide-
rable extent, which, upon being entirely reduced under
the Roman dominion, was new-modelled according to the
pleafureof the conquerors, and fubje&ed to the command
of annual governors fent from Rome; being commonly
obliged to pay fuch taxes and contribution as the fenate
thought fit to demand.
Province, in geography, a divifion of akingdom or ftate„
6 0 comprifiAg
comprifing feveral cities, towns, <bc. all under the fame
government, and nfually diitinguiflied by the extent either
of the' civil or eccleGartical junfdiftion.
PROVINCIAL, fomething relating to a province. See
the preceding article.
PROVOST, of a city or town, is the chief municipal ma-
giftrate in fevcral trading cities, particularly Edinburgh,
Paris, tic. being much the fame with mayor in other
places.
He prefides in city-courts, and, together, with the
baillies, who are his deputies, determines in all differences
that arife among citizens.
The pro.vod: of Edinburgh, as well as of all the other
eonfiderable towns in Scotland, has the title of lord ; and
the former calls yearly conventions of the royal boroughs
to Edinburgh by his miffives.
PROW, denotes the head or fore part of a {hip, particu¬
larly in a galley, being that which is oppofiteto the poop
or ftern. .
PROXIMITY, denotes the relation of nearnefs, either in
refpeft of place, blood, or alliance.
PROXY, a perfon who officiates as a deputy in the room
of another.
PRUCH, or Brugg, a town of Auflria, in Germany,
twenty-two miles fouth-eaft of Vienna.
PRUCK, or Bruch, of Stiria, in Germany, fixty miles
fouth- weft of Vienna.
PRUNES, areplumbs dried in the funfhine, or in an oven.
PRUNING, in gardening and agriculture, is the lopping
off^die fuperfluous branches of trees, in order to make
them bear better fruit, grow higher, or appear more re¬
gular.
PRUNUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria monogynia
clafs. The calix confifts of five fegmepts, and the co¬
rolla of five pefals; and the fhell of the drupe is full of
prominent future?. There are 13 fpecies, five of them
natives of Britain, viz. the infititia, or black bullace-tree;
the fpindfa, or floe-tree; the padus, or birds cherry; the
avium, or common wild cherry; and the cerafus, or black
cherry.
PRURITIS, denotes an itching fenfation.
PRUSSI A, a province of Poland, fituated on the coafl of
the Baltic fea, and divided into regal and ducal Pruffia,
the fir ft fubjeift to Poland, and the laft to the king of
Pruffia.
PRYTANES, in Grecian antiquity, were the prefidents of
the fenate, whofe authority confifted chiefly in aflembiing
the fenate ; which, for the moft part, was done once e-
very day.
The fenate confifled of five hundred, fifty fenators be¬
ing defied out of each tribe; after which, lots were cafl,
to determine in what order the fenators of <ftch tribe
fhould prefije, which they did by turns, and during their
prefidentfhip were called prytanes. However, all the fifty
prytanes of the tribes did not govern all at once, but ten
at a time, viz. for feven days; and after thirty-five
days, another tribe came into play, and prefided for 0-
ther five weeks; andfo of the refl.
PSALM, a divine fong or hymn; but chiefly appropriated
to the hundred and fifty Pfalms of David, a canonical
book of the Old Teflament.
Mbfl of the Pfalms have a particular title, fignifying
either the name of the jtuthor, the perfon who was to fet it
) P T O
to mufic orfing it, the inflrument that was to be ufed, or
thefubjeft and occafion of it. Some have imagined, that
David was the foie author of the book of Pfalms ; but
the titles of many of them prove the contrary, as Pfalm
xix. which appears to have been written by Mofes. Ma¬
ny of the Pfalms are infcribed with the names Korah, Je-
duthun, tic. from the perfons who were to fing them.
PSALMODY, the art or adt of linging pfalms. See the
preceding article.
PSx^LTER, the fame with the book of Pfalms. See
Psalm.
Among the religious, in the Popifh countries, the term
pfalter is alfo given to a large chaplet or rofary, confift-
ing of an hundred and fifty beads, according to the num¬
ber of pfalms in the palter.
PSALTERY, a muficaf inflrument, much in ufe among the
ancient Hebrews, who called itjiebel.
We know little or nothing of the precife form of the
ancient pfaltery.
PSIDIUM, in botany, a genus of the icofandria monogy¬
nia clafs. The calix confiftsof five fegments, and the co¬
rolla of five petals; the berry has but one cell, containing
many feeds. There are two fpccies, both natives of In¬
dia.
PSITTACUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of picas. The beak is Hooked, the fuperior mandi¬
ble being furniffied with a moveable wax; the noflrilsare
placed at the bafe of the beak; the tongue is fleffiy, blunt,
and entire; and the feet are fitted for climbing. There
are 47 fpecies, diflingu’fhed by their colour, apd the length
of their tails. This genus includes the parrot-kind, which
are all natives of warm climates.
PSOAS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 203.
PSORALIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decan-
dria clafs. The calix is interfperfed with flefhy points*
of the length of the legumen, which contains one feed.
There are 14 fpectes, none of them natives of Britain.
PTARMICA, in botany. See Achillea.
PTELEA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandia monogynia
clafs. The calix confifls of four fegments, and the co¬
rolla of four petals; the fruit is a roundifli membrane,
with one feed in the centre. The fpecies are two, none
of them natives of Britain.
PTERIS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia filicum
clafs. The fruflification is fituate in lines near the mar-
gine. There are 19 fpecies, only one of them, u/z. the
aquilina, or female fern, is a native of Britain.
PTERYGOID, fomething refembling a wing.
PTERYGOIDAlOS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
221.
PTISAN, is properly barley decorticated, or deprived of
its hulls, by beating in a mortar, as was the ancient
practice, though the cooling potion, obtained by boiling
fuch barley in water, and afterwards fweetening the li¬
quor with liquorice-root, is what at prefent goes by the
name of ptifan. and to render it laxative, fome add a lit¬
tle fena, or other herb of the fame intention.
PTOLEMAIC Syjlem of Jftronomy, is that invented by
Claudius Prolemaeus, a celebrated aflronomer and mathe¬
matician of Pelufium, in Egypt, who lived in th? begin¬
ning of the lid century of the Chriflian sera.
This hypothefis fuppofes the earth immoveably fixed in
the centre, not of the world only, but alfo of the uni-
verfe:
PUL ( 517
vcrfe ; and that the fan, the moon, the planets, and dars,
all move about it, fromeaft to weft, once in twenty-four
hours, in the order following, viz. the moon next to the
earth, then mercury, venus, the fun,'mars, jupiter, fa-
turn, the fixed ftars, the firft and fecond cryllall ne hea¬
vens, and above all the fidtion of their primum mobile.
PTYALISM, in medicine, a falivation, or frequent and
copious difcharge of faliva.
PUBERTY, among civilians, fee. the age wherein a per-
fon is capable of procreation, or begetting children. See
Law.
PUBES, among anatomifts, denotes the middle part
of the hypogaftric region of the abdomen, lying between
the two inguina or groins. See Anatomy, p, 257.
PUBLICAN, among the Romans, one who farmed the
taxes and public revenues.
PUBLICATION, the adl of making a thing known to the
world ; the fame with promulgation.
PUDENDA, the parts of generation in both fexes. See
Anatomy, p. 270.
PUERILITY, in difeourfe, is defined by Longinus, to be
a thought, which, by being too far-fetched, becomes fiat
and infipid. Puerility, he adds, is the common fault of
thofe who affedl to' fay nothing but what is brilliant and
extraordinary.
PUGIL, in phyfic, <bc. fuch a quantity of flowers, feeds,
or the like, as may be taken up between the thumb and
two fore-fingers.
It is'efteemed to be the eighth part of the manipule or
handful.
PULEX, in zoology, a genus of infedts belonging to the
order of aptera. It has fix feet fitted for leaping,' and
two eyes ; the feelers are like threads ; the roftrum is
infledled, fetaceous, and armed with a fting; and the
belly is comprefled. There are two fpepes, viz. the
^ irritans, with a probofeis Ihorter than its body, a native
of Europe and America: and the penetrans, with a pro¬
bofeis longer than its body, a native of America.
PULLEY, in mechanics, one of the meehanical powers.
See Mechanics.
PULMO, the lungs, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
280.
PULMONARIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia dafs. The corolla is funnel-ftiaped ; and the
calix has five fides. There are feven fpecies, two of
them natives of Britain, viz. the officinalis, or buglos-
cowflips, the leaves of which are reckoned pedtoral and
cordiac ; and the maritima, or fea-buglofs.
PULMONARY vessels, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Part III. and IV. and p. 280.
PULP, in pharmacy, the flefhy and fucculent part of fruits,
extradted by infufion or boiling, and palled through a
fieve.
PULPIT, an elevated place in a church, whence fermons
are delivered : the French give the fame name to a read¬
ing defle.
PULSATILLA, in botany. See Anemone.
PULSE, in the animal oeconomy, denotes the beating or
throbbing of the heart and arteries.
With regard to motion, the pulfes are reckoned only
four, great and little, quick and flow. When quicknefs
and greatnefs are joined together, it becomes violent ;
and when it is little and flow, it is called a weak pulfe.
)■ P U N
They are alfo faid to. be frequent and rare; equal and un--
equal; but thefe are not the eflential affedtions of motion.
Frequency” and quicknefs are often confounded with each
other. A pulfe is faid to be hard or foft, with regard
to the artery, according as it is tenfe, renitent, and hard,
or flaccid, foft, and lax. Add to thefe, a convulfive pulfe ;
w hich does not proceed from the blood, but from the
flate of the artery, and is known by a tremulous fubfiil-
tory motion, and the artery feems to be drawn upwards:
this, in acute fevers, is the fign of death ; and is faid to
be the pulfe in dying perfons, which is likewife generally
unequal and intermitting. A great pulfe (hews a more
copious afflux of the blood to the heart, and from thence
into the arteries ; a little pulfe, the contrary.
Pulse is alfo ufed for the ftroke with which any medium is
affeifted by the motion of light, found, <bc. through it.
Pulse, in botany, a term applied to all thofe grains or
feeds which are gathered with the hand, in contradiftinc-
tion to corn, cJre. which are reaped, or mowed: or it is
the feed of the leguminous kind of'plants, as beans, vet¬
ches, <bc, but it is by fome ufed for artichokes, afpara-
gus, <bc.
PULVERIZATION, the art of pulverizing, or reducing,
a dry body into a fine powder ; which is performed in
friable bodies, by pounding or beating them in a mortar,
<bc.
PULVIS, a powder. See Powder.
PUMICE, in natural hiftory, a flag or cinder of fome fof-
fil, originally bearing another form, and only reduced to-
this ftate by the adtion of the fire, though generally rank¬
ed by authors among the native ftones. It is a lax and
fpungy matter, frequently of an obfeure ftriated texture
An many parts, and always very cavernous and full of
holes ; it is hard and harfh to the touch,- but much light¬
er than any other body that comes under the clafs of
ftones. It is found in mafies of different fizes, and of
a perfectly irregular fhape, from the bignefs of a pigeon’s
egg' t0 tf131 °f a bufhel. We have it from many parts
of the world, but particularly from about the burning
mountains ZEtna, Vefuvius, and Hecla, by whofe erup¬
tions it is thrown up in vaft abundance ; and being by its
lightnefs fupported in the air, is carried into feas at fome
diflance by the winds, and thence to diftant fhores. The
great ufe -of the pumice among the ancients, feems to-
have been as a dentifrice, and at prefent it is retained in
the fhops on the fame account.
PUMP, in hydraulics. See Hydrostatics, p. 808. 6^.
A'/V-Pump. See Pneumatics, p. 491.
PUN, opPunn, a conceit arifing from the ufe of two words
that agree in found, but differ in-the fenfe. Ariftotle-
deferibes two or three kinds of puns among the beauties
of good writing, and produces inftances of t^em out of
fome of the greateft authors in the Greek tongue. Ci¬
cero has fprinkled feveral of his works with puns ; and
in his book, where he lays down the rules of oratory,
quotes abundance of fayings, which he calls pieces of wit,
that upon examination prove perfedt puns.
PUNCH, an inftrument of iron or fleel, ufed in feveral arts,
for the piercing or flamping holes in plates of metal, ifrc.
being fo contrived as not only to perforate, but to cur
out and take away the piece.
PUNCHEON, a little block or piece of fteel, on one end
Whereof is fome figure, letter, or mark, engraven either
PUR (5
in cre^x or relievo; impreffions whereof are taken on me¬
tal, Or fome other matter, by ftriking it with a hammer
on*the end not engraved.
Funcheon is alfo a meafure for liquids, containing an hogf-
head and one third, or eighty-four gallons.
PUNCTUATION, in grammar, the art of pointing, or of
dividing a difcourfe into periods, by points expreffing
the paufes to be made in the reading'thereof.
Punctum saliens, in anatomy, the firilrudiments of the
heart in the formation of the foetus, where a throbbing
motion is perceived.
PUNCTURE, in furgery, any wound made by a (harp-
pointed indrument.
PUNICA, the Pomegranate-tree, in botany, a genus
of the icofandria monpgynia daft. The calix con(ifts*of
five fegments, and the corolla of five petals ; the apple
has many cells, containing many feeds. There are two
fpecies, both natives of warm climates.
PUNISHMENT, in law, the penalty which a perfon in¬
curs on the breach or tranfgreflion of any law.
PUPIL, in the civil law, a boy or girl not yet arrived at
the age of puberty, /. e. the boy under fourteen years,
the girl under twelve.
Pupil is alfo ufed in univerfities, for a youth under
the education or difcipline of any perfon.
Pupil, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 289.
PURCHASE, in kw, the buying or acquiring of lands,
<bc. with money, by deed or agreement, and not by de-
fcent or right of inheritance.
PURE, fomething free from any admixture of foreign or
heterogeneous matters: thus we fay pure fire, fee.
PURFLEW, a term in heraldry, exprefling ermins, peans,
or any of the furs, when they compofe a boi*dure round
a coat of arms: thus they fay, he beareth gules a bor-
dure, purflew, vairy ; meaning that the bordure is vairy.
PURGATION, the art of purging, fcouring, or purifying
a thing, by feparating, or carrying off any impurities
found therein: thus,
PURGATIVE, a medicament which evacuates the impu¬
rities of the body by ftool, called alfo cathartics.
PURGATORY, a place in which the juft who depart out
of this life, are fuppofed to expiate certain offences which
do not merit eternal damnation.
Broughton has endeavoured to prove, that this notion
has been held by Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, as
well as by Chriftians.
The doftrine of purgatory is a very lucrative article to
the clergy of the Romifh church, who are very liberally
paid for mafles and prayers for the fouls of the deceafed.
We are told by fome of their doftors, that purgatory is
a fubterraneous place fituated over the hell of the damn¬
ed, where fuch fouls as have not yet made fatisfaclion to
divine juftice for their fins, are purged by fire, after a
wonderful and incotnprehenfive manner: and here they
are purified from thofe dregs which hinder them from en¬
tering into their eternal country, as the catechifm of the
council of Trent exprefles it.
PURIFICATION, in matters of religion, a ceremony
which confifts in cleanfing any thing from a fuppofed pol¬
lution or defilement.
The Pagans, before they facrificed, ufually bathed or
wafhed themfelves in water ; and they were particularly
isareful to wa(h their hands, becaufe with thefe they were
S ) PUR
to touch the victims confecrated to the gods. It was al¬
fo curtomary to wadi the velfel with which-they mad;
their libations. The Mahometans ufe purifications as
previous to the duty of prayer: thefe alfo are of two
kinds; either bathing; or only waftring the face,, hands
and feet. The firft is requelted only in extraordinary
cafes, .as after having lain with a woman, touched a dead
<bc. But left fo neceflary a preparation for their devo¬
tion ftiould be emitted, either where water cannot be had,
or when it may be of prejudice to a perfon’s health, they
are allowed in fuch cafes to make ufe of fine fand or duft
inftead of it ; and then they perform this duty by clap¬
ping their open hands on the fand, and pafling them over
the parts, in the fame manner as if they were dipped in
water.
There were alfo many legal purifications among the
Hebrews. Vfben a woman was brought to bed of a
male-child, ihe was efteemed impure for forty days ; and
when of a female, for fixty; at the end of which time
file carried a lamb to the door of the temple, to be of¬
fered for a burnt-offering, aqd a young pigeon or turtle
for a fin-offering, and by this ceremony (he was cleanfed
or purified.
PURIM, ox the feaft of lots, a folemn feftival of the Jews,
inftituted in memory of the deliverance they received from
Haman’s wicked attempt to dtftroy them, by means of
Mordecai and Efther.
PURITAN, a name formerly given in derifion to the dif-
fenters from the church of England, on account of their
profefling to follow the pure word of God, in oppofition
to all traditions and human conftitutions.
PURLINS, in building, thofe pieces of timber that lie a-
crofs the rafters on the infide, to keep them from finking
in the middle of their length.
PURLUE, or Purlieu, fignifies all that ground near a-
ny foreft, which being made foxed by king Henry II.
Richard l. and king John, was afterwards by perambu¬
lations and grants of Henry III. fevered again from thS
fame, and made purlieu; that is to fay, pure and free
from the laws of the foreft.
PURPLE, a colour compofed of a mixture of red and blue.
A beautiful tranfparent purple for painting may be
made by boiling four ounces'of rafped brafil-wood in a
pint of ftale beer, and half an ounce of logwood, till the
liquor is heightened to the colour you defire, which may
be known by dipping a piece of paper in it. If you find
it^too red, add a quarter of an ounce more of logwood,
which will render it ftill deeper ; and by this method you
may bring it to any degree of purple, by putting in ei¬
ther more or left logwood to the former compofition,
and fixing it with alum.
PURPURA, in natural hiftory. See Murex.
PURPURE, or Purple, in heraldry, according to fome,
is one of the five colours of armories, compounded of
gules and azure, bordering on violet, and, according to
others, of a great deal of red and a little black. But it
was excluded by the ancient heralds as only an imperfedt
colour. In the coats of noblemen it is called amethyft ;
and in thofe of princes, mercury. It is reprefented in
engraving, by diagonal lines drawn from the finifter chief
to the dexter bafe points. See Plate CXLVII. fig. 3.
PURSER, an officer aboard a man of war, who receives
her vidtuals from the vidlualler, fees that it be well flowed,
and
P Y R ( S'9 ) F Y T
arid keeps an account of what he every day delivered
to the fteward. He alio keeps a lift of the (hip’s com-
. party, and fets down exaftly the day of each man’s ad-
miffion, in order to regulate the quantity of provifions to,
be delivered out, and that the paymal'ter or treafurer of
the navy may iflue out the difburlements, and pay off the
men, according to his book.
PURSLAIN, in botany. See Portulaca.
PURVIEW, a term uled by fome lawyers for the body of
an adt of parliament, of that part which begins with,
Be it enaded, &c. as contradiltinguifhed from the pre¬
amble.
PURULENT, in medicine, fomething mixed with, or
partaking of, pus pr matter.
PUS, in medicine, a white or yellowifh putrid matter, de-
figned by nature for the healing and cementing of wounds
or fores.
PUSTULE, a pimple, or fmall eruption on the Ikin full
of pus; fuch are the puftules of thefmall-poxand french-
pox. See Medicine.
PUTORIUS tn zoology. See Mustela.
PUTREFACTION See Chemistry, p. 98.
PUTTY, is a kind of pafle, compounded of whiting and
linfeed oil, beaten together to the confidence of thick
dough.
It is ufed by glaziers for the faftening in the fquares of
glafs in fa(h-windows, and by painters for flopping up
the crevices and clefts in timber and wainfcots, 16c.
PYCNOSITLE, in the ancient architedure, is a building
where the columns ftand veryclofe to each other ; only
one diameter and a half of the column being allowed for
the intercolumniations.
PYGARGUS, in ornithology.' See Falco.
PYGMY, a perfonnot exceeding a cubit in height.
This appellation is given by the ancients to a fabulous
nation faid to have inhabited Thrace; who brought forth
young at five years of age, and were old at eight; thefe
were famous for the bloody war they waged with the
cranes.
PYLORUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.,2j8.
PYRAMID, in geometry, a folid Handing on a triangular,
fquare, or polygonal bafis, and terminating in a point at
the top ; or, according to Euclid, it is a folid figure,
confiding of feveral triangles, whofe bafes are all in the
fame plane, and have one common vertex.
Pyramid, in architedure, a folid maffive building, which
from a iquare, triangular, or other bafe, rifes diminifh-
ing to a vertex or point.
Pyramids are fometimes ufed to preferve the memory
of fingular events ; and lomeumes totranfmit to pofterity
the glory and magnificence of princes. But as they are
efteemed a fymbol of immortality, they are moft com-
monly ufed as funeral monuments. Such is that of Ce-
ftitus at Rome; and thofe other celebrated ones of Egypt,
as famous for the enormity of their fize, as their antiqui¬
ty. Thefe are fituated on the weft fide of the Nile, al-
moftoppofite to Grand Cairo : the bafe of the largeft co¬
vers more than ten acres of ground; and is, according to
•foihe, near levenliundred feet high; though others make
it but fix hundred, and fome but little more than five
hundred. The pyramid is faid to have been, among the
Egyptians, a fymbol of human 1 fe ; the beginning of
which is reprefented by the bale, and the end by the
Vox., III. N° 90. 2
apex; on which account it was that they ufed to erect
them over fepulchres.
PYRAMIDALIA corpora, in anatomy. See Anato¬
my, p. 287.
PYRAMIDALIS, in anatomy. See Anato my, p. 193.
PYRENEAN mountains divideFrance from Spain, and
are not inferior to the Alps in height: they extend from
the Mediterranean to the ocean, upwards of two hundred
miles in length, the greateft breadth being about one
hundred and twenty.
PYRIFORMIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 205.
PYRITES. See Chemistry, p. 117.
PYRMONT, the capital of a county of that came in the
circle of Weftphalia in Germany, fituated on the confines
of the duchy of Brunfwick, in E long. 90, N. lat. 52°,
from whence we receive the beft mineral waters in Ger¬
many.
PYROLA, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia
clafs. The calix confifts df five fegments, and the co¬
rolla of five petals ; and the capfulehas five cells. There
are fix fpecies, three of them natives of Britain, viz. the
rotundifolia, or common winter-green; the minor, or
lefler winter-green; and the fecunda, or dented leaved
winter-green.
PYROMANCY, a kind of divination by means of fire.
The ancients imagined they could foretei future events,
by infpeding fire and flartie ; and to this end, they con-
fidered its dire&ion, which way it turned ; fometimes
they added other matters to the fire, fuch as a veflel full
of urine, having its neck bound about with wool, watch¬
ing narrowly on which fide it burfl, and thence taking
their augury : fometimes they threw pitch oh it; and, if
it took fire immediately, they efteemed it a good augury.
PYROTECHNY, the art of fire, or afcience which teaches
the management and application of fire in feveral opera¬
tions. See Chemistry.
PYROTICS, in medicine, cauftics, or remedies, either
aftually or potentially hot ; and which accordingly will
burn the flefh, and rdfe an efehar. See Caustics.
PYRRHICFIA, in antiquity, a kind of exercife on horfe-
back, or a feigned combat, for the exercife of the cavalry.
PYRRHICHIUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a fpot
confiding of two fyllables, both ihort ; as, Deus.
PYRRHONIANS, a feftof ancient philofophers, fo called
from Pyrrho, a native of Elis, in Peloponnefus. The
opinions of thefe philofophers, who were alfo called feep-
tics, terminated inthe incomprehenfibility of all things, in
which they found reafon both for affirming and denying;
accordingly they feemed, during their whole lives, to be
in fearch of truth, without ever acknowledging that they
had found it: hence the art of difputing upon all things,
withoufever going farther than fufpending our judgment,
is called pyrrhonifm.
PYRUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria pentagynia
clafs. The caltx confifts of 5 fegments, and the corolla
of five petals ; the apple has five cells, containing many
feeds. There are four fpecies, two of them natives of
Britain, viz. the communis, or wild pear-tree; and the
malus, dr crab-apple.
PYTHAGOREANS, a fed of ancient philofophers, fo
called from their being the followers of Pythagoras of
Samos, who lived in the reign of Tarquin the hit king
of the Romans, in the year of Rome 2'20 ; or, acce ding
6 P 10
P Y T (52
to Livy, in the reign of Servius Tulijus, in the year of
the work! 3472.
His maxims of morality were admirable; for he was
for having the ftudy of philofophy foldy tend to elevate
man to a refemblance of the Deity. He believed that God
is a foul diffufedlhrough all nature, and that from him hu¬
man fouls are derived ; that they are immortal; and that
men need only take pains to purge themfelves of their
vices, in order to be united to the Deity. He made u-
nity the principle of all things ; and believed, that be¬
tween God and man there are various orders of fpiritual
beings, who are the minifters of the Supreme Being. He
condemned all images of the Deity, arrd would have
him worfhipped with as few ceremonies as poffible. His
dtlci-ples brought all their goods into a common (lock,
contemned the pieafites of fenfe, abftained from fwear-
ing, eat nothing that had life, and believed in the doc.
trine of a metempfychofis. See Metempsych osi s.
Pythagoras made his fcholars undergo a fevere noviciate
of filence for at leaft two years; and it is faid, that where
he difcerned too great an itch for talking, he extend¬
ed it to five. His difciples were therefore divided
into two clafles : of which the firft were fimple hearers;
o ) P Y T
and the lad: fuchas were allowed to propofe their difficul¬
ties, and learn the reafons of all that was taught there.
The Pythagoreans, it is faid, on their rifing from bed,
rbufed the mind with the found of the lyre, in order to
make them more fit for the afHons of the day ; and at
night refumed the lyre, in order to prepare themfelves
for fleep, by calming all their tumultuous thoughts. The
figurative manner in which he gave his inftru&ions, was
borrowed from the Hebrews, Egyptians, and other o*
rientals. Some think he derived his philofophy from the
books of Moles, and that he converfed with Ezekief
and Daniel at Babylon ; but this is mere conjeflure.
Some authors fay, that he left nothing in writing ; bat
Laertius and others attribute feveral treatifes to him.
His golden verfes, attributed by fome to one of his diL
ciples, are allowed to be an exaft copy of the fentiments
of that divine philsfopher, from whofe fchool proceeded
the greateft philofophers and legifl^tors.
PYTHIA, in antiquity, the prieliefs of Apollo at Delphi,
by whom he delivered oracles; fire was thus called from
the god himfelf, who was denominated Apollo Pythios,
from his, flaying the ferpent Python.
sosojosq#
Q
Q_ U A
OUACK, among phyficians, the fame with empiric.
^See Empiric.
QUADR.AGESIMA, a denomination given to lent, from
its confifting of forty days. See Lent,
QUADRANGLE, in geometry, the fame with a quadrila¬
teral figure, or one confifting of fourfides and four angles.
QUADRANS, the quarter or fourth part of any thing,
particularly the at, or pound.
QUADRANT, in geometry, the arch of a circle, contain¬
ing 90°, or the fourth part of the entire periphery.
Quadrant alfo denotes a mathematical inftrument, of
great ufe in aftronomy and navigation, for taking the
altitudes of the fun and-ftars. See Astronomy, p. 451.
QUADRAT, a mathematical inftrument, called alfo a
geometrical fquare, and line of ftiadows: it is frequently
an additional member on the face of the common qua¬
drant, as alfo on thofe of Gunter’s and Sutton’s quadrant.
Quadrat, in aftralogy, the fame with quartile. See
Quartile.
Quadrat, in printing, a piece of metal caft like the let¬
ters, to fill up the void fpaces between words, &c.
There are quadrats of different fizes, as m.quadrats^ n-
quadrats, <6r. which are, refpedfively, of the dimenfions
of thefe letters.
QUADRATIC Equation, in algebra. See Algebra,
p. 90.
QUADRATRIX, in geometry, a mechanical line, bymeans
whereof we can find right lines equal to the circumfe¬
rence of circles, or other curves, and their feveral parts.
Quacratrjx of Dinnfiratcs, £b called from its inventor
Q_ U A
Dinoftrates, is a curve, whereby the quadrature of die
circle is effeAed mechanically.
QUADRATURE, in geometry, denotes the fquaring, or
reducing a figure to a fquare. Thus,' the finding of a
fquare, which fliall contain juft as much furface or area
as a circle, an ellipfis, a triangle, <bc. is the quadrature
ofacircle, ellipfis, be. See Geometry.
Quadrature, in aftronomy, that afpeA of the moon,
when Ihe is go° diftant from thefun. See Astronomy.
QUADRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles on account of their fquare figure. See Anato¬
my, Part II.
QUADREL, in building, a kind of artificial ftone, fo call¬
ed from its being perfeAly fquare.
The quadrels. are made of chalky earth, and
dried in the ftiade for two years. Thefe ware formerly
in great requeft among the Italian architeAs.
QUADRIENNIUM utile, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
vii. 17.
QUADRIGA, in antiquity, a car or chariot drawn by four
horfes.
On the reverfes of medals, we frequently fee the em¬
peror or viAory in a quadriga, holding the reins of the
borfes ; whence thefe coins are, among the curious, call,
ed nummi quadrigati, and viAoriati.
QUADRILATERAL, in geometry, a figure whole peri¬
meter confifts of four right lines, making four angles ;
whence it is alfo called a quadrangular figure.
QU ADRILLE, a little troop or company of cavaliers, pom-
poufly dreffed, and mounted for the performance of ca-
roufalss
U A (5 21
toufals, jufls, tournarnents, runnings at the ring, and o-
ther gallant divertifementS.
Quadrille, is alfo a game at cards, to be learned only
by practice.
QUADRUPEDS, in zoology. See Natural History.
QLTASI contract, in Scots law. See Law, Tit xxii. 14.
QUESTUS, in law, fignilies whatever a perfon has by
purchafe ; as hereditas denotes that which one has by
delcent, or hereditary right.
QUAIL. SeeTETRAO.
QUAKERS, a religious- fuciety that began to be diftin-
guilhed by this^name in England, where it firft'took its
rife, about the middle of the lad century.
In treating of this people, we {hall deviate from the
generality of thofe who have mentioned them in their wri¬
tings*, by exhibiting theaccount which they give of them-
felves, without making ourfelves anfwerable for their
principles or their practices.
William Sewel, a Dutchman, publifhed,5 in the year
1717, thehiftory .of this people. He was one of their
perfuafion, a man of learning, and known to the public
by his diftionary of the Dutch and Englifh languages. He
had accefs to all their records, correfponded with the
reofl: eminent, lived at the time when the fads he record¬
ed were recent, and we have not heard that any part of
his hiftory has been controverted ; and as we are inform¬
ed that it has been publilhed by the approbation of the
tjuakers, we may therefore confider it as an authentic hif¬
tory of their rife, progrefs, and principal opinions.
George Fox.t (for whofe birth and parentage, fee page
6th of Sewel’s Hiftory, fac.) was the firft of this people.
He was of a grave, fedate turn from his infancy; always
averfe to the follies of youth, and defirous of nothing fo
much as to be preferved in innocence and fimplicity. He
was early remarked as an example in thefe refpeds, and
of inflexible integrity. When a youth, he was defirous
above all things to pleafe God, and cautioufly avoided e-
very thingthat either fcripture or the didates of h s own
confidence taught him to believe were offenfive. 4.s he
grew up, this difpofition increafed: it coft him much
anxiety, much diftrefs ; but at length he was fatisfied in
refped to many doubts he had admired, and gained much
experience by the things he had fufFered. This enabled
him to inftrud others ; and about the year 1647, we
find him travelling through feveral countries in England,
feeking out'fuch as had any religious tendernefs. and ex¬
citing the inquiries of many concerning him. Many em
braced his opinions ; and indeed he feems to have roufed
the public mind as much as any individual ever did in
thofe countries, for the time and under fuch circumftances.
A man of low birth, without literature, merely by the
fanftity of his life, the fimplicity of his dodfrines, to have
-colle&ed from all profeflions, and mod ranks, men of
charadter, fortune, and underftanding, and embodied
them as a religious fociety ; to have inllituted one of the
beft concerted plans of.civil difcipline ; is a ctrcumftance -
moft true, and not unworthy the difquifitions of the a-
bled philofophers.
The name of Quaker wasa {fixed to this people early,
by way of reproach. In their aflemblies it fometimes
happened, that fome wercfo far druck with the remem¬
brance of their pad follies and forgetfulnefs of their con-
dRicn, others fo deeply affedted with a fenfe of God’s
) • cl u a
mercies to them, that they aflually trembled and quaked*’'
The nickname fo fuited the vulgar tade, that it imme-
tbatsfy became general. Frien'ds, or the friends, of truth*
was the name they were .commonly known by to one ano¬
ther ; but the epithet abovementioned was damped upon •
them by their adverfaries," and perhaps indelibly. „
The following abdradt from the propqfitions of our
countryman, the eminent Barclay, will perhaps exhibit-
as clear a fummary of their opinions as Can well be com-
prifed within the limits allowed to this article.
j. The height of all happinefs is placed in the true
knowledge of God. 2. The true knowledge of God is
alone to be obtained by the revelation of the Spirit of
God. 3. The revelation of the Spirit of God to the
faints has produced the fcriptures of truth. 4. From'
whence it appears, that mankind in general is fallen and
degenerated. 5. That God out of his infinite love hath
offered univerfal redemption by Chrid, who, taded death
for every man. ‘6. That there is an evangelical and fa-
ving light and grace in all. 7. That as many as refid:
not this light, but receive the fame, in them are produ¬
ced holinefs, righteoufnefs, purity, and the fruits which
are acceptable to God: 8. Even fo as to arrive at a date
of freedom from adtual finning and tranfgreffing the law
of God ; 9.ATet with a poifibility of finning 10. That
as all true knowledge in things fpiritual is received by the
Spirit of God, fo by it every true minider of the gofpel
is ordained and prepared for the mintdry; and as they
have freely received, fo are they freely to give. no
That the true wordiip of God is inTpirit and in truth,
not limited to place or time, or fubjeft 40 the interven.
tisn of any perfon ; but is to be performed under the mo¬
ving of the Holy Spirit in our hearts, yet without dero¬
gating from the neceflity and utility of public united wor.
{hip, (in which their fufFerings and condancy have beera
mod remarkable). 12. That baptifm is a pure and fpi¬
ritual thing, the baptifm of the fpirit and fire. 13. That
the communion of the body and blood of Chrid is inward
and fpiriiual. 14, That it is not lawful for any human
authority to force the confidences of others on account
of difference in wordiip or opinion, except fuch opinions
tend to the prejudice of bis neighbour in his life or eftate,
or are inconfident with human fociety. 1 5. That as the
end of religion is to redeem man from the fpirit of this
world; and to lead into inward communion with God ;
therefore all vain cudoms and habits are to be rejedted,
which tend to divert the mind from a fenfie of the fear of
God, and that evangelical .fpirit wherewith Chriftians
pught to be leavened.-
Such are the fentiment^oL this people as propofed to
the public by .their apologid, who has largely commented
on thefe topiesdn a work that has paflfed through no lefs
than eight edition^ in Engiifh, and has- been printed in
mod of the modern languages.
Their particularities of addrefs, language,, and behavi¬
our ; their declining the ufe of arms, even in their.own
defence ; their refufing to. pay tithes, or contribute to
the fuppoit of Liiriiders in any dupe; likewifetheir refu*
fing to fwear or take an oath on any occafionwhatever;
have fubjedted them to much obloquy, and many grievous
fufFerings. On what principles, and by what argUmentss
they vindicate themfelves from thd objedtions railed a-
gainfl them by their. adyerfaries, may be feen in this ela-
q^v A (522
borate performance. Government has, however, in ma¬
ny inftances, extended to this people great indulgen-
cies ; convinced, no doubt, by their patient ftiffering,
that their profeffions of confcientious fcruples were fincere,
snd that nothing dangerous to fociety could be appre¬
hended from a people who difclaimed the uie of arms
both offenftve and defenfive. The ceconomy of this fo¬
ciety likewife deferves our notice. It appears by their
hiftory, that foon after the preaching of George Fox
had drawn together in many parts of England confiderable
bodies of people profefling the fame opinions, he found
it expedient for their better government to eftablilh re¬
gular meetings for difeipline. The following is, as
nearly as we can collefl, the plan that is ellabltlhed a-
morrgft them.
Where there are any Quakers, they meet together e-
very month') to confider of the neceffities of their poor,
and to provide for their relief; to hear and determine
complaints arifing among themfeives ; to inquire into the
converfationbf their refpe<flive members in regard to mo¬
rality and conformity to their religious fentiments^ to al¬
low the paffing of marriages; and to enjoin a ftn£t regard
to the peace and good order of the fociety, the proper e-
ducation of their young people, and a general attention
to the principles and practices of their .profeffions. In
every country where there are monthly meetings, a meet¬
ing of the like kind is held, and for fimilar purpofes, eve¬
ry quarter. This meeting confifts of deputies fent from
the feveral monthly meetings, who are charged with'an-
fwers in writing to queries propofed to them refpeCting
the good order of the fociety. At thefe meetings appeals
are received, in cafe of any difputes^ and differences fet¬
tled, if poffible. Advices are given as occalions offer, and
affiltance afforded to any of the monthly meetings, in cafe
of a larger proportion of poor, or any fimilar expences.
As there are Quakers in moft parts of England, there are
few counties which have not thefe quarterly meetings.
And from thefe are deputed 4, $ or 8 of their members
once a-year to their annual affembly at London.
The annual meeting is commonly held in Whitfun-
week, not from any fuperfidious reference, as they fay,
to the effufion of the Holy Ghofl at the time of petecoft,
but merely aS it is a feafon rnoft generally convenient
to the body. At this anniverfary meeting, confiding of
deputies from every quarterly meeting, and a number of
the moft judicious of their perfuafion in London, feleCIed
for the purpofe of aCting on all emergencies for the good
«f the fociety, accounts are received of the ftate of the
fociety in every part of the world where it exifts. The
deputies bring with them accounts figned by order of the
lefpeCIive quarterly meetings, informing the yearly meet¬
ing, if any difunion appears; if there is anynegleft in re¬
gard to the religious education of their youth; if the poor
are well provided, for; if they keep to their teftimony a-
gainft paying tythes, againft bearing arms; if they pay the
king his duties, cuftoms, and excife, and forbear to deal
in goods fufpefted to be run. Appeals are here received,
and finally determined; propofitions received, and con-
ftdered; and rules formed on particular emergencies :
And, laftly, fuch advices are fent to the fubordinate
irseetings as the particular or general ftate of the fociety
reejuires.
Perhaps this is the only fociety in the world that have al •
) U A
lowed any fliare in the management of their affairs to the fe¬
male fex; which they do upon the principle that male and fe¬
male are OneinChrift. Accordingly we find them in every de¬
partment gf theirjnftitution. They have wormen-preach-
ers, for whom the celebrated Locke made an excellent apo*
i°gy Thefe have alfo their meetings of difeipline; in
which thelike care istaken in regard to the female youth,
and the-good order of their fex, as is done by the men
in refpedl to their own. And when we refledt what a num¬
ber of individuals of both fexes are kept in good order by
thepoliceof thisfociety, bow few of them are brought into
coat ts of j uftice as delinquents, how peaceable their behavi¬
our, and how exemplary their condudt, we cannot but think
their principles deferve a more accurate examination than
has hitherto been attempted, owing perhaps to the vulgarpre-
jedices circulated againft them. We ffiallclofe this article
withobferving, that, accordingto the belt of our infotma-
tion, neither their minifters, nor thofe who have the princi¬
pal care of the fociety, enjoy any pecuniary emolument or
advantages. A few clerks only receive falaries for keep¬
ing their records; fothat perhaps there is not a religious,
fociety now extftiog, where principle has greater influence
in promoting the ends of their inftitution
It is remarkable, that all the fettlements of the Euro¬
peans in America, except the Quaker fettlement of Pen-
filvania, were made by force of arms, with very little
regard to any prior title in the natives. The kings of
Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, together with the
States of Holland, then the only maritime powers, gave
grants of fuch parts of America as their people could lay
hold on, ftudying only to avoid interference with their
. European neighbours. But Mr Penn, being a Quaker,
did npt think his powers from king Charles II. a luffici-
ent title to the country fince called Penfilvania: He there¬
fore affembled the fachems or princes then in that coun¬
try, and purchafed from them the extent of land that he
wanted. The government of this province is moftly in
the hands of the Quakers, who never have any quarrels
with the natives. When they defire to extend their fet¬
tlements, they purchafe new lands of the fachems, never
taking a.-'y thing from them by force. How unlike is this
condudl to that of the Spaniards, who murdered millions
of the natives of Mexico, Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, drc.
The barbarities ufed to .thefe poor Indians in conquering
their country, and forcing them to difeover their gold,
are a reproach to human nature.
QUALITY, is defined by Mr Locke, to be the power in
a fubjedtof producing any idea in the mind. See Me¬
taphysics.
C/w/wa/Qualities, thofe qualities principally introdu¬
ced by means of chemical experiments, as fumigation, a-
malgamation, cupellation, volatilization, precipitation, drc.
SeeCHEMISTRY.
Quality is alfo ufed for a kind ef title given to certain
perfons, in regard of their territories, fignories, or other
pretenfions.
QUAMSI, a province of China, bounded by the province
of Yunan on the weft, by Queycheu on the north, by
Quarmum on the eaft, and by Tonquin on the fouth.
QUAMTUM, or Canton, a province of China, bound¬
ed by Huguam and Kiamfi on the north, by Foken on
the eaft, by the ocean on the foutb, and by Quamfi oh
u A ( 523 ) <L U I
QUANTITY, anything capable of eftimation, ormenfu-
Tation; or which, being compared with another thing of
the fame kind, may be laid to be- greater or lefs than it,
equal or unequal to it. See Arithmetic, Algebra,
Geometry.
Quantity, in grammar, an afFedion of a fyllable, where¬
by its rheafure. or the time wherein it is pronounced, is
akerta'ned; or that which determines the fyllable to be
long or fhort. *
QUARANTINE, is ufed for a term of forty days, which
v fTels, coming froni places fulpedted of contagion, are
ob’iged to wait in certain places appointed to air them-
felves, before they come into port. See Lazar-house.
QU 4RRY, a place under ground, out of which are got
marble, free-ftone, flate, lime-ftone, or other matters pro¬
per for bml ngs.
Quarry or Quarrel, among glaziers, a pane of glafs, cut
in a diamond form.,
QUART, a meafure containing the fourth part of fome o-
ther meafure.
QUARTAN in medicine, a fpecies of intermitting fever.
Se, Medicine.
QUARTATION, a method of purifying gold by melting
three parts of filver with one of gold, and then throwing
the mixture into aqua-fortis. See Chemistry, p. 129.
QUARTER, the founh part of anything
Quarter, in weights, is generally ufed for the fourth
part of an hundred weight averdupois, or 28 lb.
Ufed as the name of a dry meafure, quarter is the
fourth part of a ton in weight, or eight bulhels,
Quarter, in aftronomy, the fourth part of the moon’s
period.
Quarter, in heraldry, is applied to the parts or members
of the firfl: divifion of a coat that is quartered, or divided
into four quarters. See Quartering.
JFV-rftfc-QuARTER, in heraldry, is a quarter fingle or alone;
which is to poflefs one fourth part of the field.
This makes one of the honourable ordinaries of a
coat.
Quarter masters, or Quarteers, in a man of war,
ate officers whofe bufinefs it is to rummage, Row, and trim
the ffiip in the hold; to overlook the Reward in his deli¬
very of victuals to the cook, and in pumping or drawing
out beer, or the like. They are alfo to keep their watch
duly, in conning the ffiip, or any other duty.
Quarter master, an offi ;er in the army, whofe bufinefs
is to look after th.e quarters of the foldiers; of which
there are fev^ral kinds, viz. The quarter-maRer general,
Whofe bufinefs Is to provide good quarters for the whole
army; quarter-mafler of horfe, he who is to provide
quarters for a troop of borfe; quarter-mafler of foot, he
who is to provide quarters for a regiment of foot.
QUARTERING, in the fea language, isdifpofing theffiip’s
company at an engagement, in fuch a manner as that
each may readily know where his Ration is, and what he
is to do.
Quartering, in heraldry, is dividing a coat into four
or more quarters or quarterings, by parting, coupmg,
<bc. that is, by perpendicular and horizontal lines, fee.
QUATUOR vir inantiquity, formerly written IIII. VIR,
a lUiman magiltrate who .had .three colleges joined with
him n the fame adniiniRration, and had the care of con¬
ducing and fettling the colonies fent into the provinefes,
Yol. Ill, N® 91* 2
There W’ere alfo quatuor-viri appointed to infped and
take care of repairs, fee.
QUAVER, in mufic, a meafure of time, equal to half a
crotchet, or an eighth of a femibreve. See Musick.
QUEBEC, the capital of Canada, in North America, fi-
tuated on the wefl fide of the river of St Lawrence, 300
miles north-weR of EoRon in’New England: W. long.
74°, N. lat. 470 35'.
QUEEN, a woman who holds a crown fingly.
The title of queen is alfo given by way of courtefy to
her that is married to a king, who is called by way of
diflinftion queen-confort ; the former being termed queen-
regent. The widow of a king is alfo called queen, but
with the addition of dowager.
Queen’s-county, a county of Ireland, bounded by King’s-
county, on the north; by Kildare, on the eafl; by Kil¬
kenny, on the fouth; and by the province of Munfler, on
the welt.
Queen’s ferry, a town of Scotland, on the fouth fide of
t' e river Forth, ten miles weR of Edinburgh.
QUEENBOROUGH, a borough town of the ifle of Shep-
py, in Kent, twelve miles north-weR of Canterbury. It
lends two members to parliament.
QUERCUS, in botany, agenus of the monoecia polyandria
clafs. The.calix of the male has five fegments; it has no
corolla; and the Ramina are from five to ten. The calix
of the female is one entire, rough-leaf; it has no.corolla;
the Ryli are from two to five; and the feed is ovated.
There are 14 fpecies, only one of them, viz. the robur,
or common oak, a native of Britain.
QUERCY, the fouth-eaR divifion of the province of Gui-
enne, in France, have Limbfin on the north, and Langue¬
doc on the fouth.
QUERIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confiRs of five leaves; it has no corolla;
and thecapfule has one cell and one feed. There are two
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
QUESTION, in logic, a propofition propofedby way of in¬
terrogation. See Logic.
QUESTOR, in Roman antiquity, an officer who had the
management of the public treafure.
The queflorffiip was the firfl office any perfon could
bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to.fit in the
fenate.
At firfl there were only two; but afterwards two o-
thers were created, to take care of the payment of the
armies abroad, of the felling plunder, booty, fee. for
which purpofe they generally accompanied the confuls in
their expeditions; on which accoum they were called pe-
regrini, as the firR and principal two Were called uibani.
Tb: number of queRorswas afterwards greatly increa-
fed. They had rhe keeping of the decrees of the fenate: and
hence came the two offices of queflor principis, or augu*
Ri, fometimes called candidates principis, whofe office re-
fembled in mofl refpedls that of our fecretaries of Rate ;
and the quseflor palatii, anfwering in a great-meafure to
our lord chancellor.
QUEUE, in heraldry, fignifies the tail of a beafl: thus if
a lion be borne with a forked tail, he is blazoned double
queued.
QUICK, or quickset hebge, among gardeners, denotes
all live hedg s of whatever fort of plants they are com-
pofed, to diflinguiffi them from dead 'hedges: but in a
more
Q. U I ( 524 ) U O
more ftrid fenfe of the word, it is reftrained to thofe led as being about the fiftieth day before Eafler.
planted with the hawthorn, under which name thefe QUINQUATRIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals celebra-
young plants, or fets, are fold by the nurfery-gardeners ted in honour of Minerva, with much the fame ceremo*
who raife them for fale. nies as the panathenaea were at Athens.
Quicksilver. See Chemistry, p. 85. QUINQUEFOLIUM, in botany. See Potentilla.
QUIETISTS, a religious feft, which made a great noife QUINQUENNALIS, in Roman antiquity, a magillrate
towards the clofe of the laft century. in the colonies and municipal- cities of that empire, who
They were fo called from a kind of abfolute reft and had much the fame office as the aedile at Rome,
inaction, which theyfuppofed the foul to be in when arri- QUINQUEREMIS, in antiquity, a galley with five rows
ved at that ftate of perfeftion which they called the unitive of oars.
life; in which ftate, they imagined the foul wholly eni- QUINQUEVIRI, in Roman antiquity, an order of five
ployed in contemplating its God, to whofe influence it priefts, peculiarly appointed for the facrifices to the dead,
was entirely fubmiffive, fo that he could turn and drive or celebrating the rites of Erebus.
it where and how he would. In this ftate, the foul no Ion- QUINQUINA. See Cinchona.
ger needs prayers, hymns, being laid, as it were, in QUINTESSENCE, in chemiftry, a preparation confiffi-
the bofom, and between the arms of its God, in whom ing of the eflential oil of fome vegetable fubftance mixed
a a manner fwallowed up.
The Mahometans feem to be no ftrangers to quietifm.
They expound a pafTage in the feventieth chapter of the
Koran, viz. 0 thou foul, •which art at reft, return unto
and incorporated with fpirit of wine.
Quintessence, in alchemy, is a myfterious term, figni-
fying the fifth, or laft and higheft effence of power or a~
natural body.
thy Lord, See. of a foul, which having, by purfuing the QUINTILE, in aftronomy, anafpeftof the planets, when
concatenation of natural caufes, railed itfelf to the know¬
ledge of that Being which produced them, and exifts of
neceflity, refts fully contented, and aquiefees in the know¬
ledge, &c. of him, and in the contemplation of his per-
fedtions.
QUILLS, the large feathers taken out of the end of the
wing of a goofe, crow, &c.
Quills are denominated from the order in which they
are fixed in the wing, the fecond and third quills being
the beft for writing, as they have the largeft and roundeft
barrels.
In order to harden a quill that is foft, thruft the bar¬
rel into hot affies, ftirring it till it is foft; then taking it QUINZY, Quinsey, or Anolina,
out, prefs italmoftflat upon your knee with the back of p. 84.
a penknife, and afterwards reduce it to a roundnefs wfth QUIRE of paper, the quantity of 24 or 25 ffieets.
they are 72 degrees diftant from one another, ora fifth
part of the zodiac.
QUINTILIANS, a fedt of ancient heretics, thus called
from their prophetefs Qumtilia. In this fed the women
were admitted to perform the facerdotal and epifcopal
fundtions. They attributed extraordinary gifts to Eve
for having firft eaten of the tree of knowledge; told great
things or Miriam the filler of Mofes, as having been a
prophetefs, dye.' They added that Philip the deacon had
four daughters who were all prophetefles, and were of
their fedt. In thefe aflemblies it was ufual to fee the vir¬
gins entering in white robes, perfonating prophetelfes.
See Medicine,
QU1RINALIA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated among the
Romans in honour of Romulus, who was called Quiri-
nus. Thefe feafts were held on“the 13th of the kalends
of March.
QUIRITES, in antiquity, a name given to the people of
diftinguilhed from
your fingers. If you have a number to harden, fet wa¬
ter and alum over the fire; and while it is boiling put in
a handful of quills, the barrels only, for a minute, and
then lay them by.
QUINCE, in botany. SccPyrus. ^
QUINCUNX, in Roman antiquity, denotes anything that Rome, chiefly the common citizens,
confifts of five twelfth-parts of another, but particularly the foldiery.
of the as.
QUINDEC AGON, in geometry, a plain figure with fifteen
fides and fifteen angles.
QUINDECEMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a college of
15 magiftrates, whofe bufinefs it was to prefide over the
facrifices.
They were alfo the interpreters of the Sibyl’s books;
which, however, they never confulted but by an exprefs
order of the fenate
QUINQUAGENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer
who had the command of fifty men.
QUINQUAGESIMA Sunday, Shrove Sunday, fo cal-
QUOIN, or Coin, on board a ffiip, a wedge faftened on
the deck clofe to the breech of the carriage of a gun, to
keep it firm up to the fhip-fide.
Cantic quoins are Ihort three-legged quoins put between
calks to keep them fteady.
Quoins, in architedture, denote the corners of brick or
ftone walls. The word is particularly uled for the ftones
in the corners of brick-buildings. When thefe ftand
out beyond the brick-work, their edges being chamfered
off, they are called ruftic quoins.
QUOTIDIAN, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 62.
QUOTIENT, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, p. 376.
R.
‘R'
R A B - R A B
AAB, a city of Lower Hungary, fituated at the con- to the houfe of Auftria : E. long. 180, N. lat. 48°.
fluence of the rivers Danube and Raab, and fubjedl RABBI, or Rabbins, a title which the pharifees and doc-
RAD (
tors of the law among the Jews aflumed, and literally
fignifies mafters, or excellents.
There were feveral gradations before they arrived at
the dignity of a rabbin, which was not conferred till they
had acquired the profoundeft knowledge of the law and
the traditions. It does not however appear, that there
was any fixed age, or previous examination neceffary;
but when a man had diftinguilhed himfelf by his Hall in
the written and oral law, and pafled through the fubor-
dinate degrees, he was faluted a rabbin by the public voice.
Among the modern Jews, for near feven hundred years
part, the learned men retain no other title than that of
rabbi, or rabbins; they have great refpedt paid them,
have the firft places or feats in their fynagogues, deter¬
mine all matters of controverfy, and frequently pronounce
upon civil affairs; they have even a power to excommu¬
nicate the difobedient.
RABBIT, in zoology. See Lepus.
RACE, in general, fignifies running with others in order
to obtain a prize, either on foot, or by riding on horfe-
back, in chariots, <bc.
Race, in genealogy, a lineage or extradlion continued from
father tofon.
RACHITIS, the Rickets. See Medicine, p. 169.
RACK, an engine of torture, furnifhed with pullies and
cords, fee. for extorting confellion from criminals.
Rack, a fpirituous liquor made by the Tartars of Tongufia.
This kind of rack is made of mare’s milk, which is left
to be four, and afterwards diftilled twice or thrice be¬
tween two earthen pots clofely flopped, from whence the
liquor runs through a fmall wooden pipe. This liquor is
more intoxicating than brandy diflilled from wine.
Rack is alfo a fpirimous liquor which the Engiifh get
from Batavia or Malacca, of which there are three forts,
the one being extra&ed from the cocoa-tree, the fecond
from rice, and the third from fugar: but the firft is the
beft and mofl in ufe. It is made of the bloflbm-bunch of
the cocoa-tree : for which purpofe they tie the bunch,
while it is ftill wrapped up within its cod, or membrane,
with a piece of packthread ; and then with a knife make
a crofs cut in that bunch, a little above the place where
it is tied, and adapt a pitcher to it to receive the liquor,
which is called toddy, and is vinous, palatable, and fweet:
others ufe a bamboe-cane inftead of a pitcher. Having
thus drawn the liquor, they let it ferment, and afterwards
diftil it.
To Rack •winer, See. to draw them off from their lees,
after their having flood long enough to clear and fettle
Hence rack-vintage is frequently ufed for the fecond
voyage our wine-merchants ufed to make into France for
racked-wines.
RACKOON, in zoology. See Viverra.
RADIALIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 198.
RADIANT, in optics, is any point of a vifibk objedf from
whence rays proceed. See Optics.
RADIATED flowers, in botany, are fuch as have fe¬
veral femi-flofcules fetround a dilk, in form of a radiant
ftar; thofe which have no fuch rays are called difeous
flowers.
RADIATION, the adit of a body emitting or diffufing rays
of light all round, as from a centre. See Optics.
RADICAL, in general, fomething that ferves as abafis or
foundation.
525' ) R A I
Hence phyficians talk much of a radical moifture.
In grammar, we give the appellation radical to primi¬
tive words, in contradiftinftion to compounds and deri¬
vatives.
Algebraifts alio fpeak of the radical fign of quantities,
which is the charadter exprefling their roots.
RADICLE, that part of the feeds of all plants, which up¬
on vegetating becomes its root, and is difcoverable by the
microfcope. See Agriculture, p. 41.
RADISH, in botany. See Raphanus.
RADIUS, in geometry, the femi diameter of a circle, or
a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference.
Radius, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 179.
RADIX. See Root.
RADNOR, the capital of the county of Radnor in Wales,.
fituated in W. long. 30 6\ N. lat. 520 20'.
RAF FERS, in building, are pieces of timber, which Hand¬
ing by pairs on the raifon or raifing piece, meet in an
angle at the top, and form the roof of a building. See
Architecture,
RAGOUT, a fauce, or feafoning, intended to roufe the
appetite when loft or languilhing.
RAGULED, or Ragged, in heraldry, jagged or knot¬
ted, This term is applied to a crofs formed of the trunks
of two trees without their branches, of which they Ihew
only the flumps. See Plate CXLVII. fig. 5.
Raguled differs from indented, in that the latter is re¬
gular, the former not.
RAJA, the title of the Indian black princes, the remains
of thofe who ruled there before the Moguls. Some of
the rajas are faid to preferve their independency, efpe-
cially in the mountainous parts ; but mofl of them pay.
an annual tribute to the Mogul.
Raja, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order of
amphibia nantes. There are five fpiracula below towards
the peak; the body is compreffed ; and the mouth is fi-
tuate under the head. There are nine fpecies, one of
which is the torpedo, or cramp-filh, found in the Medi¬
terranean and Perfian Gulph. When touched, it defends
itfelf by a tremulous motion, which benumbs any animal
which attempts to injure it.
RAJANIA, in botany, a genus of the dioecia hexandria
clafs. The calix of both male and female confifts of fix
fegments ; none of them have any corolla; the female has
three ftyli ; the fruit is roundilh, with an oblique wing.
There are three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
RAIL, in ornithology. See Rallus.
RAIN, v/ater which defeends from the clouds in form of.
drops of water.
Rain is apparently the precipitated vapours of watery
cibuds : thusi when various congeries of clouds are dri¬
ven together: by the agitation of the winds, they mix and
run into ove body, and by that means diflblve and con- ■
denfe each other into their former fubftance of water :
alfo the coldnefs of the air is a great means to colled, .
compad, and cbndenfe clouds into water ; which being
heavier than the air, muft of neceflity fall through it in
the form we call rain. Now the reafon why it falls in
drops and not in whole quantities, as it becomes con.
denied, is the refiftance of the air ; whereby being bro.
ken, and divided into fmaller and fmaller parts the far¬
ther it paffes through the air, it at laft arrives to us in
fmall drops.
Mr,
R A I ( 52<
Mr. Derham accounts for the precipitation hence, that
*lhe veficulse being full of air, when they meet with a colder
air than that they contain, their air is contracted into a
lefs fpace ; and confequently the watery (hell rendered
thicker, fo as to become heavier than the air,- <bc.
Others only allow the cold a part in the adhotn and
bring in the winds as (harers with it: indeed, it is plain,
that a wind, blowing againft a cloud, will drive its ve(i-
culae upon one another, by which means feveral of them
coallefcing, will be enabled to def end ; and the effect
■will, be dill more confiJerable if two oppofite winds blow
towards the fame place. Add to this, that clouds al¬
ready formed, happening to be aggravated by frelh ac-
ceffions of vapour continually afcending, may thence be
enabled to defcend.
According to Rohaiilt, the great caufe of rain is the
heat of the air ; which, after continuing for fome time
near the earth, is at length carried up on high by a w nd,
and there thawing the inow.y villi, or flocks of the half
frozen veficulas, reduces them into drops ; which, coal
lefcing, defcend.
Others, as Dr. Clarke, tic. aferibe this defcent of
the clouds rather to an alteration of the atmofpbere than
of the veficulae; and fuppofe it to arife from a diminution
of the elaftic force of the air. This elafticity, which de¬
pends chiefly or wholly on the terrene exhalations, being
weakened, the atmofphere finks under its burden, and the
clouds fall.'
Now the little veficles, being once upon the defcent,
will perfift therein, notwithftanding the increafe of relift-
ance they every moment meet with. For as they all tend
toward the centre of the earth, the farther they fall, the
more coalitions will they make ; and the more coalitions,
the more matter will there be under the fame furface;
the furface only increafing as the fquares, but the foli-
dity as the cubes; and the more matter under the fame
furface, the lefs refiitance there will be to the fame mat¬
ter Thus, if the cold, wind, <bc. adt early enough to
precipitate the afcending vefidesi, before they are arrived
at any confiderable height, the coalitions being but few,
the drops will be proportionably fmall; and thus is formed
a dew. If the vapours be more copious, and rife a little
higher, we have a mift or fog. A little higher dill, and
they produce a fmall rain, <bc. If they neither meet with
cold nor wind, they form a heavy, thick, dark (ky.
Hence, many of the phaenomena of the weather (nay
be accounted for: as, why a cold fummer is always a wet
cne, and a warm a dry one ; why we have commonly
mod rain about the equinoxes; why a fettled, thick,
clofe (ley fcarce ever rains, till it have been firft clear.
As to the quantity of rain that falls, its proportion in
feveral places at the fame time, and in the fame place at
feveral times, we have (lore of obfervatipns, journals,
<bc. in the memoirs of the French Academy, Philofo*
phical Tranfadtions, <bc.
RAIN BOW. See Optics, p. 435,
£unar Ra i nbow. The moon fometimes alfo exhibits the
phenomenon of an iris, by the refradtion of her rays in
drop'fc of rain in the night-time.
Ariflotle fays, he was the firft that ever o.bferved it ; and
adds, that it is never vifible but at the time of full moon.
The lunar iris has all the colours of the fclar, only
jfeinter.
5 ) RAM
Marine Rainbow, the fea-bow, is a phenomenon fome¬
times obferved in a much agitated fea, when the wind,
fweepmg part of the tops of the waves, carries them a-
loft; fo that the rays of the fun are refradted, <6v. as
in a common (hower.
RAISINS, grapes prepared by fuffering them to remain on
the vin-e till they are perfedlly ripp, and then drying them
in the fun, or by the heat of an oven. The difference
between raifms dried in the fun, and thofe* dried in ovens,
is very obvious: the farmer are fweet and pleafant, but
the latter have a latent acidity with the fweetnefs that
render? them much lefs agreeable
RAKE of a Jhip is all that part of her hull which hangs o-
ver both ends of her keel. That which is before, is
called the fore-rake, or rake-forward ; and that part
which is at the fetting on of the ftern port, is called the
rake aft, or afterward.
RALLUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order
of grallae. The beak is thickelt at the bale, compreffed,
equal, acute, and fomewhat (harp on the back near the
point; the noftrils are oval; the feet have four toes,
without any web; and the body is comprefftd. There
are ten fpecies. principally dittinguilhed by their colour.
RAM, in zoology. See Ovis.
Ram, in albonomy ,See Astronomy.
Battering in antiquity, a military engine ufed to bat¬
ter and oeat down the walls of places befieged.
The battering 1am was ol two forts ; the one rude and
plain, the other compound The forpier feems to have
been no more than a great beam which the foldiers bore
on their arms and (boulders, and with one end o( it by
main force affailed the wall. The compound ram is thus
deferibed by Jofephus ; it is a valt beam, like the mad
of a (hip, (trengthened at one end with a head of iron,
fomething refembling that of a ram, whence it took its
name.
This was hung by the middle with ropes to another
beam, which lay acrofs two pofts ; and hanging thus e-
qually balanced, it was by a great number of men drawn
backwards and puflied forwaids, (triking the wall with
its iron-head.
Plutarch informs us, that Marc Anthony, in the Par¬
thian war, made ufe of a ram fourfeore feet long: and
Vitruvius tells us. that they were fometimes an hundred
and fix, and fometimes an hundred and twenty feet in
length; and to this perhaps the force and (Irength of
the engine was in a great meafure owing. The tarn was
managed at one time by a whole century of foldiers ; and
they being'(pent, were (econded by another century, fo
that it played continually without any, intermiflion.
Ram’s head, in a (hip, is a great block belonging to the
fore an. main halliards. It has three (hivers in it, into
which the halliards are put, and in a hole at the end of
it are reeved the ties.
RAMADAN, a folemn feafon of fading among the Maho¬
metans. See Mahometanism.
RAMIFICATION, the production of boughs or branches,
or of figures refembling branches.
RAMMER, an inftrument ufed for driving down flones or
piles into the ground; or for bearing the earth, in order
to render it more folid for a foundation.
Rammer of a gun, the gun-dick ; a rod ufed in charging
of a gun, to drive home the powder, as alfo the (hot and
the
RAP ( 55
the wad, which keeps the fhot from rolling out. See
Gunnery.
ItAMPANT, in heraldry, a term applied to a lion, leo¬
pard, or ether beall that ftands on his hind legs, and
rears up his forefeet in the pofture of climbing, (hewing
only half face, as one eye^ drr. It is different from
fai'ant, in which the bead deems fpringing forward as if
mak’ng a fally. See Plate CXLVII fig. 6.
kAMPART, in fortification, is an eleyation of earth round
a place capable of refifting the cannon of an enemy ; and
formed into baftions, cartms, See Fortifica¬
tion.
RAMSEY, an ifland in the Irifh channel, on the coad of
Pembrokefhire : W. long j" 20’, N. Jat. 510 55^.
RAMUS, in general, denotes a branch of anything, as of
a tree, an artery, vein, &c.
RAN A, the Frog, in zoology, a genus belonging to the
clafs of amphibia reptilia. The body is naked, furnifh-
ed with four feet, and without any tail. There are 17
fpecies. Frogs undergo a very (trange metamorphofis.
When they firft iffue from the eggs, they appear in a
roundifli form, with a long tail, and are then denomi¬
nated tadpolis. After continuing in this date forfeveral
weeks, the tail begins^to mortify and fall off gradually,
- the feet at the fame time fpringing as gradually out of the
body, till they affume the complete form of frogs.
RANCHIERA, a port-town of TerraJirma, fituated in
W. long. 720, N. lat. n° 34’.
RANCID, denotes a fatty fubdance that is become rank
or mudy, or has contraded an ill fmell by being kept
clofe,
RANGE, in gunnery, the path of a bullet, or the line it
deferibes from the mouth of the piece to the point where
it lodges See Gunnery.
RANGIFER, the rain-deer. See Corvus,
RANK, the order or place allotted aperfon, fuitable to his
quality or merit.
RANKING of Creditors, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xix. 13.
RANSOM, afum of money paid for the redemption of a-
flare, or for the liberty of a prifoner of war. In our
law-books, ranfom is alfo ufed for a fum paid for the
pardon of fome great offence, and to obtain the offender’s
liberty.
RANULA, a tumour under the tongue, which like a liga¬
ture hinders a child from fpeaking of fucking.
RANUNCULUS, in botany, a genus of the polyandria
polygynia clafs. The calix confids of five leaves, and
the corolla of five petals, with a melliferous pore in the
claw of each ; and the feeds are naked. There are 38
fp-cies, 11 of them natives of Britain.
RAOLCONDA, a city of the hither India, fituatedin the
, • province of G -Iconda: E. long. 79°* N. lat. 17° \2 .
RAPACIOUS animals, are fuch as live upon prey.
RAPE, in law, the having carnal knowledge of a woman
by force and againd her will. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 26.
RAPHANUS, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia fi-
iiquofa cUfs. The calix is (hut; the pod is cylindrical,
and fubaniculated ; there are two melliferous glands be¬
tween the (hort damina and the pidillum, and as many
between the long damina and calix. There are three
fpecies, only one of t hem, viz. the raphonidrum, char¬
lock, a native of Britain.
Vol. Ill, N°. 91. 2
7 ) RAT
RAPHIDIA, in zoology, a genus of infefls belonging to
the order of neuroptera. The head is* depreffed and hor¬
ny ; it has two teeth, four pappi, and three (lemmata ;
the wings are defleded ; the feelers are cylindiical, and
of the length of the thorax; and the tail of the female
is furmlhed with a lax bended bridle. There are three
fpecies.
RAPIER, formerly fignified a long old-fa(hioned broad
fword, fuch as thofs worn by the common foldiers : but
it now denotes a fmall fword, as contradidingudhedfrom
a back-fword.
RAPINE, in law, the taking away another’s goods, 6v. 0-
petily and by violence.
RAPPAHANOCK, a large navigable river which rifes in
themoymains wed of Virginia, and difeharges itfelfinto
the bay of Chtfepeak.
RAPTURE, an edLfy, or tranfport of mind. See Ec¬
stasy.
RARE, in phyfics, dands oppofed to denfe ; and denotes
a body that is very porous, whofe parts are at a great
didance from one another, and which contains but little
matter under a large Sulk.
RAREFACTION, in phyfics, the aft whereby a body is
rendered rare ; that is, brought to poffefs more room,
or appear under a larger bulk without acceffiofl of any new
matter.
RASEBURG, a port town of Sweden, in the province of
Finland, and territory of Nyland, fituated on the guiph
of Finland: E. long. 230, N. lat 6o° 22.
RASTAT, the name of two towns of Germany : one in the
circle of Bavaria and archbifhopric of Saltzburg, fituated
on the river Ens, thirty-five miles fouth of the city Ens;
another in the circle of Swabia and marquifate of Ba¬
den, fituated on the ead fide of the river Rhine, twemy-
one miles fouth wed of Philiplburg.
RAT, in zoology. See Mus.
Rat-tails, or Arrests, in the manege, fignify hard
callous fwellings upon the hinder legs under the hough,
running along the finew.
A horfe is called rat-tail, when he has no hair upon his
tail.
RATAFIA, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from the
kernels, <bc. of feveral kinds of fruits, particularly of
cherries and apricots.
Ratafia of cherries is prepared by bruifing the cherries,
and putting than into a veffel wherein brandy has been
long kept ; then adding to them the kernels of cherries,
with draw-berries, fugar, cinnamon, white pepper, nut¬
meg, cloves; and to twenty pound of cherries, ten quarts
of brandy. The veffd is left open ten or twelve day?’,
and then dopped cl.qfe for two months before it be tap¬
ped. Ratafia, of apricots is prepared two ways, viz. ei¬
ther by boiling the apricots in white wine, adding to the
liquor an equal quantity of brandy, with fugar, cirmamoo,
mace, and the kernels of apricots; infuting the whole
for eight or ten days then (training the liquor, and put¬
ting it up for ufe : Or elfe by irifnfing the apricots cut
in pieces in brandy, for a day or two, paffing it through
a-draining bag, and t en putting in the ufita] ingredient*.
RATCH, or Rash, in clock-work, a fort of wheel ha¬
ving twelve fangs, which ferve tolift up the detents eve¬
ry hour, and make the clock (trike. See Watch.
RATCHETS, in a watch, -are the fmall teeth at the bot-
6 R toss
n A V ( ;
tom of the fufy. Or barrel-, which flops it h winding up.
RATE, a flandard or proportion, by which either the
quantity or value of a thing is adjufled.
VyKT'e, of a Jkip of v)ar,\% its order, degree, or diflinftion,
as to magnitude, burden, be.
RATEEN, in commerce, a thick woollen fluff, quilt¬
ed, woven on a loom. with.four treddles, hke ferges,
and other fluffs, that have the whale or quilling.
There are fome rateens dreffedand prepared like cloths ;
others left limply in the hair; and others where the hair
or knap is friz-td. Rateens are chiefly manufactured in
France, Holland, and Italy, and are moffly ufecl in . li¬
nings. The frtzeis a fort of coarfe rateen, and the drug¬
get is a rateen hdf linnen half woolen.
R ATIFICATION, an aft approving off, and confirming
fomething done-by another in our name.
RATIO, in arithmetic and geometry, is that relation of
homogeneous things which determines .the quantity of
one from the quantity of another, without the interven¬
tion of a third. See Arithmetick, Algebra, ind
Geometry.
RATIOCINATION, the aft of reafoning. See Rea.-
S O N I N G .
RATION, in the army, a portion of ammunition, bread,
drink, and forage, ddtributed to-each foldier in the -ar-
hty, for his daily fabfiitence, be. The harfe have rations
of hay and oats, when they cannot go. out to foragf.
The rations of bread are regulated by weight. The or
dinary'ration of a foot-foldier is a pound and a half of
bread per day. The officers have feveral rations accor¬
ding to their quality and the number of attendants that
they are obliged’ to keep. When the ration is augment¬
ed- on occafions of rejoicing, it is called a double ration
The ffiips crews have alfo their rations or allowances’ of
bifcuit, pulfe, and’water, proportianed according to their
flock.
RATIONAL, reasonable. See Reason. . ~
Rat t o n al , is alio applied to integral, fraftional, and mixt
numbers: thus we fay rational fraftipn, national integer^
and rational mixt number.
RATIONALE, a folution or account of the principles
of fome opinion, aftion, hypothefis, pbaenbmeno#, or the
■ hke. - . _ -
RATIPQR-, a town of Bohemia, in the dyeby of Silefia,
. fstfwted on the river Oder, fixteen mite.--- ngrtb-eaft nf
Tropaw. . ^
Rati por, is alio a city of hither India, capital of-the pro¬
vince of Malva, fituated E.long 8o^, N. 1-u. 2-5°. •
RATlSBON, a city of Germany, in rhe circle of,Bava¬
ria, fituared at the confluence of the rivers Danube and
Regen, is E, long, ti9 $ , N, lat. 49P. This is a free
imperial etty, end here the affembly or diet of the fldtes
of the empire meets.
RATLINES, or, as thefeamen call them, Ratlins, tbofe
iiries which make the ladder ffeps to go. up the Ihi Quds
and puttocks, hence eafled the ratlins of the fhrouds.
RATTLE SNAKE, See Crotalus-
.Rattle snake root. See Folvcaala.
RAX,A. -a city of,Great Polao-L capital of the Palatinate
4 of Rava. fi-tuatsd fifty miles fonth eafl of Warfaw •
RAXELIN,: in fortification, was anciently a flat bijfKon,
placed in the middle of a curtin; but now a detached
wosk compoLd only of two faces, which m&ke a fahsiat
>.s ) REA
angle, without any flanks, and raifed before the curtin
on the counterfcarp of the place. See FoRTiFiCATibN.
RAVEN, in ornithology. SeeCoRrus’. '
RAVENGLAS, a port-town of Cumberland, fituated on
the Iriffi Channel, thirty eight miles fouth-wefl, of Ckr-
lifle.
RAVENNA, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territories, ca¬
pital.of the province of Romania, fituated E. lbn. 13^-,
N. lat. 440 30'.
RAUVOLFIA, in botany, a genus of the pentaqdria mo-
nogynia clafs. The berry contains two Reds. , There
are two fpecies; both natives of'America; v
RAY, in optics, a beam of light, emitted from a radiant
or luminous body. See Optics.
RAA LEIGH, a market-town of EfTex, ten miles fouth-
.call of Chelmsford, .... .. r
RAYONANT, or Crofs Rayonant, in heraldry, one
which has rays of glory behind it, darting outftom the
centre to all the quarters of theeRutcheon, as reprefeht-
ed in Plate CXLVIl. -fig. .7,
RAZOR, a well known inGrument ufed by furgeons, bar¬
bers, Ac. for {having pff,the hair from various partsof
the body. ; .
^RAjZOR-BiLL. in ornithology. See Auca.
RE-ACTION, in pbyfiology, the reSflance wade by’all
bodies to the aftion or impulfe of others ;tljai endeavour
to change its ftate whether,of motion’pc reft. , SeeJ^E-
. CHAN I CS. • ,-f ■■ ,
READING, a borough town in Berkfhire, fituated,.fortjr
miles weft of London, near the confluence .of ,the,river
Kenet and .Thames’; it fends t wo members >to parJIiam^nt.
RE AL, is applied to a beifig that aftuilly exifts; jo which
fenfe, itToincides with aftual. : , : - ;
Real, or Oh j a pa', a pity of M^xioo, iq North America,
capital of the province of Chiapa, fituated W. Ion, 9$°,
N lat,. ,7« - f . * A
REALglO, a portrt^n of Mexico, in the province of
Nicaragua, {hunted on the hay- of The Pacific Ocean, ia
■W. long. 910 30', N jat 120,
REALISTS, a-Ret of. frl+ool philoGphers, formed in ops.
pofi.tioq to lhe pominalifls. , See N-minalists.
Under the Realifls are ircludsid the Seotifls, Thomtfls,
and all, exceprihg the follqwerB-oEQcbam. The|r; dif-
tingui,fifing tenet is, that unjve.rfaL are- realities, apd have
an aftual exiftence out'.of>;an- -icfot -or; imagination,. j»r>
as they exprefs ,« in the fftiools, <r fcarie ret; whereas
the nominahfti contend, -thpt they extRktplyua.thoimiqd'i
and are only, ideas, or manners of conceiving things. ,
REALITY, in the ftfiools, a diminutive of r.j, thing,
firtt ufed by the Scotvfts, to denote a thing which may
exift of ufelf ; or which has a full and shfolute being of
itfelf, and is not confidered as a part of any other.
REALM, a country Which gives Us head, or governor, th,e
denomination of a king..
REALMONT, a town of France, in the province of
Languedoc, fituated thirty-two miles north-eaft of Tho-
loufe.
REAR, a term frequently ufed‘in compofition, to denote
fomething behind or backwards, in re-fpeft of another,
in qppofition to van : thus, in a military fenfe, jt is u-
fed for the hind- part of an army; in oppofiticn to the
front: g
REA SDN, a faculty, or, power of the mind, whereby it
diftin-
R E C ( 5
diflingU'.fh^s godd from evil, truth from falfehoodj
See Logic and Metaphysics.
REASONING, Ratiocination, the exercife of the fa¬
culty of the thind called realbn ; or it is an a£t or opera¬
tion of the mind, deducing fome unknown propofmon
from other previous ones that are evident and known.
See Logic, and Metaphysics.
REBALE, or Rebatement, in commerce, S term much
ufed at Amfterdam, for an abatement in the price of fe-
veral commodities, when the buyer inftead of taking time
advances ready money.
REB ATEMENT, in heraldry, a diminution or abatement
of the bearings in a coat of arms.
REBEL, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Mecklen-
burgh, thirty two miles fouth-eaft of Guftrow.
REBELLION, a traiterous taking up of arms againft the
king by his own natural fubjedlsi or thofe formerly fub-
dued.
REBUS, in enigmatical reprefentation of fome name, fyc.
by ufrng figures or pictures inflead of words, or parts of
words Camden mentions an initance of this abfttrd kind
of wit in a gallant, who expreffed^ his love to a woman,
named Rofe Hill, by painting in the border of' his goVn
a ro/ff, a hill\ an eys, a haf, and ihuall; which, in the
ftyle of the rebus, reads, Rnfe1 Hill, l love well Thh
kind of wit was long pra&ifed by the great, Wbo tbbk the
pains to find devices for their names. It was however,
happily ridiculed by Ben Johnfon, in the: humourous
defer;ptitai. of Abel Drugger’s detiee;r in the Alchemift-;
and'hy the 'S^eetator, ih the device bf l^fck of Newberry;
atdVh'ith tfcie'The’re'bas, being railed to fign-polHj was
grown olir of"fafliieiT at Court.'
RE-BUTTER, in law, thedefendmt’s anfwer to the plan-
tiff's furiCjoinder, in a caufe depending in the- court of
• ' •chaheery',' drc;' • - V ' - “ ‘ ‘ r ' ■
RECAPITULATION, is a fummary, or a, concife and
• tfiTrlffent eiftfmeration of the-priMlpal 'thfngs hiSded oniri
r' the> prefeeding'di^ourfej'Whereby rheferce of the whole
is collected into one vie'w ; - of *10 ;i<hu
in'ifeeCUiTiiifes, a ^afs-Veffel for cobtaihihg
the tlnng on wllfCh an exp-rinient in (he a.r pump is to
bednaSe. • ^e#iirEhlf*A1ft',bs.' -*» >■
REOEPTACEfLU-M-ChYti. See Anatomy, p 282
RECflABITESi of rHigloysAjr'der among the an-
cidht JeWs, "Ififtifhferf'hf Jdi3adali‘ the fon of Rechab,
cbrrt^rdTtendMg'only ht^ od^ fdiAify «nd!p»(lerity.
',: 'dPhJSlflBbTKi^iAptdfe(tb#d!¥i3tef!fh»r§g things t fitll, not
to drink Ady'"'wfne v fedoridly not to-build anyhoufes,
: Blit td dwHl ia t^ntf f- and tjhMly-. not' td dbw any'corn,
Or planVvihes. T' he fei d 1 es11 !i e Rd ch a hi te so b fet v e d with
great’flrictnefs,
RECIPE, iii 'medicine; a pfefcripiion or renVidy, td be
• takena- patie'tfr-; ?b fcalted EetA'ufe''always begTnnin^
with the wofd recipe, i. e. tak&', Which is generally de¬
noted by the abbreviature''Rif If' 'h • H
RECIPIENT, the fame With receiver;
RECIPROCAL, in general; fomething that is mutuaL or
whtch-is returned equally’ on vboth^ fides, on that affilis
1>oth partied alike.
Reciprocal terms,among logicians, are thofe Which have
the fame lignificatiorr; ' and confetjnently are convertihle,
or may be ufed for each other.
Reciprocal Fnfxr'kEa-; tun geometry, thoii
9 ) R E C
the antecedents and confequents of the fame ratio in both
figures. See Geometry.
RECITATIVO;-in mufick,- a kind of Tinging that differs
but little from ordinary pronunciation, Inch as that in
Which tlie feveral parts of the liturgy are rehearfed in ca¬
thedrals'; or'that wherein the adtors commonly deliver
tbemfeives on the theatre at.the opera, when they are to
.. exprefs fome adiionor paffion, to relate fome event, or re¬
veal fome defign.
RECKONING, dr a Jhip's Reckoning. See Naviga¬
tion.
RECLINATION of a plane, in dialling, the number of
degrees which a dial-plane Jeans backwards from an
exadlly upright or vertical plane, that is, from the ze¬
nith. See Dialling.
RECLUSE, amoBg the Papifts, a perfon Ihut up in a fmall
Cell of an hermitage, or monaftery, and cut off, hot only
from all ednverfation. with the world, but even with the
houfe. This is a kind of voluntary imprifonment, from
a motive either of devotion or penance.
RECOLLECTION, a mode of thinking, by which ideas
fought after by the mind, are found, and brought again
to view.
RECONNOITRE, in war, to view and examine the flats
and fituation of things.
RECORD, an authentic teftimony in writing, contained in
rolls of parchment, and .preferved in a court of record.
RECORDER, a perfon whom the mayor and other magir
flratcs of a city or corpoiation affociate to them, for their
better diredtion in matters of juftice, and proceedings in
law ; on which account this perfon is generally a coun-
fellorj or other perfon well fkdled in the lasvl
The recorder of London is chofen by the lord mayor
and aldermen ; and, as he is held to be the mouth of the
city, he delivers the judgment of the courts therein, and
records and certifies the city-cufloms.
RECOURSE on bills, in Scots law. Se^ Law, Tit.
xxi. 12. ;-
RECREMENT in chemiftry, fome fuperfluous matter fe-
parated from fome other that is ufefuf; in which fenfe it
is the fame with fcoris, faces, and excremerttsv Sal
; C H E M S I R Y
RECRIMINATION, in law, an accufation brought i>y
the <u eufed agaihit the acdufet -upbnihe fame fidt. i
RECRUITS. in military affairs, neW-raifkl foldiers, de,-
figned to Itipply the place of thofe who have loft their
■ live's'in the fervice, w-are difafeled by age or wouttds.* d
RECTANGLE, htgeometry; the fttme with a right-angled
parMielrgvam. See Geometry/
RECTIFICATION, in chemillry, is hut tbs ve-
petitibn of- a dilHUatlonboB fubliftiktib# feUcT*! tijq«s;l in
' bpder to fender. t?h‘d,fubftanee:piireT, -^Wr, add Freer from
aqueous or earthy parts. '* ' '■>
RECTITIER, in navigatioh, an inflrument cbhfinrng of
f tfwbiparts, which ate tWo:direles ertheT laid -efie Upcm.'!or
lei’fntb, thfe other, and fb faftebed :togethev in theiir
centres, that they repfefeiit two cdhipalTes, one'fixed,
the other moveable ; each ofithent divided into fhe: fhir-
■ tyv^Wb!pbffns of-the compafii, and thiee hundred add ffx“
ty degrees, land'- hutt>b^red; both bays, from the norJi
and'the'ffouthi etiding'at the eaft and well, in ninety
c clegfefes.' v-'
u«;t<Til(^£«ld ‘bensf a&ur*f refeits tbe*horiko») in ' which
the
RED (5
the north and all the other points of the compafs are fixed
and immoveable.
The moveable compafs reprefents the mariners com¬
pafs, in which the north and all other points are liable to
variation.
In the centre of the moveable eompafs is faftened a filk
thread, long enough to reach the outfide of the fixed eom¬
pafs. But, if the inftrument be made of wood, there is
an index inftead of the thread.
Its afe is to find the variation of the compafs, to rec¬
tify the co.urfe at fea;. having the amplitude or azimuth
given. ' ' .
‘Rectifier, in the diftillery, the perfoo whofe'empioy-
tnent it is to take the coarfe malt-fpirit of the malt-ftii-
ler, and redilti! it to a finer and better liqaor.
RECTILINEAR, in geometry, right-lined : thus figures
whofe perimeter confifts of right lines, are faid to be rec¬
tilinear. ,
RECTITUDE, in philofophy, refers either to the adt of
judging or of willing : and therefore whatever coales un-
.der the denomination of reftitude is either what is true,
or what is good ; thefe being the only obje&s about which
the mind exercifes its two faculties of judging and willing.
Moral re&itude, or uprightnefs, is the chafing and
purfuing thofe things which the mind, upon due inquiry
and attention, clearly perceives to be good ; and avoid¬
ing thofe that are evil.
RECTOR, a term applied to feveral perfons whofe offices
are very different: as, i. The redtor of a parifh is a
clergyman that has the charge and cure of a parifh, and
poffeffes all the tythes, &c. 2- The fame name is alfo
given to the chief eleftive officer in feveral foreign ani-
verfities, particularly in that of Paris. 3. Reftor is alfo
ufed in feveral convents for the fuperior officer who'go¬
verns the houfe: and the Jefuits give this name to the
fuperiors of fuch of their houfes as are either feminaries
or colleges.
RECTORY, it pariffi-charch, parfonage, or fpiritual'li¬
ving, with all Us rights, tythes, and glebes.
RECTUM, in anatomy, the third and lad of the large in-
tedines or guts. See Anatomy, p. 261.
RECTUS, in anatomy a name common to feveral pair of
mufcles, fo called on account of the flraightnefs of their
fibres See Anatomy, Part II.
RECURRENTS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
large branches of nerves ftnt out by the par vagum from
the upper part of the thorax tor the larynx.
RECURVIROSTRA, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of grallse. The beak is Tubulated, bent
back, fharp and flexible at the point; the feet are web¬
bed, and furnifhed with three toes. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the avocetu, a native of the fouthern parts
of Europe. It migra'es into Italy, but feldom to the
north.
RECUSANTS, fuch perfons as acknowledge the gope to
be the fupreme head of the church, and refufe to acknow¬
ledge the king’s fupremacy ; who are hence called po-
pifh recufants. Thefe are in England charged with dou¬
ble taxes, not merely as Romaaifls but as recufants.
RED, one of the Ample or primary colours of natural bo¬
dies, or rather of the rays of light. See Optics.
Red, in dying, is one of the five Ample or mother colours.
Some reckon fix kinds or cads of red, viz. fcarkt red,
30) REE
crimfon red, madder red, half-grain red, lively orange
red, and Icarlet of cochineal: but they may be all: redu¬
ced to the three following, according to the .three prin*
cipal drugs which give the colours, viz. the kermes, co¬
chineal, and madder.
Red in heraldry. See Gules.
Red Russia, or Little Russia, a province of Poland,
bounded by the province of Polelia, on the north ; by
Volhiuia and Podolia on the.ead; by the Carpathian
mountains, which divide it from Tranlilvania and Hun¬
gary, on the fouth ; and by the province of Little Po¬
land, on the weft; being two hundred miles long, and
one hundred broad
Red-seA feparates Afia from Africa.
REDDLE, a fob, heavy, red marie, of great ufe in co¬
louring ; and being walhed and freed from its fand, is
often fold by our druggdls under the name of boie-ar-
menic.
REDEMPTION, inlaw, a faculty or right of re-entering
upon lands, &c that have been fold and affigned, upon
reimburfing the purchafe-money with legal coafts.
REDENS, in foi tification, a kind of work indented in form
of the teeth of afaw, with faHant and re entering angles,
to the end that one part may fl mk or defend another.
It is called faw-work and indented-work.
REDINTEGRATION, in the civil law, the aa of re-
ftoring a perfon to the enjoyment of a thing whereof he
had been illegally dilpoflefied.
REDOUBT, in fortification, a final! fquate fort, without
any defence but in front, ufed in trenches, lines of cir-
cumvallation contravallation, and approach ; as alfo for
the lodgings of corps de gard, and to defend paflages.
REDRESSING, the readying or fetting any thing ftraight
again.
In a moral fenfe, to redrefs grievances is to reform and
remove them.
To redrefs a flag, among hunters, is to put him off his
changes.
REDRUTHf a market-town of Cornwall, fituated fifty
miles fouth-weft of Launcefton.
REDUBBORS, thofe who buy ftolen cloaths, &c. and,
to the end they may not be known, convert them into
fome other form, or change the colour, ebf.
REDUCTION, in the fcbools, a manner of bringing a
term or propofition, which was before oppofite to fome o-
ther, to be equivalent to it.
Reduction, in arithmetick. See Arithmetic*, p. 380.
Reduction, in furgery, denotes an operation whereby a
diflocated, luxated, or fra&ured bone is reftored to its
former ftate or place.
Reduction, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxx. 3.
REQJJNDANCY, a fault in difcourfe, confifting in the
ufe of a fuperfluity of words. Words perfedly iynony-
mous are redundant, and ought to be retrenched.
REED, in botany. See Arundo.
REEF, a term in navigation. When there is a great gale
■ of wind, they commonly roll up part of the fail below.,
that by this means it may become the narrower, and not
draw fo much wind ; which contrafting or taking up the
fail, they call a reef, or reefing the fail: fo alfo when |i
top-in4ft is fprung, as they call it, that is, vhtn it is
cracked, or aimoft broken in the cap, they cut off the
lower piece that was near broken off, and fetting th.e orh-r
part.
U E ¥ (5
part, now much ihorter, jn the fiep again, they call it a
reefed top-mall.
REEL, in the manufadtories, a machine ferving for the of¬
fice of reeling. There are various kinds- of reels, fome
very fimple, othets very complex. '
REELING, in the manufadtories, the winding of-thread,
filk, cotton, or the hke, into a Ikain, or upon a bottom,
to prevent its entangling. It is alfo ufed for the char¬
ging or difcharging of bobbins or quills, to ufe them in
the manufa&ure of different duffs, as thread, filk, cot¬
ton, &c. Reeling is performed different ways, and on
different engines.
REEVING, in the fea language, the putting a rope through
a block : hence ^o pull a rope out 6f a block, is called un¬
reeving. - -
RE-EXGETANGE, in commerce, a fecond payment of the
price of exchange, or rather the price of a new exchange
due upon-a bill of exchange that comes to be proxelted
and to be refunded the bearer by the drawer or indorfer.
REFECTION, among ecciefiadics, a fpare meal or repaft,
juit fufficing for the fapport of life: hence the hall in
convents, and other communities, where the monks,
nuns, &c-. take their refections or meals in common, is
called the refcdloiy. -
REFERENCE, in writing. 6c. a mark relative to ano¬
ther fimiiar one in the margin,.or at the bottom of the
qiage, where lomething omitted in the text is added, and
which is to be inferted either in reading or copying.
REFINING, in general, is the art of purifying a thing;
including not only the affaying.or refining of metals, but
likewife the clarification of liquors.
Refining See Chemistry, p. 129.
Refining See Chemistry, p. 13a.
REFLEC FION, the return or regreffive motion of a mo¬
ving body, occafipned by fome obllacle which hindered
it'from purfuing its former direflion.
Reflection of the rays of light. See Optics.
Reflection is alfo ufed, figuratively, for an operation of
the mind ; whereby it turns its view backwards as it were
apon itfelf, and makes itfelf and its own operation the
objedl of its difquifition; and by contemplating the man
ner, order, and laws,which it obferves in perccving ideas,
comparing them together, reafonidg, 6c. it frames new
ideas of the relations difeovered therein. See Logic,
and Metaphysics.
REFLUX of the fa, the ebbing of the water, or its re¬
turning from the Ihore. See Astronomy, p. 473.
REFORMATION, the a<5t of reforming or corredhng an
•error or abuie in religion, difciplin?, or the like.
The .Reformation, fo called by way of eminence, is the
reparation of the Prottftants from.the church of Rome,
in the beg n .ing and towards t^e middle of the fix teen th
century. ‘ ' ,
REFRACTION, in general, is the deviation of a moving
body from its diredt courfe, occafioned. by the different
deniity of the medium it moves in ; or, it is a change of
direction, occafioned by a body’s falling obliquely out of
one medium into another of a different deniity. See
Optics.
REFR ANGIBILITY of light, the difpofition of rays to
be refradled. See Optics
REFRIGERAT1VE, in medicine, a remedy which re-
toe. III. N° 91. 2
51 ) Pe E G
freffies the imVard parts, by coding them; as cfydefs*
ptifans, 6c.
REFRIGERATORY, in chemidry. a vtffel filled with
cold water, through which the worm paffes ift diftilla-
tions; the ufe of which is, to condede the vapours as
they pafs through the worm.
REFUGE, a fan&uary or aiylum.
REFUGEES, French Proteltant- ; Who, by the revocation
of the edidt of Nantz, have been conflrained to fly from
perfecution, and take refuge in foreign countries. ,
’REGAL or Royal, fomething belonging to a king.
REGALE, a magnificent entertainment or treat given to
amoaffadors, and other perfohs of diftindhon, to enter¬
tain or do them honour.
It is ufual, in Italy, at the arrival of a traveller of emi¬
nence, to fend him a regale, that is, a prefent of fweet-
meats, fruit, 6’c. by way of refrefhment.
Regale, in the French jurifprudence, is a royal preroga¬
tive, which confilts in enjoying the revenues of bifhoptics
during the Vacancy of their fees, of prefenting'to bene¬
fices, and of obliging the new bilhop to take an path of
fidelity, and to regiiier it in the chamber of accounts.
The enjoyment of the fruits of the fee is called the.tem¬
poral regaleand that of prefenting to the fee, the fpi-
ritual regale.
REGALIA, inlaw, the rights and prerogatives of a king ;
which, according to civilians, are fix : viz- 1 The power
of judicature : 2. The power of life and death : 3. The
power of peace and war.: 4. A right to fuch goods as
have no Owner, as waifs, eftrays, 6c. 5. Affeffments ;
and, 6. The coinage of money.
Regalia is alfo ufed for the apparatus of a coronation,
as the crown, the feeptre with the crofs, that with the
dove, St. Edward’s (taff, the globe, and the mb with
the crofs, four feveral fwords, 6c.
Regalia, fr. Scots law. See Law, Tit. xiii. 3.
Lord ^Regality, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. iv. 4.
REGARDANT, in heraldry, fignifies looking behind ; and
is ufed for a liqn, or other beait, with his-face turned to¬
wards his tail.
REGARDER, an ancient officer of the king’s forefl, fworn
to make the regard of the fotell every year; that is, ta
take a view of its limits, to inquire into all offences and
defaults committed by the foreflers wir' m the foieit, and
to obferve whether all the other officers executed their
refpedlive duties.
REGEL, or Rig el, a fixed liar of the firfl magnitude,
in Orion’s left foot.
REGENERATION, in theology, the adt of being bom
agaih by a fptmual'birth, or the change of heart and hfiai
experienced by a perfon whaforlakes a courfe of vice,
and fincerely .embraces a life of viime and piety.
REGENT, one who goa^erns a kingdom during the mino¬
rity or abffince of the king.
In France, the queen mother has the regency of the
kingdom during the minority of the king, under the title
of queen-regent.
Regent alfo fignifies a profefTor of arts and fciences in a
college, who has a fet of pup Is under his care ; but here
regent is 'generally reftiained to the lower ciaffes, as re¬
gent of rhetoric, regent of logic, 6c. thole of philofophy
are rather called profeffiors.
6 S REGICIkE,
REG ( 532 ) R E L
REGICIDE, king-killer, a word chiefly ufed with us
in fpesking of the perfons concerned in the trial, con¬
demnation, and execution of king Charles I.
REGlFUGE, a feait celebrated in ancient Rome on the
fixth of the kalends of March, in memory of the expul-
fion of their ancient kings, -and particularly of Tarquin’s
flying out of Rome on that day.
REGIMEN, the regulation of diet, and, in a more general
fenfe, of all the non-naturals, with a view to preferve or
reltore health. See Medicine.
Regimen,.in grammar, that part of fyntax, or conftruc
tion, which regulates the dependency of words, and the
alterations which one occafions in another. See Gram¬
ma a,
REGIMENT, in war, is a body of men, either hotfe or
foot, commanded by it colonel.
Each regiment of foot is divided into companies ; but
the number of companies is not always alike; though our
regiments generally confilt of thirteen companies, one of
which is always grenadiers.
Regiments of horfe moft commonly confift of fix troops,
but fome have nine. -
Regiments of dragoons, in time of war, are generally
compofed of eight troops; and in,time of peace, of fix.
REGION, in geography, a large extent of land, inhabited^
by many people of the fame nation, and inclofed within
certain limits or bounds.
REGISTER, a public book in which is entered and record
ed memoirs, adts, and minutes, to be had recourfe to oc-
cafionally, for knowing and proving matters of fad.
Register ships, in commerce, are veffels which obtain
a permiffion either from the king of Spain, or the council
of the Indies, to traffic in theports of the Spanifli Weft-
Indies; which are thus called, from their being regiftered
before they fet'fai! frdm Cadiz, for Buenos Ayres.
Registers, in chemiftry, are holes, or chtnks with flop¬
pies, contrived in the fides of furnaces, to regulate the
fire; that is, to make the heat more intenfe, or remifs, by
opening them to let in the air, or keeping them clofe to
exclude it
REGISTRY, the office, books, and rolls, in which the
proceedings in chancery, or any fptritual court, are re-
gifl’ered.
REGRATOR, or Regrater, in law, formerly fignified
one who bought wholefale, or by the great, and Ibid a-
gain by retail: but the term.is now ufed for one whofauys
any wares of vitftuals, and fells them again in the fame
market, or fair, or withi® fifteen miles round it. See
Forestalling.
REGULAR, denotes any thing that is agreeable to the
rules of art: thus, we fay a regular building, verb, <&c.
A regular figure, in geometry, is one whofe fides, and
confequently angles, are equal; and a regular figure with
three or four fides, is commonly termed an equilateral
triangle, or fquare; as all others with more fides are call¬
ed regular polygobs.
Regular, in a monartery, aperfon who has taken the vows;
becaufe he is bound to obferve the rules of the order he
has embraced.
REGUL ATION, a rule or order preferihed by a fuperior,
for the proper management of fome affair.
REGULATOR of a 'watch, the fmall fpring belonging to
the balance; ferving to adjuft its motions, and make It
go falter or flower. See Watch.
REGULUS, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
Regulus, in chemiftry, an imperfeft metallic fubftance,
that falls to the bottom of the crucible, in the melting of
ores or impure metallic fubltancfes. See Chemi s try,
pajjtm,
REHABILITATION, in the civil and the canon law, the
reftoring a delirtqueht to his former condition.
REHEARSAL, in mufick and the drama, an eflay or ex¬
periment of lome compofition, generally made in private,
previous to its reprefentation or performance in public, in
order to render the abtors and performers more perfett in
their parts.
REIN-DEER, in zoology. See Cervus.
REINS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 268.
REJOINDER, in law, is the defendant’s anfwer to the
plaintiff’s replication or reply. Thus, in the court of
chancery, the defendant puts in an anfwer to the plain¬
tiff’s bill, which is fometimes alfo called an exception ;
the plaintiff’s anfwer to this is called a replication; and
the defendant’s anfwer to that a rejoinder.
REITERATION, the aft of repeating a thing, or doing
it a fecond time.
RELAPSE, a falling again into a danger, evil, or difeale,
from which a perfon has efcaped.
RELATION, the mutual ref eft of two things, or what
each is with regard to the other. See Metaphysics.
Relation, in geometry. See Ratio.
- Relation is alfo ufed for analogy. See Analogy.
RELATIVE, fomething relating to, or refpefting, ano¬
ther.
Relative terms, in logic, are words which imply a ,
relation: fuch are mafter and feryant, hulband and
wife, <k}c.
RELAXATION, in medicine, fee the aft of loofening or
flackening, or the loofenefs and flacknefs of the fibres,
nerves, mufcles, fee.
RELAY, a fupply of horfes placed on the road, and ap¬
pointed to be ready for a traveller to change, in order to
make the greater expedition.
RELEVANCY, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxiii,
48.
RELICS, in the Romifli church, the remains of the bodies
of faints or martyrs, and the inftruments by which they
were put to death, devoutly preferved, in honour to
their memory; kiffed, revered, and carried in proceffion.
RELICT, in law, the fame with widow.
RELIEVO, or Relief, in fculptnre, fee. is the projec?
ture or Handing out of a figure; which arifes prominent
from the ground or plan on which it is formed ; whe¬
ther that figure be -cut with the Chifiel, moulded, or
call.
There are three kinds or degrees of relievo, viz. alto,
baffo, and demi relievo. The alto-relievo, called alfo
haut-relief, or high relievo, is when the figure is formed
after nature, and projefts as much as the life. Baffo-relie-
vo, bafs-relief, or low relievo, is when the work is rai-
fed but a little from the ground, as in medals., and the
frontifpieces of buildings; and particularly in the hiftorie^,
feftooos, foliages, and other ornaments of friezes Demi-
relievo is when one half of the figure rifesTrom the plan.
When
R E L ( 533 ) R E L
When, in a baffo-relievo, there are parts that fraud dear' Relievo, or Relief, in painting, is-tbe degree of hold¬
out, detached from the reft, the work is called a demi- nefs with which the figures feem, at a due diftance, to
baflb. ftand out from the ground of the painting,
RELIGION, or T H E O L O G Y.
I. 'Ӥ~sO knowGod, and to render him a reafonable fervice,
t are the tw^5.principal obje<ftsof religion. We know but
little of the nature of bodies; wedifcover fome of their pro¬
perties, as motion, figure, colours, <bc. but of their efrence
we are’ignorant: we know ftill much lefs.of the foul; but of
the effence or nature of God, we know nothing: it is the
prerogative of the Supreme Being alone to comprehend his
-own effence: all the efforts that we can make to attain that
knowledge, are arrqgaht and ineffedtual; it is foreign to the
•nature of a limited fpirit: but our deftiny is that of a
man, and our defires are thofe of a God. In a word, man
appeals' to be Fornied to adore, but not to comprehend, the
Supreme Being.
II. We may fay, however, with Virgil, Jovis omnia ple¬
na ; God manifefts his exiftence, not only to the internal
fenfations of our minds, but in every object' that furrounds
us in the whole frame of nature; and if we cannot compre¬
hend the Supreme Being by our fenfes, we may dilcover
his attributes by our reafon, almoft as clearly as we difrtn-
guifh the properties of matter, and many other objefts: and
this knowledge is fufficient for us. The end of every other
fcience is fosne temporal happinefs; theology alone propofes
an eternal felicity; its objeft therefore differs from all other
fciences, as the age of threefcore and ten differs from eternity.
We cannot wonder therefore, that all the inhabitants of the
earth, from the time of the creation, have made it their
principal ftudy, and have exerted all their abilities in the
cultivation of it: we ought much rather to be aftonifhed that
if does not yet more ftrongjy engage the attention of man¬
kind ; and thaf while they labour fo affiduonfly to acquire
thofe fctences, whofe utility extends to fo fhort a fpace of
time, they ibould fb frequently negledl that objecf which can
fecure their felicity in a future, certain, and eternal exift-.
ence.
III. From the firft knowledge that we have of the world,
that is to fay, for about, five thoufand years part, men have
blindly fearched after the idea of the true God; and by the
weaknefs of their difcernment, they have fallen into a thou
land errors. Paganifm at firft covered the whole earth, ex
cept that family alone which became the flock of the Jewifri
people: this pagantfm among different nations had different
mixtures of idolatry. Mofes firft made known to the He¬
brews the true God, and preferibed them his worfhip: his
religion, however, was not adopted by any other people, not
even by their neighbours. Jefus Chrift appeared upon the
earth, abolifhed a part of the Judaic law, reformed the re¬
ligion of Mofes, taught Kis divine .dbdrinesj and offered
himfelf as a facrifice for the falvation of mankind His gof-
pel made a happy progref^over all Enrope, that is, overthe
then known part of the earth. Some time after, Mahomet
arofe in the eaft. and preached a religion that he had com¬
pounded of the Jevvifh and Chriftian, and of his own ideas,
Laftly, came Luther and Calvin, who reformed the errors
which, according to them, had been introduced into Chri--
ftianrty under thfc reigns of the popes; and gave the idea of
what is called the Protefrant Religion. Confucius had taught
the Chinefe, and Zoroafter the Indians, religions drawn part¬
ly from philofophy, and partly from paganifm; but the ex¬
tent of thefe was very confined. All thefe religions, and
their different feds, have had their theology, their priefts,
their ceremonies, their triumphs, and even their martyrs.
IV. We fhall not fpeak here of religions that are extind,
or that yet exilf, but at a difrance far from us: we fhall treat
only of thje Chriftian theology, which teaches us to know
God, by revelation and by the light of reafon, fo far as it is
poffible for the weaknefs of the human mind to comprehend
that infcrutable Being. The knowledge of the true God is
indeed of little utiliry to man, unlefs he can fuppofe that
there is fome connedion or relation between that Suprema
Being and himfelf. Now it is from thefe connedions or re¬
lations that are derived the neceffityof the knowledge of the
true God, and of the true manner in which he is to be wor-
fhipped : and this it is that forms the Chriftian theology;
of which we fhall now give the analyfis.
V. To afceud by a chain of reafoning from things vifible
to things invifible, from palpable to impalpable, from terref-
tria! to celeftial, from the creature even up to the Creator,
is the bufinefs of theojogy: it is not furprifing, therefore,
that the union of many dodrines is neceffary completely to
form fuch a fcience. To underftand, and properly to inter¬
pret the fcriptures or revelation, demands not lefs fagacity
than affiduity. The gift of perfuafion is alfo effentialto th&
minifters of the gofpel. And iaftly, the civil givernment has
committed to their care certain fundions of fbciety, which
relate, .of feem-to relate, either to the dodrines or morality
of the gefpel. They affemble, for example, in bodies to
form confiftories ; they judge in matrimonial cafes ; they
carry confolation and hope to the fouls of the fick; they
prepare for death thofe criminals which juftice facrifices to
public faftty; they take upon themfelves the charge of E-
phori, with the ihfpedion of forhe pious foundations ; they
difttibute alms; they adminifter the facraments, <&c.
VI. To difcharge fully fo many duties, the thtologianhas
need, i. Of feveral preparatory ff-dies ; 2. Of fome theo¬
retic fciences; and, 3. Of many dodtt ines which have for their
objed his minilk-ri-al office. The firft are,
1. The languages; and among thefe,
(•a) His-native language, in which he is to preach and
exercife his min.ftry, and with which he ought to
be perfediy acquainted.
(3) The Latin language, which is the language of the
learned world in general.
(c) The Greek language, in order to underftand the
NewTeftamept.
{d) The Hebrew language, of which the Talmudiaa
and Rabbinical idioms are a part.
(<?) The Arabic language.
(/) The Syriac language.
5|4 * RELIGION, oi
(g) The French language. And
. (6) The Erigl>(h language. The two latter of which
now appear neceffary to every man of letters, and
particularly to a theologian, on account of the ex¬
cellent works which are wrote in thofe languages.
2. The principal parts of Philofophy; as,
Lo^ic.
\b) Metaphyfics.
(c) Moral philofophy.
Rhetoric and eloquence, or the art of fpeaking cor-
redfly, of writing with elegance, and of perfuafion.
To which may be added,
4. The elements of Chronology, and Univerfa! Hidory.
y The dudy of the Jewtlh an.iquities.
He who would devote himfelf to the important employ¬
ment of a theologian, and has the noble ambition to excel
in it, fhould early imprefs on his mind thefe truths : that
the years which are palled at an univerli.y art few; that they
run rapidly away; that they are entirely engroifed by the
theoretic fciences; and that he who does not carry- with him
to the univerfity a fund of knowledgein the prepa' atory parts
of learning, commonly brings very little'away, when his
age or his parents oblige him to quit it.
VII. The theoretic fciences of a theologian are,
1. The Dogmatic, or the theory of theology, which fome
Latin authors name alfo thetica, or fy/tematica.
2. The Exegefis,, or the fcienceof attaining the truefenfe
of the holy fcriptures.
3. The Hermeneutic, or the art of interpreting and ex¬
plaining the fcriptures toothers. This differs in general
but little from the exeggfis, and in fome relpeSs is
quite the fame.
4. Polemic theology, or controverfy.
5. Natural theology.
4 Moral theology.
7. Sacred criticifm.
8. The hidory of the Church, under the Old and New
Tedaments.
* VIII. The pradHcal fciences of a theologian are,
1. Pafloial theology, which is divided into,
(«) Homiletic.
(b) .Cathechetic.
(c) Cafuidic.
2. Confidorial theology, which comprehends
(</} The Canon law.
3. The prudential exercife of the different famdions of
the minidry.
We do not here particularly name the patrijl'ic theology,
■J(theol')gia patrum ftu patridica,) becaufe all,Chridian com¬
munions are not agreed in their opinions concerning the
-degree of authenticity and infallibility that is to be at¬
tributed to thefe ancients fathers of the church. The
Protedants believe, that thefe primitive theologians were
liable to error in their fentiments as well as thofe of
our days: and, in ail probability, that they were lefs
flti,lful, lefs learned, lefs clear, and lefs accudomed to
clofe reafoning, than the latter, as philofophy was then
more imperftdt. But as we find in the writings of thefe fa¬
rthers, many‘elucidations of the dordrine of the primitive a- '
podles, and many irrefragable tedimonies of the authentici¬
ty of divers remarkable events, which ferve to edabiidi the
truth of Chndianity; and as we there fee, moreover, the
...origin £>f errors, of arbitrary ceremonies, and of many doc-
. T II E O L O G Y.
trines that have been introduced into the Chridian church*
the reading and the dudy of thefe fathers cannot but be of
great utility to the theologian. To a virtuous citizen, who
unites fuch various fciences, and employs them in pointing
out to his fellow.citiz.-ns the path tnat leads to temporal
and eternal felicity., m a word, to a wife theologian, what ve¬
neration is not due
Of the Dogmatic.
^ I. Under the general term of dogmatic, we comprehend
,that part which the different writers on theology have call¬
ed fometimes theoretic, fometimes fydematic, and fome-
times.thetic theology, <bc. The term dogmatic appears to
us the mod general, and the mod jud, to exprefs the fub-
j-<a that we intend, as it comprehends an entire fyjlem of all
the dogmas or tenets that each religion profejj'es; whether
it teaeh thefe dogmas by the way of thefis, as articles of
faith; by public ledture; by catecbifing; or any other man¬
ner whatever.
II. Every pofitive religion mud, naturally, have a fydem
of certain points of doflrine to prop^le to its followers; o-
. therwife, each one would fer n a particular fydem according
to his own fancy there would be as many different relig uns
as there are individuals on fhe earth, and eachfociety would
conlid of aconfufed mafs of fantadic opinions; as the diffe¬
rent modes of thinking, and the different degrees of difeern-
ment. are varied and compounded by mankind to infinity;
but truth, on the contrary, is unifoim and invariable.'
HI. The Chridian religion is as compound in its dogmas,
das it is Ample in its moral principle. It includes, 1. The
dogmas founded on the lights of reafon: 2. Thofe drawn
from the Old Tedament, and the law of Mofes: 3. Thofe
taken from the New Tedament. and the dodrine of Jefus
Chnd : 4. Thofe that the fathers of the church have drawn
from the Holy Scriptures ; 5. Thofe that thejchurch, under
the New Tedament, has preferibed to Chridians, by oecu¬
menical and other councils affembled in different ages :
6. The dogmas that the popets, in quality of heads of the
church, have edablilhed by their bulls: and to thefe mull
be added, on the part of the protedants, 7. The dogmas
th-t the reformers, efpecially Luther and Calvin, haverau^ht:
S. The decifions of fynoc^s; and ladly, the tenets that are
maintained by the different feds, as Socinims, Anabaptids,
Quakers, <bc. Each of thefe particular religions or feds
pretend to fupport their dogmas both by reafon and revela¬
tion: we do not here offer a work of conn overly, and are
very far from attempting to determine on which fide truth
and reafen are to be found..
IV Our zeal, however, for the Chridian religion in ge¬
neral, which we regard as perfedly divine, and as the only
religion adapted to promote the bappinefs of mankind in this
world, and to fecure it in the nexl, and fhe defire we have
that it may endure to the end of time, compels us to make
in this place one important refiedion; which is. That (im-
plicity is ever an effential attribute of perfedi ;n, as complexi¬
ty is of imperfedion Now, it cannot be d-n ed, without
doing violence to truth, that amos;,; the different dogmas
of which we have beenfp.aking there are feveral that feem
to be founded on fpecuiations very abdrufe, on fubtilties
very intricate, and on interpretations very ambiguous. God
certainly never intended that all mrffk nd fhould be theolo¬
gians; he has not given them his diVfhe word to be th life
of difeord among men, nor that they fhould pals their >fe
lives
RELIGION, o
lives In a painful Tearch after ohjefts of belief, and articles
of faith-, and that they (hould forego, in that purfuit, the
neceffary offices of life, and their duties ss citizens. The
■dogmas, then, eflentially neceffary to the welfare of man¬
kind, ought to confift of'a fmail number, and to bear the
marks of fimplitity and perfpicuity; without which they mult
be imperfed, and confequently the work of man. Our in¬
tention, in making this remark, is, to extend our voice, if
it be poffible, even to poflerity, whom we wchld conjure
not to injure our religion, fo holy and fo admirable, by a
multiplicity of dogmas. It is neceffary, however, that the
divine, who makes it his lludy and his profeffion,. {hould be
thoroughly acquainted with the theory of this fcience, in
order that he may be able to inftrud the fincere Chriflian,
and to explain the nature of each particular dogma, as well
as the folidity of its proofs ; and to this it is that the ftudy
of the dogmatic leads ; of which we Ihall now continue the
ahalyfis.'
V. The dogmatic is then nothing but a fuccintt expofttion
of all the dogmas of the Chriflian religion, in a natural and
philofophical order. By the word philofophic, we do not
here precifely mean the method of mathematicians, in the
manner the late M. Wolff has applied it to philofopby; e-
very fpbjed is not capable of a demonftration fo exad and
rigid; but a regular order is required in the arrangement of
the general fyfiem, and a connection is to be preferred in
the feveral matters that form it: the definitions Ihould be
juft; the divifions exaCt ; the arguments folid ; the proofs
clear; the citations conclufive; the examples ftriking; and,
in a word, every thing fhould be adduced that appertains to
fo important a dilcipline.
It is very effential, moreover, in the dogmatic, at the
beginnmg of each thefis, to explain the feveral terms that
are peculiar to it, and that ufe has eftablifhed in treating of
theology ; to draw from each definition certain axioms, and
from thence to form propofitions, and to illuftrate them by
folid reafoning. Laftly, w'e Ihould not negleCl, in fuch a
fyftem, to make ufe of the expreffions ufed in the fymbolic
books that have been received by the whole Chriftian church,
and which cannot be rejected or altered, without caufing a
confufion in our ideas, and in the general fyftem of the
Chriftian religion. But before we nioke the leaft advance
in the ftudy of Chrifttan theology, it is indifpenfably necef-
fary to examine the proofs by which the truth, the authen¬
ticity, and the divinity of the facred and canonical books are
eftablilhed ; for this is the foundation of all the dogmas
and the axis on which its whole doCtrine turns.
VI. , The fyftematic part of the Chriftian religion, among
the great number of its dogmas or thefes, has three prin¬
cipal, from which all the reft are derived, and which form
the bafis of its whole doCtrine :
1. The exiftence of one God in three perfons.
2. The neceffity of a Mediator or Redeemer.
3. The real appearance of the Mediator or Meffiah on
the earth.
Whoever writes, profeffes, or teaches the dogmatic,
fhould be, above all things, careful well to eftablifh thefe
important truths ; to evince them by the ftrongeft and moft
• evident proofs,. drawn partly from the lights of reafon,
snd partly from revelation : and he will then fee, with what
facility all other thefes flow from, and how: eafy it will be
lo prove them by, thefe.
VoL.m N^pi. 2
X T H E O L O G Y. * 535
VII. The infinite variety that is fbuncT among mankind
in their manner of thinking, and in their method of treating
fubjefts ; the frequent changes that Irave happened in the
exterior form of philofophy, and in the method of treating
it; the oppofitions that have been raifed at all. times a-
gainft divers do&rines of the Chriftian religion; ail thefe
have produced,’ among theologians, different fyftems of the
dogmatic. Sometimes they have combined pefitive theolo¬
gy with morality, and have formed a fyftem that they call
theologia theoretico-pradlica, or theohgia thelico-moralis.
See.: iometimes they have refuted the arguments that others
oppofe to certain thefes; and from theijce h is arofe a fyftem
that they call theologia thetico, or dogmatico, or pojhivo-
polemica : fometimes they have joined to natural theology,
that of revelation ; and have formed a dogmatic, called
philofophico-theologica : and fo of the reft. But, befides
that tbefe diftindions and denominations are in themfelves
pedantic, it'is at all times more eligible, in every fcience,
to avoid confounding with each other the feveral branches
of which it confiits. The different dogm.s,- morality, phi¬
lofophy, and controverfy, are feparate articles ; and when
each of thefe parts of theology are feparately treated, they
are difpofed with more order in the mind, and a greater
light is diffufed over their feveral fubjeds.
VIII. It appears, moreover, from the fimple enumeration
that we have made, in the third fedion of the diftVrent
principles oh which the dogmas of the Chriftian religion are
founded, that, to be thoroughly Acquainted with its whole
theory, the theologian {hould alfo apply himfelf to the ftudy
of the fymbolic books of its communion, and efpecialiy
fhould be well verfed in the Creed of .the Apoflles ; that of
Nice and St Atbanafius ; the book called Formula Concor¬
dia: ; the Thefes of the council of Trent ; the Catechifvts of
Lather ; the Confeffion of Augfbourg ; the Articles of
Smalcalden ; the Catechifm of Heidelberg, &c. That he
fhould be well acquainted with that part of Theology that
is called patrifica : that is to fay, that he fhonld be well
read in the fathers of the church ; that he fhould not be ig¬
norant even of fcholafic theology; that he fhould at leaft
know the frivolous fubtilities and the complicated method
of the ancient fcholaftic divines, which was derived fioni
the philofophy of Ariftotle and the fchools ; that he fhouid
make a ferious ftudy of the facred hiftory of all eges; the
councils and fynods ; that he fhould, aboye all, never
lofe fight of natural theology ; and, laftly, that it is in¬
difpenfably neceffary that he {hould procure a good biblio-
theque or treatife of ecclefiaftical writers *, which he may
confuit occafionally, and learn from thence to know the but
guides. The more a theologian applies himfelf to a!i thefe
fubjeds, the more ability he will acquire in this fcience,
and the more perfect he will be in the theory of that reli¬
gion which it is his duty to teach to others.
IX. Revealed religion being founded (at leaft in great
part^on natural religion, and philofophy being the fource
from whence the principles and the knowledge of the latter
arc derived, it is evident that philofophy is intimately c
tiqfied with theology : neverthelefs, the aid of the .onntt ss
to be employed with precaution, and is not to be lega ded
as the foundation of the theological dogmas, but only as a
mean by which they may be explained and enforced. The
Holy Scriptures conftitute, perpetually, the true bafis of re'-
vealed theology : philofophy effeflually concurs, however,
6 T to
# Thofe of Du Pin and William Cave are moft celebrated.
536 RELIGION,
to p'-ove the exigence and tlie attributes of the Supreme
Being • the neceffity oT the creation of the'-univerfe by Al-
mighty God, in oppofition to every other poiTible manner
of its being produced : it furnifhes, moreover, ptaufible
conjetStureS’Concerning the intention of.the Almighty in crea¬
ting this'wor/d it proves the neceffityof a perpetual power
to. preferve it ; it fuppofes, that, as God could not produce
any thing that was not perfeft in its kind, he could not have
created man as he now is ; it vindicates the conduA of the
Supreme Being, in appointingchaftifemenrs for tranfgreffiens.,
by ihewmg that moral evil was not introduced into the
world by abfolute neceflity, but by the abufe of liberty, the
moit noble prerogative of the human foul ; it determines the
pecefiyy of" a Mediator ; it furnifhes arguments for the be¬
lief of the immortality of the foul, and of a future ftate that
has a relation to the moral aAions of this life ; and laltly,
it infpires a love of God as a Being of fovereign perfeftion,
u gratitude towards him as our creator and preferver, and
a fubmiffion to his will as our fupreme ruler and dire&or,
motives of all others the mod powerfully conducive to a
virtuous condudt.
X It is this nfe which theology makes of philofophy,
that has given occafion to divide the thefes of the dogmatic
imo pure and mixed ; that is, into thefes'that are founded
entirely upon revelation; and, fuch as arife from an union of
reaibn with revelation. Of the .firft fort are, i. The ar¬
ticle of the Holy Scripture itfelf; which treats of its divine
origin, its authority, and its efficacy. 2. The dogma of
the Trinity. 3. That of the origin of evil, or of original
fin. 4. The whole article of Jelus Chrift. 5 The dog¬
ma of the efficacy and operations of the Holy Ghoft. 6.
That of the facraments 7. That of repentance. 8. That
of the belief in Jefus Chrifl. 9. That of good and bad an¬
gels. 10. That of the end of the world, and the lalt judge¬
ment. 11. That of the church, &c. The mixed dogmas
or thefes are, 1. The doAritie of a Supreme Being, in ge-
reral ; his being, his attributes, and his works. 2. That
'of the creation. 3. That of providence, or the conferva-
tion of the world. 4. Of fin, as a tranfgreffion of the laws
of God. 5. Of rewards and puniffiments after death,
He that attentively (todies, thoroughly comprehends, and
v/eil digefts all thefe thefes, will have reafon to reft content
with his knowledge of the dogmatic.
Of the Exegesis and the Hermeneutic.
I. The \.zxm Exegefu \s derived from the Greek verb
txe'gonstai, which fignifies xa relate or explain •, and
that of Hermeneutic from erme'neuein, which ipeans to
fearch into, and, in a figurative ienfe, thoroughly to examine,
and interpret. The learned, but efpecially the theologians,
make ufe of thefe words, fometimes as fynonyma, to ex-
prefs the fame thing, and fometimes (as there’are fcarce any
terms that are perfectly fynonymous) to denote a fmall dif¬
ference between t.wo parts of learning of the fame nature.
By the word Exegefis they*mean, that fcience •vehich teaches
clearly to invtftigate the true fenfe of the original text of
■ the holy feriptures ; and by the Hermeneutic, the art
of interpreting and explaining the holy, feriptures to 0-
trer< This dlflinAion is fo fubtle, that it becomes al-
moii frivolous. They are, in faA, the fame fcience ; the
one is only an explication of the other, and for that reafon
or THEOLOGY
we think we are authorifed to treat of them together in
this place.
II. In order tv the true underflanding of the facred text
of a!! the books contained in the Holy Bible, whether of
the Old or New TeftSment, if is abfolutely neceffiiry that
the theologian be thoroughly acquainted, not only with the
languages in which thefe books were originally wrote,
but likewife with the hi/lory and antiquities of thofe re¬
mote times in which their authors lived. With regard to
refearghes into the hiftory of the Jewiffi nation, their anti¬
quities, thsir morals, and their cufloms, it will be found ad¬
vantageous to purfue it as far as the nature of the fubjeA .
will admit, without, Jioweyer, engaging in critical fubtle-
ties, that lead to a labyrinth to which there is no end,
and have fpread more clouds over, theology than even the
fcholaffic controverfies have formerly ddne.
Ill tie w ho would fuccefsfully interpret any work what¬
ever, ffiould firft confider the fpirit in which it is wrote: he
fhould attentively reflcAon the general defign of that work,
and the particular motives that induced,the author to un¬
dertake it; his genius, his paffions, his tafte ; the time, the
place, and the people for whom if w'as writtert. Thefe
confiderations are, above alj, neceflary, when we would un¬
dertake the explication of the Holy Scrip:ures. Independent
of thofe refledtions which the theologian will of himlelf na¬
turally make on the fubjeA; the excellent commentaries
which we have on the Bible, in which the greateff men of
every age have exercifed their genius, may ferve him as a
guide in this courfe. The critical hiftories will likewife
afford great aid, and throw admirable lights on this matter.
Clear ideas, an acute difeernment, and a folid judgment,
will complete the woik.
IV. With regard to the languages neceflafy for under-
(landing the facred texf, the Hebrew language hold the firft:
place. The ftudent fhould have early recourfe to the man~
ner of accenting, and the of the Jews : to thefe
he may add, with advantage, the reading of the Jewifh in¬
terpreters orThere are the grammars and dic¬
tionaries, Rabbinic and Talmudie, of Buxtorff, Cellarius,
and others, which greatly facilitate his ftudy. The Tal¬
mud it is true is fluffed with a thoufand fables and ridicu-
Jokis (lories; it contains, notwithftanding, fome things ufeful
and curious, which the learned theologian ffiould not entire,
ly pafs over. For the well underfBnding of the explica¬
tions and applications of the belt Rabbins, he ffiould likewife
have recourfe to their Cabbala, which they divide into real
and liberal.
V. The Majforet is a kind of critic on the Hebrew text,
that the ancient Jewiffi do&ors invented, in order to prevent
any alteration, They there count the verfes, the words, and
the letters of the text, and have marked all their diverfities.-
The text of the facred books was formerly wrote in clofe
continuation, without any diftin&ion of chapters, verfes, or
even words, after the manner of the ancients, as we ftill fee
in many manuferipts. As the facred books have under¬
gone an infinity of changes, which form various readings;
and as the true original has been either loft or altered; the
Jews have had recourle to this rule, which they have judged-
infallible, and which they call the Maffora, to fix the read-'
ding of the Hebrew text.
VI. The ancient Rabbins, or DoAors of the Jewiffi law,
hava-
*- The Exegefis is a kind of rational grammar. The Hermeneutic is the art of interpreting- entire paffages.
RELIGION,
liavs wrote many fuperflitious traditions, which they obferve
as fcrup'uloufly as the law of Mofes ; and have alio iviade ma¬
ny commentaries on the facred text, among which there
are fome that are good and ufeful. ’Fhe language they ufe
is different from the common Hebrew, as is alio the Rab¬
binic character.
VH. The Th/tHK.'/is a -book in which the J^ws have,
compnfed every thing that concerns^the explication of their
law, and the duties that are enjoined them by fcripture,
by tradition, or by authority of t,heir dodtors; by their par¬
ticular cuftoms, their civil government,< their dodtrine, their
ceremonies, their moral theology, the decifions of cafes of
confcience, <bc. The Talmud is compofed,' in general, of
two parts; which are called, the Mifcbna, and the Gemara.
The Jews would not at tirft commit thefe things to writing,;
but after the deftruftion of Jerufalem, finding themfelves
difperfed in the world, they became obliged to do it. They
had two celebrated fchools, one at Babylon, and the other
at Jerufalem; at thefe fchools were made two different col-
ledhons of traditions, each of which is called the Talmud.
The commentary, called Gemarar contains the decifions of
the Jewiih dodfors, and their explications of the text ; it
is filled with abfurdities, reveries, and ignorance, and written
in a vulgar Ityle. On the contraiy, the text, ihatis called
Mif hna, confifts offolid reafoning, ^written in a pure ftyle.
The Rabbin Mofes, fon of iMaismon, has made an abridge¬
ment of it, which is of more value than‘even the Talmud it-
felf.
VIII The Cabbala or Kabala (a Hebrew word, which
properly fignifies tradition) contains the different interpreta¬
tions of the laws of God by different Rabbins; their deci-
Cons on the obligations that they impofe, and the manner of
performing them. There are fome of them that ate occult
and myflerious, and confift in Angular and myltic fignifica.-
tions which are given to a word, or even to each of the
letters that comgofeit; and from thefe various combinations,
they draw explications of the feriptare very different from
that which it feems naturally to import. This Cabbala is
divided into three kinds-: the firdthey call Gematria, and
conGds in taking the letters for the numbers of arithmeth k,
and explaining each word by the arithmetick value of the
numbers (hat compote it: the teepad is called Notaricon,
and confids in taking each letter for a word, or in compo
ling a word of the fird letters of teveral words : the third is
called Themura, and cpnfids in changing a word, and the
letters of which it iseompoted.
IX. The Chaldee teems- to be indifpendble, after
the«dudy of the Hebrew and Rabbinic ; this is pro
perly no more than a particular dialed of the Hebrew lan¬
guage. The Jews give to, their commentaries, and, to. the
Chaldaic paraphrate on the Scripture, the title of Targuniy
As, during their long captivity in Babylon, they had forgot
the Hebrew, and only retained the Chaldean language, it
became neceffary to explain the prophets in that language,;
and to, this-.neoedity is owing the fird commencement ot the
Chaldean paraphrate, The Rabbins have since cplleded to¬
gether thete divers interpretations of ,their dpdors, which
form the paraphrate that is called Targum.
X. The other oriental languages,, as the Arabic, the Sy
riac, the Sama: dan, and the Copnc, are'alfo of great ufe
to the learned theologian
XI AU'the books of-the New Tedament being wrote in
Greek, the Itudy of that language becomes' necedkry to the
THEOLOGY. 537
theologian. But it mud not be imagined, that this Greek,
is that pf Athens or Lacedemon; and that they whounder-
dand the New Tedament, will fully comprehend Homer,
Anacreon, or Thucidydes. It is very necedary to obterve,
here, that during the Bibylonidi captivity, the jews, as
we have jud faid, having, forgot the Hebrew, and having
adopted, *in procefs of time, teveral idioms, the Greek lan¬
guage was at lad fucpelsfully diffuted over aimod all the Cad;,
and, at the tirpe of the coming of Jefus Chrilt upon the
earth,, that language was in ute in Paiedine, not only among
men of letters, but in the poljte world : every thing was
wrote, everything was treated of, in Geek. The Jew^sna
longer underdoood the Holy Scriptures in the Hebrew lan¬
guage, but made.ute of the veriion that the-Septuagint had.
made of the Old Tedament in the Greek language. The e-
vangelids and the apodles, therefore, wrote their hidoric
relations, as well as their epidles or letters in the fame
language : but their dyle is not pure, being drewed with
hebraifms and barbariims, and with theological terms and
phrates. The four evangelidsdiffer, moreover, among then>
felves, with regard to their dyle; and 1° do the apodlesr
St Matthew is not fo elegant as St John ; nor St Jude fo
elegant as St Paul, who was a man of letters,, and an able
writer. The disdion of St Luke is the mod elegant, and
mod corretd, efpecially in his book of the adts of the apodles.
XII. The tranflations that have been made of the facred
books in the wed, will alfo very frequently affid in clearing
up many paffages.
XIH- The Jewilh antiquities are naturally1 connedted
with the dudy of the facred hidory of the Old Tedament.
Jofepbus is the bed author who has wrote on this fubjtdt.
Joi n Marjbatn, VoJJhu, L * ins, Gyraldus, &j. are the
moderns to-whom we are indebted for learned a-etearches in-
thete maters. Hermannus IVilJius, in his treatite de JE-
gyptiacis, has thrown admirable lights on the Egyptian an¬
tiquities. The antiquities of the Chaldeans, Babylonians,
Petfians and Medes, has been excellently well explained
by Barnab <s Brijfon. in his book de regno rege Perfarum;
and by Thom at Hyde, in his treatite de religione et facrH
Perfarum The writings of Meurfius. zn&yhzQignpcndium f
Antiquhatutn Gracaruvi of John Potter, are'very ufeful
to give theologians an idea of what they will find neceffary
to know ofthe Grecian antiquities ; and iadly, the abridge¬
ment of Cantel will make them diffidently acquainted with
the Latin antiquities.
XIV. • Spencerhxs, given an excellent work on the cere¬
monies of the Jewiffi religion, de Legibus Hebmorum rH
tualibus, &c. We have Tikewite works that fully treat of
their temples, their facrihces, their ptieds and Levites, their
paffoyer and punm, of their tithes, their vedments and fa-
cted habits and of their manners and cudoms ; but it would
be too prolix to mention all thefe in this place. ,
XV. The modern commentaries on the Holy Scriptures-
may. alfo ferve to iiidrudt the young. theologian; but he
fhould ute them with caution and moderation. All that
glitters is not gold, as well in this indance as in others ; and
a man of learning ffiould not often make ute of other peo¬
ples eyes.
XVI. The Bibles called P-olygloU arc aifo of great af-
fidance in interpreting the facred text. Tlmy are printed,
in fever;d languages The fird is that of cardinal Ximenet,
printed in the year 1515, and called the Bible of Com-
plate \ it contains the Hebrew text, the Chaldean ->ara-
533 . RELIGION, or THEOLOGY.
phrafe, the Greek verfion of the Septuagint, and the an¬
cient Latin edition. The fecond is that which is ealltd
thz Royal Bible, printed at Antwerp in 1572. The third,
that of le Jay, printed at Paris in 1645. The fourth is
the Englrjh polyglot, printed at London it 1657, which
Walton is the editor. There are (till feveral more that
have been printed fince, but they arg neither fo complete
nor fo celebrated as the former.
XVII. The Bibles that are called Biblia Glsffaljt, are
ilfo here of very great ufe. The facred text is there eve¬
ry where accompanied with explanations and obfervations.
There are of thefe in each of the three principal communions
of the Oiriltian Religion, and in molt of the modern langua¬
ges of Europe. Laltly, as the interpretation of the fa-
cred text depends in a great meafure on the lights and the
proofs drawn by comparing together different paffages of
fcripture, there are leveral Bibles where the editors have
placed, on the fide of each verfe of the text, what they
c&\\ xhz-CoKcordance, that is. a citation of other p-i'allel
paffages, which are found difperfed in the Old and New
Teftament. Thefe Concordances are of daily and indif-
penfable ufe to the divine, in compofing his fermons, and
in many parts ofhis miniflry. See Bible.
XVIII. Thefe parallelifms are yet different from that
which theologians call the real parallelifm ; by which they
mean, the relation that the typical or parabolic fenfe of a
pa(fage has with what the exprefions literally imply, or feetri
to itnply ; the myjlic fenfe with the real fenfe ; the figures
and the images that the facred authors have employed,
with the things or the ohjefts that they intended to deferibe.
The greateft theologians have taken infinite pains in deter¬
mining thefe points, explaining them, and producing their
proofs : in many places they have fucceeded; and we can¬
not but admire their fagacity, their zeal, and their fuccefs •
it muff be acknowledged, however, that they have not yet
cleared up all the obfeurities that there are many dark paf¬
fages ftiii remaining in the-prophets, in the Song of Songs’,
in the book, of Job, and above aH in the Apocalypfe ; on
which have been hitherto thrown mere glimmerings, which,
are very Lf. from affording a fufficient light. The explica¬
tions that have been attempted of thefe paffages are fre¬
quently fd'unfuft, fo unnatural, and improbable, and at the
fame time fo futile, that they rebel againft common fenfe,•
and only give us occafion to deplore the imbecillity of the
human underflanding.
XIX. The laft labour of him who would become ac¬
quainted with the Hermeneutic,- is in what is called Leflio
Acroamatica ; by means'of which, each book of the Holy
Scripture is examined from one end to the other, with rela¬
tion to geography ancient and modern', genealogy, chrono¬
logy, hiftory, and antiquities from whence a rational fy-
ftem is formed, according to the rules of found logic. This
work is attended with fo many difficulties and diffraftions,
that it is almoft impoffible to accomplifh it, without the af-
fiftance of a guide, an able profeffor, and a complete acade¬
mical courfe.
XX. Furnifhed with thefe ideas, the theologian may
venture to inveftigate the true fenfe of thofe paffages of Holy
Scripture that may appear to him obfeure, comradidtory,
or difficult, and to Interpret them, to others: but he will
be mare wife, and lefs vain, than to attempt to impofe his
decifions on mankind, at all times, as authentic and infal-
j;ble. The human difeernment is ever confined and imper*.
fed; and God has not granted to any nrar./ to any theologian,
or affimbly of-divines, -an exclusive power of imei preting his
divine word-: he has moreover denounced his anathema a-
gainff all thole v.l.o (hall add, or take away, a tingle word
thereof. But to explore the true fenfe of any pafiage, and
to explain it to others, cannot certainly be deemed either ad¬
ding or retrenching.
Of Sacred-Criticism.
I. As the'authors and profeflbrs, who treat of the diffe¬
rent parts of theology, make frequent mention of the facred
criticifm, we mult not omit to ffiew in what manner it is
connected with"theTixegefis and the Hermeneutic, and in
»what reiped it forms a feparate dod. ine or fcience.' Criti¬
cifm, in general, is in fad no more than a fuperior part of
grammar; a kind of rational grammar founded on refledion,
and ttie rules of language ; but which employs the aid of
divers other fciences, as hiftory, chronology, antiquities,
isc. iti order to fe'arch out and determine the true fenle of an
obfeure or ambiguous paffage. - The facred c iticifm is only
diftinguiffied by its objed; it adopts the fame rules, but it
adds others which take their rife and principles from the pe¬
culiar language of the New Teftament; and has regard to
the Bible in general, an account of the nature, effence, -and
qualities of its divine Author, So far it has an intimate
connedion with the Exegefis
II. But, if we would conlider it as a feparate ftudy, we
may fay, that it is a fcience which is employed in examining
the exterior circumftances of the Holy Scripture. Forex-
ample: in what time each book was wrote; who was its
author; the precifion and fidelity of the text; the diftinc-
fion between the canonical books and the apocryphal; and
many other matters of like nature. In order (till the better
to ffiow in what manner, and with how much precaution, the
facred critifm proceeds in its operations, we ffiall here re¬
cite fome of thoTe fubjeds that belong-to its province.
III. It is commonly received, that it was Efdras who, af¬
ter the return from the captivity of Babylpn, colleded and
fixed Uie canon of the facred books of the Old Teftament.
This-at leaft is the opinion of the Jews, who all attribute
to him that glorious work ; and the affertion appears fo much
the more probable, as it was the lame Efdras who reftabliffi-
ed their ftate, who brought $ie whole Jewifti people into
one body as a nation, and formed the Judaic republic, which
was fo intimately conneded with their religion. The col-
leding of the canon of the books of the New Teftament
is attnbhted, wrh great.appearance of probability, to St
John'; although hilloric and formal teftimonies of it cannot
be produced, unlefs it be what Eufebius relates of the
four Evangelifts. In proctls of time,, each council has
decided w hat books ffiould thereafter be held by the Cbri-
ftian churqh as canonical ; and we commonly find, at the
end of the decrees of each council, a repertory or lift of
thofe books. N
IV. The Old TefLment was wrote in Hebrew, except
a fmall number of paffages where the dialed is Chaldean.
The form of the letters or charnders, as we now have them,
are alfo properly Chaldean ; whereas, before the Babyioniffi
capiivity, the Samaritan charader was probably ufed. Bux-
torff and Capell have had warm difputes upon the fubjed
of the vowel-points: the former would retain thefe points, and
the latter rtjeds them; each of them has had his adherents.
As it is impoffible to decide in this difpute but by hiftoric
proofs]
R E L I G I O N, or T H E O L O G Y. 539
proofs ; and as thefe are not to be had, either for one fide
or the other; it is beft to leave the affair undecided : not
totally, rejtiling the points, however; as they are of infinite
ufe in the itudy of the Hebrew language. They who love
to introduce novelties into religion, (fay the partifans of
Buxtorff,) would doubBefs be charmed to fee the points to-
totally abolilhed, becaufe they then could make whatever
they pleafed of the facred text, The adherents of Capell
maintain, on the contrary, that by the ignorance or inad¬
vertence of copyills, tbefe points may have been tranfpofed
formerly, or may be ealily confounded and wrong placed
hereafter; which may occafion the moll dangerous errors ;
may give rife to contrary meanings, and whimfical explica¬
tions of the fcripture ; whereas, by not admitting the points,
an able theologian will preferve, at lead, the liberty of ex¬
plaining a paffage according to analogy, and the rules of
good fenfe.
V. The accents have given rile to full as many difputes.
But this quellion is not decidable but by the fame method as
the preceding: for we clearly fee, by all the ancient ma-
Bufcripts, that even the Greeks and Romans have wrote
without accents, but that both one and the other make ufe
of vowels. In poetical .works efpecially, it is alraoft im-
poffible to omit them; and that language being now dead,
without accents we can find no cadence, no meafure.
Father Montfaucon afferts, with great appearance of proba¬
bility, that accentuation was not introduced till the feventh
century
VI. The language ofthe New Teftament is the Greek ;
for all that is faid of the gofpel 6fSt Matthew being wrote
in Hebrew, and of that of St Mark being originally compo-
fed in Latin, is but weakly fupported. The ftyle, as we
have already remarked, Js not pure, whatever fome zealots
may improperly, and without reafon, affert to the contrary.
The language of the New Teftament abounds with hebraifms.
VII. The precifion the truth, and correction of the
text, is the refult of repeated and judicious comparifons df
the variations ; of which there are, according to Dr Mill,
more than twenty thoufand Thefe variations have pro¬
ceeded, partly from the negligence of thecopyifts, and part¬
ly from the ignorance of the revifors and correctors of the
ancient manufcripts, who have frequently added and inclo-
fed the comments, which weye wrote in the margin, with
the text. The heretics of thefirft ages, and the impoftors,
have alfo made divers alterations in the text itfelf, in order
to fupport their errors ; and thefe alterations have flid into
other copies It is the common rule to follow the moft an¬
cient manufcripts; as it is uppofed, with reafon, that they
are the moft correCt : and to thefe are alfo added the moft
ancient verfion?.
VI! I The firft of thefe verfions is that of the Septua-
int, which has been at all times highly efteemed, as well
y the Jews as the Chriftians. The Hebrew language be¬
ing loft by the Jews during the captivity in Babylon, and
the Grek dialed becoming the common language of theeaft,
that verfion was made in Egypt by public anthority, and for
thg ufe of the common people. The fecond is th*at called
the Vulgate, which was formed from the tranfladon of St
Jerome, and from another that was called Verfio antiqua.
After thefe two tranflations come the Greek verfions, among
which are reckoned, i. That oi Jquila, who has tranflated
the original Hebrew verbatim, by putting over each word
of*the Hebrew text, its correfponding Greek term. 2.
Vox.. III. N°. 91, 2
That of Symmachus, who^ applied himfelf to write the
Greek with purity and elegance. 3. That of Thecdotion,
who has very clofely followed the text, notwithltanding the
fine language he employs. Origen publifhed thefe verfions
in fix languages in his edition of the Old Teftament, which
he calls Hexupla. To all thefe verfions may be added,
4. Thofe of Jericho and Nicopolh, which are much cele¬
brated. We have hot now any one of thefe verfions entire.
The fragments that remain of them have been colleded and
publilhed by Dru/tus and F. Montfaucon. Laftly, The
Syriac verjions, of which one was made on the Hebrew
text and the other on the Greek.
IX. The facred criticifm is likewife employed in acqui¬
ring a knowledge of the principal and moft celebrated manu¬
fcripts, as well of the facred text itfelf, as of the tranfla¬
tions ; in learning to difcern the hand-writing, and the ef-
fential chara&eriflics which diftinguiih the real original from
the counterfeits: and laftly, it is employed in knowing the
beft modern editions of the Holy Bible ; as for example,
the Polyglots, among which thofe of London, of the years
1653 and are the beft. The introduflion by Wal¬
ton, which is at the beginning of thefe editions, is a model
and a mafterpicce of facred criticifm.
Of Moral Theology.
I. If it were allowable to compare the Saviourof the world
to a weak mortal, we would fay, that the condudt of Jefus
Chrift refembled that of Socrates, who has left us no part
of his dodtrine in writing, but whofe whole inftrudlions (as
well as the particulars of his life) have been colledted,' dx-
gefted, and publilhed, by his difciples. The Evangelifts
are the only hiftorians of the Mefliah : it is to their labours
that we owe the knowledge of his adtions upon earth, and
his divine dodlrine. The four Evangelifts, and the Adis of
the Apoftles wrote by St. Luke, contain therefore alone
the hiftory of the life of Jefus Chrift, and the dodtrine that
he taught. His apoftles and difciples began by paraphra-
fing his dodtrine, as well by their evangelic fermons, as in
the epiftles they addreffed to the faithful of feveral Chriftian
Churches: they have given explications, and have added
paftoral inftrudtions, which are in effedl admirable ; but
which, neverthelefs, form not the original text of the dif-
courfes of our Saviour. The bilhops of the apoftolic cen¬
tury, the fathers of the church in all fucceeding centuries,
the other bilhops and ecclefiaftics, the councils, the fynods,
the dodtors of theology, the popes, the confiftories, the re¬
formers likewife, and an infinity of theologians, have drawn
from the Gofpel, and fometimes alfo from the letters of the
apoftles, and from other commentaries on.the Gofpel, va¬
rious tenets ; which, ufeited, form at this day the general
fyftem of the Chriftian Religion.- The theologians who
devote themfelves to the fervice of the altar, ftud.y this fy¬
ftem in the dogmatic: the laity learn it by means of cate-
chifms ; and after they have/made confeffion of their faith,
folemnly adopt it, when they are^-received-into the bofom of
the church.
II. It is .not the fame with regard to the morality of Je-
lus Chrift, which every one may read in the Gofpel ; and
to know which, it is not neceffary to become learned, nor
to ftudy a complicated fyftem. If the dogmatic were nbt
armed with a thoufand arguments to eftablifti the Divinity
of Jefus Chrift, yet would the morality of his Gofpel_fuf-
ficiently prove it; feeing that it is perfedtly holy, entirely
6 U diiEpl.sk
54°
RELIGION, or THEOLOGY.
fimpie, ftridtly juft, and moft-completely adapted to promote
the felicity of the human race in this world, and in that
v/hich is to come. The Saviour of the world has not en¬
joined any part of mankind to engage in difputes, or abftraft
refinements : the foie command that he has given them is,
to believe in bit Gofpel; and that is compnled in one word
only, Love : the grand and only principle on which the
whole of his facred dodtrine is founded.
III. To produce the greateft effefts poflible, by the leall:
efforts, is the higheft perfection <in nature, and at the fame
time the true charaaeriltic of Divinity. God has given to
all the beings that compofe the u'niverfe, one fimple prin¬
ciple alone, by which the whole, and every part, is con¬
nected and perpetually fupported ; and that is Love. The
attraction of die celeftial bodies, as well as of thofe of which
our globe is formed, is a fpecies of love; a mutual ten¬
dency toward each other. The uniform generation, by
which ajl beings are perpetuated, is founded in love. This
is the true minimum., the leaft attian, which
includes fomething fo divine. It appears to be the will of
God to eftablilh, by the mouth of. the Meffiah, the fame
fimple principle in morality, that is, in the rule of human
actions, by faying, Love : in a word, it was his will, that
in the conduft of mankind, as in every other part of nature,
there fhould be no other principle than that of Love.
IV. That in the different fyftems of ethics of the an¬
cient Heathen Philofophers many maxims and precepts of
admirable morality are to be found, cannot be denied ; but,
befide that thefe philofophers arealmofi continually contra¬
dicting each other in their maxims, no one of their fyftems
is founded on the true principle. In fearching after it, fhey
have difcovered fome excellent truths ; but it has been by
chance, and they are at belt imperfect. Jefus Chrift has
alone taught mankind perfeCt morals, by deducing them from
this true principle. Every principle ihould be fimple : the
ide of a compound principle implies at once an imperfection.
Every principle fhould be comprebenfive, even univerfal in
its effects. Every principle, whofe effeCts are limited, is
imperfeCt. God himfelf is uniform in his principle, and in¬
finite in his effeCts. . His doCtrine, or his law, fhould be the
fame. Jefus Chrift has made known to mankind this prin¬
ciple, fimple and univerfal. He has therefore been, in this
fenfe alfo, the true Saviour of the world. He has preached
to mank'nd ; and his only doCtrine has been that of love.
V. By the word Love, with regard to Bodies in general,
is meant a tendency, a mutual inclination that urges them
to join and to coalkfce ; and with regard to men in parti¬
cular, a lively, affeCting pleafure, that poffefTes the mind on
contemplating the perfections of any objeCt, This pleafure
is always accompanied with a delire, either to poffefs that
objeCt, or to render it propitious. By adopting therefore
this principle, and this laft definition of Love, it follows,
that all the duties of man confift,
•i In the love of God in preference to all other objeCts.
2. In the love of himfelf.
g. In the love of his own fpecies.
4. In the love of every other Creature to a certain degree.
The doCtrines of Jefus Chrift are, in tbefe refpeCts, the
moft explicit.
VI. From this principle flows our duty towards God, to¬
wards ourfelves, our neighbour, and to thofe beings that are
febjeCt to our power. The firft rule is, to communicate to
all thofe, whom it is our duty to love, all the good, and to
preferve them from all the evil in our power. The feeond,
to do to no one what we would not have done to ourfelves
in fimilar circumftances. The third, which is the fimple
effect of love, is to endeavour to pleafe the'objeCt that we
ought to love. The fourth, to endeavour to render the
pleafures that we communicate to others, as lively as pofli-
ble, and thofe inevitable evils, which we are fometimes con-
ftrained to do to them, as fupportable as we can ; and fo
of the reft. The whole evangelic doCtrine of our Saviour
is replete, from beginning to end, with admirable precepts
for thefe purpofes ; and thefe precepts, with their applica¬
tions, general and particular, we learn from that fcienge
which we call Mor§l Theology.
VII. This doCtrine we diftinguilh from moral philofophy,
or the'fimple doCtrine of Ethics ; becaufe Jefus Chrift has
made known, in his divine morality, a far greater degree of
perfection than is difcoverable by the mere light of human
reafon. For the renouncing of feif-intereft, and private
pleafure ; the forgivenefs of offences ; the love of his ene¬
mies ; the triumph over ddtruCtive jpaffions ; and many o-
ther like virtues, the Chriftian is alone indebted to the doc¬
trine of Jefus Chrift.
VIII. In order to fhew, moreover, in a few words, of
how eafy, juft, and natural an application all thefe precepts
are fufceptible, we ftiali here give a few inftances. “ It is
our duty to love God.” Now nothing is more natural than
to feel a lively and penetrating pleafure in the contemplation
of the united perfections of the Supreme Being; nothing
more natural than a defire to pleafe him, and to render him
propitious to us : and as it is ndt poflible for us, weak crea¬
tures, to do him either good or evil, ail our power to pleafe
him confifts in offering him an upright heart; a rational de¬
votion ; to be poffeffed with gratitude toward him, and to
exert all potfible, efforts to accomplilh the end of our crea¬
tion. “ It is our duty to love all mankind and yet we in¬
flict pains and chaftifments on fome of them ; we even put
them to death: but we chaftife them only to render them
better, to prevent them from becoming pernicious to fociety
in general: we retrench the number of the living, as we
cut off a corrupted branch of a tree, in whofe prefervation
we are interefted: it is becaufc we love mankind, that we
endeavour to prevent the deftru&ion of the good by the ma¬
lignity of the wicked : but it muft ever be an indifpenfible
neceflity alone that can compel us to chaftifement. “ It is our
duty, likewife, to feel a kind of love for other creatures,
oven for mere animals.” -Neverthelefs we harrafs, we oppofe,
we deftroy them. If we harrafs them wantonly, to fiapport
a criminal luxury, or to fatisfy a brutal pleafure ; if we
purfue a favage chace, or encourage combats between ani¬
mals themfelves, or other like horrible diverfions, we aft
contrary both to the fpirit and the letter of the Gofpel.
But if we deftroy a part of thefe animals, to ferve as an in¬
difpenfible nourilhment to man, obferving at the fame time
to put them to the leal! mifery poflible, and taking all ne-
ceffary care for the prefervation of the fpecies, we aft in
conformity to the laws of nature and of morality; we em¬
ploy to our own prefervation, and to that of the reft'of man¬
kind, what appears deftined to that purpofe by the Creator.
IX. Moral theology likewife differs from philofophy, in-
afmuch as it requires that our virtues be abfolutely difin-
terefted : it enjoins us to fly the evil, and to purfue the good,
merely as our duty towards God ; it admits indeed the pre¬
cept of the love of ourfelves, and the love of ourneighoouf';
bu^-
RELIGION, oi
but it regards this iove only as a duty that refuits from our
towards God ; and that from the principle, That God
multlove all his creatures as the work of his hands ; and
that we cannot therefore,'from the very nature of love,
pleafe him, without entertaining fentiments of affe&ion to¬
wards thoje to whom the Sovereign Lord of the Univgrfe
vouchfafes his benign regard. Now, as the ChrilHan mo¬
rality does not regard virtue, but as it is a duty towards
God; and as it confiders all our a&ions, that have any o-
ther motive, either as blameable, or atdeaft imperfeft, and
as but Jittle acceptable to the Supreme Being ; it does not
regard the advantages that refult from them to fociety, but
as ufeful confequences of the true Chriftian virtue; and
from this principle it draws new arguments for the encou-
raging.of mankind to the praflice of it.
X. From what has been faid, a fecond difference arifes
between ChrHHanity and philofophy. The firft adds to the
fecond ftill new motives to the praftice of virtue. That of
redemption, and pardon, obtained by Jefus Chrift, is not
one of the leaft. Its argument is this: If God has fo loved
mankind, as to afford them the means by which the evil,
caufed by their own fault, may be abolilhed, it would be
the greateft of all ingratitude and malice towards himlelf,
if man fhould not endeavour to acknowledge this love, to
merit it, and to embrace the means of pleafing God. A
third motive, taken alfo from the merit of Jefus Chrift, here
offers itfelf as an auxiliary to the two former: According to
the Chriftian dd&rine, man has not by nature the power to
pradtife all thofe virtues whicji are agreeable to God: but
the fame dodlrine teaches, on the other hand, the condi-'
tions by which it is pollible to pleafe that moft holy and per-
fedt Being; and gives the Chriftian hope alfo, that he fhall
never labour in vain.
XI Laftly, the Chriftian morality is of far greater effi¬
cacy in adverfity, than philofophy: it carries with it a won¬
derful confolation in misfortune, and even in .the hour of
death ; for the Chriftian may fay, with the Apoftle, that
gedlinefs (or the pradtice of evangelic morals) is in all
things profitable, having the promife of the prefent life,
and that which is to come,
(^/'Polemic Theology, or Controversy.
I We cannot fufficiently lament, that the church of the
God of peace ftiould be a church militant’, and that a doc¬
trine fo firaple aud clear as that of the Gofpel flhould be
the caufe of difcord, even among Chriftians themfelves.
Neverthelefs, as the truth is fo difficult to difcover in all
things, and efpecially in matters of religion; as it is fo fre¬
quently covered with the clouds of intertft and ambition;
as the fame objedt appears fo different to different men; and
as error, in the face of the world, conftantiy affumes the
malk of truth; it is but juft that the true religion be furnifti-
ed with arms to combat error, and to pluck off that deceit¬
ful mafk by which fo many poor mortals are feduced,
II. The theologian, who has made the proper prepara¬
tory ftudies, who is thoroughly inftrudfed in, natprai religion,
in the dogmatic and the hermeneutic, and who joins to thefe
found logic, is already well prepared for this fpiritual com¬
bat : he is armed, but he is ftill to learn how to ufe thefe
x arms : be muft, aifo be made acquainted with the enemies
he js to encoCtnter, to know their force, and the arts they
wilj ufe againft him. It ts plain enough,, we fuppofe, that we
here fpeak of fpiritual arms; of thofe with, which we are
THEOLOGY. 541
furnifned by reafon and the Holy Scripture : evil be to him
that employs any other : force is ever an infallible proof of
the want of argument. The propagation of a religion by
the fvyord, after the manner of Mahomet; perfecutions, ei¬
ther fecret or open ; conftraint, violence, every fort of re¬
ligious war, is fo atrocious, fo contrary to'the fpirit of the
Gofpel, in a word, fo deteftable, that every true Chriftian
muft avert his fight from iuch inlamous horrors. »
III. Controverfy is condudted, either from the pulpit or
chair, by way of harrangue, by converfation, or by writing..
The firft quality that is neceffary to a dilputant is reafon,
and the next moderation ; in what manner foever the con-
teft is conduced, thefe two qualities ffiould conftantiy be
manifeft, during the whole courfe of altercation.
IV. There are fome errors that attack the fyflem of re¬
ligion, and there are others that attack even its morality.
In order properly to oppofe an errory we muft begin by
finding out its real meaning: we muft therefpre ftudy the
different fyftems of other religions, and the principal here-
fies, if we would fuccefsfully refute them. We don’t meaq
by this, that the theologian ffiould know all the errors that
fpring up in the brain of each individual; we fpeak only of
thofe that are prefeffed by whole fefts.
V. They who attack1 our religion, found their opinions,
either on the interpretation of the facred text, or on phi¬
lofophy, or hiftory ; and we ffiould always oppose them
with the fame arms with which they pretend to defeat us»
It is neceffary to begin by diverting ourfelves of all preju¬
dice, in order the better to fhew others thofe prejudices by
which they are deluded. We ftiould never make ufe, but
efpecially when we oppofe weak minds, of opprobrious terms
in the courfe of the debate, nor contend about words or
exprellions, nor attack incidental circunlftances that may at¬
tend erroneous principles ; but bend pur whole force againfl:
the root of the tree,- the principal error; to uncover it, to
dig it up, to deftroy it.
VI Polemic theology is taught in uniyerfities by two
methods, according to the views of the ftudent. If he learn
it merely in order hereafter to defend his pariffiioners againft:
the moft prevalent errors, he is only to examine the prin¬
cipal controverfies according to the fyftematic order of the¬
ology : and may content himfelf with knowing their true
meaning, together with the arguments of thofe that oppofe
them But if it be his intention to teach this fcjence to o-
thers, or to engage in controverfy, either by converfation;
or writing ; in fhort, if he afpire to renown in it, he ffiould,
ftudy the origin and hiftory of each controverfy, he ftiould
make himfelf a complete mafter of the arguments for and
againft; it, the exceptions that it makes, its interefts, its
different revolutions and atftual ftate, fac. Thefe follow,,
in this ftudy., either the order eftabliffied in the dogmatic,
or that which is ufed in fymbolic books, that is, fuch as
treat on articles of faith.
VII. In order the better to elucidate the method to be
obferved in this fort of ftudy, we ftall fay, that to acquire
a complete knowledge of theological difputes, the ftudent
Thould, x. Make the examen of each religion, and even of
each controverfy. 2. He ffiould thoroughly examine his
fyftem in the fymbolic books, and likewife the fotirces of
his religion. 3..He ffiould precifely determine the princi¬
pal and capital error of each religion, fe<ft, or individual ;;
that which is the fource from whence ail the other errors-
flow. 4. Search into the political caufes of each error, andi
eadu
542 RELIGION, or
^each controverfy, from hlfiofry, 5. Examine the natural
order aecording to which all the errors have taken their rife,
the one from the other : and laftly, 6. Confront the refpec-
tive arguments, the anfwers, and exceptions, that each
party has made to defend its caufe. To all this is to be
-added, 7. What they call Collegium difputatorium; an ex-
ercife, by which all that is learned in the clofet and in the
fahools is called forth and,animated, under the infpedtion
, of a profeflor ; and the mind is accuftomed to think, and
the tongue to fpeak, with facility and efficacy.
VIII. The principal conteftsin which the theologian may
be engaged, are, i, Again!! thofe who admit of no reveal¬
ed religion; as the atheift and deift. 2. Again!! thofe who
admit of a revealed religion, but adopt not the true Revela¬
tion; as. the Heathens, the Mahometans, <&c. 3. Again!!
thofe who believe only a part of the true Revelation ; as the
Jews. 4, Again!! thofe who add to the true Revelation
matter foreign to it ; as traditions, fee. 5. Again!! thofe
who make a falfe interpretation of the facred text, and draw
from it erroneous fyftems; as the heretics and the fchifma-
tics, fee. And laftly, 6. Again!! thofe who make a wrong
ufe of certain expreffions of Revelation, and build, on
whimfical notions, ridiculous fyftems; as the Fanatics, Qua¬
kers, fee.
IX. According to this divifion, the theologian will have
to combat principally with,
1. The Atheifts, with Spinofa at their head.
2. The Deifts.
3. The Heathens and Idolaters.
4. The Mahometans.
5. The modern Jews.
6. The Arians and Manicheans, or rather thofe who
in thefe days follow their ancient errors.
7. The Socinians.
8. The Catholics, oppofed to the Proteftants.
9. The Proteftants, oppofed to the Catholics.
10. The Molinifts, oppofed to the Janfenifts.
11. The Janfenifts, oppofed to the Molinifts.
12. The Reformed, oppofed to the Lutherans.
13. The Lutherans, oppofed to the Reformed.
14. The Arminians.
15. The Anabaptifts.
16. The Weigelians.
17. The Quakers or Tremblers.
18. The Fanatics, at the head of whom is Jacob
Rohm.
19. The pretended new Prophets.
20. The Indifferents.
21. The Pietifts.
22. The Moravian Brethren, or the Herenhuters,
fee.
X. Now, as each of the religions, communions, or here-
fies above mentioned, have not fcrupled to publifti to the
world their dogmas and creeds, the theologian ought care¬
fully to inftrudt himfelf in thofe fymbolic books, in which
each of them have comprifed its fyftem ; to ftudy and to
make a good analyfis of them ; and to prepare fuch argu¬
ments as are the moft juft, the moft weighty, and proper
to confute them.
XI. Before we quit this fubjedt, there is one remark to
be made, or rather one caution that is very effential, which
we would offer to the young theologian ; which is, that the
-polemic is ufeful, and even neceffary" in the ftudy of theo-
THEOLOGY.
logy in general ; but that it is a difeipline which ought to
be treated with great prudence and moderation. Difpu-
tation in general is a dangerous art ; and religious difputa-
tion is a deceitful art, and of infinite peril. The ftudent
will do right well to remember, that there is no fed!, no
communion on earth, that is perfedily true in all its dogmas
without exception ; that there are fdme fmall errors in all
religions ; that infallibility never was, nor ever will be, the
portion of humanity. He ffiould likewife remember, that
the mafters who teach him, or the books that he reads, are
conftanrly partial to the religion they profefs: and that when
he has fupported a thefts, and confuted his adverfaries in a
collegial difpute (where his adverfaries, as well as his pre¬
ceptors, are of the fame fide of the queftion, and will not
fail ro adjudge him the vidtory,) he fhould be perfuaded,
that the vidtory would not have been fo eafily obtained had
he contended with able adverfaries of the oppofite religion:
he fhould remember, that we triumph without glory when
we combat without danger ; and let him not be vain of his
laurels, nor imagine himfelf forae wonderful fcholar ; fee¬
ing that it is very poffible, that he may go off vidtorious
from fuch a difpute, that he may receive vaft applaufe from
his proteffors and his colleagues, and at the fame time have
reafoned like'a dolt. *
XII On the other hand, the moft able theologians, and
the mqft confummate profeffors in this fcience, ought to be
conftantly on their guard again!! the abufe of polemic theo¬
logy ; which frequently ferves le!s to clear and confirm the
truth of the dogmas of a communion, than to ellablifh per¬
petual difeord and hatred among Chriftians. Every theo¬
logian fhould alfo remember, that by the nature of the fub¬
jedt, it is not poflible to produce demonfiration in fupport of
his thefes and opinions ; but that his arguments will be on¬
ly valid, and preponderate in proportion to their degree of
evidence ; and laftly, that it is a ridiculous and infufferable
vanity to imagine, that every man, who does not think pre-
cifely as we do, is guilty of palpable error.
Pastoral Theology.
I. Having deferibedthe theoretic feiences of theology,
we now come to thofe which regard the pradtice. It would
be to bury the talents that God has given him, and the
ftudies that he has made, if the theologian did not employ
them to the edification of his neighbour, and the profperity
of the Church. His office in fociety is attended with con-
ftant and anxious labours. He is charged with the cure of
fouls, with the inftrudhon of youth, with preaching of the
Gofpel, the condudt of his flock, and the adminiftratton of
the Sacraments, with vifitations to the fick and the dying,
with calming the terrors of weak minds, with adminiftmg
comforts to affiidted fouls, and many other fundtions equally
difficult and important. The pradtical feiences that we (hall
here deferibe, will ferve him as guides in this unbounded
field.
II. Paftoral theology is ufually divided into three parts;
which are,
1. Homilitic Theology.
2. Catechetic Theology.
3. Cafuiftic Theology.
To which are added*
4. The Confiftorial Prudence.
5. The prudential Exercife of the different fundlions of
the miniftry.
As
RELIGION,
As the homily makes a part of eloquence, it is unnecef-
fary to fay any thing of it in this place, but treat the others
in their order.
III. It is in vain that a fon of the church poffefles all the
fciences that belong to bis profeffion, that he is an agree¬
able and even a renowned preacher, if he do hot give a life,,
an efficacious fpirit, to his miniflry, by a good example; for
that is the firft precept in paftoral theology. He is at the
head of a flock, and ought to be their guide: but how ab-
furd, if his words and his a&ions be at continual variance
with each other! How fcandalous, if he be not the firft to
praftife thefe leffons of wifdom that he preaches! How in¬
decent, if, while he edifies by his difcourfes, he difgufts by
his morals! What bafenefs, if, he fhould eyen glory in his.
irregularities! It is lefs fhameful for a foldier to relate that
he has tamely fuffered an affront, than for an ecclefiaftic to
boaftof his debaucheries! Both the one and the other is a
difgrace to his profeflion.
IV But this exemplary condudl fhould be free from all
affedtation in the external behaviour. A Angularity of drefs,
and an air of aufierity; the head declined, the eyps turned
up to heaven, the hands conftantly clafped, a plaintive
tone of voice, and a folemn gait; a fcrupulofity in things,
indifferent, and a dogmatic and clerical manner of deciding
in the common affairs of life; a ridiculous inclination to dif-
cover iniquity in innocent adions; to confound pleafure with
vice, .and to be an enemy to joy, the-greateft boon that
God has beftowed op man ; and a hundred other like fop¬
peries there are, with which the religious make a parade,
that is (hocking both to good fenfe and the evangelic mora¬
lity, and which render their miniftry, in the eyes of fenfible
people, more contemptible than refpe&able. Thefe are
rocks on which the young theologian is much too liable to
run, and of which he cannot be fufficiently cautioned.
V. After this candid caution, and brief introdudion, we
pafs to the examen of the differrent parts, the union of
which compofes the fyftem of the paftoral, the moft im¬
portant article perhaps, in all theology The defign of Re¬
velation was, without doubt, to condud man by faith to a
virtuous life. It is not the opinions or the learning of weak
mortals'that can determine their intrinfic merit; it is their
wifdom, their regularity of condud, that muff ftamp their
value. Experience (hews, that a man ef great genius and
learning may be alfo a great villain; one who is unable to
•pleafe God, or his neighbour : the virtuous Chriftian, on
the contrary, muft be agreeable to both; it follows there¬
fore, that the pradical part of theology, which leads man¬
kind to a virtuous condud, is of all its parts the molt im¬
portant.
Cat ec he tic Theology.
I. By Catechetic Theology is meant. The art of teaching
youth, and ignorant perfons, the principal points of the E-
vangelicaj Do firing, as •well with regard to belief as prac¬
tice. This application of the theoretic fciences of theolo¬
gy ought to be conduded in the moftfimple manner poffible.
It is not every one who is pofleffed of the talent of proper¬
ly ccpnpofing and delivering cateehetic inftrudions , and it is
an art that is very neceffary in the Chriftian church.
II. The greateft difficulty confifts in feparating the arti¬
cles of faith that are abfolutely effential and indefpenfable
to the falvation of mankind, from thofe that are fubtle and
Speculative, more liable to contradidion, and lefs neceflary
Vol, III, No 91. 2
OR T H E 0 L O G Y. 543
to fuch as do not make theology jheir profeilion. However,
as children do not always remain children, and as the church :
is compofed of perfons of both fexes, and of all ages, it is
neceffary, that, in the explanations of the catecbifm, there ?
fhould be employed different degrees of fitopjicity, propor¬
tioned to the age'and capacity of thofe that are to be inftruc-
ted. It is expedient for young people to retain in' their
minds the firft principles of relfgmn, fuch as are contained
in good catechifms; and that they be explained to them in
particular ledures ; which is the moft ufual and moft natural
method of enabling youth to give an’account of their faith.
The fermons that are given in the catholic churches on
controverfy, and in proteftant churches on the catechifm,
ferve to inltrud thofe who are of riper years and have their
judgment more formed. Thefe fermons compofe, at the
fame time, a fort ofcourfe of the dograaticcand the polemic
theology.
Ill Both in private catechifing, and in fermons that are
purpofely intended to explain the catechifm, the theologian
fhould avoid, as much as poffibie, the ufe of technical
terms ; or (which is ftill better) he ought to begin by ex¬
plaining thofe terms, of which he fhould give fuch clear and
determinate definitions, that no perfon of a moderate capa¬
city can pofiibly miftake them. In a word, he fhould endea¬
vour more to prove than to perfuade; and as eloquence
fometimes perfuades at the expebce of truth, he fhould
cautiouily avoid that, fort of delufive perfuafion, and in its
room fubffitute clear and folid argument.
IV. The catechumen fhould not only fie inftru&ed in the
tenets of his own religion, and the foundations on which
they are built, but alfo in the dogmasof other religions, and ,
the proofs that are brought to maintain them : for a fubtle,
deceitful and fpecious book may fall into his hands, or he
may be drawn into a difpute with an able adverfary. It is
neceffary, therefore, that he be provided with arms offen-
five and defenfive, that he may be able fuccefsfully to de¬
fend himfelf; and, if it may be, to convert his antagoniff,
and by that mean promote the glory of truth and of religion.
It is the part, therefore, of his preceptor, to teach him
faithfully the principal tenets of other religions, and the
arguments that are brought to defend them.
Of Casuistic Theology.
I. Happily for man, and for fociety, ali are not fo ob-
ftinate, or fo infenfible, as to afk, what fort of animal con-
fcienCe is, or never to know what is remorfe. Happily, the
greateft part of mankind are fenfible, that all their aftionis
are not conformable to the la'vs 'of divine wifdom, nor to
the rules of natural equity ; are afflidled at their pail con-
dudt, and find a generous and earneft defire arife-in their
fouls to avoid for the future thofe dangerous rocks. To
calm the troubled mind; toappeafe ^he timorous confcience;
to communicate the confolations of grace to the aifiidfed
foul ; to explain and decide in doubtful cafes; to direft
thofe that err, and to fupport their weaknefs ; to convince
fuch asperfift in their errors ; to pierce the hardened heart;
to intimidate the wicked, and to roufe the indolent; to
conduct the Chnftians, committed to the care of their paftor,
in the way that leads to true felicity ; are the important
objedts of cafuiftic theology, and for which it -affords the
proper inftrunions.
II. In a more' confined fenfe, by cafuiftic theology is
meant, the fcience that decides in doubtful cafes of moral
6 X theology',
544 RELIGION,
theology, and tint calms the fcruples of confcience which
anfe in the Chrilfian’s foul daring his fojourn in this world.
III. The Itudies relative to thefe objedts, which the
theologian is fuppofed to have made, and the confidence
that the comm *i rank of Chrifiians place in their pallors,
affordkhem the means and the opportunities of rendering
figna! fervice to thofe of their fellow citizens who have
need of their counfel and confolation : for where there is
one man of a phiiofophic fpirit, one Chriftian of a well-
grounded knowledge in theology, there are in a fociety a
thoufand that are not, and who are^yet defirous of being
inftrudted, guided, comforted, ellablilhed. It is therefore
bbth jull and important, that he who devotes himfelf to
the fervice of the altar, fliould early ftudy all thofe fciences
that will enable him worthily to perform this important part
.of his miniltry.
IV. God forbid, however, tha.t we Ihould countenance the
abufe that is made, in fome Chrillian countries, of thedu-
ties that we have here explained. To reduce thefe matters
into a political fyftem ; to make the direction of confidences
a profeffion, a regular trade ; to provide each houfe with a
fpiritual dire&or, as with a butcher or baker, a fteward or
porter, who by that mean may infinuate himfeif into the
confidence of families, and become the depofitory of all their
Jecrets; may fometimes fow difcord between hufband and
wife, or the nearell relations ; who may avail himfelf of the
confidence of his devotees, to dired them conllantly in mat¬
ters of a worldly, and fometimes even of a criminal nature ;
to efface the legitimate and facred authority of the father of
a family, and, in its place, to fubflitute a foreign power;
to undermine the confidence, the union and concord of fa¬
milies, in order to confirm and render neceffary this fecon-
dary authority ; to captivate the fpirit, and oft-times the
heart of a wife or daughter, and in general of weak minds;
to enjoin them ridiculous mummeries that lead to fanaticifm,
and a thoufand dangerous fuperflitions, or to religious ex-
ercifes that divert them from their domeftic duties; in a
word, to affume an abfolute authority over the confciences
of mankind, is a pernicious invention, contrary to the.evan¬
gelic moral, to the welfare of fociety, to the imerefl of the
ftate, and to the fovereign authority ; and well deferves an
exemplary pQnifhment.
V. But the cure of fouls, faithfully intended, and proper¬
ly limited, differs totally from this defpotic power. He,
who is charged with it by a lawfufivocation, fhould remem¬
ber that there are four clafles of men with whom he will be
engaged: i. With thofe of weak minds ; of little know¬
ledge, and little ability. 2. With thofe whofe fptrits are
afflufted by fome gre$t reverfe of fortune. 3. With thofe
of nice and timorous confciences, who fuffer by their feru-
ples, whether they be vain or rational. 4. And laltly, the
wicked, the hardened and incorrigible finner. The grpnd
art heie conftfts in reprefenting to each of thefe claffes of
men, the truth, in a manner fo clear, fo flrong and full, that
they can no longer.retain any doubts, that convidhon muft
take place, and confolation or converfion be the confequence.
VI. Truth is in its nature highly problematic: each
one, however, is perluaded that he knows it, that he pof-
fefles it, and is guided by it ; every man thinks himfelf in
the right. We fhould therefore begin by difeovering the
truth in the fubjedt before us, and in placing it upon a fo-
lid foundation. This bufinefs of demonflrating the truth
to others, is attended in the mean time with infinite diifi-
or THEOLOGY.
culty. Every mind is not capable of difeovering it at the
firft glance; nor can all difeern it from the fame point of
view. Sometimes men require convidtion by abflradt or
philofophical arguments, and fometimes by the exptefs de.
ciftons of the Holy Scripture. Sometimes by authority
fometimes by gentle remonflrance, and fometimes by dread,
ful menaces. Sometimes they are to be reclaimed by pro.
perly expofing the necefiary and fatal confequences that re-
fult from their condudt; and at others, by the alluring pro-
mifes of the Gofpel. Now vice is to be boldly confronted;
and now the tranfgreflbr is to be condudled into the right
path by artful turnings : now the finner’s crimes are to be
painted in the ftrongeft colours ; and now a veil is to be
Jjghtly cad over them ; and fometimes we fhould even in¬
dulge a favourite inclination, in order to induce them to a-
bandon a more pernicious pafliun : and fo of the reft.
VII. As it is impoffiole that the books which have been
wrote on this fubjedt, though of an immenfe quantity, can
contain every cale that dailjr occurs in the minidry of the
Gofpel; and as thefe cafes are not always judly decided’by
thefe authors ; and, if they wete, "the confulting of fuch
enormous works would take up too much of a theologian’s
time, and divert him from his other ftudies ; and as thefe
cafuidic writers contain, moreover, a .number of puerile
fubtilties, and wretched chimeras ; it is highly proper that
the minider of the altar, whom~we fuppofeto haveamader-
ly knowledge of the principles, the dogmas, and moral of
the Chridian religion, fhould endeavour to draw from the
true fottree the means that he is to employ on each occur¬
rence, and not have recourfe to books for their decifions.
For which purpofe it is neceflary, 1. That heaccuftom him¬
felf to reafon according to the rules of found logic. 2. That
he learn to know the human heart, under its different dif-
guifes ; the characters of men, their arts, and ruling paffiens.
3. That he do not attempt to gain or convince by little
pious frauds, or by lucky fophifms artfully reprefented.
4. That he do not inflict what are called penances, which
are the height of abfurdity. 5. That he do not enjoin
mummeries, pilgrimages, auderities, and a thoufand like
matters, which can never carry with them a real conviction,
and only ferve to'divert men from their labours and the
duties of foctety. But, 6. That he condantly prefent, as we
have before faid, and cannot too often repeat, the truth, in
all its native force and purity.
VIII. This truth, however, is no enemy to facred elo¬
quence; on the contrary, the latter ferves to introduce the
former into the mind of the auditor, and there to give it
fuch drong impreflxons, as neither time, the diflipations of
the world, nor the diftraCtions of fortune, are able eafily to.
efface. The whole miniderial function confids in teaching,
preaching, adminidering the facraments of the church, vi-
fiting the fick and the dying, comforting the aflhCled, and
affording the fpiritual aids to ail thofe who have need of.
them. Eloquence is of the greateft efficacy in all thefe
functions ; and, without affeCting it, the minider of the go¬
fpel ffiould never negleCt it. There are fome profeffors in
univerfities who give their auditors a-complete fyftematic
courfe on padoral theology, which may be attended with
many advantages.
CoNSlSTORIAL PRUDENCE, ijr GENERAL Oe.CONOMY
of Mi? C H U R C H .
I. Among the practical fcjences of theology, we muff
RELIGION, c
riot pats over in filence that which is called the Confiftorial
or Eccldiaftic Prudence ; whofe objedt is the exterior order
or arrangement of the Chrittian church, on principles found¬
ed on the Holy Scriptures ; and which are proper, not only
to maintain religion in.its purity and fplendor, but to defend
it againlt ail fchifms, d ffenfions and feparations whatever.
This (Economy is neceflary in the councils, the fynods, the
confiftories, and in the faculties of theology. We mufl:
not, however, confound this with the ecelefiaftic jurifpru-
dence, which is the fcience of interpreting and applying the
laws, inflituted by the fovereign, relative to the perfons,
goods, and affairs of the church ; whereas the objedt of
confiftorial prudence is the arrangement of the church itfelf,
and the ecclefiaftic flate, on Chriftian and rational maxims.
The-one is a fort of legiflation in itfelf; and the other, on
the contrary, an application of the civil laws.
II. The theological prudence includes therefore, firft,
the whole plah of church-goveroment, and the arrangement
of the ecclefiaftic ftate ; iecondiy, the ordinances relative to
exterior ceremonies, and divine worfhip ; and laftly, the
difcipline of the church', the errors, the fchifms, the here-
fies, afid diffenfions that arife among Chriftians. The fource
of this prudence is a thorough knowledge of the effence of
the Chriftian religion, and the method of drawing from it
juft confequences.
III. This difcipline is likewife employed in deciding,
Wherein confifts the difference between -the clergy and the
laity; or if there be, in fadt, any real difference between
them.: if the church form a diftindt ftate in the general fy.
ftem of government; and to whom belongs the right of de¬
ciding circa facra; and what are the limits of the fpfritual
and temporal powers in this refpedt: wherein confifts the
hierarchy of the church,, and what are its rights and privi¬
leges : to whom appertains the nomination of a pneit, or
other ecclefiaftic, according to the divine ordinance: to
whom is committed the fight of preaching in public, of ad-
miniftering the facraments, and of exercifing the excommu-
nicative power of expelling, or again admitting, jny parti¬
cular Chriftian, or even a whole country, into the pale of
the church : the bans and interdidts ; the exercife of facred
or theologic ftudies; the fchools, the feminarics, the uni-
verfities and academies, the claffes, the convents ; and fo of
the reft : all fubjedts vigoroufly attacked and obitinately de¬
fended.
IV. The confiftorial prudence examines likewife the lie
turgies, the ceremonies and religious cuftom*; the brevia
ries, the rituals, the canticles, and other books of devotion
adopted by the church; the formularies, the fujedls of dif¬
cipline, &c. &c. the creeds, the cdnfeffions of faith, the ca-
techifms, and many other like matters; and laftly, the
doubts and objedts of controverfyr that occafion the holding
of fynods and councils ; the queftion, if the Pope be.aboye
the councils, or the councils above the Pope; the pradHce
ef elenchtic theology, or the public clenchy ; the feparar
tion and reunion of the church, which the Syncretifts and
Irenians difpute; the divorces more or lefs allowable; ma¬
trimonial, and confiftorial matters, &c. &e.
V. All thefe fubjedts, and an infinity of others, which
arife from, or have an immediate connedtion with thefe,
require to be thoroughly confidered, reduced into a regular
fyfiem, explained and fixed on folid principles, and con¬
firmed by juft and pertinent examples. From all this re-
fuits what is. called Ecclefiaftic Pruffence, This fcience has
r THEOLOGY. 545
not yet been reduced into a fyftem or formal difcipline,
and that principally becaufe it has been conftantly confound¬
ed with the ecclefiaftic law : but that in reality differs as
much from this, as political prudence differs from the com¬
mon law.
Of Theologic Prudence in /^Different Func¬
tions of the Ministry.
I. Independent of cafuiftical theology, and of the (Eco¬
nomy of the church in general, the theologian has, more¬
over, need of great fagacity in the particular exercife of his
miniftry ; and many able divines have reduced this fcience
into a fyftem, and have given general precepts, and parti¬
cular rules, for the condudt of the ininifter of the altar, in
the different circumftances that may arife in this part of his
duty. We fhall decline the particular explanation of thefe
different fyftems, as it would lead us into numberlefs mi-
nutite. Conrad Porta has wrote a work on the fubjedf, in-
titled Pajiorale Lutheri; Stoltzelinus, Korthoit, Philip
Hahn, Hartman, and many other theologians, have wrote
large volumes concerning it ; but, above all, the treatifeof
Dr. John Mayer, which is called Mufteum Minifri Ec-
clefitf, is to be confiilted on this matter. We the more rea¬
dily omit the names and titles of other works of this kind,
as we have prefenbed it to ourfelves as a law, 'to avoid, as
much as poffible, thefe forts of citations, feeing that the
number of new books that are continually appearing fre¬
quently fuperfede their predeceffors; and moreover, in this
part of theology, each Chriftian communion has its parti¬
cular authors, who treat it in conformity to the dogmas and
principles which that communion .adopts.
II. The humour of reducing every thing into fyftem, has
alfo taken place m this matter, which in fad appears to
have no occafion for any peculiar difcipline that could not
be included under fbme other part of theology. But as
this diltindion is already made, it is our bufinefs to explain
it, for the ufe of fuch as devote themfelves to the altar.
The prudential theology.is, for them and their miniftry,
what political prudence is for a man of the world in the
commerce of life; It is the art of attaining the end pro*
pofed: and as each condition in life has its particular pur-
fuits, the divines have alfo naturally theirs, and the pre¬
cepts of theologic prudence ferve to condud them to it.
III. But as the dogmas, the ceremonies, the rites and
objeds that the minifters of the different Chriftian commu-
nians propofe to themfelves, are by no means the fame,
each communion, each ied, does not follow, in this.refped,
the fame rules and precepts, nor even part o'f the lame prin¬
ciples. All that we can therefore do amidft this diverfity
of opinions, and contrariety of maxims, is to point out, in
a fe w words, the principal objeds that one or other of them
comprehend in this part qFtheir paftoral theology.
IV. The -Afcetic. Theology, lor inftance, treats of the
various particular exercifes of piety ; and the principles,
that it propofes with this regard,. ferve as guides to the mi-
nifter of the altar, in his recommendation of the pradice of
it, as well as in many parts of his eccleftaftic-duty. Falls,
pilgrimages, and many other matters-of the fame kind, be¬
long to the province of afcetic theology, and which we will
not abfoiutely rejed, becaufe we write for readers of all
forts of communions. Truth, however, obliges us • to re-
maik, that the afcetic theology of every communion is the
offspring of principles falfdy attributed to the Gofpel, and
belongt
54^ RELIGION, o
belongs ranch more properly to fuperftition than religion.
The monadic life, of which there is not the Itfaft trace to
be found in the Holy Scriptures, and which is fo contrary
to the wifdora and goodnefs of God ; the contemplative life
which is employed merely in theoretic and barren fpecula-
tions, and which rs a continual impediment to the preface
of the duties of a citizen, and of the, focial virtues; the
corporal chaftifements that the pious vtfionary inflicts on
himfelf, and a thoufand like abfurdities, are the fruits of
fanaticifm, and the effence of afcetic theology,
V. Under this head may be alfo included, confeilion and
abfolution, which are modern inventions, and of which there
is not the lead vedige to be found in the Gofpel, and which
Were unknown to Jefus Ch'rid and his apodles; unlefs we
would torture and difguife the text, and make a drange a-
bufe of words, and of phrafes the mod fimple : inventions,
in dvort, that are mote politic and lucrative thap divine.
Be that as it may, the alcetic theology prefcribes general
maxims relative to confeffipn and abfolution, and particular
precepts for the prieds of the confeflional.
VI The Paracletic Theology, on the contrary, is total¬
ly employed in preparing coniolations againft plagues and o-
ther public calamities and adverfities, and againd the mod
conftderable evils that befall individuals. It confiders, ex¬
amines, and diredts thefe confolations, and points out the
proper method of applying them. As it is the bufinefs of
afcetic theology to humble and intimidate the Chndian,
and to fubjedi him to all forts of pious and painful bodily
exercifes, fo it is that of paracletic theology to reanimate
his courage and his faith, and to adminider confolation to
his foul.
VII The five dodtrines of which we have here treated,
to wit, the Homilitic, Catechetic, and Cafuidic Theology,
and the Confidorial and Theologic Prudence in the ordinary
• exercile of the minidry, form therefore what is called, in
REM
REMEMBRANCE. See Memory.
REMEMBRANCERS, anciently called clerks of the re¬
membrance, certain officers in the exchequer, whereof
three are didinguiffied by the names of the king’s remem¬
brancer, the lord treafurer’s remembrancer, and the re¬
membrancer of the fird fruits. The king’s remembrancer
enters in his office all recognizances taken before the
barons for any of the king’s debts, for appearances or
.obferying of orders ; he alfo takes all bonds for the king’s
debts, &c. and makes out procedes theteon. He like-
wife iflues proceffes againd the colledtors of the cudoms,
excife, and others, for their accounts ; and informations
upon penal datutes are entered and fued in his office,
where all proceedings in matters upon Engliffi bills in the
exchequer-chamber remain. His duty further is to make
out the bills of compoiitions upon penal laws, to take the
ftatement of debts ; and into his office are delivered all
kinds of indentures and other evidences which concern
the aduring any lands to the crown. He, every year
in craflino animarum, reads in open court the datute for
eleidion of fheriffs; and likewife openly reads in court
the oatUs of all the officers, when they are admitted.
The lord treafurer’s remembrancer is charged to make
out procefs againd all fheriffs, efcheators, receivers, and
ibaiiiffs, for their accounts. He alfo makes out writs of
r THEOLOGY.
a collective fenfe, Pajloral Theology s a fcience on which
many authors, of all communions, have wrote vad treatifes;
in which complete courfes are made at univerfities, by the
faculties of theology; which is reduced into a regular fy-
dlm ; and which, in fact, forms not one of the lead parts
of that fcience which is neceffary to an able and faithful
theologian who undertakes the cure of fouls.
VIII. We think we have faid enough to give an idea of
thofe fciences that eompofe tfie general fydem of theology.
We are not ignorant, however, that there are theologies e-
dablifhed in the fchools, dill different in their genus and
fpecies : that they dilunguifh, for example, i. The The¬
ology of God, (Theologia Dei), 2. That of Jefus Chrid,
3, That of the Holy Ghod, 4 That of Angels, and 5.
That of Men : that they again fub-divide the Theology of
God, x. Into Theologia Dei naturalis, or ejfentialis, by
which is ffiewn, that God perceivesyfwa/ et femel, cnce
and for ever, all that is contained in his effence j and 2.
Theologia Dei ideal is or exemplar is, which confiders thofe
things that mult be revealed to mankind to work their fal-
vation : this lad artjcle is again^ divided into Archelypic
Theology, which teaches what comes, in this refped, im¬
mediately from God himfelf ; and Eftypic Theology, which
confiders the theologic notions that man, as the image of
God, is able to acquire by his own nature, that is, by the
ability he has received from the Supreme Being, to know
and adore him, and by the preaching of his divine word.
But we fhould never have done, were we to relate all the
didin&ions, divifions, and fubdivifions, <&c. that men, fond
of fydematic forms, have introduced into all the fciences :
divilions whofe whimfical denominations bufy and embarrafs
the mind that ought to be more ufefully employed in attend¬
ing to realities ; and which conftantly favour of that pedan¬
try which infinuates itfelf, more or lefs, into the ftudy of
every fcience.
REM
fieri facias, and extent for debts due to the king, either
in the pipe or with the auditors ; and procefs for all fuck
revenue as is due to the king on account of his tenures.
He takes the account of fheriffs ; and alfo keeps a record,
by which it appears whether the fheriffs or other account¬
ants pay their proffers due at Eafler and Michaelmas : and
at the fame time he makes a record, whereby the fheriffs
or other accountants keep their prefixed days : there are
likewife brought into his office all the accounts of cufto-
mers, comptrolers, and accountants, in order to make entry
thereof on record : alfo all eflreats and amercements are
Certified here, &c.
The remembrancer of the firft-fruits takes all compo-
fitions and bonds for the payment of firft-fruits and tenths;
and makes out procefs againtt fuch as do not pay the fame.
REMINISCENCE, that power of the human mind, where¬
by it recolledts itfelf, or calls again into its remembrance
fuch ideas or notions as it had really forgot; in which
it differs from memory, which is atreafuring up of things
in the mind, and keeping them there, without forgetting
them.
REMISSION, in phyfics, the abatement of the power or
efficacy of any quality.
Remission, inlaw, denotes the pardon of a crime,
or the giving up thepuniffiment due thereto.
REP ( 547 ) R E P
REMITTANCE, in commerce, the traffic or return of
money from one place to another, by bills of exchange,
orders, or the like.
REMONSTRANCE, an expoftuiation or humble fuppli-
cation, addrefled to a king, or other fuperior, befeeching
him to reflc& on the inconveniences, or ill conltquences
of fome order, or the like. This word is alfo ufed for
an expoftulatory counfel, or advice ; or a gemje and
handfome reproof*, made either in general, or particular,
to apprize or correct fome faolt, &c
REMORA, in ichthyology. See Echeneis.
ACTION of removing, in Scots law See Law, Tit.
xiii. i'6.
REMPLY, in heraldry, fomething filled up. The term
is chiefly uf.d to denote that the chief is quite filled up
with a fquare piece of another colour, leav.ng only a bor-
dure of the proper .colour of the chief aoout the laid
piece. See Plate CXLVII. fig, 8.
RENAL, fomething belonging to the reins or kidneys.
See Anatomy, p 268.
RENCOUNTER, in the military art, an engagement of
two little bodies or parties of forces ; in which fenfe it
Rands in oppofition to a pitched battle. See Battle.
RENCOUNTRE, or Rencontre, in heraldry, is ap¬
plied to animals when they Ihew the head in front, with
both eyes, &C. or when the face (lands right forward, as
if they came to meet the perfon before them.
RENDEZVOUS, a place appointed to meet in at a certain
day and hour.
RENEALMIA, in botany See Teleandsia.
RENEGATE, or Renegabo, a perfon who has apofla-
tized or renounced the Chnflian faith, to embrace fome
Other religion, particularly Mahometanifm.
RENFREW, a town of Scothnd, the captital of the coun¬
ty of Renfrew, fituated on he river Clyde, forty-fix
miles weft of Edi burgh.
RENIFORM fomethmg refembling the figure orftiape of
kidneys
RENITENCY. among philofophers, that force in folid
bodies, whereby shey refill tbeimpulfe of other bodies or
re-aft as much as they are afted on. See Mechanics.
RENNES, a city of France, capital of the province of Bri-
tany, fituated on the river VtUaine: W. long. iQ 45',
N lat. 48° 5'.
RENT, in law, a fum of money, or other confideration,
iffuing yearly out of lands or tenements.
RENVERSE', inverted, in heraldry, is when any
thing is fet with the bead downwasds, or contrary to its
natural way of {landing Thus a chevron renverfd is
a chevron with the point downwards . They ufe alfo the
fame term when a beaft is laid on its back.
RENUNCIATION, ;he aft of renouncing, abdicating, or
rel-nqutfhing any righ , real or pretended
Renunciation by an heir, in Scots law. See Adjudica¬
tion
-REPARTEE a ready fmart reply, efpecialiy in matters
of wit, humour, or raillery
REPEALING, in law, the revoking or annulling of a fta-
uue, or the like.
REPEAT, in mufick, a charatSer fhewing that what was
lad play? d or fung muff be repea'ed or gone over again.
REPELLENTS, in medicine, remedies which drive back
a morbid humour into the mafs of blood from which it
was unduly fecreted.
Vox.. III. N° 91. 2
The moft remarkable in the clafs of repellents are the
white of an egg, the lapis calaminaris, litharge of gum, red-
lead, tuny, pampholix, houfe-leek, putty, and cow web.
RE1 ETITION, the reiterating of an aftion.
Repetition, in rhetoric, a figure which gracefully and
emphatically repeats either the fame word, or the fame
fenfe in different words.
REPLETION, in medicine, a plenitude or plethora. See
Plethora
tf/g'/ro/REPLEDGING, in Scots law. SeeLcrtf’c/REGA-
LITY.
REPRESENTATION, inthedrama, the exhibition of a
theatrical piece, together with the feenes, machines, <bc.
See Composition.
REPRESENTATIVE, one who*perfonarcs orfuppHesthe
place of another, and is invefted with his right and at tho-
rity. Thus the houfe of commons are the reprefeuta-
tives of the people in parliament.
REPRIEVE in law, i fufpeeding or deferring the exe¬
cution of the law upon a priloner for a certain, tirpe ; or
a warrant - om the king for deferring the execution of a
peifon condemned.
REPRISALS a right vi'hich princes claim of taking from
their enemies any thing equivalent to what they unjuftly
detain from them.
REPROBATION, in theology, a decree by which God
is fuppofed, either from all eternity, or from the creation
of the world, to confign over to eternal mifery the greateft
part of mankind, and to fave none of the humao race,
except thofe whom hr made the heirs of glory by eleftiefl,
REPROBATOR, inScots law. See Law, Tit.xxxi 14.
REPRODUCTION, the aft whereby a thing is produced
anew, or grows a fecond time.
The reprodt ftion of feveral parts of lobfters, crabs,
&c. is one of the greateft cunofities in natural hiftory.
It feems, indeed, inconfiftent with the modernfyftem of ge¬
neration, which fuppofes the animal to be wholly formed
in the egg ; that, in lieu of an organical part of an animal
cut off, another (hould arife perfeftly like it : the faft,
however, is too well attefled to be denied. The kgs
of lobfters, &c. conlift each of five articulations; now
when any of the legs happen to break, by any accident,
as by walking, iyc. which frequently happens, the frac¬
ture is always found.to be at the future near t1 e fourth
articulation ; and what they thus lofe, is exactly repro¬
duced in fome time afterwards . that is, a part of the
leg (hoots out, confiding of four articulations, the firft
whereof has two claws, as before ; fo that the lefs is en¬
tirely repaired.
If the leg of a lobfter be ! roki n off by dt fign at the
fourth or fifth articulation, what is thus broke off is al¬
ways reproduced. But, if the fra&ure be made' in the
firft, fecond, or third articulation, ti e teprodiiftion is
not fo certain. And it is very furprifing, that, if the
fraftnre be made at thefe articulations, at the end of two
or three days all the other articulations are generally
found broke off to the fourth, which, it is ftippofed, is
done by the creature itfelf, to make the reproduftion cer¬
tain. The part reproduced is not only fimilar to that re¬
trenched, but alfo, in a certain fpace of time, grows e-
qual to it. Hence it is that we frequently fee lobfler*
which have their two large legs unequal in all propor¬
tions; and, if the part reproduced be broken off, a fe¬
cond will fucceed.
6 Y
REPTILES,
RES ( 54& ) RES
REPTILES, in natural hiftory, a kind of animals deno¬
minated from their creeping or advancing on the belly.
Or reptiles are a genus of animals and infers,, which, in-
Head of feet, reft on one part of the body, while they
advance forward with the rcl'L
Such are earthworms, fnakes, caterpillars, <bc.
REPUBLIC, commonwealth, a popular Hate or govern¬
ment ; or a nation where the people have the government
in their o<vn h.mds.
Republic of lettsrs, a phrafe ufed colleftively of the whole
• body of the people of fiudy and learning.'
:REPUDIATION,-in the civil law, the aft of divorcing.
See Divorce.
REPULSION, in phyfics, that property in bodies, whereby,
if they are placed jult beyond the fphere of each other’s
attraftion, they mutually fly firm each other. See E-
lectricity, and Mechanics.
REQUEST, in Lw, a fupplication or petition preferred
to a prince, or to a court of juHice, begging relief in
fome confcionable cafes where the common law grants no
immediate redrefs.
Court «/*Requests, an ancient court of equity, infiitured
about the nineteenth year of Henry VII. See Court.
In the fortieth and forty-firH years of queen Elizabeth,
it was adjudged upon folemn argument, in the court of
common pleas, that the court of requeft was then no court
of equity.
REQU IEM, intheRomilh church, a mafs fung for the reH
of the foul of a perfoti deceafed. See Mass.
REQUISITION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xv. 8.
RESARCELE'E, in heraldry, is where a flender crofs is
charged upon another, as reprefer.ted in Plate CXLVII.
fig. 6. .
RESCHET, the capital of the province of Gilan, in Per-
fia, fnuated on the fouth-wefi coaft of the Cafpian fea.
RESCISSION, in the civil law, an aftion intended for
the annulling, or fetting afide, any contraft, deed, <&e.
RESCRIPT, an anfwer delivered by an emperor, or a pope,
when confulted by particular perfons, on fbme difficult
quefiion or point of law, to ferve as a decifion thereof.
RESEDA, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confiHsof one deeply cut leaf; the pe¬
tals are laciniated ; and the capfule has one cell. There
are n fpecies, two of them natiyos of Britain, viz. the
lutea, or bafe-rocket; and the luteola, wild woad, or
dyers-weed.
RESERVATION, in law, an aftion or claufe whereby fome-
thing is refefved, or fecured to one’s felf.
JVIsntul Reservation, a proportion, which, Hriftly taken,
and according to the natural import of the terms, isfalfe;
but. If qualified by foraething concealed in the mind, be¬
comes true.
Body of RESERVE, or Corps de Reserve, in military
affairs, the third or lafi line of an army, drawn up for
battle ; fo called becaufe they are referved to fuflain the
reH, as occafion requires ; and not to engage, but in
cafe of neceffity.
RESERVOIR, a place-where water is colleftad and re¬
ferved, in order to be conveyed to dillant places through
pipes, or fupply a fountain, or jet d’eau.
RESET OF theft, inScots law. SeeLAw, Tit. xxxiii.
29,
RESIDENT, a public mirrifier, who manages the affairs
of a kingdom or Hate, at a foreign court.
They are a clafs of public miniHers inferior to ambaffa-:
- dors or envoys ; but, like them,'are under the‘protec¬
tion of the law of nations.
RESIDUE, the remainder or balance of an account, debt,
or any thing elfe.
RESIN. See Chemistry, p. 94.
RESIGNATION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xiv. 7.
RESISTANCE, or Resisting force, in philofophy,
denotes, in general, any power which afts in an oppofite
direfticn to another, fo as to dedroy or diminifh its ef-
feft. See Mechanics, Hydrostatics, and Pneu¬
matics.
RES Judicata, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxii. 4.
Res Publica, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. viii. 2.
Res Univerjitatis, in Scots law. See Law, ibid.
Res St/if, in Scots law. SeeLAw, ibid.
RESOLUTION, in chemiHry, &c. the reduftion of a
mixed body into its component parts, or firfl principles,
by a proper analyfis. See Chemistry, p. 100.
Resolution, in medicine, that coftion or alteration of
the crude peccant matter of any difeafe, either by the
natural Hrength of the patient, or of its own accord, or
by the application of remedies, whereby its bulk, figure,
cohefion, are fo far changed, as that it ceafes to be
morbid, and becomes laudable.
RESOLVENTS, in medicine, remedies proper to refolve
and diflipate tumours and gatherings, tofpften indurations,
and, by their tenuity and warmth, evacuate redundant
and peccant humours through the pores. Under this
clafs come various unguents, empladers, &c.
RESONANCE, Resounding, in mufick, &e. a found
returned by the -air, inclofed in the bodies of Hringed
mufical inHruments, as lutes, or even in the bodies
of wind inflruments, as flutes, See Musick, and
Pneumatics.
RESPIRATION, the aft of refpiring or breathing ths air.
See Anatomy, p. 281.
RESPITE, in law, <bc. lignifies a delay, forbearance, or
prolongation of time, granted any one, for the payment
of a debt or the like.
RESPONDENT, in the fchools, one who maintains a
thefis, in any art or fcience ; who is thus called, from
his being to anfwer all the objeftions propofed by the op-
' ponent.
RESPONSE, an anfwer or reply. A word chiefly ufed
in fpeaking of the anfwers made by the people to the
prielt, in the litany, the pfalms, <bc.
RESSAULT, in architefture, is the effeft of a body which
Either projefts or finks, back; that is, Hands more out or
in than another, fo as to be out of the line or level with it.
RESSORT, a French word, fometimes ufed by Englifli
authors, to fignify the jurifdiftion of a court, and parti¬
cularly one from which there is no appeal.
Thus it is faid, that the houfe of lords judge en der¬
nier reffort, or in the lafi reffort.
REST, the continuance of a body in the fame place, or its
continual application or contiguity to the fame parts of
the ambient or contiguous bodies ; and therefore is oppo-
fed to motion.
Rest, in poetry, is a ftiort paufe of the voice in reading,
being
R E 5 ( 549
’being tbe fame with the caelura, which, in alexandrine
verfes, falls on thefixth fyllable ; but in verfes of tenor
eleven fyllables, on the fourth.
HE ST AU RATION, the a£l of reeftahlifliing or fettinga
thing in it; former good date.
RESTITUTION, in a moral and legal fenfe, is reftoring
a perfon to his right; or returning lomething unjuitly ta¬
ken or detained from him.
Restitution of msdals, or Restituted medals, is
a term ufed by antiquaries, forfuch medals as were (truck
by the emperors, to retrieve the memory of their prede-
ceflbr. a
Hence, in feveral medals we find the letters rest.
This praAice was firft begun by Claudius, by his ftriking
afreih feveral medals of Augultus. Nero did the fame ;
and Titus, after his father’s example, (truck reftitutibns
of mod of his predeceflbrs. Gallienus (truck a general re-
ftitution of all the preceding emperors, on two medals,
the one bearing an altar, the other an eagle, without the
REST.
RESTIVE, or Resty, in the manege, a dubborn, unruly,
ill-broken horfe, that dops, or runs back, indead of ad¬
vancing forward.
RESTORATION, the fame with redauration. See Re-
st-auration:
In England, the return of king Charles II. in 1660,
is, by way of eminence, called the Redoration; and the
29th of May is kept as an anniverfary fedival, in comme¬
moration of that event, by which the regal and epifcopal
government was redored.
RESTORATIVE, in medicine, a remedy proper for re-
doring and retrieving the drength and vigour both of the
body and animal fpirits.
All under this clafs, fays Quincy, are rather nutri-
* mental then medicinal; and are more adminidred to re¬
pair the wades of the conditution, than to alter and rec¬
tify its diforders;
RESTRICTION, among logicians, is limiting a term, fo
as to make it fignify lefs than it ufually does.
RESTRINGENT, in medicine, the fame with adringent.
See Astringents.
RESULT, what is gathered from a conference, inquiry,
meditation, or the like; or the CQnclufion and effeifi
thereof,
RESURRECTION, in theology, rifing again from the
dead; or a perfon’s returning to a fecond life, with new
bodily organs, adapted to the date of its new exidence.
One of the greated arguments for the truth of Chridi-
anity is drawn from the refurreftion. of our Saviour; the
circumdances of which are handed down to us in fo plain
and diftindt a manner by the evangelids, as make the e-
vidence of this important truth amount to a demondra-
tion.
Chridians generally believe, that at the day of judge¬
ment, the very identical body they have now, with the
fame flefh, blood, and bones, will be raifed from the
dead.
RESUSCITATION, the fame with refurredlion and revi¬
vification. See ihe preceding article.'
The term refufeitation however, is more particularly
ufed by chemids, for the reproducing a mixed body from
its afhes, an art to which many h.rve pretended, as to
reproduce plants, <bc. from their allies.
) RET
RETAIL, in commerce, is the felling of goods in fmall par¬
cels, in oppofition to wholefale. See Commerce.
RETAINER, a (ervant who does not continually dwell in
the houfe of his malier, but only attends upon Ipecial oc-
■ eafiohs.
RETAINING fee, the fird fee given to a ferjeant or
couofeilor at law, in order to make him fure, and prevent
his pleading on the contrary fide.
RETALIATION, among civilians, the a£t of returning
like for like.
RETARDATION, in phyfics, the a<5t of diminilbing the
velocity of a moving body. See Mechanics.
RETE mirabile, in anatomy, a fmall plexus, or net-work
of veffels in the brain, furrouhding the pituitary gland.
See Anatomy, p. 286.
RETENTION, is defined, by Mr Locke, to be a faculty
jof the mind, whereby it keeps, or retains, thofe fimple
ideas it has once received, by fenfation or refledion. See
MfiTAPH YSICS.
Retention is alfo ufed, in medicine, <bc. for the date of
contradion in the folids or vafcular parts of the body,
which makes them hold fad their proper contents. In
this fenfe, retention is oppoied to evacuation and excre¬
tion.
RETIARII, in antiquity, a kind of gladiators, thus deno¬
minated from a net which they made ufe of againd their
antagonids, who were called febutores, and fometimes
mirmillones.
This net they carried under their buckler, and when
opportunity ferved, cad it over the head of their antago-
nid, and ;n this condition killed him with a trident which
they bore in the other hand.
RETFORD a borough-town of Nottinghamdiire, fituated
twenty-five miles north of Nottingham. It fends two
members to parliament.
RETICULA, or Reticule, in adrononfy, a contrivance
for the exadt meafuring the quantity of eclipfes.
The reticule is a little frame, confiding of thirteen
fine filken threads, equididant from each other, and pa¬
rallel, placed in the focus of objedl-glaffes of telefcopes;
that is, in the place where the image of the luminary is
painted in its full extent: of confequence, therefore, the
diameter of the fun or moon is hereby feen divided into
twelve equal parts or digits; fo that, to find the quantity
of the echpfe, there is nothing to do but to number the
luminous and dark parts. As a fquare reticule is only
proper for the diameter, not for the circumference, of
the luminary, it is fometimes made circular by drawing
fix concentric equididant circles. This reprefents the
phafes of the eclipfe perfectly.
Corpus RETICULARE, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 255:.
RETINA, in anatomy. See .Anatomy, p. 289.
RETINUE, the attendants or followers of a prince or per¬
fon of quality, chiefly in a journey.
RETIRADE, in fortification, a kind of retrenchment
made in the body of a badion, or other work, which is
to be difputed, inch by inch, after the defences are dif-
raantled. It ufually conlids of two faces., which making
a're-entering angle, when a breach is made in a badion,
the enemy may alfo make a retirade or newTortificatioa
behind it.
PdETLINGEN, an imperial city-of Getmany, in the circle .
REV ( 55o ) R H A
of Swabia and duchy of Wirtenaberg, fituated ioE- long.
90, N. iat. 4S0 18'.
RETORT, in cbemiftry. See Chemistry, p. 110.
RETRACTS, among borfemen, pricks in a horfe’s feet,
arifing from the fault of the farrier in driving nails that
are weak, or in driving them ill pointed, or otherwife
amifs.
•RETRENCHMENT, literally fignifies fomething cut off
or taken from a thing*, in which fenfe it is the fame with
fubtraftion, diminution, <&c.
Retrenchment, in the art of war,-any kind of work
raifed to cover a poll, and fortify it againft the enemy,
fuch as fafcines loaded with earth, gambions, barrels of
earth, fand bags, and generally‘all things that can cover
the men and ftop the enemy. See Fortification,
RETRIBUTION, a handfome prefent, gratuity, or ac¬
knowledgment, given inllead of a formal falary or hire
to perfons employed in affairs that do not fo immediately
fall under edimation, nor within the ordinary commerce
in money.
RETROCESSION, the a<d of going backwards; more
ufually exiled retrogreflk>i\, or retrogradation. See the
next article.
Retrocession 9/the equinox. See Astronomy, p.562.
RETROGRADATION, the a<d or effed of a thing mo¬
ving backwards.
Retrograde motion of the planets. See Astronomy,
p. 448.
RETR.OMINGENTS, in natural hidory, a clafs or di
vifion of animals, whofe charadteridic it is that they dale,
or make water, backwards, both male and female.
REVE, Reeve, or Greve, the bailiff of a franchife, or
manor, thus called, efpecially in the wed of England.
Hence flnre-reve, Ihenff port-greve, <foc
REVEILLE, a beat of drum about break of day, to give
notice that is time for the foldiers to arife, and that the
fentries are to forbear challenging.
REVEL, a port-town of Livonia, fituated at the fouth en¬
trance of the gulph of Finland : E. long. 24°, N.
lat. 59°.
REVELATION, the aft of revealing, or making a thing
public that was before unknown : it is alfo uled for the
difeoveries made by God to his prophets, and by them to
the world 5 and more particularly for the books of the
Old and New Teftameot. See Bible and Religion.
Revelation of St John. See Apocalypse.
REVELS, entertainments of dancing, malting, afting
comedies, farces, fee. anciently ve y frequent in the
inns of court, and in noblemens houfes, but no- much
difufed. The officer yrho has the direftion of the revels
at court, is called the mailer of the revels.
REVENUE, the annual income a perfon receives from
the rent of his lands, houfes, intered of money in the
docks,
Revenue, in hunting, a flelhy lump formed chiefly of a
duller of whitilh worms on the head of deer, luppofed
to occafion their calling their horns by gnawing them at
the roots.
REVERBERATION, in phyfics, the aft of a body re¬
pelling or reflefting another after its impinging thereon.
Reverberation, in chemiltry, denotes a kind of circu¬
lation of the flame by means of a reverberatory. See
“Chemistry, p. 11,2.
REVERBERATORY, or Reverberating furnace,
Se-Chemistry, p. 112.
REVEREND, a title of relpeft given to ecclefiaflics.
REVERIE, the lame with delirium, raving, or dillraftion.
It is u'ed ado for any ridiculous, extravagant imagina-
ti n, aftion, or propofition, a chimera or vdion. But
the molt ordinal yuE of the word, among Engiilh writers,
is for 3 deep ditorderly roofing or meditations
REVERSE of u medal, co;n. See. denotes the fecond or
back tide, in oppofiticn to the head or principal figure.
REVERSION in Scots law See Law, Tit. xv. 1.
RfiiVlVIFICATiON, in cheniidry. See Resuscita-
t in
REVOLUTION, in politics, fignifies a grand change or
turn in government. In which fenfe. the revolution is
ufed, by way of eminence, for the great turn ot affairs in
England, in the year 1688, when king James II. abdi¬
cating the throne, the prince and prince Is of Orange were
declared king and queen of England, Oc. In geometry,
the revolution of any figure, is its motion quite round a
fixed line, as an axis.
The revolution of a planet, or comet, round the the
fun, is nothing but its courfe from any point of its
orbit till its return to the fame See Astronomy.
REVULSION, in medicine, turning a flux of humours
from one part to another, by bleeding, cupping, friftion,
finapifros, bl llers, fi mentations, bathings, -iffues, fetons,
fir ng purging o* the bowels, See Medicine.
REYGATE, or Rygate, a borough of Surry, twenty-
two mil.s fouth welt of London. It fends two members
to parliament
REZ ANSKOI, the capita! of the province of Rezan, in
Rulfia : call long. 41°, north lat. ^55°.
RHAGADES, in medicine, denotes chaps or clefts in any
part of the body; arifing eit! er from any aridity of the
parts, or acrimony of the humours.
RHAMNUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria rrvono-
gynia clals. The calix is tubulofe, the leales fortifying
the (lamina ; it has no^corolla; and the fruit is a beiry.
There are 20 fpe'ies. n -ne of them nanves of B itain.
RHAMPHASTOS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
tie order of picae The bill is large, convex, and fer-
rated outwards each mandible is crooked inwards at
the point; the ncftrils are fituate behind the bafe of the
bill ; the tongue reuembles a feather ; and the feet of
moll of them are fined for climbing. There are eight
fpecies. pro ipally dillingwfhed ty their colour.
RHAPSODI, rhapfedJli, in antiquity, perfons who made
a bulinels of finging pieces of H >mer’s poems. Cuper
informs us, that the rh ip>odi were cloathed in red when
they fung the Iliad, md in blue when they fung the Odyf-
fey. They performed on the theanes, and fometimes
ftrove for przes in contells of poetry, finging, But
there feems.to have been other rhapfodi of more antiquity
than thofe people, who compofed heroic poems or longs
in prude of heroes and great men, and fung their own
compofitions ftom town to town for a livelihood, of which
profeffi n H mer himfelf is laid to be.
RHAPSODOMANCY, an ancient kind of divination per¬
formed by pitching on a p .ff ge of a poet at hazard, and
reckoning on it a.s a re bft'on of what was to come to oafs.
RHAPSODY, in antiquity, a difeourfe in verfe fung or
rehearfed by a rhapfodift. Others will have rhaplody
R H I ( 55’
to fignify a colle&ion of rerfes, efpecially thofe of Ho¬
mer, which having been a long time difperfed in pieces
and fragments, were at length, by Pififtratus’s order,
digefted into books called rhapfodies. Hence, among
moderns, rhaplbdy is alfo ufed for an afTemblage of paf-
fages, ihoughts, and authorities, raked together from di¬
ve's authors, to compofe fome new pi^ce.
RHE, or Ree, a little ifland in the bay of Bifcay, near
the coalt of Aunis in France : W. long. i° 3c/, N.
lat. 46° 14 .
RHEIMS, 01 Reims, a city of France, capital of the pro¬
vince of Champain, one of the moil elegant cities in
France, fituated leventy-five miles north-eail of Paris:
E. Jong. 40, N. lat, 49a so'.
RHETERIANS, a (e<5t of heretics in Egypt, fo denomina¬
ted from Rhetorics their leader. The dfltinguifhing doc¬
trine of this herefiarch, as reprefented by Philaltrius,
was, that he approved of all the herefies before him, and
taught that they were all in the right.
RHETORIC, the art of fpeaking copioufly on any fubje<3,
with all the advantage ot beauty and force.
Lord Bacon defines rhetoric, very philofophically, to
be the art of applying and addreffing the di&ates of rea-
fon to the fancy, and of recommending them there fo as
to affed the will and defires. The end of rhetoric, the
fame author obferves, is to fill the imagination with ideas
and images which may affift nature without opprelling it.
Voffius defines rhetoric, T he faculty of difeovering what
every fubjedf affords of ufe for perfuafion. Hence, as
every author muff invent arguments to make his fubjed
prevail; difpofe thofe arguments, thqs found out, in their
proper places; and give them the embelhihments of lan¬
guage proper to the lubjed; and, if this difeourfe be in¬
tended to be delivered in public, utter them with that
decency and force which may (trike the hearer; rhetoric
becomes divided into foui parts, invention', difpofition,
elocution, and pronunciation.
Rhetoric and oratory differ from each other as the the-
o%r from the pradice; the rhetorician being he who de-
feubes the rules of eloquence, and the orator he who u-
fes them to advantage. Ordinarily, however, the two
are ufed indifferently for each other. See Composi¬
tion
RHEUM, a thin ferous humour, occafionally oozing out
of the glands about the mouth and throat.
Rheum in botany See Botany, p. 642.
RHEUMATISM, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 124.
RHEXIA, in botany, a genus of the odandria monogynia
clafs. The cai x confifts of four fegments, and the co¬
rolla of four petals, inferted into the calix ; the antherse
are declined , and the capfule has four cells. There are
three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
RHINANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the dtdynamia an-
giofpermia ciafs. The calix is fwelled, and has four feg-
mt-nts ; the capfule is obtufe. compreffed, and bilocular.
There are fix ipecies, only one of which, viz. the crifta.
galli, ydlow rattle or cock s-comb, is a native of Britain.
RHINE, a great river tiling in the country of the Grifons,
in Switzerland, and, running north, continues its courfe
- till it forms the lake of Conftance ; from whence it turns
weft, and having vifited'Bafil, runs north, dividing Sua-
bia from Alfatia; from thence it runs through the Pala¬
tinate, and receiving the Neckar, the Maine, and the Mo-
■ VoL. HI. N°. 92. 2
) R H O
felle, contiouss its courfe north by Mentz, fyc. After
entering the Netherlands at Skenkinchans, it is divided
into.feveral channels, the two largeft whereof obtain the
names of the Lech and the Waal, which running through
the United Provinces difeharge themfelves into the Ger>
man fea below Rotterdam.
Rhine lower circle confifts of the Palatinate of the Rhine
and the three ecclefiaftical eledorates, viz. thofe of Co-,
logo, Mentz, and Triers.
Rhine upper circle confifted of the Landgraves of Alfatia
and Heffe, comprehending the Wetteraw : but only Heffe
can be accounted a part of Germany at prefent, France
having united Alface to that kingdom.
RHINEBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
lower Rhine and deflorate of Cologn, fituated fifteen
miles eaft of Gelder.
RHINEFIELD, the name of two towns of Germany, one
whereof is fituated in the circle of Suabia, on the Rhine,
eight miles eaft of Bafil ; the other is the capital of the
county of Rhinefield, fituated in the circle of the Upper
Rhine, fixteen miles north-weft of Mentz.
RHINOCEROS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds be-
longing to the order of belloae, of which there is but one
fpecies, viz. the unicornis, a native of Africa and India.
It has two fore-teeth in each jaw, fituate at a great di-
ftance from each other, and blunt, and a folid conical
horn upon the nofe. This, of all quadrupeds, approacheis
neareft to the elephant in fize, the body being nearly as
bulky, but the legs much {hotter. A full-grown rhino¬
ceros is fourteen feet high ; and the legs are fo ftiort with
all this height, that the belly comes near the ground : the
head is very large and oblong, of an irregular figure,
broad at top, and depreffed towards the fnout: the ears
referable thofe of a hog: the eyes are very fmall, and
fituated at a fmall diftance from the extremity of the
fnout: on the upper part of theTnout, near the extre¬
mity, (lands the horn, growing to about two feet and a
half in length, bent a little back, of a black colour, and
vaftly firm and hard : the flein is remarkably thick and
hard, fo that the creature could not turn its body in any
direflion but for the joints and folds in it: the tail is
fhort, and furnifhed with fome long and extremely thick
black hairs. The rhinoceros feeds upon thorns and,
brufhwood ; like the fow, he wallows in the mire. He is
gentle and inoffenfive, except when he is injured. But,
when irritated, he even overturns large trees in his fury.
Rhinoceros bird. See Buceros.
RHIZOPHORO, in botany, a genus ef the dodecandria
monogynia clafs. Both calix and corolla confift of four
fegments; and there is but one long feed, fleflry at the
hale. The fpecies are feven, none of them n lives of
Britain.
RHODES, the capital of an ifland of that/name, firuated
in the Mediterranean fea, in E. long. 28°, and between
36° and 370 N. lat.
RHODIOLA, in botany, a genus of the dioccia ennean-
dria clafs. The calix of the male confifts of four feg¬
ments, and the corolla of four petals; the calix of the
female has four fegments ; it has no corolla, buufour
neflaria, and four piftils; and it has four capfules, con¬
taining many feeds. There is but one fpecies, viz. the
rofea, or rofe-wort, a native of Britain.
RHODODENDRUM, in botany, a genus of the decae-
•6 Z dria
RIB ( 552 ) Rift
dria monbgynla cLJs. The calix has five -fegments ; the
corolla is lomewhat funnel-fliaped ; the ftamina are decli-
ne(| ; and the capfule has five cells. There are fix fpe-
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
RHOMBOIDES, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure whofe
oppofite Tides and angles are eijual, but is neither equila-'
teral nor equiangular.
Rhomboides, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 193.
RidOMBOIDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a genus
of fpars, given them from their being of a rhomboidal
form.
RHOMBUS, in geometry, an oblique-angled parallelogram,
or a quadrilateral figure whofe fides are equal and parallel,
but tire angles unequal, two of the oppofite ones "being
obtufe, and the other two acute
Rhombus, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes.
RHONE, one of the iargeft rivers in France; which- riling
in one of the Alps of Switzerland, pafifes through the lake
of Geneva, vifits that city, and then runs fouth-wed to
Lyons, where joining the river Soane, it continues its
courfe due fouth, palling by Orange, Avignon, and Arles,
and falls into the Mediterranean a little weftward of Mar-
feilles.
Rr'UBARB. See Botany, p.642.
RHUMB, Rumb, or Rum, in navigation, a vertical cir¬
cle of any given place, or the interfe&ion of fuch a cir¬
cle with the horizon ; in which laft fenfe, rhumb is the
fame with a point of the compafs. See Navigation.
Rhumb line, is alfd ufed for theline whicha Ihip defcribes
when failing in the fame collateral point of the compafs,
or oblique to the meridians. See Navigation.
RHUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigynia clafs.
The calix confills of five fegments, and the corolla of
five petals ; and the-berry contains but one feed. The
fpecies are 16, none of them natives of Britain.
RHYME, in poetry, the fimilar found, or cadence and ter¬
mination of two words which end two verfes, <&c. Or
rhyme is a fimilitude of found between the laft fyllable or
fyliables of a verfe, fucceeding either immediately, or at
a diftance of two or three lines.
T^re’ is no rule in poetry, fays Du Bos, whofe ob-
fervance cofts fo much trouble, and is produAive of lefs
beauties in verfe, than that of rhyming Rhyme fre¬
quently maims, and almoft always enervates the fenfe of
the difcourfe ; for one bright thought which the paffion
of rhyming throws in our way by chance, is, without
doubt, every day the caufe of a hundred others that
people would blufh to make ufe of were it not for the
richnefs or novelty of the rhyme with which thefe thoughts
are attended.
RHYTHM, in mufick, the variety in the movement, as
to the quicknefs or flownefs, length or fhonnefs, of the
notes. Or it may be defined more generally, the pro¬
portion which the parts of the motion have to each other.
SccMusick.
RIBBAN, or Ribbon, in heraldry, the eighth part of a
bend, like that reprefented in Plate CXLVII. fig. 10.
RIBBAND, or Ribbon, a narrow fort of ftlk, chiefly
ufed for head-ornaments, badges of chivalry, &c.
RIBES, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogynia
clafs. It has five ftamina, and five petals, both inferted
into the'calix ; the ftylus is bifid, and. the berry contains
many feeds. There are eight fpecies, three of them
natives of Britain, viz. the rubrum, or currants ; the
alpinum, or fweet mountain currants ; and the nigrum,
or black currants.
RIBS, in anatomy. See Anatom?, p. 173.
RICCIA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia algSe clals.
There are four Ipecies, all natives of Britain.
RICE, in botany. See Qrtza,
RICHARDIA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria moho-
gynia clafs. The calix has fix fegments, and the corolla
one fubcylindrical petal; and the feeds are three. There
is but one fpecies, a native of Vera Crux.
RICHLIEU, a town of Trance, in the province of Orlea-
nois and territory of Ponftou, fituated twenty-fix miles
north of Poiftiers.
RICHMOND, a village in the county of Surry, ten miles
weft of London, formerly the rdidence of the kings of
England.
Richmond is alfo a borough town of Yorkfhire, thirty-
three miles north-we(l of York. It fends two members
to parliament.
RICINUS, in botany, a genus of the monoeda monadel-
phia clais. The calix of the male has five fegments ; it
has no corolla, but the ftamina are nutperous: The ca¬
lix of the female has three fegments; it has ho corolla ;
the ftyli are three, and bifid ; and the capfule h*is three
cells, and one feed. There are three fpecies,''none of
them natives of Britain.
RICKETS, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 169.
RIDGE, in agriculture, a long piece of nfing land, between
two furrows. See Agriculture, p. 57.
RIDGLING, orRiDGEL, among farriers, &c. the male
of any beaft that has been but half gelt.
RIDICULE, in matters of literature, is that fpecies of
writing, which excites contempt with laughter.
RIDING, a divifion ofYoikfhire; of which there are three,
viz. the e'aft, weft, and north ridings.
In all indiftments in that county, both the town and
riding muft be exprelfed.
RIEF, in Scots law. See Robbery.
RIGA,< a port-town of Livonia, one of the beft harbours
and trading towns in the Baltic : E. long. 24®, N.
lat. 57°.
RIGGING of a fhip. is all her cordage and ropes, belong¬
ing to her malts, yards, be.
RIGHT, in geometry, fignifies the fame with ftra:ght :
thus, a ftraight line is called a right one.
RIGIDITY, in phyfics, denotes a brittle hardnefs. It is
oppofed to ductility, malleability, and foftnds.
RKSOR, in medicine, a convulfive Ihuddering, from fevere
cold, an ague-fit, or other diforder.
RIMINI, a port town of Italy, in the territories of the
pope, and province of Romania, fituated on the gulph of
Venice : E. long . 130 30',. and N. lat. 440 S'.,
RIND, the Ikin of any fruit that may be cut off or pared..
Rind is alfo ufed for the inner bark of trees, or that
whitilh foft fubftance which adheres immediately to the
wood.
RING, an ornament of gold, filver, be, made of a cir¬
cular form, and generally worn on the finger.
Ring-bone, in farriery, a hard callous fubftance, growing
in the paftern of a horfe, above the coronet: it is thus
called from its growing quite round like a ring. See
Tarries, y.
RIO
ROB ( 553 ) ROE
RIO G RANDE, a'rivei-of Terra Firms, uliicb rifing almoft
under the equator, and running north, falls into the north
fea between Carthagena and St Martha.
Rio grande is alfo a river of Africa, which runs from eaft
to welt through Negroland, and falls into the Atlantic
ocean, in 11° N. lat.
Rio Janeiro, a river of South America, which rifes in
the mountains welt of Brazil, and falls into the Atlantic
ocean almoft under the tropic of capricorn.
RI.QT, in law, is where three or more perfons, aflembled
together, commit fome unlawful adt, with force and vio¬
lence, to the dilturbance of the peace ; as beating fome
perfon, forcibly entering upon the poffeffion of the lands,
houfes, <bc. of another, or breaking down inclofures,
houfes, isc.
By (tat. i. Ged. I. cap. v. if any perfons to the num¬
ber of twelve or more, unlawfully and riotoufly afiembled,
continue together for an hour, after being required, by a
juftice of the peace, or other magiftrate, to diiperfe, they
(hall be deemed guilty of felony without benefit ,of clergy.
However, profecutions upon this ftatute, mud be begun
within pne year after the offence is committed.
RIPPON, a borough-town of Yorkfliire, twenty one miles
north-Weft of York. It fends two members toparliament.
RISK, in gaming, &c. See Chance.
RITE, among divines, denotes the particular manner of
celebrating divine fervice, in this or that country.
RITORNELLO, or Repeat, in mufick, the burden of
a fong, or the repetition of the firlt or other verfes of a
fong at the end of each llanza or couplet.
RITUAL, a book diredting the order and manner to be
obferved in celebrating religious ceremonies, and perform¬
ing divine fervice in a particular church, dioceie, order,
or the like.
RIVAL, a term applied to two or more perfons, who have
the fame pretenfions, and which is properly applied to
a Gompetitor in love, and figuratively to an antagonift ia
any other purfuit.
RIVER a current or dream of frefh water flowing in a
bed or channel from its (ource into the fea.
The great as well as the middle-fized rivers proceed
either from a confluence of brooks and rivulets, or from
lakes ; but no river of confiderable magnitude flows from
one fpring, or one lake, but is augmented by the accellion
of others. Thus the Wolga receives above two hundred
rivers and broo|ts before it difcharges itielfinto the Caf-
pian Sea ; and.the Danube receives no lefs, before it en¬
ters the Euxine §ea.
RIVIN1A, or Rivina, in botany, a genus of the tetran-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla co'nfifls of four per¬
manent petals ; it has no calix ; and the berry contains
one rough feed. There are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain,
RIVULET, a diminutive of river. See River.
ROACH, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
ROANOAK, an ifland in North America, near the coaft
of Albermarle-county, in North Carolina : W. long. 75
N. lat. 350 40'.
ROB, in pharmacy, the juices of fruits purified and in-
fpidated till it is of the confidence of honey.
Robof alder-berries is thus prepared : Take two quarts
of the juice of ripe ilder-berries, and halfa pound of-re¬
fined fugar. Evaporate over a gentle fire, or in a water
bath, .till it is of a due confidence.
ROBBERY, in law, a felonious taking away anothers man’s
goods, from his perfon, prefence, or eiiate, by putting
him in fear. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 30.
ROBINIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The vexiilum is open, reflesded, and roundifli;
the calix has four teeth, thr uppermod being eaiargina-
ted. There are fix fpecies, none of them natives ot Bri^
tain.
ROBORANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which drengthen
the parts, and give new vigour to the conllitution.
ROCHEFOUCAUT, a town of Orleanois, in France, fif¬
teen miles ead of Angoulefme.
ROCHELLE, a city and port-town of Orleanois, in France;
W. long. i° 5/, N. lat. 46° -
ROCHESTER, a city of Kent, iituated c^i the river Medi
way, thirty miles ead of London, and twenty-two weft
of Canterbiny.
ROCHFORD., a market-town of Effex, thirty-three
miles eaft of London, and fifteen, fouth-eaft of Chelms¬
ford.
ROCHFORT, a port-town of Guienne, in France, twenty-
three miles fouth of Rochelle : W. long, i0, N. lat. 46°.
It is one of the Rations of the French navy, haying a
commodious harbour, well fecured by forts and batteries.
ROCK, a large mafs or block of hard done rooted in the
ground.
Rocx-crj/?#/, otherwife called fprig-crydal, in natural
hidory, a name given to the third order of crydals, from
their being affixed to a rock or other folid body.
This kind of crydal is the mod common of all others,
and is what the generality of authors\defcribe under the
name of crydal of the ffiops, being that kept for medicinal
purpofes.
The cleared, pured, and mod tranfparent' that can be
had, ought to be chofen ; and to prove its genuinenefs,
it may be tried with aqua fortis, true crydal making no
effervefcence with that mendruum.
ROCKET, an artificial fire-work, confiding of a cylindrL
cal cafe of paper, filled with a compofition of certain com-
budibie ingredients ; which, being tied to a dick, mounts
into the air. to a confiderable height, and there burds.
ROCKINGHAM* a market-town of Northamptonfhiiei .
fituated nineteen miles north of Northampton.
ROD, a land meafure of fixteen feet and a half; the fame ;
with perch and pole.
Black Rod, a daff carried by. the king’s gentleman-uffier,
as a badge of his office ; this rod or daff is black, and has •
a lion in gold on Its top. See Usher.
Fijking Roo, a long taper, rod or wand,, to which the line
is fadened for angling.
ROE, the fpawn or feed of fiffi. That of the male fiffies is
ufually didinguiffied by the nameoffoft roe, or milt; and
that of the female, by hard roe, dr fpawn.
So inconceivably numerous are thefe ovula, or fmall
eggs, that.M. Petit found 342144 of them in a carp of
eighteen inches : but M. Leewenhoeck found in a carp
no more than 211629-- This lad. gentleman obferves,
that there are four times this number in a cod, and that
a common one contains 9344000 eggs.
Rqe, in zoology. See Cervus.
ROELLA, .
ROM ( 554. ) R O S
ROELLA, In botany, a genus of the perttandria monogy-
nia clafs. The corolla is funnel-lhaped ; the jiigma is
bifid , and the capfule is cylindrical, and has two cells.
The fpecies are two, none of them natives of Britain.
ROER, the name of two rivers in Germany, one of which
rifes on the confines of HefTe, and falls into the Rhine,
a little below Duyfburg ; the other rifes in the duchy of
Juliers, and falls into the Maefe at Roermond.
RGGA, in antiquity, a prefent which the emperors made
to. the fenators, magiflrates and even to the people;, and
the popes or patriarchs to their clergy.
Thefe rogae Were diftributed by the emperors on the firft
day of the year, on their birth day, or on the natalis dies
of the cities; and by the popes and patriarchs, in paflion-
week.
Roga is alfo ufed. for the common pay of the foldiers.
ROGATION, in the Roman jurifprudence, a demand
made by the confnls or tribunes of the Roman people,
when a law was propofed to be paffed. . Rogatio is alfo
ufed for the decree itfelf made in confequence of the
peoples giving their aflent to this demand, to diftinguifh
it from a fenatus-confuitum, pr decree of the fenate.
Rogation week, the week immediately preceding Whit-
funday, fo called from the three fafis therein, on Mon¬
day, Tuefday, and Wednefday, which are alfo called
rogations, or rogation days, from the extraordinary
prayers and fupplications at this time offered to God by
devout Chriflians to appeafe his anger and deprecate his
judgments.
.ROGUE, in law, an idle fturdy beggar; who by ancient fta-
tu tes is for the firft offence called a roguetif the fifft degree;
•and punifhed by whipping, and boringthroughthe griftle of
' the right ear with a hot iron ; and for the fecond offence,
is termed a rogue of the fecond degree, and, if above
eighteen-years of.age, ordered to be executed as a felon,
ROHAN, a town of France, in the province of Britany,
fituated twenty miles north of Vannes.
ROLL, in manufactories, fomething wound and folded up
in a cylindrical form.
Roll, in law, fignifies a fchedule or parchment which may
• be rolled up by the hand into the form of a pipe.
iM«y?<?r-RoLL, that in which are entered the foldiers of
every troop, company, regiment, <fac.
Rolls-office, is an office in Chancery-lane, London,
appointed for the caftody of the rolls and records in
chancery.
Rolls of parliament, are the manufeript regifters, <y rolls
of the proceedings of ourancient parliaments, which, be.
fore the invention of printing, were all engroffed on parch¬
ment, and proclaimed openly in every county. In thefe
rolls are alfo contained a great many decifions of difficult
points of law, which were frequently in former times re-
ferred to the decifion of that high court.
iRoll, or Roller, is alfo a piece of wood, iron, brafs,
ckc, of a cylindrical form, ufed in the conftruftion of
, feveral machines, and in feveral works and manufactures.
ROMAN, in general, fomething belonging to the city of
Rome. See Rome.
King of Romans, in modern hiflory, is a prince elec¬
ted to be fuccefTor to the reigning emperor of Germany.
ROMANCE, in matters of literature, a fabulous relation
of certain adventures defigned for the entertainment and
jtsftrdCfion of the readers.
The true nature and genuine chsrraCterifHcs of this fpe¬
cies of writing are excellently explained by the ingenious
author of the Rambler ; whoobferves, that the works of
fiCtion, with which the prefent generation feems more
particularly delighted, are fucb as exhibit life in its true
ftate, diverfified only by the accidents that daily happen
in-the world, and influenced by thofe paifions and qualities
which are really to be found in conveifing with mankind.
ROMANIA, a province of the pope’s territories in Italy,
including the Bolognefe and Ferrarefe. See Bologna
and Ferrara.
Romania, is alfo the modern name of ancient Thrace,
which now makes a province of Turky in Europe; lying
wellward of the Propontis, between the Euxine fe*a and
the Archipelago.
ROME, the Capital of the pope’s territories and of Italy,
. and anciently the milirefs of the Roman Empire: E. Ion.
13°, N. lat. 410 45'.
Rome is {till a large and fine city, though not to be com¬
pared to ancient Rome; the ftreets are fpacious, and
magnificently built; it has five bridges over the Tiber,
twenty gates, three hundred churches, and a valt number
of palaces, convents, triumphal arches, pillars, obelilks,
ftatues, theatres,
ROMNEY, a borough town of Kent, and one of the
cinque ports, fituated twelve miles fouth-weft of Dover.
It fends two members to parliament
ROMPEE, or Rompu, in heraldry, is applied to ordina¬
ries that are reprefented - as broken, and to chevrons,
bends, or the like, whole upper points are ctft oil. See
Plate CXLVII. fign.
RONDELETIA, in botany, a genus of the pqntandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla is funnel ffiaped; and the
capfule has two cells, containing many round coronated
feeds There are two fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
ROOD, a quantity of land equal to forty fquare perches,
or the fourth part of an acre.
ROOF, in archite&ure, the uppermofl part of a building.
See Architecture, p. 361.
ROOK, in ornithology. SeeCoRVUS.
ROOM, a chamber, parlour, or otherapartment, in a houfe.
See Architecture, p. 359.
ROOT, among botjnifls, denotes that part of a plant which
imbibes the nutritious juices of the earth, and mnfmits
them to the other parts. See Agriculture, p. 42.
Root, in algebra and arithmetick. See Algebra, p. 84.
&c. and Arithmetick, p. 420.
ROPE, hemp, hair, i&c. fpun out into a thick yarn, and
then feveral firings of this yarn twilled together by means
of a wheel. When made very fmall, it is called a cord;
and when very thick, a cable.
Rope yarn, among failors, is the yarn of any rope untwill¬
ed, but commonly made up of junk; its ufe is to make
linnet, mats,, ejn?.
ROSA, in botany, a genus of the icofandria polygamia clafs.
The petals are five ; the calix has five flefhy fegments;
and the feeds are numerous, rough, and inferted into the
interior fide of the calix* There are 14 fpecies, five of
them natives of Britain, viz. the eglanteria, orfweet briar;
the fpinofilfima, or burnet rofe ; the arvenfis, or white-
flowered. dogs-rofe; the villofa, or apple-rofe ; and the
canina, or red-flowered doss-rofe, or hip-tree.
ROSA-
ROT ( 555 ) R O U
ROSACEOUS, among botanifts, an appellation given to
fuch flowers as are compofed of feveral petals or leaves,
difpofed in a fort of circular form, like thofe of the
rofe,
ROSARY, among the Roman-catholics. See Chaplet.
ROSCOMMON, a county of Ireland, bounded by Letrim
on the north, and Galway on the fouth.
ROSE, in botany. See Rosa.
Rose noble, an ancient Englifh gold^coin, firft ftruck in
the reign of Edward HI. It was formerly current at
6 s 8 d. and fo called becaufe damped with a rofe.
ROSM ARINUS, in botany, a genus of the diandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is unequal, and the upper lip
of it is fplit into ttfo fegments; the filaments are long,
crooked, and fimple. There is but one.fpecies, viz. the
officinalis, a nativeof Spain.
Rofemary is a very valuable cephalic, and is good in
all diforders of the nerves, and in hyfteric and hypochon¬
driac difeafes. It is good in pallies, apoplexies, epiiep-
lies, and vertigoes.
ROSIENNE, a town of Samogitia, in Poland: E. long.
230 30', N. lat. 550 50'.
ROSIN See Resin.
ROSS, a county of Scotland, bounded by Sutherland on
the north, by the German fea and the Murray frith on
the eaft and fouth, and by Invernefs-ffiire and the weflern
ot ean on tire fouth and weft.
Ross is alfo a market-town, fituated on the river Wye,
eleven miles fouth of Hereford,
ROSSE, a port-town of Ireland, twenty-two miles weft of
Kinfale.
ROS-SOLIS, son-dew, an agreeable fpirituous liquor,
compofed of burnt brandy, fugar, cinnamon, and milk-wa¬
ter; and fometimes perfumed with a little muflc: it is fo
called, as being at firft prepared wholly of the juice of the
plant ros-folis, or drofera. See Drosera.
ROSTOCK, an imperial city of Lower Saxony, fituated
on a bay of the Baltic fea: E. long. 12° ij', and N. lat.
54® 20'.
ROSTOF, or Rostova, the capital of a territory of the
fame name, inRuffia: E. Ion. 40°, andN. lat. yy° -10 .
ROSTRA, in antiquity, a part of the Roman forum,
wherein orations, pleadings, funeral harangues, &c.
were delivered,
ROSTRUM, literally denotes the beak or bill of a bird ;
and hence it has been figuratively applied to the beak, or
head of a ffiip.
ROSYCRUCIANS, Rosicrucians, ox brothers of the
rofy o ofs, a name aflumed by a fe<5t or cabal of hermeti-
cal philofophers, who appeared, or at leaft were firft ta¬
ken notice of,^n Germany, in the beginning of the XVIth
century. They pretended to be mafters of all fciences,
and to have many important fecrets, particularly that’of
thephilofophers ftone.
Their fqciety is frequently denoted by the abbreviatures
F.R.C.
ROT, a difeafe incident to flieep, arifing from wet feafons,
and too moift pafture. It is a very hard thing to prevent
the rot, if the year prove very wet, efpecially in May
and jane. SaJt-marfhes, and lands where broom grows,
are the beft places of prefervation for them. Sheep are
fomet;mes all cleared of the tot, when not too far gone
vol. m n® 92. 2
with it, only by removing them into broom-fields. Scurvy-
grafs, muftard, parfley, and thyme, are alfo good for the
prevention of it.
ROTA, the name erf an ecclefiaftical court at Rome, com¬
pofed of twelve prelates, whereof one muft be a German,
another a Frenchman, and two Spaniards; the other eight
are Italians, t-hree of whom muft be Romans, and the.o-
ther five a Bolognefe, aFerraran, a Milanefe, a Venetian,
and a Tufcan.
This is one of the moft auguft tribunals in Rome, which
takes cognizance of all fuits in the territory of th<church,
by appeal; as alfo of all matters beneficiary and patri¬
monial.
ROTATION, in geometry, a term chiefly applied to the
circumvolution.of any furface round a fixed and immove¬
able line, which is called the axis of its rotation: and by
fuch rotations it is, that folids are conceived to be gene¬
rated
ROTHERAM, a market-town of Yorkfliire, 3} miles fouth-
weftof York.
ROTHSAY, a parliament-town of Scotland, in the ifte of
Bute: W. long. and N. lat. 550 50*.
ROTONDO, orRoTUNDO, in architefture, an appellation
given to any building that is round both within and with¬
out fide, whether it be a church, a falon, or the like.
The moft celebrated rotondo of the ancients,, is the pan¬
theon at Rome.
ROTTENNESS. See Putrefaction.
ROTTERDAM, a city of the province of Holland, fitua¬
ted on the north bank of the Maefe, thirty miles fouth of
Amfterdam, and thirteen miles fouth-eaft of the Hague :
E. long. 4® 2o', andN. lat. 520.
ROTULA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 185.
ROTUNDUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral muf-
cies, otherwife called teres.
ROUEN, a city of France, and capital of Normandy, fi¬
tuated on the north fide of the Seyne, fixty-five'miles
north of Paris, and forty-five miles fouth-eaft of Havre
de Grace and the Britiffi channel: E. long. i° 6', N.
lat. 490 30'.
ROVIGO, the capital of the Polefin deRovigo, in Italy,
fubjed: to Venice : E. long. 12° 25', N. lat 450 6'.
ROUND-house, a kind of prifon, for the nightly watch
in London to fecure difordei ly perfons, till they can be
carried before a magiftrate.
Round-house, in a fltip, theuppermoft room, or cabbin,
on the ftern of a ihip, where the mafter lies.
ROUNDELAY, a kind of ancient poem thus termed, ac¬
cording to Menage, from its form, becaufe it turns back
again to the firft verfe, and thus goes round. This poem
is little known among us, but is very common among the
French, who call it rondeau. It confifts commonly of
thirteen verfes, eight whereof are in one rhime, and five
in another. It is divided into couplets, at the end of the
fecond and third whereof the beginning of the roundelay
is repeated, and that if poifible in an equivocal or pau-
fing fenfe.
ROUSILLON, formerly a province of Spain, now united
to France, is bounded by Languedoc on the north, by the
Mediterranean fea on the eaft, by Catalonia or; the fou'tb,
and by the Pyrenean mountains on the weft, being about
fifty-five miles long, andthirty-fix broad.
7 A
ROUTE,
RUB ( 556 ) R U F
ROUTE, a public road, highway, or courfe, erpccially that
which military forces take. This word is alfo ufed for
the defeat and Hight of an army.
Rout, in law, is applied to an afTembly ofperfohs, going
forcibly to commit fome unlawful add, whether they exe¬
cute it or not.
ROWEL, among farriers, a kind of iffue, made by drawing
a fltain of filk, thread, hair, or the like, through the nape
of the neck, or.other part of a horfe ; anfwering to what
in furgeryis called a feton. See Farriery.
OXBURGH, the name of a county in Scotland, which
lends one member to parliament.
ROXENT cape, or Rock of Lijbon, a mountain and re¬
markable promontory in Portugal, fituated in the Atlantic
ocean, at the north entrance of the nverTagus, twenty-
two miles north of Lilbon.
ROYAL, fomething belonging to a king: thus we fay, roy¬
al family, royal affent, royal exchange, <bc.
Royal-«mR a fair fpreading tree at Bofcobel, in the pa-
rifh of Donnington in Staffocdlhire, the boughs whereof
were once covered with ivy; in the thick of which king
Charles II. fat in the day time with colonel Carelefs, and in
the night lodged in Bofcobel Houle: fo that they are mi-
ftaken who fpeak of it as an old hollow oak, it being then
a gay flourirtitng tree? furrounded with many more. The
poor remains thereof are now fenced in with a handfome
wall, with this infcription over the gate in gold-letters:
Fcelicifimam arborem quam in ajylum potentijjhni regis
Carol! II. Deus op. max. per quern reges regnant, hie
crefcere voluit, &c.
JLoyM.-fociety. See Society.
ROYALTIES, the rights of the king, otherwife called
the. king’s prerogative, and the regalia. See Preroga¬
tive, and Regalia.
ROYENA, in botany, a genus of thedecandria digynia clafs.
The calix is urceoiated; thecotolla confifts of one petal,
bent back at the edge; the capfule has one cell, and four
valves. There are three fpecies, all natives of the Cape
of Good Hope.
ROYSTON, a market-town, fituated in the counties of
Hertford and Cambridge, thirty-eight miles north of
London.
RUBELLIO, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
RUBETA, in zoology. See Rana.
RUBIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogynia
clafs. The cprolla confifts of one bell-lhaped petal; and
the berry contains one feed. There are two fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
RUBIGALIA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated by the Ro¬
mans, in honour of the god Rubigus, or the goddefs Ru-
bigo, to engage thefe deities to preferve the corn from
blights and mildews.
RUBIG0, a difeafe incident to corn, commonly called
Mildew, being a fpecies of blight. See Blight.
RUBININSKA, ol j of the northern provinces of Ruffia,
bounded by the province of Dwiba on the north, by Sy-
rianes on the call, by Belozero on the foutb, and by the
lake of Onega-on the weft.
RUBRIC, in'the canoa-law, fignifes a title or article in
certain ancient law-books; thus called bee&ufe written,
as the titles of the chapters in our andient Bibles are, in
red letters.
R.UBUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria polygyhia
clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and the corolla
of five petals; and the berry has many v eds There are
13 fpecies, five of them natives of Britain, viz. theidte-
us, or rafpberry-bulh, the ciefius, or fmall bramble; the
fiuticofus, or common bramble ; the faxatilis, or ftone-
brftmbje ; and the ebamaemorus, or cloud-berries.
RUBY, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of gems, being a beau¬
tiful gem of a red colour with an admixture of purple.
This, initsmoft perfedt and beft coloured ftate, is a gem
of prodigious beauty and extreme value ; it is often found
perfe&ly pure and free from blemifnes or fpulnefs, but
much more frequently debafed greatly in its value by them,
efpeciaily in the larger fpecimens. It is of very great
hardnefs, equal to that of the fepphire, and fecond only
to the diamond. Tt is various in fize, but lefs fubjedt to
variations in its ftiape than moft of the other gems. It is
ufually found very fmall, its moft common fize being e-
qu d to that of the head of the largeft fort of pins; but
it is found of four, eight, or ten caradls, and fometimes,
though very rare, up to twenty, thirty, or forty. It is
never found of an angular or cry-ftalliform ftiape, but al¬
ways of a pebble-like figure, often roundilh, fometimes ob¬
long and much larger at one end than at the other, and
in fome form refembling a pear, and is ufually flatted on
one fide. Tt commonly is naturally fo bright and pure
on the furface, as to need ho poiilhing; and when its fi¬
gure will admit of being fet without cutting, it is often
worn in its rough ftate, and with no other thanlts native
polifti.
We have the true ruby only-from the Eaft Indies; and
the principal mines of it are in the kingdom of Pegu and
the ifland of Ceylon.
Ruby, in heraldry, denotes the red colour wherewith
the arms of noblemen are blazoned; being the fame whidh,
in the arms of thofe not noble, is called, gules. See
Gules.
RUCTATION, a ventofity arifing from indigeftion, and
difeharging itfelf at the mouth with a very difagreeable
noife.
RUDBECKIA, in botany, a getiusof the fyhgenefia poly-
gamia fruftranea clafs. The receptacle is conical and pa¬
leaceous : the pappus has four teeth on its edge; and the
calix confifts of a double row of feales. There are fix
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain;
RUDDER, in navigation, a piece of timber turning on
hinges in the ftern of the (hip, and which, oppofing
'fometimes one fidejn the water and fometimes another,
turns or diredls the veflel this way or that. See Ship.
RUDENTURE, in architecture, the figure of a rope or
ftaff, fometimes plain, fometimes carved, with w'hich the
third part of flutings of columns are frequently filled up.
RUDIARUS, in antiquity, a veteran gladiator who had
got a difeharge from the fervice.
RUDIMENTS, the firft principles or grounds of any art
or fcience, called alfo the elements thereof.
RUE, in botany. See Ruta.
RUELLIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angio-
fptfrmia chfs. The calix has five fegments, and the co¬
rolla is fubcampanulated; and the (lamina are very near each
other. There are eleven fpecies, hone of them natives
of Britain.
RUFF, in ichthyology. SeepERCA.
Ruff, in'ichthyology. See Xante A.
RUGEN,
R U M ( 557
RUGEN, an ifland of the Baltic fea, On the coafl of Ger¬
many, being part of the duchy of Swedifh Pomerania,
feparated from the continent by a narrow channel : this
ifland is thirty miles long, and near as many broad.
Rl^INS, a term particularly ufed for magnificent buildings
fallen into decay, by length of time,-and whereof there
only remains a confufed heap of materials.
RULE, in matters of literature, a maxim, canon, or pre¬
cept, to be obferved in any art or fcience.
Rule of three. See Arithmetick, p. 331.
Rule, or RuSer, an inftrument of wood or metal, with
federal lines,delineated on it, of great ufe in practical men-
furation. When a ruler has the lines of chords, tan¬
gents, fines, &c. it is called a plane fcale.
RUM, a fpecies of brandy of vinous fpirits, diftilled from
fugar-canes.
Rum, according to Dr, Shaw, differs from fimple fu-
gar-Q?irit, in that it contains more of the natural flavour
or efl'ential oil of the fugar-cane ; a great deal of raw
juice and parts of the cane itfeJf being often fermented in
the liquor or folution of which the rum is prepared.
The undtuous or oily, flavour of rum is oTten fuppofed to
proceed from the large quantity of fat ufed in boiling the
fugar ; which fat, indeed, if coarfe, will ufually give a
{linking flavour to the fpirit, ill our diftiliations of the
fugar liquor, or wafh, from our refining fugar-houfes ;
but this is nothing of kin to the flavour of the rum, which
is really the effedt of the natural flavour of the cane.
The method of making rum is this: When a fuf-
ficient flock of the materials is got togethet, they add
water to them, and ferment them in the common method,
. though the fermentadon is always carried on very {lowly
at firft; becaufe at the beginning of the feafon for ma¬
king rum in the iflands, they .War t‘yeaft, or fome other
fermentto make it Work ; but by degrees, after this, they
procure a ftffHcient quantity of the ferment, which rifes
up as a head to the liquor in the operation ; ard thus they
are able afterwards to ferment and make their rum with
a great deal of expedition, and in large quantities
When the wafli is fully fermented, or to a due degree
of acidity, the diftillation is carried on in the common
way, and the fpirit is made up proof : though fomet.imes
it is reduced to a much greater ftrength, nearly approach¬
ing to that of .alcohol or fpirit of wine, and it is then
called double-diftilled rum. It might be eafy to reftify
the fpirit, and bring it to much greater purity than we
ufually find it to be of: for it brings over in the diflil-
lation a very large quantity of the oil; and this is often
fo difagreeable, that the rum muft he fuffered to be by a
long time to mellow before it can be ufed ; whereas, if
well rectified, it would grow' mellow much .fooner, and
would have a much lefs potent flavour.
The heft ftate to keep rum in, both for exportation
and other ufes, is doubtlefs that of alcohol, or redtified
fpirit. In this manner it Would be tranfporred in one
half the bulk it ufually is,, and might be let down to the
common proof-ftrength wi:h water when neceffary :, for
the common life of making punch, it would like wife ferve
much better in the ftate of alcohol; as the tafte would
be cleaner; and the ftrength might always be regulated
to a mmh greater exadtnefs than in the ordinary wayi
The only ufe to which it would not fo well ferve in
this ftate, would be the common practice of adultertuioa
) R U P
among our diftillers ; for when they want to mix a large '
portion of cheaper fpirit with the rum, their bufinels is
to have it of the proof-ftrength, and as full of the fla¬
vouring oil as they can, that it may drown the fla<'oui;of
the fpirits they piix with it, and extend its own. If
the bufinefs of redlifying rum was more nicely managed,
it feems a very prafiicable fcheme to throw out fo much
of the oil, as to have it in the fine light ftate of a clear
fpirit, but lightly impregnated with it; in this cafe it
would very nearly referable arracj as is proved by the
mixing a very fmail quantity of it with a taftelefs fpirit,
in which cafe the whole bears a very near refemblance to
arrac in flavour.
Rum is ufually very much adulterated in England ; ,
fome are fo bare-faced as to do it with malt-fpirit; but
when it is done with molafles-fpirit, the taftes of both
are fo nearly allied, that it is not eafily difeovered. The
belt method of judging of it is, by fetting fire to a little
of it; and when it has burnt away all the inflammable
part, examining the phlegm both by the tafte and fmell.
RUM ELIA, in geography, jhe fame with ancient Greece,
now a part of Turky in Europe.
RUMEN, the paunch, or firft ftomach of fuch animals-as
chew the cud, thence called ruminant an nuls.
The rumen is by far the largeft of all the ftomaebs,
and in it the whole mafs of crude aliments, both Iqlid
and liquid, lies and macerates, to be thence tranfmitted
to the mouth to be again chewed, comminuted, and fit¬
ted for farther digeftion in the other ventricles.
RUMEX, in botany, a genus of the hexandria trigynu
class. The calix has three leaves, and the corolla three
connivent petals ; and there is but one triangular feed.
The fpecies are 27, of which ten are natives of Britain.
RUMFORD, a market-town of Effex, ten miles call of
London.
RUNGS, in a Ihip, the fame with the floor or ground tim¬
bers, being the timbers which conftitute her floor, and"
are bolted to the keel, whofe ends are rung-he’ads.
RuNG-iWdfi-, in a fhip, are made a little bonding, to di-
reft the fweep or mold of the futtocks and navel timbe/s
for'here the lines, which make the compafs and .bearing
of a (hip, do begin.
RUNIC, a term applied to the language and; letters of thh
ancient Goths, Danes, and other northern nations.
RUNNER, in the fea-language, a rope belonging to the
garnet, and to the two bolt-tackles. It is.reeved in a
Angle bio.k, joined to the end of a pennant, and has at,
one end a hook to hitch into any thing, and at the other
end a .double block, into which is reeved the; fall of tlih
tackle, or the garnet, by which means it purchafes more
than the tackle would without it.
RUNNET, or Rennet, the acid jpice found fin the fto¬
maebs of calves that have fed on nothing hut milk, and
are killed before thedfigeftion is perfedh It curdles milk.
RUPERT’S drops, a fort of giafs-drops with long and-
flender tails, which bu,rft to pieces on the .breaking off
thofe tails in any part, faid to have been invented by
prince Rupert, and therefore called after his nam*e. This
furprifing phenomenon. is fuppofed to- rife frdm henci,
that while the glafs is in fufioni or in a melted Hate, -the
particles of it are in a flare of tepulfion ; blit being drop¬
ped ipto cold water, it fo condenfes the particles in .the.
external,parts of their fuperficies, that tiny are eafily re¬
duced :
R U S (558
-duced within the power of each other’s attraftion, and by
that means they form a fort of hard cafe, which keeps
confined the beforementioned particles in their repulfive
Hate ; but when this outer-cafe is broke, by breaking off
the tail of the drop, the faid confined partichs have then
a liberty to exert their force, which they do by burfting
the body of the drop, and reducing it to a very peculiar
form of powder.
Rupert-fort, a fettlement belonging to theHudfon’sBay
company, fituated at the bottom of the laid bay, in W.
long. 8o°, N. lat. 51°.
RUPICAPRA, in zoology. See Capra.
RUPPIA in botany, a genus of the tetrandria tetragynia
clafs. It has neither calix nor corolla ; but four pedi-
cled feeds. There is one fpecies, viz. the marina, or
fea-grafs.
RUPTURE in furgery. See Surgery.
RURAL, or Rustic, in general, denotes fomething that
relates to the country.
RUSCUS, butcher’s broom, in botany, a plant of the
dioecia fyngenefia clafs. The calix of the male confifts
of fix leaves ; it has no corolla ; the nedtanum is cen¬
tral, oval, and perforated at the top: The calix, corol¬
la, and neftarium of the female are the fame with thofe
of the male ; it has one flylus ; and the berry has tfuee
cells, and two feeds. There are five fpecies, only one
of them, viz. the aculeatus, knee-holly, or butcher’s-
broom, a native of Britain.
RUSH, in botany. See Juncus.
RUSSIA, or Muscovy, a large empire, comprehending
a vafl extent of country, in the molt northerly parts of
Europe and Afia, from 240 to 1300, E long and be¬
tween 450 and 720 N. lat.
Its capital cities are Mofcow and Peterfburg.
RUST sf a metal, the flower or calx thereof, procured by
corroding and diffoiving its fuperficial parts by fome raen-
ftruum. Water is the great inflrument or agent in pro¬
ducing ruft: and hence oils, and other fatty bodies, fe-
cure metals from ruft; water being no menftruum to oil,
tic. and therefore not able to make its way through it.
All metals are liable to ruft, even gold itfelf, if ex-
pofed to the fumes of fea-falt.
RUSTIC, in architefture, implies a manner of building in
imitation of nature, rather than according to the rules of
art. See Architecture.
Rustic work, is where the ftones in the face, (3c. of a
building, inftead of being fmooth, are hatched, or pick¬
ed with the point of a hammer.
RUSTRE, in heraldry, a bearing of a diamond-fhape.
) R Z E
pierced through in the middle with a round hole. See
Plate CXLVII. fig. 12.
RUT, in hunting, the venery or copulation of deer.
RUTA, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia
clafs. The calix has five fegments ; the petals/are con¬
cave ; the germen is furrounded by ten melliferous pores ;
and the capfule is lobbed. There are three fpecies, none
of them natives of Britain.
The dried herb is much ufed in medicine, by way of
infufion; being efteemed an excellent alexipharmic and
cephalic, and accordingly prefcribed in the fmall-pox,
meafles, and hyfteric and nervous cafes; as alfo in peri-
pneumonies'and pleurifies, to (Lengthen the ftomach, and
to prevent the return of habitual colics.
Goat Rue, in botany. See Galega.
.McadcAu Rue See Thalictrum.
W^ll^vv. SeeAuiANTUM.
Book of RUTH, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
being a kind of appendix to the book of Judges, and an
introdu&ion to thofe of Samuel ; and having its title
from the perfon whofe ftory is here principally related.
In this ftory are obfervable the ancient rights of kindred
and redemption, and the manner of buying the inheritance
of the deceafed, with other particulars of great note and
antiquity.
RUTHYN, a market-town of Denbighlhire, eight miles
fouth-eaft of Denbigh.
RUTICILLA, in ornithology. SeeMuscuAPA.
RUTILUS, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
RUTLAND, the lead county in England, bounded by
Lincolrlhire on the ndrth-eaft, by Northamptonlhire
on the fouth-eaft, and by Leicefterftiire on the weft and
north-weft.
RYE, in botany. See Secale.
Rye, in geography, a borough and port town of Suffex,
fituated on a bay of the Englifli Channel, fixty miles
fduth-eaft of London. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
RYNCHOPS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of anferes. The beak is (trait, the fuperior man¬
dible being much (horter than the inferior, w hich ts trun¬
cated at the point. The fpecies are two, viz. the nigra
and fulva, both natives of America.
RYPEN, a city and port-town of Jutland, in Denmark :
E. long. 90 N. lat. 550 30'.
RYSWICK, a fine village in Holland, between the Hague
and Delft, where the peace in 1697 was concluded.
RZCEZICA. a city of Lithuania, in Poland, fituated oA
the river Nieper, E. long. 30°, N. lat. 530.
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S.
SAB
C AB A, one of the Caribbee iflands, fubjefl to the Dutch :
^ W. long. 63°, N. lat, 180.
BABAIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of idolaters, much
ancienter than the Jew'fti law*.
SAB
In the early ages of the world, idolatry was divided
between two fedls ; the worth ppers of images, called Sa-
bseans, or Sabians; 'and the worfhippers of (ire, called
magi. See Magi.
The
SAB ( .
The Sahsans began with worfhipping the heavenly bo¬
dies, which they fancied were animatcd-by inferior dei¬
ties. In the confecr.atton of their images, they nfed
many incantations to draw down into them from-the (tars
th'ofe intelligences for whom they erefted them, whofe
power and influence they haid afterwards dwelt in them.
This religion, it is faid, firft began among the* Chaldas-
ans, with their knowledge in altronomy : and from this
it was, that Abraham feparated himfelf, when he came
out of Chaldaea. From the Chaldaeans it fpread all over
the eaft; and from thence to the Grecians, who propa¬
gated it to all the nations of the known world. The
remainder of this fedt ftill fubfifts in the eaft, and pretend
to derive their, name from Sabius a fon of Seth; and a-
mong the books in which the dodtrines of this fedt are
contained, they hawe one which thdy call the book of
Seth, and which they pretend was written by that pa¬
triarch. .
SABBATH, dr the day of reft, a folemn feftival of the
Jews, on the feventh day of the week, or Saturday, be¬
ginning from fun fet on Friday', to fun-fet on Saturday.
The obfervation of the Sabbath began with the world:
for God’having employed fix days in its creation,; ap¬
pointed the feventh as a day of. reft to be oblerved by
man, in commemoration of that great event. On this
day the Jews were commanded to abftain from all labour,
and-to give reft to their cattle. They were not allowed
to go out of the city farther than two thqufand cnbits, or
a mile ; a euftonj which was founded on the diftance of
the ark from the tents of the Ifraelites, in the wilder-
nefs, after their leaving Egypt ; for being permitted’ to
go, even on the fabbath day, to the tabernacle to pray,
they from thence -inferred, that the taking a journey of
no greater length; tho’ on a different account, coidd not
. be a breach of.fhe fabbatical rdf.
As the feventh day was a day of reft to the people, fo
• was the feventh year to the land; it being unlawful in this
year to “plow or fow, and whatever the earth produced
belonged to. the poor: this was called the fabbatical
year. The Jews, therefore,' were obliged, during the
fix years, and more efpecially the laft, to layup a fuf-
ficietn ft ore for the fabbatical year.
The modern, as well as the ancient, Jews, are very
' fuperftitious in the obfervance of the fabbath ; they carry
neither arms, nor gold nor fiiver about them, and are
permitted neither to touch thefe, nor a candle, nor any
thing belonging to the tire ; on which account they light
up lamps on Friday, which burn till the end of the fab-
bath.
• SABBELLIANS, afeftof Chtiftiaps of the Hid century,
, that embraced the opinions of S*bellius, a philofophef of
Egypt, who openly taught that there is but one perfon in
the Godhead.
The Sabellians maintained, that the Word and the
Holy Spirit are only virtues, emanations, or fundfions of
the Deity: and held, that he who is in heaven is the Fa-
ther of all things, defeended- into the virgin, became a
child, and was born of her as a fon ; and that having
accomplifhed the myftery of our falvation,. he diflfufed •
himfelf on the apoftles in tongues of fire, and was then
- denominated the Holy Ghoft. This they explained by
refembJing God to the fun, the illuminative virtue'or-
quality of which was the Word, apd its warming virtue
- Vol. III. N° 9.2, 2.
’59 ) ' SAC
the Holy Spirit, The Word, they taught-, was darted,
like a divine ray, to accomplifh the work of redemption;
and that, being re afeended to heaven, the influences
the Father were communicated after a like manner to
the apoftles.
SABINA, in botany. See Juniperus.
Sa&ina, a province of Italy, in the pope’s territories,
bounded by Umbria on the north, by Naples on the
eaft, by the Campania of Rome on the fouth, and by St
Peter’s Patrimony on the weft.
SABLE,-in zoology. See Mustela.
Sable, in heraldry, denotes the colour black, in coats of
arms belonging tc- gentlemen ; but in thofe of noblemen
it is called diamond ; and in thofe of fovereign princes,
Fiaturn. SeeCocouR.
It is exprefled in engraving by perpendicular and ho¬
rizontal hatches crofting one another, as reprefented in
Plate CXLVIL fig. 13.
SABLUSTAN, a province of Perfia, which comprehend¬
ing Gaur and Gandahor, is bounded by Choraflan on the.
north, by India on the.eaft, and by Sigiftian on thefoutb.
RABRE, a kind of fword or feimiter, with a very broaal
and heavy blade, thick at the back, and a little falcated
or Crooked towards the point: it is the ordinary weapon-
worn by the Turks, who are faid to be very expert in
■ the ufe of it.
SABURRaE, gritts, in natural hiftory, a genus of fof-
. fils, found in minute mafles, forming together a kind of
powder, the feveral particles of which are of no determi.
nate. (hape, nor have any tendency to the figure of cry.
ftal, but feem rudely broken fragments of larger maffes ;
not to be difiblved or dilunited by water, but retaining
their figure in it, and not cohering by means of it into a
mafs ; confiderably opake, and in many fpecies ferment¬
ing with acids ; often fouled with heterogene matters, and
not unfrequently taken in the coarfer ftony and mineral or
metalline particles.
Gritts are of various colours, as, 1. The ftony and
fparry gritts, of a bright or gre.yilh white colour. 2.
The red ftony gritts. 3. The green ftony gritts, com-
pofed of homogene fparry particles, 4. The yellow gritt,
oLwhich there is only one fpecies, 5. The black and
blackdh gritts, compofed of ftsny or talcy particles.
SACCADE, in the manege, is a jerk more or lefs violenr,
given by the horfeman to the horfe, in pulling or twitch¬
ing the reins of the bridle all on a fudden, and with One
pull, and that when a horfe lies heavy upon the hand,
©r obiiinately arms himfelf.
SACCAI, a city and port-town of Japan, fituated on the
bay ofMecao, three hundred miles fouth-weft of Jeddo:.
E. long. 135:0, and N. lat. 335.
SACCHARUM, in botany, a genus of the. triandria digy-
nia ciafs. It has* no calix, but long down in place of
it; and the corolla has two valves. There are two fpe¬
cies, both natives of India. See Sitgar.
Saccharum saturni, fugar of lead, is thus ordered-
to be made in the London Difpenfatory ; boil cerufs
with diftiiled vinegar, until the vinegar becomes fufficient.
ly fweet ; then filter the vinegar through paper, and af¬
ter due evaporation let it to cryftallize.
SACCULUS, in anatomy, a diminutive of faccus, fighifies;
alitfle bag, and is applied to many parts of the body. See-
Anatomy.
7. SACER,,
SAC ( 560 ) SAC
SACER, in ornithology. See Falco.
SACERDOTAL, fomething belonging to priefts. See
Priest.
SACK of wW, a quantity of wool containing jufl: twenty-
two (tone, and every (lone fourteen pounds. In Scot¬
land, a fade is'twenty four (tone, each ftone containing
fixteen pounds.
Sack of cotton wool, a quantity from one hundred and a
half to four hundred weight.
Sacks y earth, in fortification, are canvas bags filled with
earth. They are ufed in making retrenchments in hade,
to place on parapets, or the head of the breeches, fee. to
repair them, when beaten down.
SACKBUT, amufical inllrument of the wind kind, being
a fort of trumpet, though different from the common
trumpet both ia form and fize : it is fit to play a bafs,
and is contrived to be drawn oat or fhortened, accord¬
ing to the tofie required, whether grave of acute. The
Italians call it trombone, and the Latins tuba dudilis.
SACRAMENT, fignifies, in general, a fign of a thing fa-
cred and holy ; and is defined to be an outward and vi-
fible fign of a fpiritual grace. Thus there are two objeds
in a facrament, the one the objed of the fenfes, and the
other the objed of faith. Protedants admit only of two
facraments, baptifm and the eucharid or Lord’s fupper;
but the Roman-catholics own feven, viz. baptifm, confir¬
mation, the eucharid, penance, extreme undion, ordina¬
tion, and marriage.
The Romanids, however, by way of eminence, call
the eucharid the holy facrament. Thus to expofe the
holy facrament, is to lay the confecrated hod on the al¬
tar to be adored. The proceffion of the holy facrament,
is that in which this hod is carried about the church, or
about a town.
SACRAMENTARY, an ancient Romifh church-book,
which contains all the prayers and ceremonies pradifed
at the celebration of the facramehts.
It was wrote by pope Gelafius, and afterwards revifed,
correded, and abridged by St Gregory.
SACRED, fomething holy, or that is folemnly offered
and confecrated to God, with benedidions, undions, fee.
SACRIFICE, a folemn ad of religious wqrlhip, which
confided in dedicating or offering up fomething animate
or inanimate on an altar, by the hands of the pried, ei¬
ther as an expreilion of their gratitude to the Deity for
fome (ignal mercy, or to acknowledge their dependance
on him, or to conciliate his favour. The origin of facri-
fices is by fome aferibed to the Phoenicians ; but Porphy¬
ry aferibes it to the Egyptians, who fird offered the fird-
fruits of their grounds to the gods, burning them upon
an altar of turf: thus in the mod ancient facrifices there
were neither living creatures, nor any thing codly or
magnificent, and no myrrh or frankincenfe. At length
they began to burn perfumes : and afterwards men lea¬
ving their ancient diet of herbs and roots, and beginning
to ufe living creatures for food, they began alfoto change
their facrifices. The feriptures, however, furnifh us with
a different account : for Noah, it is faid, facriuced ani-
jnals at his coming out of the ark ; and even Abel him-
felf facrilioed the bed and fatted of his flock ; but Grotius
thinks it more probable that he contented himfelf with
.making a mere oblation of his lambs, fee. without flay¬
ing them.
The Jews had two forts of facrifices, taking the word
in its larged fignification : The fird were offerings of
tythes, fird-fruus, cakes, wine, oil, honey, and the
like ; and the lad, offerings of flaughtered animals. When
an liraelite offered a loaf or a cake, the pried broke it in
two parts; and fetting afide that half which he referved for
himfelf, broke the other into crufbbs, poured oil, wine,
iacenfe, and fait upon ir, and fpread the whole upon the
fire of the altar. If thefe offerings were accompanied
with the facrifice of an animal, they were thrown upon
the vi&im to be confumed along with it. If the offeiings
were of the ears of new corn, they were parched at the
fire, rubbed in the hand, and then offered to the pried
in a veffel, over which he poured oil, incenfe, wine and
fait, and then burnt it upon the altar, having fird taken
as much of it as of right belonged to bimfelf.
The principal facrifices among the Hebrews contided of
bullocks, dieep, and goats ; but doves and turtles were
accepted from thofe who were not able to bring the other;
thefe; beads were to be perfedt, and without blemifh. The
rites of facrificing were various, all of which are very
minutely deferibed in the books of Mofes.
The manner of lacrificing among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans was as follows. In the choice of the vidtim, they
took care that it was without blemifli or imperfedtion ;
its tail was not to be too fmall at the end ; the tongue
not black,, nor the ears cleft ; and that the bull was one
that had never been yoked., The vidtim being pitched
upon, they gilt his forehead and horns, efpecialiy if a bull,
heifer, or cow. The head they alfo adorned with a gar¬
land of flowers, a woollen infula or holy fillet, whence
hung two rows of chaplets with twided ribbands ; and on
the middle of the body a kind of dole, pretty large, hung
down on eacli fide ; the leffer vidhms were only adorned
with garlands and bundles o! flowers, together with white
tufts or wreaths.
The vidhms thus prepared were brought bfefore the al¬
tar ; the leffer being 'driven to the place, and the great¬
er led by an halter ; when if they made any druggie, or
refufed to go, the refidance was taken for an ill omen,
and the facnfice frequently was' fet afide. The vidtim
thus brought was carefully examined, to fee that there
was no defedt in if: then the pried, clad in his facerdotal
habit, and accompanied wirh the facnfi:ers and other at¬
tendants, and being walhed and purifi.d according to the
ceremonies preferi1 ed, turned to the right-hand and went
round the altar, fprinklmg it with total and holy-water,
and alfo befprinklmg thofe who were prefent. Then the
crier proclaimed with a loud voice, Who is here? To
which the people replied, Many md good. The pried
then having exhorted the people' to join with him by fay¬
ing, Let us pray, c nfeffed his own unworthinefs, ac¬
knowledging that he had been guilty of divers fins ; for
which he begged pardon of the gods, hoping that they
would be pleafed to grant his requefts, accept the obla¬
tions offered them, and fend them all health and happi-
nefs ; and to this general form added petitions for fuch
particular favours as were then defined. Prayers being
ended, the pried took a cup of wine; and having tailed
it himfelf, caufed his sflidants to do the like ; and then
poured forth the remainder between the horns 4of the
vidtim. Then the pried or the crier, or fometimes the
mod honourable perfon in the company, killed the bead.
SAP ( 561 ) S A I
by knocking it down, or cutting its throat. If the facri-
fice was in honour of the celeftial gods', the throat was
turned up towands heaven ; but if they facrificed to the
heroes or infernal gods, the victim was killed with its
throat towards the ground. If by accident the bead e-
fcaped the ftroke, leaped up after it, or expired with pain
and difficulty, it was thought to be unacceptable to the _
gods. The bead being killed, the pried infpefted its en¬
trails, and made predi<£tions*from them. They then
poured wine, together with frankincenfe, into the (ire,
to increafe the flame, and then laid the facrifice on the
altar ; which in the primitive times was burnt whole to
the gods, and thence called an holocnud ; but in after¬
times, only part of the vidtim was confumed in the fire»
and the remainder referved fgr the facrificers^ the thighs*
and fometinjes the entrails, being burnt to their honour,
the company feaded upon the red. While the facrifice
was burning, the pried, and the perfon who gave the
facrifice, jointly prayed, laying their hands upon the al¬
tar. Sometimes they played upon mufical indruments in
the time of the facnfice, and on fome occafions they dan¬
ced round the altar, (inging facred hymns in honour of
the gods.
Sacrifice, is alfo a name of an ifland in the gulph of
Mexico," forty-five miles ead of La Vera Cruz ; it is fub-
jedt to the Spaniards.
SACRILEGE, the crime of profaning facred things, or
thofe devoted to the fervice of God.
SACRISTAN, a church-officer, otherwife called fexton.
See Sexton
SACRISTY, in church hidory, an apartment in a chudch,
where the facred utenfils were kept; being the fame with
our vedry. See Vestry.
SACRO lumbaris, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 203.
SACRUM os See Anatomy, p 170.
SADERASAPATAN, a port-town of the coad of Cor-
mandel forty miles fouth of Fort St George. Here the
Dutch have a fadlory,
SADDLE, is a feat upon a horfe’s back, contrived for the
convemency of the rider.
A hunting (addle is compofed of two bows, two bands,
fore-bold-rs, pannels, and faddle-draps; and the great
faddle has, befides thefe parts, corks, hind-bolders, and
a troufftquin.
The pommel is common to both.
SADDUCEES, in Jewiffi antiquity, a famous fedl among
the ancient Jews, fo called from their founder Sadoc.
Amigonu- of Socho, prefident.of the fanhedrim at Jeru-
falem, and teacher of the law in the divinity fchool of
that city. Having often, in his leftures, aflerted to his
fcholars, that they ought not to ferve God in a fervile
manner, with refpedt to reward, but only put of filial
love and fear; two of his fcholars, Sadoc and Baithus,
inferred from thence, that there were no rewards or pu-
nifhments after this life; and* therefore, feparating
from the fchool of their mader, they taught that there
was no refurre&ion, nor future date. Many embracing
this opinion, gave rife to the fe£t of the Sadducees, -who
were a kind of Epicureans, but differing from them in
this, that though they denied a future date, yet they al¬
lowed the world was created joy the power of God, and
governed by his providence; whereas the followers of
Epicurus denied both.
The Sadducees denied all manner of prededination
whatever; and not only reje<ffed a-ti unwritten traditions,
but alfo all the books of the Old Tedament, excepting
the Pentateuth.
SAFE guard, a protedtion formerly granted to a dran-
ger, who feared violence from fome of the king’s {ob¬
jects, for feeking his right by courfe of law.
SAFFRON, in botany, &c See Crocus.
Meadow Saffron, in botany. See Colchi-cum.
SAGAPENUM, in pharmacy, tec. a gum refin, brought
to us in two forms: the finer and purer is in loofe gra¬
nules, or Angle drops : the coarler kind is in maffes com¬
pofed of thefe drops of various fizes, cemented together
by a matter of the fame kind. In either cafe, it is of a
firm and compadt fubdance, confiderably heavy, and ofa
reddifh colour on the outfide, brownifh within, <}nd fpot-
ted in many places with fmall yellowidi or whitifli fpecks.
Its fmell is drong and difagreeable : its tade acrid and
unpleafant.
It is brought to us from Perfia and the Ead-Indies.
S^gapenurn is a very great attenuant, aperient, and
difcutient ; it is good in all diforders of the bread that
owe their origin to a tough phlegm,
SAGE, in botany. See Salvia.
SAGENE, a Ruffian long mealure, five hundred of which
make a werd : the fagene is equal to feven Engliffi feet.
SAGINA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria tetragvnia
clafs. The calix confids of four leaves, and the corolla
of four petals ; the capfule has four cells, and four
valves, containing many feeds. Thereare three fpecies,
two of them natives of Britain, via. the procumbens,,
or pearl wort; and the erefta, or the lead ditch wort.
SAGITTA in adronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
SAGITTAL Suture, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p„
152.
SAGITTARIA, in botany, a genus of the moncecia poly-
andria clafs. The calix of the male confids of three
fegments, and the corolla of three petals ; and the ('la¬
mina are aboqt 24. The calix and corolla of the fe¬
male are the fame with thofe of the male ; it has no pif-
tillum ; and the feeds are many, and nake<J. The fpe-
•cies are four, only one of them, viz. the fagittifolia, or
arrow head, a native of Britain.
SAGITTARIUS, in adronomy. See Astronomy, p.
48 7 -
SAGO, a fimple brought from the Ead-Indies, of confi-
derable ufe in diet as a redorative.
Sago is a fort of bread produced in the following man¬
ner, from a tree called landan, growing in the Moluccos.
When a tree is felled, they cleave it in two in the
middle, and dig out the pith, which is eatable, when it
comes frefli out of the tree. They pound it in a mor¬
tar, till it is reduced into a kind of powder fom’ewhat like
meal . Then they putin a fearce/nade of the bark of the
fame tree, placing it over a cidern made of its leaves,
and pour water on if, which feparates the pure part of
the powder from the woody fibres wherewith the pith a-
bounds. The flour thus filtrated they cal! fago, which
they make into pade, and bake it in earthen furnaces.
SAGREE, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
SAICK, or Saiq_ue, a Turkifh veffel, very common ia
the Levant for carrying of merchandize.
SAIL, in navigation, an affemblage of fevcral breadths of
.canvat..
SAL ( 562 ) SAL
canvas, fews-d together by the lifts, and edged round with
a cord, faftened to rhe yards of a Ihip, to make it drive
before the "wind. See Ship.
SAILING, properly denotes the art of navigating and
working a ftiip, or of caufing her to'obferve fuch motions
and directions as are affigned by the navigator ; in which
fenfe, failing differs from navigation, and muft be learn¬
ed by praftice on Ihipboard. See Navigation.
SAINT, in the Romilh churh, a holy perfon deceafed, and
fince his deceafe canonized by the pope, after feveral in¬
formations and ceremonies. See Canonization.
Saint foin, in botany. See Hedysarum, and Agri¬
culture, p. 65.
Sal, one of the iflands of cape Verd, fuuated in the At¬
lantic ocean : W. long. 230, lat. 170.
SALAMANCA, a city of Spain in the province of Lec-n,
fituated on the river Tonnes: W, long. 6° io', N.
lat. 410.
SALAMANDER, in zoology. See Lacerta.
SALAMIS, an iflarid in the gulph of Engia, in European
Turky, fituated in E. long. 340, N. lat, 370 J2 » being
about fifty miles in circumference.
SALEM, a port-town of New England, a little north of
Bofton. . , -
SALEP, in the materia medica, the root of a fpecies of .
orchis.. See Orchis.
Salep fhould be chofen clean, firm and hard : it is, very
little liable either to decay or fophiftication. The falep
differs very little from the common orchis in virtue. Its
appeara.nce is owing to the manner of preparing it, and
confeqhently this may be done from the roots of orchis
of our own growth. To prepare thefe in imitation of
falep, Mr. Geoffroy chofe thelargeft, faireft, and plump-
eft: roots he could find: thefe he nicely flvinned; then
throwing them into cold water, he fuffered them to ma¬
cerate there for fome time: after this he lightly boiled
them, and then taking them out of the water and drain¬
ing them, he had them ftrung upon threads to be dried
in a warm dry air : when the roots were thoroughly dried,
they were very tranfparent, and refembled pieces of tra-
gacanth, and continued dry and hard. The roots thus
prepared may be reduced to powder, which'will diffolve
. away in boiling water; and a fcruple of it will make a
bafon full of jelly, in the manner of the Turkifh falep.
This jelly is an admirable medicine in ail cafes in w"hich
falep is prefcribed; and the powder may be given with
great fuccefs in afles-milk for difeafes of the breaft.
SALERNO, a city and port-town of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples and the hither principate, fituated on a
bay of the Tufcan Tea : E. long. 150 20', N, lat. 409 4c/.
SALET, in war, a light covering or armpur for the head,
anciently worn by the light horfe, only differing from
the calk in that it had no creft, and was little more than
a bare cap.
SALIANT, in fortification, denotes projecting.: There
are two kinds of angles, the one faliant, which are tbofe
that prefent'their point outwards; the other re-entering,
which have their points inwards. SeeFoRTiriCATiON.
Saliant, Salient* ,or Saixlant, in heraldry, is ap¬
plied to a lion, or other beaft, when its fore-legs are
railed in a leaping pofture. See Plate CXLVII. fig. 14.
SALIC, or Salique, law, an ancient and fundamental
law of the kingdom of France, ufually fuppsfed to have
been made by Pharamond, or at leaft: by Clovis, in vir¬
tue whereof males are only to inherit.
SALICORNIA, in botany, a genus of the monandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix is ventricofe and entire ; it
has no corolla, and but one feed. The fpecies are four,
only one of them, viz. the europasa, or marlh fampire,
a native of Britain.
SALII, in Roman antiquity, priefts of Mars, whereof there
were twelve, inftituted by Numa, wearing painted parti¬
coloured garments and high bonnets, with a fteel-cuiraiTe
on the breaft. They were called falii from faltare, to
dance ; beeaufe, after affifting at facrifices,. they went
dancing about the ftreets, with bu. klers in the left hand,
and a rod in the right, linking mufically on one another’s
bucklers with their rods, and tinging hymns in honour cf
the gods.
SALINA, anciently Salamis, a port-town of the illand of
Cyprus, fituated on the fouth fide of the illand, in E.
long. 340 30', and N. lat. 340 30'.
SALINE, a name given to a preparation of fea-falt,- pro¬
cured; fron^ the froth of the fea, hardened by the fun in
hot countries. It is called- by fome authors pilatro de
Levante, and is ufed in glafs-making : and in the making
the fine purple colour from cochineal,. by boiling it in a
fmall quantity, with the bran and fcenugree.k, of which
the magiftery is made for that purpofe.
SALISBURY, the capital city of Wdtlhire, fituated eighty
miles weft of London, and thirty-five miles fouth-call of
Briftol. Ij fends ttyo members to. parliament.
SALIVA, spittle, a thin pellucid humour, fejterated
from the arterial blood, by the glands about the \nouth
and fauces, and conveyed, by proper falival du<fts,-into
the mouth, for feveral ufes. See Anatomy, p, 307.
SALIVAL, an epithet applied to the glands and dudls
which fupply and fecrete the faliva. See Anatomy,
P-'3°7'
SALIVATION, in medicine, a promoting of the flux of
faliva, by means of medicines, moftly by mercury. The
chief ufeof falivationis in difeafes belonging to the glands
and the membrana adipofa, and principally in the cure, of
the venereal difeafe, though it is fometimes alfo ufed in epi¬
demic difeafes, cutaneous difeafes, <bc. whofe crifestend
that way. See Medicine.
SALIX, in botany, a genus of the dicecia diandria clafs.
The amentum of both male and female confifts of fcales;
none of them have any corolla ; the ftylus is bifid ; the
capfule has but one cell, and two valves ; and the feeds
are pappous. There are 31 fpecies, iS of them natives
of Britain.
SALEE, a port-town of the empire of Morrocco, in the
kingdom of Fez, fituated on the coaft of the Atlantic 0-
cean: W. long. 70, and N. lat. 340.
SALLY, in the military art, the iffuing out of the befieged
from their town or fort, and falling upon the befiegers
in their works, in order to cut ihempff, nail their cannon,
hinder the progrefs of their approaches, deftroy their
works,
SALMO, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order
of abdominales : The head is fmooth, and furmftied with
teeth, and a tongue ; the rays of the gills are from four
to ten ; the back iin is fat behind; and the belly-fins have
many rays. There are.29 Ipecies.
SALMON-fishing. SeeFiSH.ERY,
SALOON,
SAM ( 5^3 ) SAM
SALOON, in architecture, a very lofty fpacious hall,
vaulted at top, and fometimes comprehending two ftodes
or ranges of windows.
SALONICHI, a city and port-town of Macedon, in Tur¬
ley, anciently called Theflalonica, two hundred and fixty
miles we/t of Conftantinople i E long. 240, N. lat. 410.
SALPA, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
SALSETTE, an ifland on theweftern coaft of the hither
India, feparate'd from that of Bombay by a narrow chan¬
nel : it belongs to the Portuguefe, and is twenty mdes
long, and feventeen broad.
SALSOLA, in botany. See Kali.
SALT, the name of a feries or fubdivifion of foffils, natu¬
rally and effentially fimple, not inflammable, and foluble
in water. See Chemistry, p. 122, tec
SALTIER, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of a St. An¬
drew’s crofs ; which may be faid to be compofed of a bend
dexter and finiflet, crofling each other in th? centre of
the efcutcheon. See Phne CXLVIt fig. ij.
SALTPETRE. See Nitre.
SALTSBURG, the capital of an archbiftiopric of the fame
name, in Bavaria, fituated on the river Saltza, feventy
miles ea(f 0/Munich: E. long. 130, N. lat. 47° 45'.
SALVADORA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix has four fegments ; it has no
corolla; the berry contains but one feed, furniftied with
an aan There is one fpecies, a native of India.
SALVAGE money, a reward allowed by the civil and
flatute law, for the faring of Ihips or goods from the dan¬
ger of the feas, pirates,' or enemies.
Where any (hip is in danger of being ftranded, or dri¬
ven on (bore, juffices of the peace are to command the
conftatiles to alEcable as many perfons as are neceflary to
preferve it; ar.d on its being preferred by thdr means,
the perfons affiifing therein {had in thirty days after be
paid a reafonable reward for their faivage, otherwife the
fhip or goods ihsall remain in the cuflody of the officers of
the cuffoms as a fecurity for the fame
SALVIA, in bo atiy, a genus of the diandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla is unequal ; and the filaments fixed
tranfverfely to a pedicle. There are 32 fpecies, two of
them native* of Britain, viz. the pratenfis, or meadow-
clary ; and the verbera, or wild-clary.
SALUTATION, the a<ft of fainting, greeting, or paying
rtfpeCf and reverence to any one.
There is a great variety in the forms of falutation.
The orientals falute by uncovering their feet, laying their
hands on their breads, &c. In Britain, we falute by
uncovering the head, bending the body, <bc. The pope
makes no reverence to. any mortal, except the emperor,
to whom he (loops a very little, when he permits him to
kifs his lips.
SALUZZO, a city of Italy, the capital'of a marquifate of
the fame name in Piedmont, feventeen miles fouth of
Turin.
SAMARCAND, a city of Ufbec Tartary, formerly its
capital: E. long. 66°, N. lat 40°.
SAMARIA, an ancient city of Paletline, in Afiatic Turky,
fo’ty-hve miles north of Jerufalem.
SAMARITANS, an ancient fe£l -among the Jews, dill
GAing in fome parts of the Levant, under the lame
name
Its origin was in the time of Rehoboam, under whofe
Vol. III. N°. 92/ 2
reign the people of Ifrael were divided into two diftieft
kingdoms, that of Judah and that of Ifrael ; when the
capital of the latter being Samaria, the Itraelites obtain¬
ed the name of Samaritans.
They were anciently guilty of idolatry, and the rab¬
bins pretend, that they worfhipped the figure of a dove
on mount Gerizim ; but the prefent Samaritans, who are
but few in number, are far from being idolaters. They
celebrate the paffoyer every year, on the fourteenth day
of the firft month, on mount Gerizim, and begin that
feaft with the facrifice appointed for that purpofe in Ex¬
odus : they keep the (abbath with all the rigour with
which it is injoined in the book of Exodus, none among
them ftirring out of doors but to the fynagogue: they
- facrifice nowhere but on mount Gerizim : they obferve
the feafts of expiation, tabernacles, harveA, <bc. and
never defer circumcifion beyond the eighth day ; they
never marry their nieces, as the Jews do ; have but one
wife ; and in fine, do nothing but what is commanded in
the law.
SAMBALLAS, ofSamblas islands, feveral iflands fi¬
tuated in the American ocean, near the coafi of Darien,
none of which are inhabited : E. long. 8x°, N lat. 160.
SAMBUCUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigy-
nia clafs. The calix and corolla confiA of five fegments ;
and the berry contains three feeds. There are four fpe¬
cies, two of them natives of Britain, viz. the nigra, or
common elder; and the ebulus, or dwarf elder.
The inner green bark of this fhrub is gently cathartic.
SAMIAN earth, in the materia medica, the name of two
fpecies of marie ufed in medicine, viz. 7. The white kind,
called by the ancients tollyrium lamium; being aftrin-
gent, and therefore good in diarrhaeas dyfenteries, and
hasmorrhages; they alfo ufed it externally in inflamma¬
tions of all kinds. 2, The browniftx white kind, called
after famius, by Diofcondes : this alfoftands recommend¬
ed as an aftringent.
SAMOGITIA, a maritime province of Poland, bounded by
Courland on the north, and by the Baltic on the weft.
SAMOIDA, the moft northerly province o.' Ruffia in Eu¬
rope, fituated on the frozen ocean, and the river Ot>y.
SAMOLUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria ifiono-
gynia clafs. The corolla is rotated; the (lamina are-for-
tified by feales ; and the capfule has one cell. Tnere is
but one fpecies, viz. the valerandi, or round-leavtd wa¬
ter pimpernel, a native of Britain.
SAMOS, a fertile ifland of the Archipelago, thirty miles
fouth of Smyrna: E long. 27° , N iat. 370 30’.
SAMOPHRACIA, a fmall ifland in the Egeao La, near
the coaft of Thrace.
SAMPSEANS, in church-hiftory, an ancient fed, who
were properly neither Jews, Cnriftians, nor Gentiles,
though they took their name from the Hebrew word_/£-
mes, fun ; as though they worfhipped that planei.
They acknowledged only one God ; waftu.d themfelres
often : and in almoft dVery thing attached themlelves to
the religion of the Jews.
Books of SAMUEL, two canonical books of the Old Tefta.
ment, fo called as being ufually aferibed to the prophet
Samuel.
The books of Samuel, and the books of Kings, are a
continued hiftory of the reigns of the Kings of Ifrael and
Judah ; for which reafon the books of Samuel are hke-
7 C wife
SAN ( 5<S4 ) SAN
wife ftyled the firft and fecond books of Kings. Since
the firlt twenty-four chapters contain ail that relates to
the hiftory of Samuel, and the latter part of the firft
book, and all the fecphd, include the relation of events
that happened after the death of that prophet, it has been
fuppofe'd thai Samuel was author only of the firfltwenty-
four chapters, and that the prophets Gad and Nathan fi-
riihed the work. The firft book of Samuel comprehends
. the tranfadllons under the government of Eli, and Sa¬
muel; and'under Saul, the firft king; ahd alio the ads of
David, whilft he lived under Saul, and is fuppofed to in¬
clude the fpace of a hundred and one years. The fecond
book contains the hiftory of abopt forty years, and is
•wholly fpent in relating the tranfadions of king David’s
reign.
SAM YD A, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia
cLfs. The calix confifts of five coloured leaves; it has
no corolla; and the berry has three valves, and one cell.
There are five fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
SANCTIFICATION, the ad of fandifying, or rendering
a thing holy.
The reformed divines define fandification to be an ad
of God’s grace, by which a perfon’s defires and affedions
are alienated from the world, and by which he is made
to die to fin, and to live to righteoufnefs; or, in other
words, to feel an abhorrence of all vice, and a love of vir¬
tue and religion.
SANCTION, the authority given to a judicial ad, by which
it becomes legal and authentic.
SANCTUARY, among the Jews, alfo called Sandum fanc-
torum, or Holy of holies, was the holieft and moft re¬
tired part of the temple of Jerufalem, in which the ark
of the covenant was preferved, and into which noneAmt
the high prieft was allowed to enter, and that only once
a year, to intercede for the people. Some diftinguifti
the fanduary from the fandunp fandorum, and maintain
that the whole temple was called the fanduary.
To try and examine any thing by the weight of the
fanduary, is to examine it byajuftand equal fcale: becaufe,
among the Jews, it was the cuftom of the priefts to keep
ftone weights, to ferve as ftandards for regulating all
weights by, though thefe were not at all different from
the royal, or profane weights.
Sanduary, in the Romifti church, is alfo ufed for that
part of the church in which the altar is placed, encompaf-
fed with a rail or baluftrade.
Sanctuary, in our ancient cuftoms, is the fame with a-
fylum. See Asylum.
SAND, in natural hiftory, agenus of foflils, the charaders
of which are, that they are found in minute concretions;
forming together a kind of powder, the genuine particles
of which are all of a tendency to one determinate lhape,
and appear regular, though more or lefs compleat concre¬
tions; not to be diffolved or difunited by water, or form¬
ed into a coherent mafs by means of it, but retaining their
figure in it; tranfparent, vitrifiable by extreme heat, and
not diffoluble in, nor effervefcing with, acids. Sands are
lubjed to be varioufly blended both with homogene and
heterogene fubftances, as that of talcs, and hence,
as well as from their various colours, are fubdivided into
a number of fpecies.
SAND-bags, in the art of war, are bags filled with earth
or land, holding each about a cubic foot : their ufe is to
raife parapets in hafte, or to repair what is beaten down.
SANDECK, atown of little Poland, thirty-five miles fouth-
eaft of Cracow.
SAND-eel, ainmodytes, in ichthyology. See Ammody-
‘ TES.
SANDAL, in antiquity, a rich kind of flipper worn on the
feet by the Greek and Roman ladies, made of gold, (ilk,
or other precious fluff, • onfifting of a foie, with an hol¬
low at one extreme to embrace the ancle, but leaving the
upper part of the foot bare.
Sandal, is alfo ufed for a (hoe or flipper worn by the
pope, and other Romilh prelates, when they officiate.
It is alfo the name of a fort of flipper worn by feveral
congregations of reformed monks. This laft confifts of
no more than a mere leathern foie, faftened with latches
or buckles, all the reft of the foot being left bare, - The
capuchins wear fandals; the recoileds, clogs: the former
are of leather, and the latter of wood.
SAND ARACH, in natural hiftory, a very beautiful native
foflil, though too often confounded with-the common fac¬
titious red arfenic, and with the red matter formed by
melting the common yellow orpiment.
It is a pure fubflance, of a very even and regular ftruc-
ture, is throughout of that colour which our dyers term
an orange-fcarlet, and is confiderably tfanfparent even in
the thickeft pieces. But though, with refped to colour,
it has the advantage of cinnabar while in the mafs, it is
vaftly inferior to it when both are reduced to powders. It
is moderately hard, and remarkably heavy, and,- when-ex-
pofed to a moderate heat, melts and flows like oil: if fet
on fire, it burns very'briflcly.
It is found in Saxony and Bohemia, in the copper and
filver mines; and is fold To the painters, who find it a
very fine and valuable red: but its virtues or qualities in
medicine, are no more afcertained at this time, than thofe
of the yellow orpiment.
Caw-SANDARACH, isadryand hard refin, ufually met with
in loofe granules, of the bignefs of a pea, a horfe-bean,
or larger; of a pale whitiffi yellow, tranfparent, and of a
refinous fmell, brittle, very inflammable, of an acrid and
aromatic tafte, and diffufing a very pleafant fmell when
burning. It is produced from a fpecies of the juniper.
It flows only from thefe trees in hot countries; but the
natives promote its difcharge by making incifions in the
bark.
Sandarach is good in diarrhoeas, and in haemorrhages.
The varnifh-makers make a kind of varnifh of it by dif-
folving it in oil of turpentine or linfeed, or in fpirit of
wine.
SANDIVER, a whitifli fait, continually caft up from the
metal, as it is called, whereof glafs ismade; and, fwim-
ming on its furface, is fki nmed of.
Sandiver is alfo plentifully thrown out in the eruptions
of volcanos; fome is of a fine white, and others tinged
bluifli or yeliowilh.
Sandiver is detergent, and good for foulneffes of the
fkin. It is alfo ufed by gilders of iron.
SANDIX, a kind of minium, or red-lead, made of cerufe,
but much inferior to th4 true minium.
SANDWICH, one of the cinque-gorts, in Kent, ten miles
eaft of Canterbury: it fends two members to parliament,
and
gue.
gives the title o.f Earl to the noble fami^of Monta-
SANGUI-
SAN
SANGUIFICATION, in the animal ceeonomy, the con-
verfion of chyle into true blood. See Chyle.
SANGUINAR.IA, blood-wort, in botany, agenusof the
polyandria nionOgynia clafs. The corollaconiilis of eight
petals,, and the calix of two leaves; the pod is oval, with
one cell. There is but one fpecies, a native of America,
SANGUINE, in general, fomething abounding with, or
ref^mblingblood See Blood.
SANGUIS. Se Blood.
SANGUISORBA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
mopogynia clafs. The calix hits two leaves; and the ger-
men is fituate between the calix and corolla. There are
three fpecies, only one of them, viz. the officinalis, or
burnet, a native of Britain, the leaves of which are mildly
adringent.
SANHEDRIM, among the Jews, the great council of the
nation, confiding of leventy fenators, taken partly from
among th priefls and levites, and partly out of the in¬
ferior judges, who formed what was called the leffer fan-
hedrim. The room they met in was a rotunda, half of
which was built without the temple, and half within.
The nafi, or prefidentof the fanhedrim, fat upon a throne,
with his deputy on his right hand, his fub-deputy on his
left, and the other fenators ranged in order on each fide.
The authority of this council w<-s very extenfive : for
they decided fuch caufes as were brought be/ore them by
way of appeal from the inferior courts ; and the king,
the high-priefts, and prophets, were under the jurifdiiftion
of this tribunal. They had the right of judging in ca¬
pital cafes, and fentence of death might not be pronouu-
ed in any other place ; for which reafon the Jews were
forced to quit this hall, when the power of life and death
was taken out of their hands, forty years before the de-
ftruftion of the temple, and three years before the death
of Chrift.
There were feveral inferiqr fanhedrims in Paleftine,
each of which confilted of twenty-three perfons ; albthefe
depended on the great fanhedrim of Jerufalem.
SANICUL.Aj in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The umbellae are thick ; the fruit is rough ; and
the flowers of the dilk are abortive. The fpecies are
three, only one of them, viz. the europcea, or fanicle,
is a native of Britain. The leaves are fuppofed to be
vulnerary.
SANIDIUM, in natural hillory, the name of a genus of
foffils, of the clafs of the fejenitae, but neither, of the
rhomboidal nor columnar kinds, nor any other way dif-
tinguifhable by its external figure, being made up of fe¬
veral plain flat plates.
SANIES, in medicine, a ferous putrid matter, ifiuing
from wounds ; it differs from pus, which is thicker and
whiter.
SANQUHAR, a borough-town of Scotland, in the county
\ of Nithfdale, twenty-one miles north of Dumfries.
SANTA clara, an ifland in the Pacific Qtean, fituated
in the bay of Guayquil : W. long.' 8o°, S. lat,. 30 15’.
Santa cru2, a port-town on the north fide of the tfland
of Cuba, in North America : W. long. 85° 30', N. lat.
220 30'.
Santa te, the capital of New Mexico : W. long. 109°,
N. lat. 36°.■
Santa fe de sagota, the capital of Terra Firma, in
South America : W. long. 74°, N. lat. 40 30'.
SAN
Santa maria, a town of Terra Fit ma, in the province of
Darien, lituated on a river of the fame name, a little ea't
of the bay of Panama : W. long. 8o°, N. lat 70 40'.
sanTalum, in botany, a genus of the oAandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts of one petal ; the Ri¬
mma lie upon the tube ; the fligma is Ample ; and the
fruit is a berry. There is but one fpecies, a native of
India. The wood is reckoned to be attenuant and cor¬
dial.
SANTILLANA, a city and port-town of Spain, the ca¬
pital of the ealtern Afturia, fituated on the bay of Bifeay:
W. long. 50, and N. lat. 430 35'
-SANTOLINA, a genus of the fyngenefiapolygamik asqua-
lis clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ; the pappus, is
very fhort ; and the cab.x is hemifpherical and imbrica¬
ted. The fpecies are four, none of them natives of Bri¬
tain.
SANTORINI, an ifland of the Archipelago, thirty-five
miles in circumference: E. long. 250 35', N. lat. 36° 10'.
SAONE, a river of France, which riles in Lorrain, and
falls into the Rhone at Lyons.
SAP, a juice furnifhed by the earth, and changed into the
plant. See Agriculture, p. 45.
SAPHENA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 243.
SAPIENZA, an ifland and cape in the mediterranean fea,
on the fouth-weft point of the Morea, E. long. 210 15',
N. lat. 36° 45’.
SAPPHIC, in poetry, a kind of verfe much ufed by the
Greeks and Latins, denominated from the inventrels Sap¬
pho. The Sapphic verfe confifts of five feet, whereof
the firft, fourth, and fifth are trochees, the fecond a fpondee,
and the third a daftyl.
SAFIN DUS, in botany, a genus of the oflandria digynia
clafs. The calix confifis of four leaves ; and the corol¬
la of four petals ; and there ar.e three round, connate,
ventricofe capfules. The fpecies are three, none of them
natives of Britain.
SAPO. See Soap.
SAPONARIA, in botany, a genus of the decandriadigy
nia clafs. The calix confifls of one leaf, and the co¬
rolla of five clawed petals; and the.capfule is oblong;
vyith on* cell. There are fix fpecies, only one of them,
viz. the officinalis, or foap-wort, a native of Britain.
The root of this fpecies is fuppofed to be aperient, cor¬
roborant, and fudorific.
SAPPHIRE, a pellucid gem, which, in its fineft ftate, is
extremely beautiful and valuable, and fecond only to the
diamond in lullre, hardnefs, and price. Its proper co-
• lour is a pure blue ; in the fineft fpecimens it is of the
deepeft azure, and in others varies into paienefs in fhades
of all degrees, between that and a purecryftal brightnefs
and water, without the leaft tinge of colour, but witli a
luftre much fuperior to the cryftal. They arediftinguifh-
ed into four forts, viz. the blue fapphire, the white fap
phire, the water fapphire, and the milk fapphire.
The gem known to us by this name is extremely dif¬
ferent from the fapphire of the ancients, vvhish was only
a femi-opake ftone, of a deep blue, veined with white,
and fpotted with fmall gold-coloured fpangles, in the
form of ftars, and was only a more beautiful kind of the
lapis lazuli : but our fapphire they have deferibed undec
the name of beryllus aeroides, ,or the fky-blue beryl.
The fineft fapphires in the world are brought from the
kingdom;
( 5*5 )
S A R ( 566 ) SAT
kingdom of Pegu in the Eaft Indies, where fome are
found perfectly colourlefs, and others of ali the fh tdes of
blue; thefe are ali found in the pebble-form. We hare
very fine fapphires alio, partly pebble, partly cryital-lha-
ped, from Bifnagar, Conanor, Calicut, and the ifland of
Ceylon: thefe alfo are of ali the (hades of blue. And
in Ceylon there are fometimes found a forr of baftard
gems, of a mixed nature between the fapphire and ruby.
The oc idental are from Silefia, Bohemia, and many
other parts of Europe ; but though thefe are often very
beautiful ftones, they are greatly inferior, both in lullre
and hardnefs, to the oriental.
SAPPHIRINE water, in the materia medica, alfocalled
blue eye-water, is thus prepared : Pour a pint of lime-
water, made ftrong and frelh, into a copper-veffel, add
to it a dram of crude fal armoniac, and throw in fome
filings or fmall pieces of copper, and let it ftand till it
has acquired a beautiful colour.
This is ufed as an eye-water ; as alfo to deterge old
ulcers : and fometimes it is mixed with other things in
injeftions in gonorrhoeas.
SARABAITES, a fort of monks among the ancient chrifH-
ans, who did not refort to the wildernefs as others did,
but lived publicly in cities. Two or three of them ufu: 1-
]y dwelt together, but they had no rule or government;
they however obferved very drift fads; wore loofe fleeves,
wide dockings, coarfe clothes, frequently fighed, and
always bitterly inveighed againd the clergy.
SARABAND, a mufical compofition in triple time, the
motions of which are flow and ferious.
SARACENS, the inhab tants of Arabia; fo called from
the word fara, 'Which fignifies a defart, as the greated
part of Arabia is : ^nd this being the country of Maho¬
met, his difciples were called Saracens.
SARAGOSSA, the capital of the province of Arragon in
Spain: W. long i° ty', and N lat, 410 32’.
SARC ASM, in rhetoric, a keen bitter expreflion which
has the true point of fatire, by which the orator feoffs
and infults bis enemy : fitch was that of the Jew's to our
Saviour, “ He faved others, hitnfelf he cannot fave.”
SARCOCELE, in furgery, a fpurious rupture, or hernia,
wherein the tedicle is confiderably tumr’ed or indurated,
like a feirrhus. or much enlarged by a flefhy excrelcence,
which is frequently attended with acute pains and fome
times ulcera ion, fo as to degenerate at lad into a can¬
cerous difpofiuon. See Surgery.
SARCOCOLLA, in pharmacy, a gum refin, which ap¬
proaches greatly to the na'ure of the Ample gums.
It is brought to us from Perfia and Arabia, in fmall
granules moderately heavy, and of a whitilh, brow-nidi,
or reddifh colour, veryfiiable, of a faintifh difagreeable
fmell, and of an acr.d and naufeous tafte.
Hoffman abfolutely condemns the internal ufe of it.
However, it is recommended in ophthalmias, and defiuc
tions of a {harp matter upon the eyes ; and is generally
ordered to ''ed-ffolved m milk for this purpofe.
SARCOLOGY is that part of anatomy which treats of the
foft parts, viz. the mufcles, intedines, arteries, veins,
nerves, and fat See Anatomy.
SARCOMA, in furgery, denotes any flefhy excrefcence.
SARCOPHAGOUS medicines, in furgery, <bc. are
thofe which at away jpuud fieih, and otherwife called
eauftics. See Causttcs.
SARCOTICS, in furgery, medicines which generate flefh
in wounds.
SARDINIA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, fituated be¬
tween S° and io° E. long, and between 390 and 41° N.
lat. It is about one hundred and forty miles long, and
fixty bro-id : and gives the title'of king to the duke of
Savoy, under whoft dominion it is.
SARDIS, the ancient capital of Lydia, in Afia, now in
ruins
SARDONYX, in natural hnflory, a genus of femi pellucid
gems, of the onvx drufture, zoned or tabulated, and
compofed of the matter of the onyx variegated with that
of the red or ye I w carnelian. See CarnelIan and
On yx
S ARGUS, in ichtf y; logy. See Sparus.
SARK, a little ifland between Guetnley and Jerfey, fub-
je'i to Great Britain.
SAROTHRA, in bo.any, a genus of the pentandria tri-
gynia clafs. The calix confi ts of live fegments, and the
corolla o' five petals; tl.e capfule is coloured, and has
three cells and one valve. There is but one fpecies, a
native of Virginia.
SARSAPARILLA, in botany. See Smjlax,
SARTORIUS, in anatomy See Anatomy p. 207.
SARUM, or Old Sarumj a uorough-town of Wiltfhire,
fituated a little north of Sahlbury. It lends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
SASSAFRAS, in botany. SccLaurus.
The wood is imported in large draight blocks : it is
faid to be warm, aperient, and corroborant; and fre¬
quently .employed, with good fuccefs, for purifying and
fweetening the blood and juices; for which purpole an in-
fufion, in the way of tea, is a very pleafant drink: its
oil is very fragrant, and poffeffes moil of the virtues of
the wood.
SATELLITE in adronomy, the fame with a fecondary
planet, or moon. See Astronomy.
SATRAI'A. or Satrapes, in Perlian antiquity, denotes
an admiral; but more commonly the governor of a pro¬
vince.
SAT FIN a gloffy kind of filk fluff, the warp of which
js very fine, and dands out fo as to cover the coarfer
woof.
SATTINET, a flight thin kind of fattin, commonly flri-
ped, and chiefly ufed by the ladies for fummer night¬
gowns.
SATURANTS, in pharmacy. See Absorbents'
SATURATION, in chemidry, is the impregnating an a-
cid with an alkali, or vice verfa, till either will receive
no more, and the mixture will become neutral.
SATURDAY, thefeventh or lad day of the week fo called
from the idol Seater, worfhipped on this day by the an¬
cient Saxons, and thought to be the fame as the Saturn
of the Latins.
SATUREIA in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The lacimae of the corolla are nearly
equal; and the (lamina are approximate. The fpecies
are nine, none of them natives of Britain.
The leaves of fummer favory are very pungent, warm,
and aromatic ; and afford, in didillation with water, a
fubtile tffential oil. Both are edeeemed good in crudities
of the domach, adhmas, and mendrual obdruftions.
SATURN, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 442.
Saturn,
S 'A U / 5^7 ) S C A
Saturn,;in clifemiflry, -&c. an appellation given to lead:
See Chemistry,, p. 84, 136.
Saturn, in heraldry, denotes the black colour, in blazon¬
ing the .inns of lovereign princes.'
SATURNALIA, in Roman 'antiquity, a feftival obferved
about the middle ol December, in honour of tke god Sa-
. turn, whom Lucaa. introduces giving an account of the
• ceremonies obferved-on this occafion thus: “ During my
whole reign which lads but for one week, no public
bufinefs is done; there is nothing but drinking, finging,
play ng,. creating imaginary kings, placing fervants with
their mafters at table, <be. There (hall be no difputes,
reproaches but the rkh and poor, mailers and
flaves, (hall be equal.” &c.
On this fedival the Romans facrificed bare-headed,
contrary to their cuilom at other facrifices.
SATURNINE, an appellation given to performs of a me-
lanchplydifpobtion, as being iuppofed under the influence
of the pTanet faturn
SATYRE, in the hiathen mythology, a fabulous kind of
<±en}i*g°d, or rural deity, of the ancient Romans, repre-
fented with goat’s feet, and Ibarp pricktd up ears. ~
Satyr, or Satire, in matters of literature, a difeburfe
or poem, expofing the vices and follies of mankind.
The chief fatyrifts among the ancients are Horace,
Juvenal,, and Perfius : thofe among the moderns, Reg*
nier, and Boiieau, in French ; and Dryden, Oldham,
Rocheifer, Buckingham, Pope, Young, &c. among the
Envliih.
SATYRIUM, a genus of the gynandria diandria clafs.
The neAarium tefembles a ferotum, placed behind the
flower. The fpecies are eight, 4 of them natives of
Britain.
SAVANNA, a town and river of Georgia, jnNorth-Ame*
rica : W. long.,810 20, N lat. 320,
SAUCISSE, or Sausage, inihemilitary art, along train
of powder, fewed up in a roll of pitched cloth, about
' tv. o inches in diameter, ferving to fet fire to mines.
SAUCISSON, in fortification, a mafs of large branches of
trees bound together; and differing only from a fafeine,
as this is compofed of fmall branches- of twigs.
Sauciffons are employed to cover the men, and to make
epaufemeqts,
SAVE, a large river of Germany- which rifing in Carin-
thia, runs eaft through Carniola and Croatia, and divi¬
ding Sclavonia from Turky, difeharges itfelf into the Da¬
nube at Belgrade.
SAVIN, in botany. See Juniperus.
SAVIOUR, an appelLtion peculiarly-given to Jefus Chrift,
' as being the true M. flT.h, and Saviour of the world.
Order of St Saviour a reiigious order in the Rormfh
church, founded by St Bridget,-about'the year 1345 •
"and fo called from us being pretended that our Savi-
- our himfelf didhted to the foundrefs its confutations and
rules
According to the conftitutions, this order is principally
founded for religious women who pay a particular honour
to the holy virgin : but there are fome monks of ''-re or¬
der,. to admimfter the facraments, ’and’fpiritual affidance
to the nuns.
SAUMUR, a city of Fran-e, in the province of Orlea-
nois, and duchy of Anjou; twenty-four miles call of
Anjou,
Vox.. Ill N° 92. 2
SAUNDERS. See Santalum.
SAVOLAXIA, a fuhoivifion of Finland, in Ruffsa, fiuva-
ted between Cajania, Kexhoim. Cafelia, ana Bothnia.
SAVORY, in botany. See Satureia.
SAVOUR. See Taste.
■SAVOY, a duchy, fituated between France and Italy, on
,, the wed fide of the Alps ; bounded by the lake and
teiruory ot Geneva, on.the north ; by -Switz-rlapd and
Piedmont, on the eaft;" ?y another part of Piedmont and
D tupbin'e, on the fouth ; and by Franche Compte and
Duiphme, on the wed ^
SAUVAGESTA, in botany, a genus • of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The caiix confifls of five leaves, and
the corolla of five fimbriated petals ; ihe ne^avium has
five leaves, lying alternately between the petals-; and the
capfulp has one cell. There is but one fpeciesj a native
of Jamaica
SAW, an indrument which ferves to cut into pieces feveral
folid matters . as wood, done, ivory
The beft faws are of terqpered fttel ground bright and
fmooth : thofe of iron are only hammer hardened : hence,-
the nrft, befides their being differ, are hkewiie found
fmoother th.tn the laft. They are. known to fe well
hammere'd by the ftid bending of the blade ; and to be
well rnd evenly ground, by their bendmgequally in a bow.
Saw-fish. See SQ_ualrs.
SAXIFRAGA,- in b .tany, a genus of the decandria digy-
nia clais. Tlje caiix confilfs of live fc-gmen-s, and the
con lia of five etals ; the capfule has a double beak and
one cell. .The fpecies are 38 nine of them natives of
Britain
The tuberofities at the root of the granulata br white-
flowered faxifiage are kept in the (hops, under the name
of faxifrage feeds ; they are diuretic and attendant; and
therefore good in neptiritic cafes and obftruflions of the
menfes and vifeera.
SAXONY, the name of two circles of the German empire,
diftingoiftied by the epithets Upper and Lower. The
circle of Upper Saxony comprehends the duchy of
Saxony, the marquifates of,Mifnia, Lufatia, and Bran¬
denburg, and the duchies of Pomerania, Sak Hall, .Sax
Altembuig, Sax-Metfburg, and Sax Naumburg'. The
circle of Lower Saxony comprehends the duchies of
Mecklenburg, Holftein, Lawenburg, Lunenburg, Zell,
Bremen, Brunlwic, Hanovtr, and Magdeburg; the prin-
cipahttes of Verden and Halberftat, and the bifhopriok of
H'ldeftieim.
SAY, or Saye, in commerce, a kind of ferge or woollen
fluff much ufed abroad for linings, and by the religious
for ftiirts: with us it is ufed tor aprons by feveral forts
of artificers, being ufually dyedgre-n.
SCABIOSA, in botany, a plant of the tetrandria monogy*
cia clafs. The common caiix confifts of many leaves, and
the proper one is double; the receptacle is paleaceous.
The fpecks are 23, three of them natives of Britain,
viz., the fuccila, or devil’s bit ; the arvenfLs, br com¬
mon field fcabious ; and the columbaria, or leffer field
fcabious.
SCAFFOLD, among builders, an affembiage of planks and
boards fuftained by treflels and pieces of wood fixed in
the wall; whereon mafons, brick layers, drc. ftand to*
•work in building high'walls, and plafterers in pla-
ftering ceilings, &c.
% D
Scaffoldl
S C A ( 563 ) S C A
Scaffold alfo denotes a timber-work raifed in the
manner of an amphitheatre, for the more commodious
viewing any fhew or ceremony: it is alfo ufed for a little
ftage, raifed in fome public place,' whereon to behead
criminals. ~
•SCAGEN, a promontory of North Jutland, at the entrance
.of the Scagerrac fea, or paffage out of the ocean into
the Baltic fea : E.lon. io°, N. lat. 58°.
SCALADO, or Scalade, in the art of war, a furious
. afl'ault made on the wall or rampart of a city, or £ther
fortified place, by means of ladders, without carrying on
works in form to fectire the men.
SCALE, a mathematical inflrument, confifting of feveral
lines drawn on wood, brafsj filver, i&c. and varioufly
divided, according to the purpofes it is intended toferve;
whence it acquires various denominations, as the plain
fcale, diagonal fcale, plotting fcale. See Geometry.
’Scale, in mufick, is a denomination given to the arrange¬
ment of the fix fyllables invented by Gukta Aretine, ut,
re, mi, fa, fol, At, called alfo gammut. SeeMusiCK.
SCALENE, or Scalenous triavgl®, fcalenttm, in
geometry, a triangle whofe fides and angles are nnqual.
SeeGEOMETRY.
SCALENUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 214.
SCALPEL, in furgery, a kind of knife ufed in anatomical
diffedtions and operations in furgery.
SCALPER, or Scau-ping-iron, a furgeon’s inftrument
ufed for fcraping foul carious bones.
•SCALPRA dentalia, inftruments ufedby’the furgeonsto
take ofFthofe black, livid, or yellow crufts, which infeft
the teeth, and not only loofen and deftroy them, but taint
the breath.
-SCAMMONY, a concreted vegetable juice of a fpecies of
convolvulus, partly of the refin, and partly of the gum-
kind.
The Aleppo fcammony is of a fpongy texture, light
and friable : it is of a faint difagreeable fmell, and its
tafte is bitterifti, very naufeous, and acrimonious. The
Symrna fcammony is confiderably hard and heavy, of a
black colour, of a much ftronger finell and tafte than the
former, btherwife it much refembles it.
Scammony is in great efteem and frequent ufe. It
is an ingredient in many compofitions of the (hops; and
thefe are prefcribed, with other cathartics, for purging
off ferous humours. It is in general, however, a better
purge for robuft people than for thofe of more delicate
conftitutions; though, with the corredtives with which
it is joined, it is given with fafety and fuccefs to chil¬
dren.
SCANDALUM magnatum, in law, is a defamatory
fpeech Or writing-to the injury of aperfon of dignity; for
which a writ that bears the fame name is granted for the
recovery of damages.
SCANDEROON, a port-town of Aleppo, in Afiatick
Turky, fnuated on thecoaftof the Leffer Afia: E. long.
36°, N. lat. 370 15'. '
’.SCANDINAVIA, a large country which confiftedof Swe¬
den, Denmark, and Norway, which were fometimes un¬
der the government of one prince; but is now under the
• dominion of Sweden and Denmark.
SCANDIX, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The corolla is of an irregular (hape ; the fruit is
iubulated; the petals are entire; .and the flofcules of the
difc are generally males. There are eight fpecies, two or
them natives of Britain, viz. the pedten, Ihepherds needle,
or venus’s comb ; and the onthrifcus, or fmali hemlock
fhervill.
SCANNING, in poetry, the meafuring of a verfe by feet,
in order to fee whether or no the quantities be duly ob-
ferved.
The term is chiefly ufed in regard to the Greek and La¬
tin verfes. Thus an hexameter verfe is fcanned, by re-
folving it into fix feet; a pentameter, by refoivmg it into
five feet, cjrc. ,
SCAPE-goat, in Jewifti antiquity, the goat which was fet
at liberty on the great day of expiation.
Spencer is of opinion, that the fcape-goat was called
Azazel, becaufe it was fent to Azazel, i. e, the devil; the
reafons of which ceremony, he takes to be thefe: 1. That
the goat, loaded with the fins of the people, and fent to
Azazel, might denote the miferable condition of the Tin¬
ners. 2. The goat was fent thus loaded to the daemons,
to fhew that they were impure, and to deter the people
from Worfhipping them. 3. That the goat fent to Azazel
fufficiencly expiating the fins of the Ifraelites, they might
the more willingly abftain from the expiatory facrifices of
riie heathens.
SCAPHOIDES, or os naviculare. See Anatomy, p. 186.
SCAPULA, in anatomy. SccAnatomy, p. 176.
SC APULAR, in.anatomy, a name given to two pair of
arteries and as many veins. See Anatomy, Part III.
and IV.
Scapular, or Scapulary, a part of the habit of feveral
religious orders in the church of Rome, worn over the
g'own, as a badge of peculiar veneration for t_he bleffed
Virgin. It confifts of two narrow breadths or flips of cloth,
covering the back and the breaft, and hanging down to
the feet.
The devotees of the fcapulary celebrate its feftival on
the 16th of July.
SCi^RABiEUS, the beetle, in zoology, a genus of in-
fedts, of the coleoptera order: the antennae of the beetles
are of a clavated figure, and fiflile logitudinally, and their
legs are frequently dentated. There are 87 fpecies.
SCARBOROUGH, a borough and port town of Yorkfhire,
thirty-feven miles north-eaft of York.
It fends two members to parliament, and is famous for
a medicinal fpring, which has been the iubjedl of gieat
contefts and difputes among the phyfical people; all allow¬
ing it confiderable virtues, but fome attributing them to
one ingredient, others to another,
SCARIFICATION, in furgery, the operation of making
feveral incifions in the Ikin by means of lancets, or other
inftruments, particularly the cupping inftrument. See
Surgery.
SCARLET, a beautiful bright red colour.
In painting in water-colours, minium mixed with a lit¬
tle vermilion produces a good fcarlet : but if a flower in
a print is to be painted of a fcarlet.colour, the lights as
well as the fhades Ihould be covered with minium, and
the fhaded parts finilhed with carmine, which will pro¬
duce an admirable fcarlet.
SCARP, in fortification, is the the interior talus, or Hope
©f the ditch next the place, at the foot of the rampart.
Scarp, in heraldry, the fcarf which military commanders
wear for ornament.
It
S C E ( 569 ) S C H
It is borne fomewhat like a battoon Unifier, but. is
broader than it, and is continued out to the edges of the
field: whereas the battoon is cut off at each end. See.
Plate CXLVII. fig. 16.
SCARPANTO, an illand in the Mediterranean, twenty
miles fouth-wefl of Rhodes: E. long. 270, N. lat. 36°.
SCARUS, in ichthyology. SeeLaBuus.
SCAVENGERS, two officers annually chofen in every pa-
rifh in London and its fuburbs by the church-wardens,
conftables, and other inhabitants, to hire perfons called
rakers, with carts, to clean the'ftreets, and carry away
the dirt and filth, with the affies and duft from every
houfe.
SCENE, in its primary fenfe, denoted a theatre, or the
place where dramatic pieces and other public ffiews were
exhibited: for it does not appear that the ancient poets
were at all acquainted with the modern way of changing
the fcenes in the different parts of the play, in order to raife
the idea of the perfons reprefented by the aftors being in
different places.
The original feene for a£Hng of plays was as fimple as
the reprefentations themfelves: it confifted only of a plain
plot of ground proper for the occafion, which was in fome
degree (haded by the neighbouring trees, whofe branches
were made to meet together, and their vacancies fupplied
with boards, (licks, and the like; and to complete the
(belter, thefe were fometimes covered with (kins, and
fometiraes with only the branches of other trees newly
cut down, and full of leaves. Afterwards more artificial
fcenes or fcenical reprefentations were introduced, and
paintings ufed inftead of the objedts themfelves. Scenes
were then of three forts; tragic, comic, and fatyric.
The tragic feene reprefented (lately magnificent edifices,
with decorations of pillars, (lames, and other things fuit-
able to the palaces of kings : the comic exhibited private
houfes with balconies and windows, in imitation of com¬
mon buildings: arid the fatyric was the reprefentation of
groves, mountains, dens, and other appearances ; and
thefe decorations either turned on pivots, or (lid along
grooves, as thofe in our theatres. -
Scene is alfo a part 01: divifion of a dramatic poem.
Thus plays are divided into afts, and adls are again fub-
divided into fcenes ; in which fenfe the feene is properly
the perfons prefent at, or concerned in, the a£Hon on the
(tage at fuch a time: whenever, therefore, a new a<5tor
appears, or an old one difappears, the adtion is changed
into other hands; and therefore a new feene then com¬
mences.
SCENIC games, among theancients, were entertainments
exhibited on the feena or theatre, including plays, dan¬
cing, and other theatrical performances.
SCENOGRAPHY, in perfpeflive, the reprefentation of a
body on a perfpe£tive plane ; or, a defeription thereof in
all its dimenfions, fuch as it appears to the eye. See
Perspective.
SCEPTER, a kind of royal (laff, or battoon, borne by
kings on folemn occafions, as an enfign of command and
authority.
SCEPTICISM, the doftrines and opinions of the fceptics,
whofe didinguiffiing tenet was, that all things are uncer¬
tain and incomprehenfible, and that the mind is never to
affent to any thing, but to remain in perpetual doubt and
fufpenfe. This dnftrine was alfo called pyrrhonifm,
from the name of its'author. See Pyrrhontans.
SCHAFFHOUSE, the capital of the canton of Schaflhoufe,
one of the mod northern cantons of Switzerland: E.
long. 8° 40', N. lat. 47° 42'.
SCHALHOLT, the capital o( Iceland, (ubje£t to Denmark :
W. long. 190, N. lat. 64° 3c/.
SCHAMACHIA, a city of Perfia, in the province of Chif-
van, fituated on the wed fide of the Cafpian fea, in E.
long. jo'j- N. lat. 41°.
SCHELD, a river which rifes in the confines of Picardy,
and runs north-ead by Cambray, Valenciennes, Tourhay,
Oudenarde, and receiving the Lis at Ghent, runs
ead by Dendermond, and then north to Antwerp; below
which city it divides into two branches; one called the
Weder-Scheld, which feparates Flanders from Zejand,
and difeharges itfelf into the fea near Fluffing; and the
other called the Oder-fcheld, which runs by Bergen-op-
zoom, and afterwards between the ifiands Beveland and
Schowen, and a little below falls into the fea.
SCHELLING, an idand of Holland, at the entrance of
the Zuyder fea, between Flie Idand and Ameland : E.
long. 50 20', N. lat. 530 34'.
SCHEMNITZ, capital of the mine towns in Upper Hun¬
gary, fixty miles north.ead of Prefburg.
SCHENECTIDA, a fortrefs of New-York, in America,
fituated on Hudfon’s River, in the province of Albany,
a hundred miles north of New York city.
SCHETLAND, about forty idands, which conditute part
of the country Of Orkney, or the Orcades, in Scotland,
valuable on account of the herring-fiffiery on their (bores :
fituated between i° ead and 2° wed longitude, and be¬
tween 6i° and 62° of north latitude.
SCHIRAS, or Sheras, a city of Perfia, in the province
of Fars, 180 miles fouth of Ifpahan ; reckoned the fe-
Cond city in that kingdom.
SCHISM, a feparation, or breaking off from communion
with any church; on account of fome difagreement in
matters of faith or difeipline.
SCHOENUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria mono-
gynia clafs. The glumse are paleaceous, and have but
one valve; it has no corolla, and but one round feed.
The fpecies are 13, five of them natives of Britain.
SCHOLASTIC, fomething belonging to the fchools, See
School.
SCHOLIAST, a grammarian, who writes fcholia, that is,
notes, gloffes, <bc. upon ancient authors, who have writ¬
ten in the learned languages. See the next article.
SCHOLIUM, a note, annotation, or remark, occafionally
made on fome paffage, propofition, or the like. This
term is much ufed in geometry, and other parts of ma¬
thematics, where, after demondrating a propofition, it is
cudomary to point out how it might be done fome other
way, or to give fome advice, or precaution, iq order to
prevent midakes, or add fome particular ufe, or applica¬
tion thereof.
SCHOOL, a public place, wherein the languages, or arts
and fciences are taught. Thus we fay, grammar-fchool,
writing-fehool, drc.
SCHWALBASH, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, and in the territory of the Wetteraw,
and county of Naffau, eight miles north of Mentz.
SCHWALBEA, ia botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
giofpermia clafs. The calix confids of four fegments,
tbs
SCI ( 570 V S C o
the fup-erior tube being leaft,- and the lowed larged.
, There is hut one fpecies, a n aive of America, h
SGHWAR.TS8URG, a town of Germany, in the circle
6,f Upper Saxony, and lai)dgrave of Thuringia, eight
miles fouth eafl: of Gotha.
SCH WARTZENBURG, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Franconia, 'twenty miles eaft of Wurtfburg.
SCHWATS, a town of Germany, in the county of Tyrol,
fitua'ted dn the nver Inn, twenty miles north-eall of In-
• fpruc. , ,
SGHWEIDNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the duchy of
Sil-efia, fapital of a duchy of the fame name, fituated
twenty fix miles fouth of Breflaw.
8CHWEINFURT, an imperial city of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Wimfburg, fitua¬
ted on the river Maine : in E. long. jo° 1 yT N. lat.
• 50% 1
SCI-rENA, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order
of thoracici. The membrane of the gills has fix rays ;
the opercrjla and whole head are fcaiy. There are five
fpecies.
SCIARRI, in natural hiflory, the matter which runs down
in burning torrents from the craters of volcanos, and
which probably ebntsins mineral and metallic particles,
it being ponderous and hard.
Some of the fciarri are coarfe, and others fine and po-
lifhed on the furface ; fome of them are black, others
grey, others reddifb, and others of the colour of iron,
and many of them have coverings of pure fulphur over
their whole fiirface. They feem to be the refult of ma¬
ny forts pf minerals melted together.
SCIATICA. See Medicine, p. :s8.
■SCIENCE, in philoiophy, denotes any dprSrine, deduced
’ from felf-evident and certain principles, by a regular de-
morlflration.
"SCILLA, the Squill, in botany, a genus of the hexan-
dria monogynia clafs. The corolla confilts of fix open,
deciduous petals; and the filaments refemble threeds.
There ^re eight fpecies, two of them natives of Britain,
viz. the bifolia, or vernal (far-hyacinth ; and the autum-
nalis, or lefler autumnal ftar-byacinth.
The middle part of the root of the fcilla maritirna, a
a native of Spain, is only ufed in medicine : the apothe¬
caries cut the root perpendicularly in two ; and feparating
the heart and the outer parts, "they expofe the others to
dry. This root is extremely acrid, attenuant, and diflbl-
vent: it is apt to prove emetic in whatever form it is given;
but this may be prevented, by adding a few grains of-
ciunamen to it : it then becomes a powerful medicine in
all obftruffions of the vifeera ; it promotes urine and the
menfes, and cuts the tough phlegm which almoft choaks
in tflhmas and many other diforders of the breaft.
SCILLY. a clufler of iflands and rodcs, fituated in the
Atlantic ocean : W. long. y°, N. lat. yc'®.
SCIO, an ifland of Turky. in the Archipelago, fituated in
E long. 27 VN. lat. 38° lyC
SCIQPTIC, a fphere, or globe of wood, with a circular
hole or perforation, wherein a lens is placed. It is- fo
fitted, that, like the eye of an animal, it rpay be turned
round every way, to be ufed in making experiments of
the darkened room.
SCIRO, an-ifland of Turky, in the Archipelago, fituated
E. long. 25°, N. lat.' 38° 15'.
SCIRPUS, m botany, a genus of the tnaodria monogynia
clals. The .glu. ae are paleaceous . aud imbricated ; it
. has no corolla, and ut one beardiefs feed. The fpecies
are 27, ten of bich are nat-ves of Britain
SCIRRHUS,, in lurgery,and medicine, a hard tumour of
any payt of the body, void-.of pain, anfing from the in-
fpifiation and induration ^.pf, the fluids contained in a
gland; though it may appear in any other part, efpecially
in the fat, being one of the wavs wherein an inflammation
terminates. See Me-dicine and Surgery.
SCIURUS. the Squirrel, a genus of quadrupeds be-
longing to the order of glires. It teas two fore-teeth in
each jaw, the fuperior ones lhaped like wedges, and the
inferior ones compieffed. There are eleven fpecies.
♦ The vulgaris, or common fquirrel, which is a native of
moll fouthern parts Qf Europe, has a pencil of hairs on
the top of the ears, four toes on the fore-feet,-and live
on the hind ones : In the fummer, it is‘of a reddifn co¬
lour, w(th a white belly ; in the winter, it is of a blueifh
alh-colour. The fquirrel is a very aftive animal; it feeds
upon nuts, berries which it carries to its mouth by
the fore-fe't : It lays up its fuperfluous food in holes;
•and makes a round neft of mofs.
SCL \REA, in-botany. See Salvia.
SCLAVONIA, a province fubjeft to the houfe of Auflria,
and bounded on the north-caff by the rivers Drave and
Danube, which feparate it from Hungary ; being about
two hundred miles long, and fixty broad.
It takes its name from the Sclavi, an ancient people
. of European Scythia ; from whom is I kewife derived the
Sclavonic language, which is f id- to be the moil exten-
five language in the world, except the Arabic ; as being
the common mother of the Rulfian, Hungarian, Polifh,
Bulgarian, Carinthian, Bohemian, &£■. languages.
SCLERANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the decandria
digynia clafs. The caiix confifls df one leat ; it has no
corolla ; and the feeds are two, mclofed in the caiix.
There are three fpecies, two pf them natives of Britain,
viz. the annuus, german knot-grafs, or annual knawel ;
and the perennis. orperermial knawel.
SCLEROTICA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 289.
SCLEROTICS, medicines proper to harden and cenibhdate
the fltfh of the parts to which they are applied : as ]>ur-
flam, houfe-leek, fl, a-wort garden night-fliade, &c.
SCOLOPAX, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of grallae. The beak is cylindrical,'obtufe, and
longer than the head ; the nolfrils are linear ; the face
is covered ; and the feet have four toes*. There are 18
fpecies,
SCOLOPENDRA, in zoology, a genus of infedls belong¬
ing to the order of aptera. The feet are very numerous,
being as many on each fide as there are joints in the bo¬
dy ; the antennae'are fet'aceous ; there aie two jointed
pappi ; and the body is deprefled. There are eleven
fpecies. f
SCOLYMUS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefu' poly-
gamia aequalis dafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ; the
caiix is imbricated and p;i kiy ; and it has no pappus.
There are two fpecies, both natives of Taly.
SCOMBER, in ichthyology a genus belonging to the or¬
der of thoracici. • The head is fm&oih and comprefled;,
and there are feven raiys in the gill-membrane. The fpe¬
cies are ten.
SCONE,,
SCO ( .
SCONE, or Scoow, a town of Scotland, near Perth, re¬
markable for bein^ the place where the kings of Scotland
were crowned,
SCOP ARIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confids of four fegments ; the
corolla is rotated, with four fegments ; and the capfule
has one cell, and two valves, containing many feeds.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
SCOPER, or Scuper-holes, in a (hip, are holes made
through the (ides, clofe to the deck, to carry off the wa¬
ter that comes from the pump,
SCORBUTUS, the Scurvy, See Medicine, p. 106.
SCORDIUM. See Teucrium.
SCORIA, or dross, among metallurgies, is the recre¬
ments of metals in fufion ; or, more determinately fpeak*
ing, is that mafs which is produced by melting metals and
ores, and when cold is brittle, and not di(foluble in wa¬
ter ; being properly a kind of glafs.
SCORIFICATION, in metallurgy, is the art of reducing
a body, either entirely, or in part, into fcoria.
SCORP/ENA,An ichthyology, a genus belonging to the
order of thoracici. The head is large and (harp ; the
eyes are near each other ; there are teeth in the jaws,
palate, and fauces ; and there are feven rays in the mem¬
brane of the gill. The fpecies are three.
SCORPIO, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging to the
order of aptera. It has eight feet, betides two frontal
claws ; the eyes are eight in number, three on each fide
of the thorax, and two op the back ; it has two claw-
(hap'ed palpi, a long jointed tail, with a pointed weapon
at the extremity ; it has likewife two combs (ituate be¬
twixt the breaftand abdomen. There are fix fpecies, all
natives of fouthern climates.
Scorpio, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
SCORPIURUS, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The pod is cylindrical, revolute, and in¬
tercepted with ifthmi. There are four fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain;
SCORZONERA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia po-
lygamia aecpualis clafs. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus is plumofe ; and the calix is imbricated with
fcales membranaceous afthe edges. There are 11 fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
SCOT, a cuftomary contribution laid upon all fubje&s ac¬
cording to their abilities. Whoever were afleffed to any
"contribution, though not by equal portions, were faid to
pay fcot and lot.
SCOTIA, in architecture, a femicircular cavity or channel
between the tores, in the.bafes of columns. See Archi¬
tecture.
SCQTISTS, a feCtof fchool-divines and philofophers, thus
called' from their founder J. Duns Scotus, a Scotilh cor¬
delier, who maintained the immaculate conception of the
virgin, or thaWhe was born without original fin, in op-
pofition to Thomas Aquinas and the Thomifts.
SCOTLAND, exclufive of the iflands, is fituated between
1° and 6° W. long, and between 54° 30' and 58° 30'
N. lat. being about three.hundred miles long from nonh
to fouth and from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles
broad, from call to weft.
Since the union with England, Scotland is divided into
thirty-three (hires, or counties, which all together fend
only thirty knights to parliament, by reafon the (hires of
Vod. HI.' N° 92. 2
;7i ) SCR
Bute and Cathnefs chufe only alternately, or every other
parliament, in their turns ; as do'thofe of Cromarty and
Nairn, Clackmannan and Kinrofs.
The royal boroughs of Scotland are fixty-five, but fo
clafted as to fend only fifteen burgeftes to parliament.
iVeou Scotland, Nova Scotia, one of the Britiftt colonics
in North America, is” ITtuated between 62° and 72° W.
long, and between 430 and 510 N. lat. being hounded by
the river of St Laurence on the north and north-weft ;
by the bay of St Laurence, and the Atlantic Ocean, 011
the eaft ; by the fame ocean, and New-England, on the
fouth ; and by Canada, on the weft.
SCOTOMIA, in medicine, a dizzinefs or fwimming in the
head, wherein the animal fpirits are fo whirled about, that
external objefls feem to turn round.
SCRATCH pans, in the Enghlh falt-works, a n?.me given
to certain leaden pans, which are ufually made about a
foot and half long, a foot broad, and three inch .* Jeep,
and have a bow, or circular handle of iron, by which
they may be drawn out with a hook, when the liquor in
the pan is boiling.
The ufe of thefe pans is to receive .a calcarion's earth,
of the nature of that which in'crufts our tea kettles, which
feparates from the water in boiling ; this fubrtanee they
call fcratch ; and thefe pans, being placed at the corners
of the falt-pan, where the heat is leaft violent, catch it
as it fubfides there.
SCREW, one of the fix mechanical powers. See Mecha-
. nics, p. 49.
SCRIBE, an officer among the Jews whofe bufinefs was to
write ; of which there'were three kinds : the firft and
principal of which were the feribes of the law, whofe of¬
fice was to write and interpret feripture ; thefe were in
great credit and efteem among the Jews, and had even
the precedency of the priefts and facrificers, and their
decifions were received with alraoft the fame refpe-ft as
the law of God itfelf: the fecond kind, properly called
feribes of the people, were a fort of magiftrates : and the
third were public notaries, or fecretaries of the council ;
which were the leaft confiderable.
The feribes, among the Romans, wrote out decrees,
or adts, and made out authentic copies of them.
SCRIBING, in joinery, &c. is a term ufed when qne
fide of a piece of fluff is to be fitted to another that is-ir¬
regular.
SCRIPTURE, an appellation given, by way of eminence,
to the facred and inspired writings of the Bible. See
Bible.
SCROPHULA, in medicine. See Medicine, p. 137,
&c.
SCROPHULARIA, in botany, a genus of the didyoamia
angiofpermia clafs. The calix has five fegments -, the
corolla is fomewhat globular ; and the capfule has two
cells. There are 14 fpecies, four of them natives of
Britain, viz. the nodofa, or knobby-rooted figwort ; the
aquatica, or water figwort ; the fedrodonia, or balm-
leaved figwort ; and the vernalis, or yellow figwort.
SCROTUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 271.
SCRUPI, in natural hiffory, foffils, formed imoJarge de¬
tached raaffes without crufts, and coaijofed of a varioufly
debaied cryftalline matter.
SCRUPLE, a weighrequal to the third part of a dram, or
to twenty grains.
7 E
SCRU-
S C U ( 572 ) SEA
SCRUTINY, a RriiS examination of a-ny thing.
SCULPTURE, an art by which, in raking away, or ad¬
ding to matter, all forts of figures are formed by the hand,
either in the Rone, wood, wax, or metal.. In its full
latitude it (ignifies both the art of working in creax, pro¬
perly called engraving; and of working in relievo, which
is more ftriftly called fculpmre.
The firlt works in fculpture were with clay, not only
in making (lames, but in forming models ; and to this
day a fculptor never undertakes any thing qonfiderable,
without forming a model, either in clay or wax. In ma
king figures of thefe materials, they begin and finifh their
woik with their bands, ufing only three or four pieces
of wood, which are roundifh at one end, and at the o-
ther flat, with a fort of claws and teeth, which are to
fmootb and fcratch the work. For waxen models, to e-
very pound of wax add half a pound colophony fome
add turpentine, and melt it together with oil ol olives ;
more or iefs of the latter being uf d as they would have
• the matter harder or fofter: fome alfo add a little vermi¬
lion, to give it a colour: this is wrought and . moulded
with the fingers like clay.
For fculpture in wood, which we properly call carving,
the firfl: thing required is to chofe wood proper for the
work *he fculptor is to perform If it be any thing large,
and that requires a great deal ef Rrength. and fohduy,
the bardeft and moil durable wood is to-be chofen; and
for fmaller works and ornaments, the fofter wood is ufed;
but it mud be fuch, however,' as is fi m and clofe: for a
large work, though it be only a Angle figure, it is better
to make ufe of feveral pieces of wood, or bits of board,
glued together, than of one whole piece, which iy more
liable to crack; for a thick piece of wood may nor be
dried to the heart, however it may appear on the outfide.
In fculpture in marble and other Rone, the firR thing
to be done is to faw out a block of marble, of the bignels
of the work to be performed ; and this being done, the
fuperfluities are to be taken off by a Rubbed point and a
heavy mallet; thus bringing it near the meafures requi¬
red, the fculptorreduces it Rill nearer with a finer tool,
called a dog’s tooth, it having two joints, but one not
fo fharp as the other. After this he makes ufe of his gra
dine, which is a flat cutting tool, with three teeth; he
then takes off; with a (mooth chiflel, the fcratches the
gradine left on the marble, and ufes it with dexterity and
delicacy, to give foftnefs and tendernefs to his figure; til!
at length, taking rafps of different degrees of finen'fs,
the work is gradually rendered fit for polifliing. To po’ifli
the work, the fcalptor ufes pumice-Rone and fmalt; then
he goes over it with tripoli; and when he would give it
more luRre, ruhs it with leather and draw afhes. There
are feveral other tools ufed by fculptors, adapted to the
different parts of the work, and the nature of the Rone
they make ufe of. As the models of day (brink as they
grow dry, whenever fculptors undertake a confiderable
piece of work, they only ufe the model for making a
mould of plaiRer or RuCco, in which is formed a figure
of the fame matter, which ferves them thenceforth for a
model, and by which they adjuR all their meafures and
proportions To proceed the more regularly, on the
head of the model they place an immoveable circle di¬
vided" into degrees, with a moveable tuie or index, fix¬
ed in the centre of the circle, and divided alio into e¬
qual parts: from the end of the rule hangs a line with a
plummet, which ferves to take all the points, to be tranf-
ferred thence to the block of marble, fiom whofe top
hangs another plummet, like that of the model. But
there ate fome excellent fculptors, who difapprove of tWs
method; urging, that the fmalieR motion of the model
changes their meafures, for which reafon they chufe ra¬
ther to take all their meafures with the compaffes.
SCUM, properly denotes the impurities whichja liquor,^ by
boiling, cads up to the furface.
The term fcum is alfo ufed for what is more properly
called the fcoria of metals
SCURVY, in medicine. See Medicne, p. 106.
Scurvy grass, in botany. See Cochlearia.
SCU FELLARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
gymnofpermia clafs. The calix is entiie on the edge,
is (hut after the flowering, and operculared. The fpecies
are 13, two of them natives of Britain, viz. the galeri-
culata, or hooded.willow-herb; and the minor, or leffer
hooded willow-hefB.
SCUTIFORME bs, in anatomy, the fame with rotula.
See Anatomy: p igj. ^
Scutiformis cartilago, in anatomy, the fame with
the thyroid cartilage See Anatomy, p. 300.
SCUTTLES, in a (hip, fquare holes cut-in the deck, big
enough to let in the body o*" a man, ferving to let people
down into any room below upon occafion, or from one
deck to another.
SCYTHI A. The northern parts of Europe and Alia were
■ anciently fo called, which afterwards obtained the name
of Tartary. *
SEA. is frequently ufed for that vaR tradl of water encom.
paffing the whole earth; but is more properly a part or di-
vifion of thefe waters, and is better defined akffer affem-
blage of water, which lietb before and wafhetb the coaRs
of fome particular countries from whence it is generally
denominated, es the Infh lea, the Mediterranean fea, the
Arabian fea drc.
Whit proportion the fuperficies of the fea bea^stothat
of the lahd is not precifely known, though it is faid to be
fomewbat morj than two thirds. As the waters of the
earth mull neceflarily rife to the furface thereof, as being
fpecifically lighter than the earth, it was neceffary there
fhould be large cavities therein for receptacles to contain
them; otherwife they would have overfpread all the (u-
perficies of the e .rth, and fo have rendered it utterly un¬
inhabitable for terreltrial animals , for the centre of the
earth being the common ceptre of gravi y. and the nature
of fluids being fuch that they equally yield to equal
powers, and the power of attraction being every where
equal at equal diRances from the centre, it "Follows, that
the fuperficial parts of the water will every where con¬
form themfelves to an equidiRant fituation from the cen¬
tre,. and confequently will form the furface of a fphere
fo far as they extend Hence, that the fea feems higher
than the earth or land, refults f. om the fallacy of vifion,
whereby all objects, and the parts of land as well as fea,
the farther they are off from us. the higher they appear;
the reafon of all which is plain from optics: for it is well
known, that the denfer any medium is through which
we behold objeffs, the greater is the refraftion, or the
more their ima'ges appear above the horizontal level; alfo
the greater quantity of the medium the rays pafs through,
the
SEA ( 573 ) S E A
the more will they be bent from their firft diredtion; o n
both thefe accounts the appeatances of things remote, and
on the fea, will be fomewhat above the horizon, and the
more fo as they are the more remote.
With regard to'the depth or profundity of the fea, Va-
remus affi-ms, that it is in feme places unfathomablej
and in other places very various, being in certain places
Tns<7't tri i-Ar 4i Englilh miles, in other places
deeper, and much lels in bays than in oceans. In general,
the depths of the fea bear a great analogy to the height
of mountains on the land, fo far as is hitherto dtfeovered.
There are two principal reafons why the fea doth not
increafe by means of rivers, &c. falling every where into
it. The firll is. becaufe waters return from the fea by
fuhterraneah cavities and aquedudb, through various patts
of the earth. Secondly, becaufe the quantity of vapours
raifed from the fea. and falling on the land, only caufe a
circulation, but no ihcreafe of water. It hath been found
by calculation, that in afummer’s day there may be raifed
in vapours, from the Mediterranean fea, 5280000000 tuns
of water ; and yet this fea receiveth not, from all its
nine great nvers, above 1S27000000 tuns per day,
which is but a third part of what isexhaqiled in vapours.
W’th regard to the faltnefs of the lea-water, it is very
rationally judged to anfe from great multitudes both of
mines and mountains of fait, difperfed here and there in
the depths of the fea. Dr Halley fuppofes that it is pro¬
bable the greateft part of the fea fait, and of all ialt lakes,
as the Cafpian fea, the Dead fea, the lake of Mexico,
and the m-tca in Peru, is derived from the water of
the rivers which they receive ; and fince this fort of lakes
has no exit or difeharge, but by the* exhalation of va¬
pours ; and alfo fince thefe vapours are entirely frefh, or
devoid of ftrch particles; it is certain the faltnefs of the
lea and fuch lakes mull, from jime to time increafe, and
therefore the‘aknefs at this tiit^e is greater than at any
time heretofore He further adds, that if, by experi¬
ments made in different ages, we could find the different
quantity of lalt which the fame quantity of water (taken
up in the fame place, and in all other the fame ctrcum-
ftances) would affird, it would be eafy from thence, by
rules of proportion, to find the age of the world very
nearly, or the time wherein it has been acquiring its pre¬
sent faltnefs.
With regard to the ufe of.this fait property of fea-
water, it is obferved, that the faltnefs of the fea preferves
its waters pure and fweet, which otherwife would corrupt
and dink like a filthy lake, and confequently that none
of myriads of creature that now live theie n cuuld then
have a being. From thence alfo the fea-weter becomes
much heavier, and therefore {hips of greater fize and
quantity may be ufed thereon. Salt water alfo doth not
freeze fo foon as frefh water, whence the feas are more
free for navigation. We have lately had pubidbed a
dilfertation, by Dr Ruffe!, concerning the medical ufes of
feu-water in difeafes of the glands, &c. wherein the author
premifes fome obfervations upon, the nature of feu-water,
confidered as impregnated with particles of ull the bodies
it paffes over, fuch as fubmarine plants, fi(h fairs, mine¬
rals, 6v. and faturated with theirfeveral efiluVia, to enrich,
it, and keep it from putrefaiflion ; hence this fluid is fup'
pofed to contraft a foapinefs, and the whole collet ion, being
pervaded by the fulphureous fleams gaffing through it, to.
conftitute what we call fea water, tlie eonfeffed difiin.
guifliing charaifteriflics of which are faltnefs, bittefnefs,
nitrolity, and un^luofitywhence the author concludes,
that it may be juflly expefted tef contribute lignally to the
improvement of phyfic. The cafes in which our author
informs us we are to expeift advantage from fea-water,
are, 1. In all recent obflrudlions of the . glands of the
inceftines and mefentery. 2. All recent obflrudiohs of
the pulmonary glands, and thofe of the vifeera, which
frequently produce confumptions. 3 . All recent glan¬
dular fwellings of the neck, or other parts. 4. Recent
tumours of the joints, if they are not fuppurated, or be¬
come feirrhous, or cancerous, and have not carious bones
for their caule. 5. Recent defludlions upon the glands
of the eye-lids. 6. All defoedations of the flein, from an
eryfipelas, to a lepra. 7 Difeufes of the glands of the
nofe, with their ufual companion a thicknds of the lip.
8. Ohftru<ftions of'the kidneys, where there is no in¬
flammation, and thedlonenot large. 9. In recent ob-
ftrudtions of the liver this method will be proper, where
it prevents 'onftipations of the belly, and aflifls other me¬
dicines directed in idteric cafes. The fame remedy i$
faid to be of fignal fervice in the bronchocele ; and is like*
wife recomm-nded for the prevention of thofe bilious co¬
lics that fo frequently affed o^r mariners.
To nvike fea-water freflr is a thing long and muchv
wanted, for the advantage of navigation and commerce ;
a method for doing which has been long-ago invented by
Mr Hauton, and the fecret publilhed in the Philof.
Tranrfaft. It is performed by precipating the water with
oil of tartar, and then diflill ng it. But Mr Appleby’s
procefs, which was referred by the lords of the admiralty to
the college of phyficians, and communicated to the royal
fociety, with fome experiments therewith, on Feb. 8, 1753.
appears to be more fuccefsful, and is performed thus: Into
twenty gallons of fea-water put fix ounces of a fixed al¬
kali prepared with quick .lime as (Irong as lapis infernalis,
and fix ounces of bones calcined to a whitenefs, and
finely powdered; with a flow’fire, draw off, in a commoii
ftill, fifteen gallons. Mr Appleby conceives that the al¬
kali here employed is the belt adapted to prevent the bi¬
tuminous matter in fea water from riling by heat in
dillillation.
In the year 17 55, a method of procuring any quantity,
of frelh water at fea was publilhud by Dr Butler ; toge¬
ther with a method alfo of preferring freflrwater entirely
pure, fweet, and wholefome, during the longed voyage,
and in the warmelt climates. The method more exprefs-
ly recommended by the doAor for making fea-water frelh
is to put a meafured vine-quart of the ftrongeft foap leys
to fifteen gallons of fea-water; which being difiilled, he
affures us. will generally yield twelve gallons of frefh
water. The above quantity of foap leys, we are told,
will - ear a repetition of the fame quantity of water four
or five times.
This me hod of Dr Butler was tried, by order of the
lords of the admiralty, at the fame time with Mr Apple¬
by’s : but the latter, being found to be performed with
a lefs quantity of fuel, was preferred.
In order to keep fr'elh water fweet, Df Butler direifls
to take of fine, clear, white pearl-afhes, a quarter of a
pound avoirdupoife, and put into one hundred gallons of
frefh water j oblerving this proportion to a greater or lefs
quantity,..
SEC ( 574 )
quantity, and flop up your caflc as ufua!, till you have oc-
cafion to broach it.
For the ebbing and flowing of the fea, fee Astro¬
nomy, p.473.
Seamen, fuch as are referved to ferve the king, or other
perfons, at fea, who may not depart without licenfe.
Seamen fighting, quarrelling, or making any dif-
turbance, may be puniihed by the commifiioners of the
navy with fine and imprifonment. Regiftered feamen
are exempted from ferving in any parifll office, and
are allowed bounty-money befidcs their pay. By the law
of merchants, the fea-men of a veffel are accountable to
the mafter or commander, and the mailer to the owners,
and the owners to the merchants, for damage fuftained
either by negligence or otherwife. Where a feaman is
hired for a voyage, aad he deferts it before it is ended,
lie fliall lofe his wages ; and in cafe a fliip be loft by a
tempeft, or in a ftorm, the feamen lofe their wages, as
well as the owners their freight.
SEAFORD, a port-town of Suffex, fituated on the En-
glilh channel, feven miles fouth of Lewes. It fends two
members to parliament.
SEAL, a puncheon, or piece of metal, or other matter,
ufually either round or oval, wfiereon are engraven the
arms, device, 6^. of Lome prince, ftate, community,
magiftrate or private perfon, often with a legend or fub-
fcription, the impreflion whereof in wax ferves to make
a&s, inftruments, &c. authentic.
Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the impreflion
thereon, affixed to the thing fealed.
Seal, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xii. 25.
SEALER, an officer in chancery appointed by the lord
chancellor or keeper of the great feal to feal the writs
and inftruments there made in his prefence.
SEALING, in architedhire, the fixing a piece of wood or
• iron in a wall with plafter, mortar, cement, lead, and
other folid binding. For ftaples, hinges and joints, pla-
fier is very proper.
Sealing-wax. See Wax.
SEAM or Seme of corn, is a meafure of eight buffiels.
Seam ofglafs, the quantity of 120 pound, or 24 ftones, each
, five pounds weight. The feam of wood is an horfe-load.
SEAR cloth, or Cere-cloth, in furgery, a form of
external remedy fomewhat harder than an unguent, yet
fofter than an emplafter, though it is frequently ufed both
for the one and the other. The fear-cloth is_always fup-
pofed to have wax in its compofition, which diftinguilhes
ana even denominates it. In effedt, when a liniment or
unguent has wax enough in it, it does not differ from a
fear-cloth.
SEASIN, in a fhip, the name of a rope by which the boat
rides by the (hip’s fide when in harbour, &£•.
SEASONS, in cofmography, certain portions or quarters
of the year, diftinguilhed by the figns which the earth
then enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the fun, con-
fequent on which are different temperature? of the'air,
different works in tillage, fcc. The year is divided into
four feafons; fpring, fummer, autumn, and winter. See
Astronomy, p. 546.
St. SEBASTIAN, a port-town of Spain, in theprovince of
Bifcay, and territory of Guipufcoa : fituated in W. long.
i° 50', N. lat. 430 35'.
SECALE, Rye, in botany, a genus of the triandria digy-
S E C
nia clafs. The involucrum confifts of two leaves, -and
contains two flowers. There are four fpecies, only one
of them, the villofum, or wood rye-grafs, a native
of Britain. For the cerealia, or common rye cultivated
in our fields, fee Agriculture, p. 61.
SECANT, in geometry, is a line that cuts another, or di¬
vides it into two pam. &
SECEDERS, a fedl cf Prefbyterians, who diflented from
the eftabliffied church of Scotland in the year 1733. The
followingcircumftance gave rife to this fe<5t. Meff. Erfkine,
Wilfon, MoncrlefF, and Fifher, minifters of the church
of Scotland, ohftinately refufed, for feveral years, to o-
bey the decifions of the General Affembly with regard to
the fettlement of minifters agreeably to the law of patro¬
nage : For this open contempt of authority, the Aflem-
bly, after many and repeated admonitions, were at laft
obliged to ejeA them from their refpe&ive charges. Thtfe
four clergymen, when they faw matters carried this
length, immediately complained of perfecution; profefled
uncommon famftity and aufterity of manners ; and cried
out that the church was over-run with various errors,
fuch as, a compliance with the law of patronage : the
tendernefs of the affembly to Profeffors Simfon and Camp¬
bell, -who were accufed of Arian and Arminian herefies;
and a multitude of practical deviations from the cove¬
nanted reformation of Scotland : They even inveighed
againft the conduct of the government for their ready ad-
miffion of malignant and wicked men into places of truft
in the army and ftate : for the loofe and unlimited refto-
ration of Charles II. to the throne; for ilje reftoration
of prelacy in England, which had been folemnly abjured ;
for reftonng the fuperftitious Chriftmas vacance ; for the
repeal of the penal laws againft Pitches, &c. &c. Thefe
things, joined to the popular talents of fome of the a-
bove micifters, alarmed the minds of many well-meaning
people, and in a few years procured a numerous train of
followers. Elated with this unexpe&ed fuccefs, they
foon iplit into two parties. The chief point of contefl
among the leaders of this fe<ft was concerning the lawful-
nefs of what is called the burgefs-oath ; and hence the
one party have ever fince been called Burghers, and the
other Antiburghers. This divifion naturally weakened
their caufe, and diminifhed their number, which ftill
feems to be upon the decline.
SECOMIAT., in natural hiftory, the name of a genus of
foflils, of the clafs of the feptariae, the characters of
which are; that they are bodies of a dufky hue, divided
by fepta, or partitions of a fparry matter, into feveral
more or lefs regular portions, of a moderately firm tex¬
ture, not giving fire with fteel,- but fermenting with acid
menftrua, and eafily calcining.
The feptariae of this genus are, of all others, the moft
common, and are what have been known by the little ex-
preffive, or miflaken names of the waxen vein, or Indus
heimontii. We have many fpecies of thefe bodies com¬
mon among us. Of the whitiffi or browmfh kinds we
have thirteen ; of the yeliowifh five ; and of the ferrugi-
neous ones, four.
SECOND, in geometry, chronology, 'be. the fixtieth part
of a prime or minute, whether ot a decree, or of an hour.
Second, in mufick, one of the mufical, intervals ; being
only the difference between any found and the next near-
eft found, whethef above or below it.
SECON-
S E G ( 575 ) S E C
SECONDARY, in general, rornething that acts as.fecond,
Of-in lubordmation to..another. -
SECRETARY, an officer who by his mailer’s orders writes
letters, dilpatches, and other inftrum?nts, which he ren¬
ders authentic by his fignet. Of thefe there are feveraf
kinds-,138, i. Secretaries of ftate, who are officers that
have under their management and direction the moll im¬
portant affairs of the kingdom, and are obliged conllant-
ly to attend on the king: they receive and difpatch what¬
ever comes to their hands, either from the crown, the
church, the army, private grants, pardons, difpeofa-
tions, &c. as likewife petitions to the fovereign; which
when read, are returned to them; all which they difpatch
according to the king’s dire&ion. They have authority
to commit perfons for treafon, and other offences againll
the Hate, as confervators of the peace at common law,
or as jullices of the peace throughout the kingdom. They
are members of the privy-council, which is feldom or
never held without-one of them being prefent: and as to
the bufinefs and correfpondence in all parts of this king¬
dom, it is managed by either of the fecretaries without
any diflindtion : but with refpeft to foreign affairs the
bufinefs is divided into .two provinces, or departramts,
the fomhern and the northern, comprehending all the
kingdoms and Hates that have any intercourfe with "Great
Britain ; each fecretary receiving all letters and addreffes
from, and making all difpatcbrt. to, the feveral princes
and Hates comprehended in his province. Ireland and
the Plantations are under the diredlion of the elder fecre¬
tary, who has the fouthern province, which alfo com¬
prehends France, Italy. Switzerland, Spain, Portugal,
and Turky : the northern province includes the Low
Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden. Poland, and
Mufcovy. Each of the fecretaries have an apartment in
all the royal houfes, both for their own accommodation
and their officers ; they have alfo a table at the king’s
charge, or elfe board-wages. The two lecretarks of
Hate have each two under fecretaries, and one chief
clerk, with an uncertain number of other clerks and tranf-
lators, all wholly depending on them To.the fecreta¬
ries of Hate belong the cuflody of that feal properly called
the fignet, and the direftion of two other offices, one,
called the paper»office, and the other the fignet office.
2. Secretary of an embafly, a perfon attending ah am-
baffador for writing difpatches relating to the negociation.
There is a great difference between the fecre'ary of an
embaffy. and the ambaffador’s fecretary ; the lafl being a
domeftic or menial of the ambaffadori and the firH a fer-
vant or minifter of the prince 3. The lecretary of war,
an officer of the war-office, who has two chief clerks un¬
der him, the laH of which is the fecretary’s mtffenger.
There are alfo fecretaries in moll of the other offices.
SECRETION, the reparation of fome fluid from the blood
by means of the glands.
In the bodies of animals we obferve a great number of
juices of different natures vrz the blood, lympha, fa-
liva, Homach liquor, inteflinai juices, pancreatic juice,
bile, urine, i£ro. and the blood is the general fource of
all. See Blood, Lymph, Saliva,
SECT, a colle&ive term, comprehending all fuch as fol-.
low the doflrines and opinions of fome famous divine,
philofopn^r. ebc.
SEC HON in general, denotes a part of a divided thing,
Vol. III. N°. 93, 2
or the divifion itfelf. Such, particularly, are the fub*
divifions of a chapter; called alfo paragraphs and arti*
clesthe mark of a fe<5tipn is §.
Section, in geometry, denotes a fide or furface appear¬
ing of a body or figure cut by another ; or the place
where lines, planes, cut each other.
SECTOR, in geometry, is a part of a circle comprehend}-
ed between two radii and the arch ; or it is a mixed tri¬
angle, formed by two radii and the arch of a circle.
Sector is.alfo a mathematical inHrument, of great ufe in
finding the proportion between quantities of the fame
kind, as between lines and lines, furfacek and furfaces,
for which reafoa the French call it the compafs of
proportion.
The great advantage of the fe&or above common fcale,
ifrc. is, that it is adapted to all radii, and all feales.
For, by the line of chords, fines, tangents, on the
fedtor, we have lines of chords, fines, tangents, ad¬
apted to any radius betwixt the length and breadth of
the fedtor, when opened.
The fedtor is founded on the fourth propofnion of the
fixth book of Euclid, where it is demonflrated, that fi-
milar triangles have their homologous fides proportional.
SECULAR, fomething that is temporal ; in which fenfe,
the word Hands oppofed to ecclefiaflical: thus we fay,
fecular power, fecuiar jurifdidtion,
Secular games, /uz/J fecularei, in antiquity, folemn
games held among the Romans once in an age. Thefe
games lafied three days and as many nights, during which
time facrifices were performed, theatrical (hews exhibi¬
ted, with combats, fports, &c. in the circus. The oc-
cafion of thefe games, according to Valerius Maximus,
was to Hop the progrefs of a plague. The firH who had
them celebrated at Rome was Valerius Publicoia, the SrH
conful created after the expulfion of the kings. The
ceremonies to be obferved therein were found preferibed
in one of the books of the Sibyls. At the time of the
celebration of the fecular games, heralds were fer.t
throughout all the empire, to intimate that veveiy one
might come and fee thole folemnities which he never yet
had feen, nor was ever to fee again. Authors are not
agreed as to the number of years wherein thefe games re¬
turned, partly becaufe the quantity of an age or fecuium
among the ancients is not known, and partly On other
accounts; fome will have it that they were held every
hundred years, and that the fecuium or age was our cen-
tury.
SECULARIZATION, the a<H of converting a regular
perfon. place, or benefice, into a fecular one
SECUNDINES, in anatomy, the feveral cost's or mem¬
branes wherein the fetus is wrapped up in the mother’s
womb, as the chorion and amnios, with the placenta,
See Midwifery.
SECURIDACA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia ce-
candria clafs. The calix confifis of three leaves ; the
corolla is papilionaceous, with a vexilluro; and the pod
is oval, and contains one feed. There are two fpecies,
both natives of America.
SECUTORES, in "antiquity, a kind of gladiators among
the Romans, who fought againil the retiarii. The fecu-
tores were armed with a fword and a buckler, to keep off
the net or n iofe of their antagoniffs, and they wore a cafic
on their head.
7F
This
S E G C 57* ) S E L
This was'alfj a name given to fuch glidutors as took
the place of thofe killed in the combat, or who fought
the conqueror.
SEDAN, a town of Cha’mpagne, in France, fituated on the
river Maes : in E. long, 40- qj',' N. !at, 49° 46'.
^SEDERUNT, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. i. 4.
SEDIMENT,J tfte fettlement op dregs ofany thing, or that
. grofs heavy part of a fluid body which, upon refting,
(inks to the bottom of the veflel.
SEDITION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 13.
SEDR, or Sedre, the high pried of the fed! of Ali a-
mong the Perfians. The fedr is appointed by the empe¬
ror of'Ferfta, who tifually confers the dignity oh hisnear-
t'i relation. The jurifdkhion of the fedr extends over
ali deftined for pious purpofes, over all mofques,
fcofpkals, colleges, fepulchres, and monafteries. He
difpofes of all ecelefiaftical employments, and nominates
all the fuperiors of teligions houfes. His decifions in
matters of religion are received as fo many infallible ora-
cles ; he judges of all criminal matters in his own houfe
without appeal. His authority is balanced by that of the
mudfitehid, or firft theologue of the empire.
SEDUM, in botany, a genus of the decandria pentagynia
clafs.. The calix conliils of five fegments, pnd the co
rclla of five petals ; it has five nedariferous feales at the
bafe of the germen, and five capfules. There are 19
fpecies, nine of them natives of Britain, all orpines and
honfe-leeks
SEED, in phyfiology, a fubdance prepared by nature for
the reproduction and confervation of the fpecies both
in animals and plants. See Generation, and Agri¬
culture, p. 40.
SEEDLINGS, among gardeners, denote fuch' roots of
gilliflowers, lire, as come from feed fown. Alfo the
young tender fiioots of any plants that are newly fown.
SEEDY, in the brandy trade, a term ufed by the dealers,
todenote a fault that is found in feveral parcels ofFrehch
brandy, which renders them unfaleable The French
fuppofe that thefe brandies obtain the flavour which they
exprefs by this name from weeds that grow among the
' vines from whence the wine of which this brandy is made
was prefled,
SEEING, the aft of perceiving objefts by the organ of
fight; or it is the fenfe we have of external objefts by
means of thdeye, , See Opt 1 cs.
SEELING, in the manege. A horfeis faidto feel when he
begins to have white eye brow!*, that is, when there
grows on that part about the breadth of a farthing of
white hairs, mixed with thofe of his natural colour,
which is a mark of old age. It is faid, that a horfe ne¬
ver feels till he is fourteen years old, and always does
before he is fixteen years.
Seeling, at fea, is ufedinthe fame fenfe nearly with heeling:
when a {hip lies down conftantly, or Iteadily bn one fide,
the feamen fay Ihe“heels; and they call it feeling when
{he tumbles violently and fuddenly, by reafonof the fea
forfaking her, as they call it, that is, the weaves leaving
her for a time in a bowling fea.
SEGEDIN, a city of Upper Hungary, fituated on the ri¬
ver Teyfie, in E. long. 210, N. lat. 46° 21'.
SEGESWAEE, a city of Tranfylvania, fituated E. Ion.
. 24V N, lat. 47° 25’.
SEGMENT 0/a circle, in geometry, that part of the circle
contained between a chord and anarch of the fame circle.
SEGOVIA, a city of Manila, the largeft of the PhihppiBe
iflands, fituated inE. long^. 1190, N. lat. i3° 30'.
This is alfo a name of a city of Spain, in the province
of 0:d Cailile, fituated W. long. 40 35', N. lat 410.
SEGRA, a river of Spam, which rifing in the north of Ca¬
talonia, and running fouth weft, difeharges itfelf into the
Ebro, at Miquinenea.
SEGREANT, is the herald’s word for a griffon, when
drawn in a leaping pofture, and difplaying his wings as if
ready to fly.
SEGUE, in the Italian mufick, is often found before aria,
alleluja, amen, &c. to fliew that thofe portions or parts
are to be fung immediately after the laft note of that part
over whi.h it is writ ; but if thefe' words ft place, or ad
libitum, are joined therewith, it fignifies, that thefe por¬
tions may be fung or not, at pleafure.
SEGURA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira,
ten miles north-weft of Alcantara. This is alfo the
name of a town in Spain, in the province of New Caftile,
and territory of La Mancha, fuuated among the moun¬
tains of Segura; W. long. i° jo', N. lat. 38° 25'.
SEJ \NT, a term ufed in heraldry, when a lion, or other
beaft, is drawn, in an efcutcheon, fitting like a cat, with
his fore feet ftrait.
SEIZURE, in commecce, an arreft of fome merchandize,
moveable, or other matter, either in confequence of fome
law, or of fome exprefs order of the fovereign.
SEISIN, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. x. 1,6.
SELAGO, in botany, a genus of the didynamia aftgio-
fpermia clafs of plants. The calix has five fegments; the
tube of the corolla is capillary , and there is but one feed.
The fpecies are eight, none of them natives of Britain.
SELBY, a town of Yorkfiiire, fituated ten miles fouth of
York.
SELENDERS, in the manege, are chops, or mangy fores,
in the bending oi a horfe’s hough, as the malenders are
in the knees. See Farriery.
SELENITiE, moon stone, in natural hiftory, a clafs of
fofliis, naturally and effentialty fimple; not inflammable
nor foluble in water; compofed of flender filaments, ran¬
ged into fine a .d even thin Hakes, and thofe difpofed into
regular figures, in the different genera, approaching to
a rhomboide, a hexangular column, or a reftangled ine¬
quilateral parallelogram; fiflile like the talcs, but that not
only hortmntally, but perpendicularly alfo; flexile in a
fmaH degree, but not at all elaftic ; not fermenting with
acid menftrua, and readily calcining in the fire.
SELENOGRAPHY, a branch of cofmography, which de-
feribes the moon and all the parts and appearances thereof,
as geography does thofe of the earth
SELEUCIDeE, in chronology. AEraofthe Seleucidac, or
the Syro-macecionian sera, is a computation of time com¬
mencing from the eftablifhment of the Seleucid®, a race
of Greek kings, who reigned as fucceflbrs of Alexander
the Great in Syria, as the Ptolemies did in Egypt. This
sera we rind exprefLd m the book of the Maccabees, and
on a great number of Greek medals ftruck by the cities
of Syria, <bc. The Rabbins call it the asra of coutrafts j
and tl\e Arabs, Therik dilkarnain, that is, the sera of the
two, boras. According to the beft accounts, the firft
yeas.
S E M ( .5
year of this seta falls in the year 311 before Chr'.ft, be¬
ing twelve years after Alexander’s death.
SELINGENSKOY, a town of Afiatic Mufcovy, in the
province of Siberia, fituated on the road from Tobo’llci
to China, on. the river Selinga: in E, long. 65°, N.
lat. 50°.
SELINUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The fruit is fotnewhat oval, and ftriated in the
middle ; the involucrum is refle&ed; and the petals are
equal and cordated. There are four fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
SELKIRK, a borough town of Scotland, in the county of
Tweedale, firuated 32 miles fouth of Edinburgh.
SELLA Turcica. See Anatomy, p. 149.
SELTZER water, the name of a mineral water of Ger¬
many, which arifes near Neider Seitz, and is now ufed
in England and many other countries. We call it feltz,
or falizer water; and the phyficians prefcribe it in many
cafes, as fcurvies, fpafmodic affe&ions, and in coniump-
tions; in the Lftcafe, mixing it with alfes miik.
SEMIOTIC A, that part of medicine which confiders the
figns or indications ofhealth and difeafes, and enables the
pbyfician to judge what is, was, or will be, the Hate,
degree, order, and effeiL of health or ficknefs.
SEMENDRIA, a town of European Turky, in the pro¬
vince of Servia, fituated on the Danube, thirty miles
f-iith-eaft of Belgrade.
SEMENTINE/E feri^;, in antiquity, feafts held annu¬
ally among the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plentiful
harveit. They were celebrated in the temple of Tellus,
where folemn facrifices were offered to Tell us and Ce¬
res. Thefe feafls were held about feed-time, ufuaiiy in
the month of J.muary ; for Macrobius obferves, they
were moveable feafts.
SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifying half,
but only ufed in compofltion with other words, as in the
following articles.
Semi-circle, in geometry, half a circle, or that figure
comprehended between the diameter of a circle and half
the circumference.
Semi-colon, in grammar, r< of the points or flops ufed
to diftinguilh the feverai n i ers of fentences from each
other. See Punctuatiom.
The mark or charade; of the femi-colon is ( ; ) and
has its name as being fome what of lefs effed than a colon,
or as demanding a Ihorter paufe,
Semi-cupium, in medicine, an half bath, wherein the.pa¬
tient is only placed up to the navel.
Semi-diameter, half the diameter, or a right line drawn
from the centre of a circle, or fphere, to its circumfe¬
rence; being the fame with what is otherwife-calltd-the
radius.
SEMIFLOSCULUS, in botany, a term ufed to exppefs
the flowers cf the fyngenefia clafs. Thefe femiflofeuius
are petals, hoilcw in their lower part, but in their upper
flat, and continued in the fhape of a tongue.
SEMIGALIA, the eaftern diviflon of the duchy of Cour-
landin Polu; d.
SEMLINTEROSSEUS indicis, in anatomy. See A-
NATOMY, p. 201.
Semi lunar valves, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 178.
Semi-membranosus, n, anatomy. See Anatom y, p. 208.
Semi-pelagians, in church-hiftoryy a branch of the Pe-
•7 ) SEN.
lagians, fo called becaufe they pretended to keep a me_
dium between the Pelagians and the orthodox.
Semi to'ne, in rauiick, one of the degrees or concitmouB
intervals of concords.
SEMINAL, fomething belonging to the femen or feed.
SEMINARY, a kind of college, .or fchool, where youth
areinftruded in the ceremonies,. of the laered mint.
' ftry, of which there are many abroad ; it being ordain¬
ed by the council of Trent, that there be a feminary' ba>-
longing to each cathedral, under the direction'of the
bifhop.
SEMINATION, denotes the manner, or a<5t, offhedding
and difperfing the feeds of plants. See Agriculture,
P- 59
SEMI-NERVOSUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 208.
SEMIS, in Roman antiquity, the half of an as. See As.
SEMTSPINALIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 218.
SEMPERVIVUM, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria,.
dodecagynia clafs. The calixconlifts of twelve fegments,
and the corolla of twelve petals ; and there are twelve
capfuies containing many feeds.
SENA, in botany. See Cassia.
Sena leaves are much ufed for their purgative virtua;
but are apt to gripe, unlefsgiven with proper corredhves,
as coriander, anileed, ginger, raifius, and fait of tartar,
which are added to the infulian of the leaves occafionally.
SENATE, in genera), is an affembly, or council, of fena*
tors; that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate, who
have a fnare in the government.
The fenate of ancient Rome is, cf all others, the moft
celebrated: it exercifed no contentious jurifdidHon, but
appointed judges, either from among the fenators or
knights, to determine proceffes : it alfo appointed gover¬
nors of provinces, and difpofed of the revenues of the
commonwealth, &c. Yet did noMhe whole fovereigu
power refide in the fenate*, fince it could not eled magi*
ftrates, make laws, or decide of war or peace; in all which
cafes the fenate was obliged to confult the people.
According to Dr Middleton, the ccnftant and regular
fupply of the fenate was from rite annual'irtagiftrajes ;
who, by virtue.of their feverai offices, acquired a right
to fit and vote in that affembly: the ufual gradation of
thefe offices being that of qujeftor, tribune of the peo¬
ple, asdile, praetor, and ccnful.
The ienate always met of courfe on the firft of Janu¬
ary, for the inauguration ofthe new confuls ; and in ali
months univerfally, there were three days, viz. the ka¬
lends, nones, and ides, on which it regularly met : but
it always met on extraordinary occafions, when called-to-
gether by conful, tribune, or didator,
SENATOR, in general, denotes a member of fome fenate.
SENATUS auctoritas, a vote of the ,Roman fenate,.
drawn up injthe famefojm with a decree, but without its
force, as having been hindered from paffing into ajiecree
by fome of the tribunes of the people.
Senat'us-consultum a decree of the Roman fenate,
pronounced on fome queftion or point of law ; which,
when paffed, made a part of the Roman law,
SENECIO, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polygamia
fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked ; .the pappus-
is fimple ; and the calix is cylindrical, and caliculated.
There are 40 fpecies, eight of them natives of Britain.
SENEGA, or Senegal, a river of Negroland,. in Africa,
which:-
SEP ( 578 ) SEP
-which fails 'into the Atlantic ocean, in 169 N. lat.
whence the gum-fenega is imported.
SENESCHAL, a term anciently ufed for fteward or major-
domo.
SENS, a town of Champagne, in France, fitaated on the
river Yonne, fixty miles fouth^eaft of Paris.
SENSATION, in philofophy, the art of-perceiving exter¬
nal objects, by means of the fenfes.
SENSE, a faculty of the foul, whereby it perceives external
obj As, by means of the imprefiions they m*^e on certain
organs of, the body. Thefe organs of fenfation are com¬
monly reckoned five, viz. the eye, whereby we fee ob¬
jects ; the ear, which enables us to hear founds; the
nole, hy which we receive the ideas of different fmelis ;
the palate, by which we judge of tafles ; and the cutis,
or flcin, which enables tis to feel the different forms,
hardnefs, or foftnefs of bodies. See Avatom v, p 289,
293, 295, ‘303 ; Optics, pafim ; and Pneumatics.
SENSITIVE plant, in botany. See Mimosa.
SENSOR.1UM commune, the fame with t|ie brain. See
Anatomy, p. 285.
SENTENCE, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxii,
Sentence, in grammar, a period or fet of words, com¬
prehending feme perfeA fenfe or fentiment of the mind.
SENTIMENTS, properly fignifies the feelings excited in
our minds by means of the lenfes.
SENTINEL, in military affairs, is a private folder, placed
in fame pod, to watch any approach Of the enemy, to
prevent furprifes, and to (top fuch as would pals without
order, or difeovering who they are.
SEPARATION of Hujband and Wife, in Scots law See
Law, Tit. vi. 13.
SEPARATISTS, an appellation given to diffenters,
from their fating up a feparate church from the eftablilh-
ed one.
SEPIA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of
vermes moflufca. There are eight brachia interfperfed
on the interior fide, with little, round, ferrated cups, by
the contraction of which the animal lays fad hold of any
thing : Befides thefe eight arms, it has two tentacula
longer than the arms, and frequently pe lun. dated. The
mouth is fituate in the centre of the arms ; and" is horny
and hooked, like the bill of a hawk. The eyes are be¬
low the tentacula, towards the body of the animal. The
body is flediy, and received into a (heath as far as the
bread. There are five fpecies. The officinalis, or cuttle-
fiih, emits a black matter when attacked, which hides itfrom
theviewof the enemy Theioligo, has a fubdated cylin
drical body, with a rbomboidal tail. It is fometimes found
on the coafts of the fnth of Forth, efpecially after great
dorms. The other fpecies are modly found in the Me-
di erranean fea.
SEPS, in zoology. See Lacerta
SEPTARIAS, in natural hidory, a large clafs of foffds,
commonly known by the names of ludus Helmontii and
waxen veins
They are defined to be foflils not inflammable, nor fo-
luble in water; of a moderately firm texture, and dufky
hue, divided by feveral fepta or thin partitions, and
' composed of a fparry matter greatly debafed by earth,
. not giving fire with deel, fermenting with acids, and in
great part diffolved by them, and calcining in a mode-
rate fire.
Of this clafs there are two didinft orders of bodies:
and under thofe, fix genera. The feptariae of the fird or¬
der are riiofe which are ufualiy found in large.maffes, of
a Gmple uniform condruftion, but divided by large fepta
either into larger and more irregular portions, or into
(mailer and more equal ones, called talc. The genera
of this order are four: 1. Thofe divided by fepta of
fpar, called fecormas. 2. Thofe divided by fepta of
earthy matter, called gaiophragmia. 3. Thofe divided by
fepta of the.matter of the pyrites, called pyritercia. And,
4. Thofe divided by fepta of fpar, with an admixture of
cryftal, called diaugophragmia.
Thofe of the fecond order are fucb as are ufually found
in fmaller maffes, of a cruftated (IruAure, farmed by va¬
rious incmllations round a central nucleus, and divided
by very thin fepta. Of this order are only two genera:
1. Thofe with a (liort roundilh nucleus, inclofed within
the body of the mafs ; And, 2. Thofe with a long
nucleus, (landing out beyond the ends of the mafs.
SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, confiding of
only thirty days : it took its name as being the feventh
month, reckoning irom March, with which the Romans
began their year.
SEPTENTRIO, in adronomy. a conlkllation more ufual-
Jy called urfa minor.
In cofmography, the term feprentrio denotes the fame
with north : and hence, feptentrional is applied to-any
th ng belonging to the north, as leptemrionai dgns, paral¬
lels,
SEPTIZON, in Roman antiquity, a celebrated maufoleum,
built oy Septimus Severus, in the tenth region o‘ the city
of Rome: it was fo called from fepterti and zona, by
reafon it confided of feven (lories, each of which was fur-
rounded by a row of columns.
SEPTUAGESIMA, in the calendar, denotes the third
Sunday before Lent, or before quadragefima Sunday ; fup-
pofed by fome to take its name from its being about feventy
days before Eader.
SEPTUaGINT, the name given to a Greek verfion of the
books of the Old Tedament. See Bible.
SEPTUM, in anatomy, an inclofure, or partition, a’lerm
applied to feveral parts of the body which ferve to fe*.
parate one part from another
SEPULCHRE, a tomb, or place dedined for the inter¬
ment of the dead. This term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking
of the burying places of the ancients, thofe of the itSoderns
being ufually called tombs.
Sepul. hres were held facred and inviolable, and the
care t ken of them has always been held a religious duty,
grounded on the fear of God, and the belief of the foul’s
immortality Thofe who have fearcbed or Violated them
have been thought odious by all nations, and were always
feverely puni(hed.
The Egyptians called fepulchres, eternal houfes ; in
contradidin&ion to their ordinary houfes or palaces, which
they called inns, on account of their (hort day in the one,
in comparifon of their long abode in the other.
Regular canons of St Setulchre, a religious order, for¬
merly indituted at Jerufalem, in honour to the holy fe-
pulchre, or the tomb of Jefus Chrid
Many of thefe canons vere brought from the Hdy
Land into Europe, particularly into France by Lewis
the younger; into Poland, by Jaxa a Poltdi gentleman; and
into
S E R C 579 ) S E R
into Flanders, by the counts thereof; many alfo came into
England. This order was however fupprefied by pope
. Innocent VIII who gave its revenues and effedts to that
of our Lady of Bethlehem ; which alfo becoming extina,
they were bellowed oa the knights of St John of Jerufa>
Jem. But the fuppreffion did not take effedt in Poland,
where they Hill fobfilt, as alfo in leveral province? of
Germany. Thefe canons follow the rule of St. Auguf-
tine.
Krights of the holy Sepulchre, a military order, efia-
bliihed in Paledine about the year 1114.
The knights of this order in Flanders chofe Philip II.
king'd Spain, for their mailer in 1558, and afterwards
his ion ; but the grand mailer of the order of Malta pre¬
vailed on-the lull to relign: and when afterwards the duke
of Nevers alfynled the fame quality in France, the fame
grand mailer, by his intereft and credit, procured a like
renunciation of him, and-a confirmation of the union of
this order to that of Malta.
SEQUELS, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xvi. 12.
SEQUESTRATION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xix^
jo and xx. 12
SEQUIN, a gold-coin, llruck at Venice, and in feveral
parts of the grand feigner’s dominions.
SERAGLIO, a Perjian word, which'fignifies the palace of
a prince or lord; in which fenfe the houfes of the ambaf-
fadors of England, France, <bc. are, at Cooftantinople,
called their feraglios. But the term feraglio is ufed. by
way of eminence, for the palace of the grand feigner at
Conllantinople, where he keeps his court, in which his
concubines are lodged, and where the youth are trained
up for the principal pods of the empire. It is in form of
a triangle, about two miles n und, at the end of the pro¬
montory Chryfoceras, now called the Seraglio-point: the
buildings extend to the top of the hill, and from thence
there are gardens that reach to the fea. The outward
appearance is not very beautiful, the architedure being
irregular, confiding of feparate edifices, in the manner
of pavilions and domes. The old feraglio is the palace,
where the grand feigner’s old midrefles are kept.
The ladies of the haram, which is the part allotted to
the women, is a colle&ion of young beautiful girls, who,
on their admiilion, are committed to the charge of fome
old l?dy, and taught mufick, dancing, and other accom-
plifiiments. Thefe frequently play and dance before the
grand feigner, while others entertain him with their con-
verfafion. Befides thefe ladies, there are a great many black
eunuchs, and female flaves, in the feraglio, whofe bufinefs
it is to guard and wait upon them.
SERAPH, or Seraphim, a fpirit of the highed rank in
the hierarchy of angels; who are thus called from their
being fuppofed to be mod inflamed with divine love, by
their nearer and more immediate attendance at dethrone
. of God, and t,o communicate their fervour to the remoter
and inferior brders.
SERAPHIC,-burning or inflamed with love or zeal, like
a feraphim : thus St. B.onaventure is'called the feraphic
doAor, from his abundant zeal and fervour.
SERAPIAS in botany, a genus of the gynandria diandfla
clafs. The netfarium is oval and gibbous, with an oval
lip. There are five fpecies, two c£ them natives of Bri-
I tain, viz. the latifolia, or broad-leaved badard hellebore;
and the lingifolia, or v/jsite-flov/ered baftard hellebore.
V.OL. Ill N? 93. 2 '
SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night, by a
lover to his midrefs, under her window. Thefe iometirnes
only confid of indrumental mufick, but at other times
voices are added: the mufick and fongcompofed for thefe
occafions are alfo called ferenades.
SERENE, a title of honour given to fevera! princes, and to,
the principal magidrates of republics. The king of Eng'
land, the repu'Lcand thedogeof Venice„and thechildren
of the king of Spain, are called Mod Serene : and when
the pope, or the facred college, write to the emperor,
to kings, or the doge, they give'them no other title: in
like manner the emperor gives no other title to any king,
except to the king of France.
SERGE, a woolen duff manufactured.in a loom, of which
- there are various kind's, denominated either from their
different qualities, or from', the places where they are
wrought; the mod confiderable of which is the London
ferge, which is highly valued abroad, and of which a
manufacture has been for fome years carried on in France.
SERGEANT, or Serjeant at law^ or of the coif, is the
highed degree taken at the common law, as that of doc¬
tor is of the civil law; and as thefe are fuppofed to be
mod learned and experienced in the practice of the courts,
there is one court appointed for them to plead in by them-
felves, which is the common-pleas, where the commoa
law of England is mod driCtiy obferved: but they are not
redrained from pleading in any other court, where the.
judges, who cannot have that honour till they have ta¬
ken the degree of ferjeant at law, call them brothers.
Sergeant at arms, or macs, an officer appointed to attend
the perion of the king; to arred traitor®, and fuch per-.
fons of quality as offend ; and to attend the lord high
fteward when fitting in judgment on a traitor.
The number of thefe officers is by ftatute limited to
that of thirty.
Sergeant, in war, is an inferior officer in a company of
foot, or troop of dragoons, armed with an halbard, and
appointed to fee difeipline obferved, to teach the foldiers
the exercife of their arms, and to order, draiten, and form
ranks, files, <bc.
SERICUM. See Silk.
SERIES, in general, denotes a continued fuccefficn of
things in the fame order, and having the fame relation
or connection with each other: in this fenfe we fay, a Se¬
ries of emperors, kings, bifliqps, he.
Series, in mathematicks, is a number of terms, whether
of numbers or quantities, i.icreafing or decreafing in a
given proportion. See Algebra, p. 88
SERIPIIIUM, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia mono^
gyma clafs. The calix is imbricated; the corolla con-
fids of one irregular petal; and there is a fingle bbloog
feed below the corolla. There arefhree fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
SEROSITY, in medicine, denotes an over-abundance of
ferum.
SERF A, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alentcjo,
fituated on the , ead-fide .of the river Guadiana, in W.
long. 8° 20', N. lat 370 4'5'.
.SERPFNS, in adrooomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
SERPENT, in zoology. See Coluber, Boa, Anguis,
C/ECIL1A, AmPHISBJENA, CrOTALUS.
SERPENTARIA, SNAKE-Root, the name of a fpecies of
aridoloiina, orbiithwort, with auficulated leaves..
7 G • ' ‘ The
S E S (58c
The^Virginlan fnake-root obtained Its name, as being
acceunted a fpecific againft yenomoirs bites: but v,'hatever
’truth there may be in that, it is undoubtedly an excelr
-> lent diuretic, diaphoretic, and alexipharmic medicine,
and confequently good, in inflammatory and malignant
fevers : it is alio a powerful antifeptic, and its dofe is
from four to ten or fifteen grains in powder.
SERPENTAR-IUS, ;in aftronomy. See Astronomy,
P 487- . •
SER.PENTINE, in general, denotes any thing that refem-
bles a ferpent: hence, the worm or pipe of a ftill, twill¬
ed in a fpiral manner, is termed a ferpentine worm,
SERRATED, in general, fomething indented, or notched,
in the manner of a faw; aterm.much ufed in thedefcrip-.
tion of the leaves of plants.
SERRATULA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenelia po-
lygamia sequalis clafs. The calix is fomewhat cylindri¬
cal,' imbricated, and blunt. There are 16 fpecies three
of them natives of Britain, ©/z. the tindloria, orfaw-wort;
the-alpina, or mountain faw-wort ; and the arvenfis, or
corn faw-wort.
SERRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral muf-
cles, from their refemblance to a faw. See Anatomy,
Part II.
SERVANT, a term or relation fignifying a perfon who
owes and pays a limited obedience for a certain time, to
another in qualify of mailer. See Law, Tit. vii. 3^.
SERVETISTS, a name given to the modern antitrinita-
rlans, from their being fuppofed to be the followers of Mi¬
chael Servetus, who, in the year 1599, was burnt at
Geneva, together with his books.
SERVIA, a province of European Turky, bounded by the
Save and the Danube, on the north; by Bulgaria, on the
call; by Albinia and Macedon, on the fouth ; and by
Bofnia and Dalmatia, on the weft.
SERVICE of heirs, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
xxvii. 22, <bc.
SERVITES, a religious order in the thurch of Rome,
founded aboutnhe year 1233, by feven Florentine mer¬
chants, who, with the approbation of the bilhop of Flo¬
rence, renounced the world, and lived together in a reli¬
gious community on mount Senar, two leagues from that
city. *
SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a Undent who
attends on another for his maintenance and learning.
SERVITUDE, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xvi. 1,
tec.
SERUM, a thin, tranfparent, falt'lh liquor, which makes
a conliderable part in the mafs of blood. See Blood.
SESAMOIDA ossa, in anatomy; See Anatomy, p. 188.
SESAMUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angio-
fpermia clafs. The calix conlifts of live fegments; the
corolla is campanulated, with five fegments; the ftigma
is lanceolated ; and the capfule has four cells. There
are two fpecies, bcth natives of India.
The feeds of this plant, upon expTdfion, yield a larger
quantity of oil than almoft any other known vegetable;
among the Indians, they are ufed as food.
. SESELI, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs.; The ufnbellae are globular; the involucrum con-
lifts of many leaves ; and the fruit is oval and ftriated^
There are 13 fpecies,, only one of them, viz, the carui-
folia, or meadow-faxifrage, a native of Britain.
) S E. V
SESQUI, a Latin particle, fignifytng a whole and a half,
which joined with altera, terna, quarta, &c. is much
ufed in the Italian mufick to exprefsa kind of ratios, par-
ticu'arly feveral pieces of triples.
SESSILE, among botanifts. See Botany, p. 541.
SESSION, in general, denotes each fittipg or affembly of
a council, &c.
Session of parliament, is the feafon or fpace from its meet¬
ing toits prorogation.
Court of Session, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. iii. 4.
SESTERCE, a filver coin in ufe among the Romans.
Some authors make two kinds of fefterces, the lefs cal¬
led feftertius, in the mafculine gender; and the great one,
called feftertium, in the neuter; the latter containing a
thoufand of the other.
- Others will have anyfuch diftinftion of great and little
fefterces unknown to the Romans: Seftertius, fay they,
was an adje&ive, and fignified as fejiertius, ^or two affes
and an half; and when ufed pluraliy, as in q'uinquaginta
feftertium, feftenia, it was only by way of abbrevation,
and there was always underftcod millia, or thoufand.
SESTOS, a noted fortrefs of European Turky, fituated at
the entrance of the Hellefpont or Dardanelles, twenty-
four miles feuth-weft of Gallipoli.
SET, or Sets, a term ufed by,the farmers and gardeners
to exprefs the young plants of the white thorn and other
Ihrubs, with which they ufe to raife their quick or quickr
fet hedge.
SETHIANS, in church-hiftory, chriftian heretics, fo cal*
led becaufe they paid divine worlhip to Seth, whom they
looked upon to be Jefus Chrift the fon of God, but who
was made by a third divinity, and fubftituted in the room
of the two families of Abel and Cain, which had been
deftroyed by the deluge. Thefe heretics appeared in E-
gypt in the fecond century; and as they were addiifted
to all forts of debauchery, they did not want for fol¬
lowers, and continued in Egypt about two hundred
years.
SETON, in furgery, a few horfe-hairs, fmall threads, or
large packthtead, drawn through the Ikin, chiefly the neck,
by means of a large needle or probe, with a view to reftore
or preferve health by a discharge of matter.
SETTE, a velTel ve*y common in the Mediterranean with
one deck, and a very long and {harp prow; they carry
fome two mails, fome three, without topmafts. Their
yard and fails are all like the mizen; the leaft of them are
of fixty tons burden: they ferve to tranfport cannon and
provifion for Ihips of war and the like.
SETTING,;in aftronomy, the withdrawing a ftar or pla¬
net, or its finking below the horizon.
Setting, in the fea language. To,fet the land or the fun
by the compafs, is to obferve how the land bears on any
point of the compafs, or on what point of the compafs
the fun is. Alfo when two Ihips fail in fight of one ano¬
ther, to mark on ^vhat point thechaced bears, is termed
fetnng the chace by the compafs.
Setting, among fportfmen, a term ufed to exprefs the
manner of taking partridges by means of a dog peculiaily
trained to thatpurpofe.
SETTLE, a market .town of the weft riding ofYorklhire,
(ituated forty-five * iles weft of York
SEVENTH, in mufick, an interval called by the Greeks
heptachoroon. See Musick.
SEVE-
S H A ( 581
SEVER \NCE, in law, the Tingling or feparating of two
. or more joined in one writ.
St. SEVERING, a city of Naples, in the province of Ca¬
labria, fituated eaft longitude i7°'3o', norih lat. 390
16'. This is.aifo the name of a town in the pope’s ter¬
ritories and marquifate of Ancona, fituated twenty miles
fouth-eaft of Loretto.
SEVERN, .a river qf South Britain, which rifing in Mont¬
gomery/hire, runs eaft till it enters Sbroplhire ; and ha¬
ving paffed by Shrewfbnry turns fouth, and difeharges
itfelf into the Briftol channel.
SEVILLE, a city of Spain, capital of the province of An-
daluha, fuuated on the river Guadalquivir: in W. long.
6°, N. lat. 370 15'.
SEWER, in the houfehold, an officer who comes in before
the meat of a king or noblemen, to place and range it
on the table.
Sewer is alfo a paffage or gutter made to carry water into
the fea or a river, whereby to preferve the land, &c.
from inundations and other annoyances.
SEX, fomething in the body which diftinguilhes male from
female.
SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the number fixty:
thus fexagenary or fexagelimai arithmetick, is a method of
computation proceeding by fixties. See Arithmetick,
p. 418.
SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sundaybefore Lent, or the
next to Shrove-Sunday, To called as being about the fixT
tieth day before Eafter.
SEXAGESIMALS. See Arithmetick, p. 418.
SEXTANS, a fixth part of certain things. The Romans
having divided their as into twelve ounces, of unica, the
fixth part of that, or two ounces, was the fextans.
Sextans was alfo a meafure which contained two oun¬
ces of liquor, or two cyathi.
SEXTANT, in mathematicks, denotes the fixth part of a
circle, or an arch comprehending fixty degrees.
The word fextant is more particularly ufed for an a-
fironomical inftrument made like a quadrant, excepting
that its limb only comprehends fixty degrees.
SEXTILE, the pofition or afpedl of two planets when at
fixty degrees diflance, or at the diftance of two figns
from one another.
SEXTON, a church-officer, whofe bufinefs is to take care
of the veflels, veftments, tec. belonging to the church,
and to attend the minifter, church-wardens, tec. at church.
SEXTUPLE, in mufick, denotes a mixed fort of triple
which is beaten in double time. See Mu sick.
SEXUALlSTiE, among botanical writers, thofe Who have
elfablifhed the clafles of plants upon the differences of
the Texes and parts of frudfifieation in plants, according
to the modern method, as Linnaeus, tec. See Bota¬
ny. p. 643.
SEYNE, a river of France, which rifing near Dijon, in
Burgundy, runs north-weft through Champagne and the
ifle of France, through Paris, 6v. and croffing Norman¬
dy falls into the Britifh channel between Havre-de-grace
and Honfleur.
SU'D, in ichthyology. See'CLUPEA.
SHADOW, in optics, a privation or d:minution of light,
• by the imerpofinon of any opake body ; or it is a plane
where the light is either altogether obftruQed, or great-
) SHE
ly weakened, by the interpofition of Tome opake body
between it and the luminary.
Shadow, in painting, an imitation of a real fhadow, ef-
feded by gradually heightening and-darkening the colours
of fuch figures as by their difpofitions cannot receive any
aired rays from the luminary that is fuppofed to enlighten
the piece.
SHAFT oj a column, in building, is the body thereof be¬
tween the bafe and capital: fo called from its ftraightnefs.
Shaft, in mining, is the pit or hollow entrance into the
mine.
SHAFTSBURY, a borough of Dorfetihire, twenty-five
miles north-eaft of Dorchefter; from whence the noble
family of Cooper took the title of earl. It fends two
members to parliament.
SHAG, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, in coTnmerce, a kind of
grained-leather, prepared, as is fuppofed, of the fkin of
a fpecics of fqualus, or hound-fifh, called the fhagree, or
fhagrain ; and much ufed in covering cafes, books, tec.
SHAKLES, in a fhip, are the rings with which the ports
are fliut faft, by lafhing the port-bar to them. There
alfo fhakles put upon bilbow-bolts, for confining the men
who have deferved corporal punifhment.
SHAMBLES, among miners, a fort of niches, or landing
places, left at fuch diftances in the adits of mines, that
the fhovel-men may conveniently throw up the ore from
fhamble to fhamble, till it comes to the top of the mine.
SHAMMY, or Chamois-leather, a kind of leather,
dreffed either in oil, or tanned; and much efte«med for
its foftnefs, pliancy, and being capable of bearing foap
without hurt.
The true {hammy is prepared of the fitin of the cha¬
mois-goat. See Capra.
SHANK, in the menage, that part of a horfe’s fore-leg
which lies between the knee and the fetlock.
SHANKER, or Chancre, in medicine. See Medi¬
cine, p. 132.
SHANNON, the largeft river in Ireland, which rifing in
the county of Leftrim, runs fouthwards, dividing the
provinces of Leinfter and Connaught; and then turning,
fouth-weft, runs through the province of Munfter; and
pafling by the city of Limeric, afterwards falls into the
weftern or Atlantic ocean.
SHARE of a plough, that part which cuts the ground, the
extremity forwards being covered with a ftiarp-pointed
iron, called the point of the {hare; and the end of the
wood behind, the tail of the {hare. See Agricul¬
ture, p. 54.
SHASTER, or Shastram, a facred book, containing
the religion of the Banians : it confifts of three, trafts ;
the firft of which contains their mdra! law ; the fecond,
the ceremonial ; and the third delivers the peculiar ob-
fervances for each tribe of Indians.
SHEAT of a plougfa a part pafiing through the beam, and
'faftened to the {hare. See Agriculture, p. 54.
SHEATHING, in the fea-language, is the cafing that part
of a {hip which is to be under water, with fir board of
an inch thick; firft laying hair and tar, mixed together,
under the obards, and then nailing them on, in order to
prevent Worms from eating the {hip’s bottom.
SHEATS, in a {hip, are ropes bent to the clews of the
fails 3;
SHE ( 582 ) SHI
fails ; ferving, in the lower fails, to haul aft the clews
of the fail ; but, in top-fails, they ferve to haul home
the dew of the fail clofe to the yard-arm.
SHEEP, in zoology. SeeOvis.
SHEERING, in the fea-language. When a ill ip is not (leer¬
ed fteadily, they fay flie ilieers, or goes (heering ; or
when at anchor (he goes in and out, by means of the
current of the tide, they alfo fay (he (beers,
SHEERS, in a (hip, are two mafts fet acrofs at the upper
end of each other ; a contrivance generally ufed for fet
ting or taking out the marts of a (hip, where there is no
hulk to do that office.
SHEFFIELD, a market-town of Yotkihire, 38 miles
fouth-weft of York.
SHEFFORD, a market-town of Bedfordfhire, feven miles
fouth-weft of Bedford.
SHEFFNEL, a market-town of Shropfhire, fourteen miles
eaft of Shrewfbury.
SHEIK, an officer in the mofques of Egypt, whofe bufinefs
is the fame with that of the imans of Conftantinnple.
Sheik-bellet, in the Turkiffi affairs, a magiftrate, an-
(wering.to the mayor of a city with us.
SHIELDS, a port-town of the biffiopric of Durham, fitu-
ated at the mouth of the river Tyne, eight miles eaft of
Newcaftle.
SHEKEL, in Jewifh antiquity, an ancient coin, worth 2 s.
3 4d. fierliqg.
SHELF, among miners, the fame with what they other-
wife'call faft ground, or faft country ; being that part of
the internal ftrudure of the earth, which they find lying
even', and in an orderly manner, and evidently having
retained its primitive form and fituation.
SHELL, in natural hiftory, a hard, and as it were ftony
covering, with which certain animals are defended, and
thence, called (hell-fiffi.
As to the formation of a (hell, it is now generally al¬
lowed to be formed by a vifeous fluid compofed of glue,
and feveral Tandy particles of an exquifite finfenefs, which
are tranfmitted through an infinite number of little chan¬
nels to the pores where it tranfpires, condenfes, and
hardens. When, the animal increafes in bulk, and the
•extremity of her body is not fufficiently covered; it con¬
tinues to evacuate arfd build in the fame manner, finifh-
ing or repairing her habitation. This vifeous matter is
proved, "by undeniable experiments, to arife from the
body of animals, and not (rom the (hell, as fome have
imagined.
Foffile Shells, thofe found buried at great depths in earth,
and often immerfed in the hardeft ((ones. Thefe foffile
(hells, as well as thofe found lying on the fea-fliore,
make an excellent manure, efpeciaily -for cold clayey
lands; upon which it does not produce nearly fo great
ah effrift for the two firft years, as it does in the fucceed-
ing ones; the reafon of which is, that it is not then
fuificiently mixed, but in fucceeding time it breaks itfelf
into a number of very fmall particles, and thefe all be¬
come intimately blended with the molecules of earth,
and produce their effeft more properly. •
(SHELTIE, a fmall but ftrong kind of borfe, focalled-frem
*•’ Shetland, or Zetland, 'where they are produced.
8HEPPY, ah iflind at the mouth of the river Medway,
making part ot the county'of Kent. •
53JERARDIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the tetrandria monogynia elafs. The corolla confifls
of one funnei-ftiaped petal ; and there are two feeds ha¬
ving three teeth. The fpecies are three, only one of
them, viz. the arvenfis, or little field-madder, a native
or Britain.
SHERBORN, a market-town, twelve miles fouth-weft of
York.
SHERBRO, a fort at the mouth of the river Sherbro, in
Guinea, formerly in the poffeflion of the Etiglifli.
SHERENESS, a fort on the north-weft part of the ifle of
Sheppey, fituated at the mouth of the river Medway, to
defend its entrance.
SHERIFF, an officer in each county of England, nomi¬
nated by the ktng, inverted with a judicial and minifterial
power, and who takes place of every nobleman in the
county during the time of his office
Sheriff in Scots law. See Law, Tit. iv. 1.
SHEW -BREAD; among the Hebrews, the name given
to thofe loaves of bread which the priefts placed every
fabbatfi day upon the golden table in the fanduary. The
(hew-bread confifted of twelve loaves, according to the
number of the tribes ; thefe were ferved up hot on the
fabbath day, and at the fame time the dale ones which
had been expofed all the week were taken away. It
was not lawful for any one to eat of thofe loaves but the
priefts only: this offering was accompanied with fait and
frankincenle, which was burnt upon the table at the time
they fet on frefti loaves.
SHIELD an ancient weapon of defence, in the form of a
light bu kler, borne on the arm, to turn off lances,
darts, tic.
Shield, in heraldry, the efcutcheon or field on which the
bearings of coats of arms are placed. See Escutcheon.
SHILLING an Ehghfti filver coin. See Money.
SHIP, a general name for all large veffels with fails, fit for
navigation on the fea^ except galleys, which go with oars,
and (mack-fails. See Navigation.
A (hip is undoubtedly the nobieft machine that ever
was invented; and conlifts of fomany parts, that it would
require a whole volume to deferibe it minutely. How¬
ever, we (hall endeavour to fatisfy the reader the more
fully on thishead, as it is an article of the utmoft impor¬
tance. And firft, to give an idea of the feveral parts and
members of a (hip, both external and internal, with their
refpeAive names in the fea-langqage, i» Plate CXLVlII.
is reprefented a (hip of war of the firft rate, with rigg¬
ing, tic. at anchor: Where A is the cat-head; B, the
fore-chains; C, the main chains; D, themizzen-chains;
E, the entering part; F, the hawfe holes . G, the poop
lanterns; H, the chefe-tred. I, the head ;K, the (tern.
L, The bowiprit. 1,2, Yard and fail. 3, Gam¬
moning. 4, horfe. 5, Bob-(lay. 6, Sprit-fail (heets.
7, Pendants. 8, Braces and pendants. 9, Flalliards.
10, Lifts. ix, Clew-lines. 12, Sprit-fail horfes.
13,. Bunt-lines. 14, Standing lifts 15, Sprit fail top.
16, Flying jib boom, .17, Flying jib (lay and fail.
18, Halliards. 19, Sheets. 20, Horfes
M, The fprit-fail top-maft. 21, Shrouds. 22, 23,
Yard and fail. 24, Sheet. 25, Lifts, 26, Braces
and pendants. 27, Cap. 28. Jack ftaff. 29, Truck,
30,: Jack flag.
N, .The foie-mart. 31, Runner and tackle. 32,33*
Shrouds. 34, Laniards. 35, Stay and laniard. 36,
Preventer
SHI ( 583
Preventer-day and laniard. 37, Woolding the. mart.
3§, Yard and fail. 39, Ho'rfes. 40, Top. 41, Crow¬
foot. 42. Jeers. 43, Yard tackles. 44, Lifts. 45.
Braces and pendants 46, Sheets. 47, Fore tacks.
48, Bow-lines and bridles. 49, Fore bunt-lmes. jo,
Fore leech lines. 51, Fore top tops. 52, Puttock
lhr#uds.
O, The fore top mad. 53. 3.4, Shrouds and laniards.
5 5, Yard and fail. 56, Stay and fail. 57, Runner. 58,
Back days. 59, Halliards 60, Lifts. 61, Braces
and pendants. 62, Horfes. 63, Clew-lmes. 64,
Bow-lines and bridles. 65, Reef-tackles. 66, Sheets.
67, Bunt-lines. 68, Crofs trees. 69, Cap.
P, The fore top gallant mart. 70, 71, Shronds and
laniards. 72, Yard and fail. 73, Back days. 74,
Stay. 73, Lifts. 76, Clew lines. 77, Braces and
pendants. 78, Bow lines and bridles. 79, Flag ftafF.
80, Truck. 8r, Flag-ftaff day. 82, Flag of lord
high admiral.
Q, The main mad. 83, 84, Shrouds. 83, Laniards.
86, Runner and tackle 87, Pendant of the gornet.
88, Guy of ditto. 89, Sail of ditto. 90, Stay. 91,
Preventer day. 92, Stay tackle. 93, Wool ling the
mad. 94, Jeers. 93, Yard tacles. 96, Lifts. 97,
Braces and pendants. 98, Horfes. 99, Sheets, xoo,
Tacks ioi, Bow-lines and bridles. 102, Crowfoot.
103, Top rope. 104, Top. 103, Bunt.hnes. 106,
Lee:h-Iines. 107, Yard and fail.
R, The main top mad. 108, 109, Shrouds and la¬
niards. no, Yard and fail. 1x1, Puttock fhrouds.
112, Back days. 113, Stay. 114 Stay fail and day
halliards. 115, Runners. 116, Halliards. 117, Lifts.
118, Clew-lines. u§, Braces and pendants. 120,
Horfes. 121, Sheets. 122, Bow-lines and bridles.
123, Bunt-lines. 124, Reef tackles. 123, Ctofs trees.
126, Cap.
S, The main top gallant mad. 127, 128, Shrouds
and laniards. 129, Y«Yd and fail. 130, Back days.
X31, Stay. 132, Stay fail and halliards. 133, Lifts.
134, Braces and pendants. 133, Bow-lines and bridles.
X36, Clew-lines. 137, Flag daff. 138, Truck. 139,
Flag daff day. 140, Flag flandard.
T, The mizzen mad. 141, 142, Shrouds and la¬
niards. 143, Pendants and burtons. 144, Yard and
fail. 145, Crow foot, 146, Sheet. 147, Pendant
lines. 148, Peck brails. 149, Stay fail. 150, Stay.
13 1, Derric and fpann. 152, Top. 153, Crofs jack
yard. 154, Crofs jack lifts. 133, Crofs jack braces.
136, Crofs jack dings.
V, The mizzen top mad. 1377 158, Shrouds and la¬
niards. 159, Yard and fail. 160, Back days. i6x,
"Stay. 162, Halliards. 163, Lifts. 164, Braces and
pendants. 165, Bow lines and bridles. 166, Sheets.
167, Clew-lines. 168, Stay fail. 169, Crofs trees.
J70, Cap.. 171, Flag daff. 172, Flag (faff day. 173,
Truck 1 74' Flag union. 173, Enfigndaff. 176, Truck.
177 Tnfign. 178, Poop ladder. 179, Bower cable.
Thus we have pointed out the external parts, mads,
rigging, fcc. an account of all which may be feen under
their refpeftive articles Mast, Hull, Rope, Rud-
ber,
In Plate CXLIX. is reprefented the feflion of a firft-
Vol, III. N° 93. . 2
) S H I
rate (hip of war, fhewing-^ie infide thereof: where A is
the head ; containing, 1, The dem. 2, The knee of
the head, <?r cut water. 3, The lower and upper,
cheek. 4, The tail-board. 3, The figure. 6, The
gratings. 7, The brackets. 8, The falfe deni, 9,
The bread Looks. 10, The haufe hole, 11, The bulk
'head, forward. 12, The cat-head. 13, The cat-
book. 14, NecefTary. feats. 15, The manger within
board. t6. The bowfprit.
B, Upon the forecadle. 17, The gratings. 18,
The partners of tire fore matt. 19, The gun Wale.
20, The belfry. 21, The funnel for the frnoke. 22,
The gangway going off the forecadle. 23, The fore¬
cadle guns.
C, In the forecadle. 24, The door of the bulk
head, forward. 23, The officers cabbins. 26, The
dair cate. 27, The fore top iaiS ffieet bits. 28, The
beams. 29, The car lines.
D, The middle gun-deck forward. 30, The fore¬
jeer bits. 31, The oven and furnace of copper. 32,
The captain’s cook-room. 33, The ladder, or way up
into the forecattle.
E, The lower gun-deck forward. 34, The knees
fore and aft. 35, The Lpirketings, or the firft dreak
next to each deck ; the next under the beams being call¬
ed clamps. 36, The beams of the middle gun deck,
fore and aft. 37, The car-lines of the middle gun-deck,
fore and aft. 38, The fore bits. 39, The after, or
main bits. 40, The hatchway to the gunner’s and boat-
fwain’s dore-rooms. 41, The jeer capdon.
F, The orlap. 42, 43, 44, The gunner’s, boatfwain’s,
and carpenter’s ftore-rooms. 43, The beam§ of the
lower gun-deck. 46, 57, The pillars and the riders,
fore and aft. 48, The bulk head of the dore-roonis.
G, The hold. 49, 50, 51, The foot-hook rider,
the floor-rider, and the dandirt, fore and aft. 52. The
pillars. 53, The dep of the fore mad. 54, The keel-
fon, or falfe keel, and dead rifing. 53, The dead wood.
H, A midffiips in the hold. 36, The floor timbers.
37, The keel. 38, The well. 59, The chain pump.
60, The dep of the main matt. 61, 62, Beams and
car lines of the orlop, fore and aft.
I, The orlop a midffiips. 63, The cable tire. 64,
The main hatchway.
K, The lower gun.deck a-midffiips. 65, The ladder
leading up to the middle gun-deck. 66, The lower
tire or ports,
L, The middle gun-deck a-midffiips. 67, The middle
tire ports. 68, The entering port. 69, The main
jeer bits. 70, Twitted pillars or ftantions. 71, The
capdon. 72, The gratings. 73, The ladder leadin-r
to the upper deck.
M, The upper gun-deck a-midffiips. 74, The main
top-fail ffieet bits. 75, The upper partners of the main
mad. 76, The gallows on which ipare top made, 6v.
are laid. 77, The fore ffieet blocks. 78, The rennet?^
79, The gun wale. 80, The upper gratings.. 81
The drift brackets. 82, The pifs dale. 83, The cap!
don pall.
N, Abaft the main mad. 84, The gang-way off the
quarter-deck. 85, The bulkhead of the coach. 86. The
dair cafe down to-the middle gun deck. 87, The beams
7 H of
SHI ( 584 ) SHI
of the upper deck. 88. The gratings about the main-
mart 89, The coach, or council-chamber. 90, The
flair-cafe up to the quarter-deck.
O, The quarter-deck. 91, The beams. 92, The car¬
lines. 93, The partners of the mtzzen mart. 94, The
gangway up to the poop. 95, The bulk-head of the cud¬
dy.
P, The poop. 96, The trumpeter’s cabin. 97, The
tafferel.
Q^The captain-lieutenant’s cabbin.
R, The cudddy, ufually divided for the matter and fe-
cretary’s officers.
S, The ftate-room, out of which is made the bed-cham¬
ber, and other conveniences for the commander in chief.
98, The entrance into the gallery. 99, The bulk-head of
the great cabbin. too, The Hern-lights andaftergalleries.
T, The ward-room, allotted for the lieutenants and
land-officers. 101, The lower gallery, iqj. The fleer*
age and bulk-head of the ward-room. 103, The whip-
ftaff, commanding the tillar. 104, The after ftair-cafe
down to the lower gun-deck.
V, Several officers cabbins abaft the main-matt, where
the ffildiers generally keep guard.
W, The gun-room. 105, The tillar commanding the
rudder 106, The rudder. 107, The ftern-port. 108,
The tillar-tranfom. 109, The feveral tranfoms, viz.
l, 2, 3, 4, 5. 110, The gun-room ports, or ttern chafe,
in, The bread-room fcuttle, out of the'gfin-room. 112.
The main capfton. 112, The main capfton. 113. The
pall of thecapfton. 114, The partner. 115, The bulk¬
head of the bread room.
X, The bread-room. Y, Thefteward’s room, where all
provifions are weighed and fcrved oat. Z, The cock-pit,
where are fubdivifions for the purfer, the furgeon, and
his mates.
AA. The platform, or orlop, where provifion is made
for the wounded in time of fervice. 116, The hold abaft
the main-matt. 117, The ftepof the mizen matt. 118.
The keelfon, or falfekeel. 119, The dead-wood, or ri¬
ling.
Different kinds of Ships. All ttiips at firft were of the
fame form, whatever ufes they were defigned for ; but
the various ends of navigation, fome of which were bet¬
ter anfwered by one form, fome by another, foon gave
occafion to build and fit out ffiips, not only different in
bignefs, but alfo in their conllrutfion and rigging: ai)d
as trade gave occafion to the fitting out large fleets of
different kinds of merChant-fhips ; fo (hips of war be¬
came neceffary.to preferve them to their juft proprietors.
S h 1 ps of wa r. have three matts, and a bowfprit, and are
failed with fquare fails; the other parts being as defcri-
bed above, and reprefented in Plate CXLVIII. They are
divided into feveral orders, ailed rates; that is, their de¬
gree or diftinftion as to magnitude, burden, Th$
rate is ufually accounted by the length and breadth of
the gun-deck, the number of tons, and the number of
men and guns the veffel carries. There arefix rates, viz.
A common firft-rate man of war has its gun-deck from
159 to 178 feet in length, and from 44 to 51 broad. It
contains from 1313 to 2000 tons ; has from 706 to 1000
men, and carries from 96 to 100 guns. But one of the
moft confiderable firft-rate fhips was that built at Woolicb
in 1701; thedimenfions whereof are as follow: The length,
210 feet; number of guns, 1.10 ; number of men, 1250;
number of tons, 2300 ; draught of water, 22 feet ; the
mainiail in length 54 yards, depth 19; main mail in
length 39 feet, in diameter 38 inches ; weight of the
anchor 82 Cwt. 1 qr 14 lb ; cable in length 200 yards,
diameter 22 inches.—The expence of building a ccaimon
firft rate, with guns, tackling, and rigging is computed
at 60,000 /. fterlmg.
Second rate flvps have their gun-decks from 153 to
165 feet long, and from 41 to 46 broad: they contain,
from 1086 to 1482 tons; and carry from 524 to 640
men, and from 84 to 90 guns.
Third rates have their gun-decks from 14010 150
feet in length, from 37 42 feet broad: they contain from
871 to 1262 tons ; carry from 38910 476 men, andfrom
64 to 80 guns.
Fourth rates are in length on the gun-decks from 118
to 146 feet, and from 29 to 38 broad: they contain from
448 to 915 tons ; cirry from 226 to 346 men, and from
48 to 60 guns.
Fifth rates have their gun-decks from 100 to 120 feet
long, and from 24 to 31 broad : they contain from 259
to 542 tons; and carry from 145 to 190 men, and from
26 to 44 guns.
Sixth rates have their gun-decks fiom 87 to 95 feet
l6ng, and from 22 to 25 broad: they,contain from 152
to 256 tons; carry from 40 to 110 men, and from 16 to
24 guns.
It is to be obferved, that the new-built (hips are much
larger, as well as better, than the old ones of the fame
rate ; whence the double numbers all along ; the larger
of which exprefs the proportions of the new built fhips*
as the lefs thofe of the old ones.
Merchant ships are eftimatedby their burden; that
is, by the number of tons they bear, each ton reckoned at'
2000 lb weight; this eftimate being made by gauging
the hold, which is the proper place of loading.
Befides thofe mentioned above, there are other forms :
as, 1. The bilander, (Plate CXL1X. fig. 2.) which
has rigging and fails not unlike a hoy, only broader and
flatter : bilanders are feldom-above twenty-four tons, and
can lie nearer the wind than a veffel with crofs-fails can
do. 2. Bomb-veffels, (ii>id. fig. 3.) have fometimes
three marts, and fquare lads, as reprefented ; but they
are alfo frequently ketch-fafliion, with one mart ard a
m.zen 3. Brigantines (;£/*/. fig. 4.) are now difufed;
but had two marts, and fquare fails. 4. Hag-boats (Hid.
fig, 5.) are mafted and faded ffiip-faffiion, but are built
in the form of the Dutch fly-boat. 5. Hoys (Hid. fig. 6.)
are fitted with one mart and a fprit-fail ; whofe yards
ftand fore and aft like a mizen, fo that it can lie near the
wind. 6. Hulks (Hid. fig. 7.) are generally old fhips
cut down to the gun-deck, and fatted with a large wheel,
for men to go in when careening : it has alfo feveral cap-
ftons fixed on its deck, for fettingffiips marts. 7. Ketches
(ibid fig. 8.) are fitted with two marts; and their main-;
fad and top-fail ftand fquare as thofe of (hips do, but
their fore-fail andjibbs as thofe of hoys do. 8. Lighters
(ibid. fig. 9.) are veffels made ufe of for laying down or
(hitting the moorings, for bringing afhore or carrying on
broad (hips cables, anchors, 9. Pinks (ibid. fig. 10.)
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ATiKt Bate kShu* of War,
SHI (5
fail with three mads, ihip-fafhion; but are r^und fterned,
with a ftnaSl projeftion above the rudder, 10 Punts
(ibid. fig. ii.) are built fquare, and ofed about the docks
for fetching clay and other ferrices as the matter ttiip-
wright wants them for. ti. Shallop (:bid -fig. 12.) is
a mall light veffel, with only a fmali main and fore matt,
and lugg fails, to haul tip and let down on occafion. 12.
Sloops (ibid, fig .1.3 ) have only one matt, with (houlder-
oi -mut on, fquare. lugg, and Imack fails. 13. Smacks
(ibid. fig. 14.) are tranfporting veflels, with one matt,
and an half fpnt-fail. 14. Yachts (ibid. fig. 15.) have
only one matt, with an half fprit or fmack fad, and fome-
tim*s ketch-fafliion.
0 The tnott celebrated (hips of antiquity are thofe of Pto-
lemy Philopaier. One was 280 cub ts long, 38 broad,
and 48" high, each cubit being 1 EnglHli foot inches,
and carried 400 rowers, 400 failors and 3000 foldiers.
Another which the fame prince made to fail on the Nile,
we are told, was half a ttadium long. Yet thefe were
, nothing in comparifon with Hiero’s (hip, built under the
direction of Archimedes ; on the ftruflure whereof Mof-
ch on wrote a whole volume. There was wood enough
employed in it to m ike 50 galleys : it had all the variety
of apartments of a palace ; fuch as banqujting-rooms,
galleries, gardens, hlh poods, itables, mills, baths, and
a temple to Venus. It was encompafled with an iron
rampart, eight towers, with walls and bulwarks, fur-
niilied with machines of war ; particularly one, which
threw, a (tone of 300 pounds, or a dart 12 cpbits long,
the fpace of half a mile, with many other particulars re¬
lated by Athenaeus.
Cenjiruftion of Ships. Naval architedlure may be divided
into three principal parrs : 1. To give the (hip fuch a
figure and proportion as may fuit the fervice ihe is de-
• figned for. 2. To find the true form of all the pieces
of timber that ftiall be neceffary to compofe fuch a folid.
3. To make proper accommodations for guns, ammuni¬
tion, provifions, and apartments for all the officers, and
likewife room for the cargo.
As to the firtt part, the length of the keel, greateft
breadth, depth in the hold, height between decks and in
the watte, and fomerimes the height and breadth of the
wing-tranfom, in Ihips for the merchants fervice, are a-
greed on by contract; and from thefe dimenfions the
builder forms a draught fuitable to the trade the (hip is
defigned for. The firtt thing that is generally done, is
to lay down the keel, the Item, and ftern-pott, upon the
ffieer-plane, or plane fuppofed to pafs through the mid¬
dle line of the keel, ftem, and ftern-pott, cutting the ftitp,
in two halves lengthwife. They next determine the pro¬
per ftation of the mid^lhip timber, where a perpendicular
is erefted, and is generally about two thirds of the keel
before the ftern-poft : on this line the given depth of the
hold is fet off, from the upper-fide of the keel ; to ob¬
tain which point( the thicknefs of all the timber and plank
mutt be added to the height agreed on. This being fix-?
ed, will- enable us to determine the upper-height ct the
extreme or greateft breadth of the flvp ; which, fome-
times, is that very point ; and from the fame place the
lower height of the breadth mull be determined. The
two main heights of the breadth-line.s, which nearly unite
abaft and afore, are next deiermu .d. The height of .
the breadth-line.of the top-timber is next formed; being
85 ) SHI
limited in the midlhip by contraft, but afore and aft only
by the judgment and fancy of the artitt. If a fquare ftem
is defigned, the breadth at the wing-tranfom is limited, ,
being generally about two thirds of the greateft breadth.
The artift next fixes the breadth of the top-timber, and
then defcribes the two half-breadth lines. After thefe
are formed the places where the feveral timbers are fix¬
ed : and for forming the midffiip-frame, radii are affu-
med at pleafure, till the fweeps are made to pleafe the fan¬
cy and judgment of the artitt. When this midihip-frame
is formed, a pattern or mould is made to fit exaflly to
the curve, and the dead-rifing, or water-line ; and by
this and a hollow mould, ail the timbers are formed, as
far as the rifing line, which is parallel to the lower height
of the breadth-line.
• We come next to confider the upper-works, or all that
is above water, called the dead-work : and here the fhip
mutt be narrower, by which means Ihe will (train lefs by
working the guns, and the main-fail will be eafier trim¬
med, as the (hrouds fpread lefs than they would other-
wife do. But though thefe advantages are gained by
narrowing a (hip above water, yet great care mutt be
taken not to narrow her too much, left there (hould not
be fufficient room upon the upper deck for the guns to -
recoil. The fecurity of the marts ffiould likewife be con-
fidered, which require fufficient breadth to fpread the
fhrouds t though this may be affitted by enlarging the
breadth of the channels.
Principal qualities belonging to Ships. A (hip of war
ffiould carry her lower tire of guns four or five feet above
water ; a ffiip for the merchants fervice ffiould ftow the
cargo well ; and both of them ffiould be made to go well, .
carry a good fail, fteer well, and lie-to eafily in the fea.
l. To make a ffiip carry a good fail, Mr Du Hamel re¬
commends a flat floor-timber, and fomewhat long, or the
lo)ver futtock pretty round ; alfo a ftraight upper futtock,
and the top timber to throw the breadth out aloft ; and
at any rate, to carry faer main-breadth as high as the
lower-deck ; for if the rigging be well adapted to fuch a
body, and the upper-works heightened as much as poffible
fo as all to concur to lower the centre of gravity, there
will be no room to doubt of her carrying a good fail. 2-
To make a ffiip fteer well, and anfwer the; leatt motion
O'" the helm, the faffiion-pieces ffiould be well formed,
the tuck carried pretty high, and the midffiip-frame car¬
ried pretty forward ; alfo there ffiould be a confiderable
greater draught of water abaft than afore, a great rake ;
forward, and none abaft, and a fnug quarter-deck and
fere-cattle : all thefe will make a ffiip (leer well. But
to make her feel the leaft motion of her helm, it will be
neceffary to regard her marts ; for a fliip that goes well,
will certainly fteer well.* 3 To make a ffiip carry her
guns well out of the water, is effedled by a long floor-
timber, and not of great rifing, a very full midffiip-frame,
and low tuck* v/ith light upper-works. 4. To make a
ffiip go fmoothly through the water, without pitching
hard, her keel ffiould be long, her floor long and not
rifing high afore or aft ; the area er fpace contained in
the fore-body ffionld alfo be duly proportioned to that of
the after-body, according to the refpetSive weights they
are to carcy 5. To make a firip keep a good wind, (he
ffiould have a good length by the keel, not too broad, .
but pretty deep in the hold ; which will make her floor-
timber, t
SHI ( 586 ) S H O
tiniber fnort, and rifing great. As fuch a ftiip will meet
with great refiftance in the wafer going oyer the broad
fide, and but little when going a-head, (he will not fall
much to the leeward. Now lome (hip-builder» imagine,
that it is impoffibie to make a fhip carry her ghns well,
carry a good fail, and be a prime Tailor at the fame time;
becaufe it requires a very full bottom to gain the two firft
qualities, and a (harp-bottomed (hip beft anfwers the lat¬
ter : but when it is confidered, that a full lh;p will car¬
ry a great deal more fail than a fh,arp one, a good artift
may fo form the bbdy as to have all thefe three good
qualities united, and likewife (leer well ; for which pur-
pofe, Mr Du Hamel recommends fomewhat more in length
than has been commonly pra&ifed.
SHIPTON, a market-town, twenty-four miles fouth-eaft
of Worceller.
'SHIRE, in geography, fignifies the fame as county ; be¬
ing originally derived from a Saxon word which (ignifes
to divide.
SHIVERS, in the fea language, names given to the little
rollers or round wheels of pulleys.
SHORT -HAN
AS Stenography, or the Art of Short-hand
writing, when well underdood, and rendered fa¬
miliar by pra&ice, is attended with many valuable
confequences, we (hall, without attempting to enumerate
PAR
~'HE Alphabet being the fovmdation-upon which the per-
fe&ion of the art depends, great care mult betaken to
eftablifli it in the bed manner. All the Ample founds muft
be reprefented by the (horteft marks poffibie. We mud,
therefore, not only rejeA the complex marks eftablilhed by
cuftom in our common alphabet, but alfo thofe letters tjiem-
felves whofe founds may always be fignified by others ; and
Ample marks muft be provided for fuch Ample founds as are
by cudom reprefented by two letters a-piece : for which
reafon, it is neceflary to examine the alphabet, and to fix
the number of charaflers, before we proceed to invefbgate
the marks which are to reprefent them Firft, then, let us
confider what number of confonants may be requifite. We
(hall afterwards treat of the vowels, which are to be repre¬
fented by points or dotts.
' The confonants, according to our ufual reckoning, are,
c, d, /, g, b, j, k, /, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x,
y, z. But cuftom differs from nature in inferting the let¬
ters q, w, x, y, and in omitting ih, zh, th, db, ch :
for c having always either the found of ^ or s, y that of
ioo, nv of 00, x of As, and y of i; in an alphabet ac¬
cording to nature none of thefe could have found a place ;
and //?, zb, tb, db, ch, reprefenting Angle confonantal
founds as much as ph does, whofe power is that of f, ought
all to have been denoted by Angle charadters, as mou of
them are in the alphabets of other languages.
The aatural alphabet, therefore, might have been taken
SHOAD, among miners, denotes a train of metalline (tones,
ferving to diredt them in thediicovery of mines.
SHOAL, in the fea-language, denotes a place where the
water is IHallow.
SHOE, a covering for the foot-, ufually made of leather,
by the company of cordwainers.
Shoe for an anchor, in a (hip, the place for the anchor ta
reft, and fitted to receive the (lock, &c. fo as to prevent
the (beets, tacks, and other running rigging, from galling,
or being entangled with the Hooks.
SHORE, a place waftied by the fea, or by fome large river.
Count Marfigli divides the fea-(hore into three por¬
tions : -the fint of which is that trad! of land which the
fea juft reaches in ftorms and high tides, but which it
never covers ; the fecond'part of the (bore, is that which
is covered in high tides and ftorms, but is dry at other
times ; and the third is the defcent from this, which is
always covered with water.
SHOREH AM, abotoughand port town of Sulfex, twenty-
five miles eaft of Chichefter. It fends two members to
parliament.
D WRITING.
the infinite variety of fyftems that have been publilhed,
furnifh our readers with that fyftem which appears to be the
moft eafy, beautiful, and expeditious, and at the fame time
calculated for general ufe.
T I.
for our (hort-hand one, rejedting the fuperfluous letters c,
q, tw. x, y, and inferting in their (lead fli, zb, tb, dh, cb :
but having fome marks that were not conveniently applica¬
ble to any other purpofe, and it being a compendium to re¬
prefent two letters by a Angle charadler, as in the y and x,
and fome eafe to the reader to retain at the beginning of.
words the w and y, to which he has been long accuftomed ;
we (hall, totally rejedtihg the c, appropriate diftindt marks
to denote y, x, nv, y, when they are initial letters ; not
fcrupling however, in other fituations, if it prove more con¬
venient, to denote them by k, ks, 00 and f, refpedlively.
Zb never had any particular mark to fignify it by ; and
cuftom has, for a long period of time, ceafed to make any
diftindlion in writing between the /A and dh: and as the
adherence to nature in making nice diftin&ions, where cu¬
ftom has not, would be fo far, in this cafe, from iervihg
any valuable purpofe of (hort-hand, that, it would rather,
on the contrary, render the learning to write and read it
more difficult, we have, in purfuance of our plan, com¬
plied with cuftom in dropping 'he z^, and marking the
(ounds both of th and dh by the fame charadler.
51 and z bear the fame relation to each other, that the
bh and db do; and the found of z in our cuftomary way of
writing is very frequently exprefltd by s, except in cafes
when it occurs at the beginning of words, which happen
but very feldom. Thefe confiderations induce us to feeure
the great convenfence which arifes from fignifying both s
S H O R T - H 4 N I
and 2 by one mark. And, for a like reafon, weijiall make
one mark representative both of f and v. The fefe of the
place will eafily difcover, to a man tolerably acquainted
with Enghlh, wtiich of the two it mull there repiefent ;
and the reader will be taught, when the charafters are ap¬
propriated to the confonants, how, in moil: cales, entirely
to remove any little ambiguity that poffibly might arife
from it. Our alphabet will then confui of the following
confonants, viz. b, d> tr] g, b, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r,
{[a 2.]. t, <w, x,_y, ch,fh, th.
The number of our conlonants being thus fettled, and the
reafons for fjxing upon that number being given ; the next bu-
finefs muft be, to invent as many Simple marks, eafy to be
made aad diftinguilhed from each other, as are neceffarily
required to reprefent .them They muft he fimple, if bre¬
vity be confulted; and "th^y muft be eafily dtftmguilhable
from each oth^r, to avoid the confufion arifing from mis¬
taking one letter for another.
Nature affords us four ftraight lines, Sufficiently diftin-
guilhable from each other; b.y-their horizontal^ perpendicu
lar, and inclined pofition, to.execute our defign by ; (fee
Plate CL. N£ i.) but it affords only thefe four. In this
fearcity of ftraight lines, recourfe muft be had to curved
ones for a further fupply. The four ftraight lines bent
in the following manner, that is to fay, the horizontal up-
wards and downwards,-the perpendicular and inclined ones
to the right and left, will each of them furnilh two more
very good fhort-hand marks; ibid N°2.
The number of marks thus increafed ftill falls fhort of
Supplying our wants. The heft expedient to remedy this
defeat, is the addition of a little twirl to the beginning of
as many of the foregoing marks as there will be occafion
for. It is eafily and quickly made, when the marks are
formed Separately ; and the twirled marks are joined to
preceding ones in as little time as the plain ones. N® 3. 4.
A Sufficient number of proper marks being thus obtained,
it remains that each of them be appropriated to the parti¬
cular confonant which it is to reprefent. Eafy as this may
feem, it is, however, a point of the greatell nicety ; and
demands, not only the moft.careful consideration, but alfo
the moil affiduous application to continual trials and altera¬
tions. A Ihort-hand alphabet may have all its charadlers
fimple, eafy, and diftingmlhable, when feparately form d;
and yet -not be a perfect one. To merit that title, it is
further requifite, that they be fo contrived and adjufted,
that all the confonants occurring in any word may be eafily,
beautifully, and interlineally joined together, betwixt two
given parallel lines, without taking off the pen. Experience
has taught quick writers even of long-hand, that the join¬
ing all the letters of a word together contributes much to
difpatch, though they are obliged to make little additional
Ilrokes for that purpofe.
Let us then confider, to what particular confonant each
of otir marks is to be appropriated ; and begin with the
four ftraight lines.
The firft of thefe lines, viz. the horizontal, as it goes
ftraight forwards, can n^ver exceed the limits of the given
parallels, whatever part it begins from ; and therefore, in
a Ihort-hand formed for lineal beauty, it muft be appropri¬
ated to that confonant which, of all others, occurs the of
teneft, and challenges, of right, the moft commodiou cha
rafter for beauty and difpatc'h. Now the confonant that
occurs the moft frequently in bur language (anc perhaps in
Vol. III. N°. 9.3.. Y •
) WRITING. 587
mnfti others) js.the s; which has a property, peculiar to it*
felf, of mixing with other confonants before or after it,
without the intervention of a vowel. The plural number
of moft of our fubllamives, and the third perfon lingular
of our verbs, are formed by it; which muft oefcafion the
moft frequent repetition of it ; fo that, being undoubtedly
the commoneft of all our confonants, it muft of neednty be
denoted by the horizontal ftraight line.
The feqgnd ftraight line, or perpendicular, is alfo a very
eafy mark, and, feparately made, even preferable to the o-
ther; but as, in union with others, it may endarger our
defeending below the line, it muft therefore be allotted to
a common confonant, and one alfo that will the leaft oc¬
cafion us to run that hazard. Now the f has, in faft,
thefe and other properties that entitle it to this perpendi¬
cular ftraight line.
The third llraight line, by its peculiar inclination, is ad-*
apted to a very eafy and convenient joining with other cha-
rafters; becaufe our cuftomary method of inclining the let¬
ters, in common writing, teaches us to form it with equal
readinefs upwards or downwards, as the keeping the pre¬
vious or following marks within the preferibed parallels
lhall require. The confonant, therefore, ihat claims this
charafter, is the r, which makes fo many of our double
confonants (as we call them ) and admits any other fingle
one to follow it immediately. The ftraight line then which
flopes downwards to the left, is r.
The laft line of the four ftraight ones, £>y its direftioa
or flope to the right, is aukward to-make (and therefore
never made) upwards, like the foregoing, to which it u-
nit^s the moft readily. Its properties, upon trial, fuit beft;
with the occurrency of the confonants f or v. *
The twirl being formed to the left hand in thefe four
marks, (N° 5.) difquaiifies them from an eafy junftion with
any preceding Confonant. They muft then, for that reafon,
be affigned to fuch confonants" as occur the feldomeft in
the middle or at the end of words, or to fuch as may
be otherwife Tignified when they do occur in fuch fitua-
tions. Now the h; or j, are rarely to be met with in the
middle of words, unlefs immediately preceded by fome pre-
pofition, as inhabit, rejeft, &c. in which cafe, the reader
will be taught hereafter how to write them: and when .v
and y are not at the beginning of words, they may be ex-
preffed by ks, and the dot for the vowel i refpeftively.
The properties of thefe four letters agreeing well with tbofe
of the four- marks, luckily point out a ule for four eafy
charafters, which could not however have been conveniently
allotted to any other confonants; and the following appro¬
priation of them, upon trial, is found to be the moft commo- ■
dious, viz. the firft for the fecond for yV the third for x,
and the fourth for^i.
A" is a very common confonant; and the frequency of its
occurrence will be much increafed by its being made fo of¬
ten reprefentative of the rejeAed c, and fr of x : a charac¬
ter. therefore, which is not only eafy to be made, but which
will alfo join readily with all the reft, without running ei¬
ther abov^ or below the line, muft be appropriated to it.
The horizontal ftraight line, with the additional twirl, will;
for thele reafons, be the moft commodious. But as the
diftinguilhing the k and q, at the beginning of words efpe-
cially, will, in,fome degree, facilitate the reading ; he ho^-
rizontal ftraight line with the twirl above is made for
with ,th? twirl below for when they are initial letters.
7 I In
589 SHORT-HAN
In all other cafes, thefe two marks are ufed promifeuoufly
for i or q, whenever a more eafy, beautiful jundtion may
by that means be obtained ; the one joining evidently much
better with the charadters which are written upwards, the
other with thofe downwards.
But to give a detail of all the reafons for the appropri¬
ation of each particular mark to each confbnant, would
prove tedious. Mod of them cannot efcape the obfervation
of an attentive pradhfer as he goes along. It will, there¬
fore, be fufficient to affure the reader, that no pains was
fpared to adjuft the alphabet to the utmoft nicety, by fuch
an exadt attention to continual trials and amendments as
was neceflary to afcertain the preference of the dilpofition
of the charadters in it to any other, that could poflibly
have been pitched upon among!! that almoft inlinite varie
ty into which they might .have been thrown; and that, if
he has the curiofity to make the experiment, he will find,
that no change can be made in the allotment of the marks,
but what will be attended with confiderable difadvantage.
Two marks are alloted to b ; (fee Table of the Alphabet,
Plate CL.) The firft of thefe marks is the bed when fepa
rately formed, but does not join well with the / or r. For
fimilar reafons, fome other of the confonants have more than
one mark alloted to them.
One or other of the two marks appointed for <w is always
to be ufed when it is an initial letter; in other fituations
we fcruple not to exprefs it by a dot in the o or eu’ place,
writing pour for power ; efpecially if it joins not well with
the preceding confonant, or no great ambiguity arifes thereby.
The marks being thus adjuded to the particular confo¬
nants which they are to reprefent, let us fee how any pre¬
cedent, fubfequent, or intermediate vowel may be affixed to
any of thefe confonants, as occafion ffiall require.
In feparate letters there is no difficulty, there being five
didinguiffiable places for any given vowel or point, either
preceding or following the confonant: reckoning, therefore,
the vowels a, e, i, o, a, according to the edabliffied num¬
ber and fequence, a is to be placed at the beginning of the
confonant, e at the end of the fird quarter, i at the end of
the fecond quarter, that is the middle, o at the end of the
third quarter, and u at the end of the confonant itfelf.
In the perpendicular and inclined letters, the vowels
which precede are placed upon th'e left hand ; thofe which
follow, upon the right; becaufe we write from left to right;
as for example, at, et, it, ot, ut; ta, te, ti, to, tu. N° 6.
In the horizontal letters, the vowels .which precede are
placed above; thofe which follow, below ; becaufe we write
from top to bottom ; as, as, es, is, os, us-, f<*> feKft, fo> fa*
N° 7.
In the femicircular letters, the vowels a, e, 0, u, are
placed upon fhe left hand, the i above when they precede,
and the contrary when they follow, agreeably to the two
foregoing remarks ; as, am, ern, im, om, um; rna, me, mi,
mo, mu. N° 8.
A vowel between two confonants may be referred to ei¬
ther, and therefore feems to have two places :, but in let¬
ters which form an angle when joined,, this is tljc cafe of i
only; for a and e can only be placed immediately after
the fir!! confonant, 0 and u only before the laft; left a and
<*, if placed before the laft, ffiould, in the narrow part of
the angle, be confounded with u and 0 after th'e firft ; as,
rat, ret, rit, rot, rut. N° 9.
This twofold .place, of i may be of ufe in diftinguilhing*
D WRITING.
when thought neceflary, the ftiort i from the long one, by
making it ffiort when placed immediately after the firft
confqnant, long when before the fecond; as quit,' quite.
N° 10.
The great difficulty of learning the true pronunciation of
our language, occafioned chiefly by our perplexed, various,
and confufed way of fpelling, has been alway's matter of
much complaint with all foreigners who have attempted to
learn it. But this abfurd irregularity is by far the moft re¬
markable, in the cuftomary management, or rather mifma-
nagement of the vowels. It is hardly poflible to give a rule
for them, againft which the exceptions'will not be almoft
as numerous as the agreeing inftances. How frequently do
we put two, nay fometimes three vowels, to exprefs the
found of one only ? What, for example, has the e and a
to do in the word beauty ? The (hort-hand writer, however,
is not embarrafled with any of thfefe difficulties. He, to¬
tally disregarding the common way of fpelling, is to infert
only fuch letters as are pronounced ; and muft confequent-
ly write the word beauty thus. buty. But the infertion of
more vowels than are neceflary to the found is not the
only inftance of irregularity to be met with ;—there being
more than five vowel-founds in our language ; and cuftom,
having allotted only five letters to fignify thena all by, often
makes one vowel exprefs two or three different ones, nay,
even diphthongs or combinations of vowels. We therefore,
taking the advantage which cuftom in this cafe affords us,
ffiall extend the power of our dots or points to the fame de¬
gree; The fairnels and propriety of doing this will more
fully appear upon a particular examination of all the vowels
in their order.
And firft, in common writing, the letter a has three
powers, viz. that of a, of ai or ay, and of au or aixi; as
in the words father, fable, fall, or amen., able, altar-,
which are pronounced all one as if they had been written
father, faible, faul, or amen, aible, aultar : fo that we
are fairly authorifed to extend the power of our vowel or
point to the fame degfee in all other inftances.
The vowel e fometimes expreffes fingly the found that
two of them are often made for, as in, he, me, <we; where
its found is the fame as that of two e’s, as in fee, tree, a-
gree. See. We are therefore free to ufe one e in this cafe,
whenever it fuits our purpofe, as well as for ea, ey, ei, eo -,
for of what ufe is the latter of thefe vowels in pea, prey,
heifer, people, but to puzzle children and foreigners ?
The fame irregularity and confufion is obfervable in the
cuftomary management of the other vowels, i, 0, and u ;
they each of them fingly expreffing feveral different founds,
which alfo are denoted at other times by feveral different
combinations of them. The vowel i, for inftance, when it
is ftiort, is founded in Engliffi as ee, agreeable to the pro¬
nunciation of it in moft foreign languages ; when long, it
has always the found of a diphthong, or combination of the
two vowel-founds, (which we might exprels by the open a-
or au, and the ffiort i or ee;) which found or diphthong is
alfo fometimes expreffed by oi, as fill, file, foil, fin, fine,
foin.
In like manner, the vowel 0 has feveral different founds;
as in the words pol, pole, do : the found of the 0 in p'le,.
is fometimes expreffed by onv,-as to fow; fometimes by <wo,
as fiiuord-, fometimes by oa, as foal; its found in do, by oe,
*u/0,_and ough, as too, two, through.'
And laftly, the found of u (which is always really a diph¬
thong,
SHORT -HAN
thong, expreflible by the combination of the two vowel
founds ee and as) is denoted in a great variety of ways in
our common fpelling, viz, by «, ue, eu, eiv, ieu, ieiv, ugh,
eau, you; as in the words tune, due, fe<w, adieu, view,
bugh, beauty, you. We are therefore certainly at liberty to
reprefent all thefe by a point, in the place of the vowel u;
and thus not only all the fingle vowels, but all the combi¬
nations of them, are expreffible by the fliorteft and eafiell of
all'marks, viz. a dot in the place of the vowel of neareft
found. t
We will now proceed to examine what further ufe we
can make of thefe marks or letters for the purpofes of Ihort-
hand. And as numeral figures exhibit to us a kind of Ihort-
hand with which every one is acquainted, an allufion to
them will perhaps explain what we have to fay hereupon.
Obferve, then, the figures by which the words or num¬
bers, one, five, four, fix, are expreffed in the Roman charac¬
ters, which are likewife fome of thofe which we make ufe
of. I, V, IV, VI. Here we fee the figure I is confidered in
three different fuuations, as ftanding by itfelf, clofe before,
and clofe after another figure : and has accordingly three
different powers, of numeration, fubtradlion, and addition.
When it ftands by itfelf, its name and power is one; when
it is clofe to, or belongs to another figure, it lofesits name,
yet retains fomething relative to its power, by leflening or
increafing that other figure by one; and both together con¬
cur tofignify but one word or number, vulgarly expreffed by
the fingle figure of 4 or 6. "
To apply this to fhort-hand; let the fame-chaqtdler | ,
being Qur letter t, have alfo its three diffindf powers, viz,
Firff, When it (lands by itfelf, let it exprefs the com-
moneft word or particle in our language the initial confo-
nant of which is a t: let the name therefore of this charac¬
ter, for inftance, bef^r; aword which we have fuch perpe¬
tual occafion to write.
Secondly, When it is placed clofe before any other charac¬
ters, let it ftand for the commoneft prepofition, or leading
part of a word, that begins with the fame confonant; which
in this cafe will be tram.
And thirdly, When clofe at the end of other marks, let
it fignify the commoneft ending or termination, of which the
fir/1 (or only) confonant likewife is t, viz. ity
From thiseafy and regular aflignmentof athreefold power
or fignification to a confonant, a threefold advantage natu¬
rally follows. ift. By allotting to every mark (landing by
itfelf, a name, viz. that of the commoneft word or particle
of which it is the firft, we fhall have a number of words,
one or other of them perpetually occurring, difpatched
by the fingle charafters of the alphabet, which otherwife,
when fingle, would ftand for nothing
adly, The prepofitional part of a word being deferibed
by its leading confonant in clofe fituation, but unjoined
to the following part of it, fecures alike the beauty and the
brevity of the charadleis in many cafes wherein it could not
otherwife be maintained; and alfo renders arbitrary marks
needlefs and fuperfluous ; there being no fort of occafion
for complicated crotchets , where the fimple letter determines
precifely enough the prepofition wanted.
jdly. As it does likewife the termination; by its near
approach to the end of characters; when, by the mutual
help of each other, they deferibe a word fufficiently to di-
ftinguifh it from ail others.
Thus, in the inflance here alluded.to, the fame ftraight
D WRITING. 589
lines, and the fame fituation of them, by which four differ¬
ent numbers are expreffed- in numeral fhort-hand, are thofe
by which we ftlould, in literal fhort-hand, exprefs ocafion-
ally four fuch words as the letters and fimilar ufe of them
juft hinted at would deferibe, viz. in the numeral I one',
V five, IV four, VI /*; in the literal I the, V fr, IV
transfr, VI frity.
For though the initial and final power of a confonant
could not, indeed, be expreffed in this manner by a bad
alphabet, and a piecemeal huddling of its charaCfers up and
down, to denote the vowel’s places; yet, in a well contri¬
ved one, where confonants of ftrorter words fall eafily, by
one continued ftroke, into each other, a break in thofe of
longer ones may be fo deferiptive of their initial or final
fyllables, as often to exprefs the whole with a concifenefs
which many fhorter words may uot admit of. Every confo¬
nant, then, may denote, according to its fingle, previous, op*
final fituation, a common word, prepofition, or termina¬
tion.
But the horizontal ftraight line may be made from the
top, middle, or bottom of the faid horizontal fpace, that
is, from the place of a, i, or u : fince, then, thefe vowels
before an s make the three common words as, is, us, it
may as well ftand for them all, in their feveral places, after-
this manner, as, is, us. N° 10.
Trans is the only common prepofition beginning with t ?
but there are three common ones that begin with /, viz;
fuper, circum, (or, as we fhould write it according to na. ■
ture, Jircum) and fub, which the horizontal ftraigbt line
may alio ftand fbr, at life top, middle, and bottom of the
line: circum in the middle, becaufe of its firft vowel i: but
if, for the like reafon, fuper and Jub were both written at
the bottom, it might occafion an ambiguity ; therefore we
make fuper over circum, and fub under it, becaufe (in
Latin) they fignjfy over and under.
Again, the commoneft termination in our language is fiost-
or tion; in pronunciation, There are a thoufand
words, all in general borrowed from the Latin, which end
in this manner, the greateft part of them of common ufe.
Now let the letter s be drawn near to the end of any of thefe
words, from the place of the vowel preceding the fion or
tion, and ft will ferve for any three final fyJlables whatever
of the numerous words that afford this termination.
A few inftances may fuffice; as, oration, repletion, attri¬
tion, promotion, effufion, N9 11. And alfo, when one or
more confonants intervene between the vowel and termi¬
nation tion or fion, they are, by the rule, to be exprefled by
the s, drawn from the vowel’s place ; as, attradion, atten¬
tion, affliclion, adoption, eruption, N° 12.
All the reft of the confcnants are to be confidered in the
fame threefold light, viz. as ftanding by-themfelves, as
placed clofe before, or clofe after other marks ; and muft^
accordingly, have a power of denoting fome common word,
prepofition, or termination, in which that confonant is found.
This is the general rule; but in pradtice there are few pre-
pofittons and- terminations neceflary or ufeful befides thofe
fet down in the alphabetical table. This rule is very con*,
venient in fome cafes; as where the confonants of which
the word is compofed join not well together, or cannot be
kept within the parallels ; for inftance, in behold, inhabit^
depofit, N° 13.- and affords a great contraffion in others, as
underwritten, dijlinftion, direilion, N° 14. But here
it is to be ohferved, that, in placing the termination, regard-
i»s
-590 S H O R T-H A
is to be had to the vowel’s place with refpeft to the line,
and not to its place after the la(l confonant, (except that hap
pens to be one or other of the three horizontal characters
/, k, or q,) as in the above word direttion: the s is drawn
from the e’s place in the line, bun: is in the ds place with
refpeft to the laft confonant r, which appears evidently to
have begun at the bottom of the line. But when s. k, or q,
immediately precede the termination, regard is then to be
had to the vowel’s place after the letter; as nffiimption af-
fertion, (N° 15. firlt and fecond examples.) The plural
number of the termination is denoted by adding a little s ; as
verities, dijtinft'ions, {ibid, third and fourth examples )
Before the learner begins to write by the preceding alpha¬
bet, it may not be improper to premife a few obfervations
upon the form and refpedlive proportion of the letters, and
the ways of joining the curved ones with the molt eafe
and elegance. , - '
Firlt, All the perpendicular and inclined letters (that is, all
the letters except s, k . q, m, n, ch, and g,') are made to
touch two parallel lines, the diltance of which is meafured
by the perpendicular (traight line t, as in N° 16. ; but, how¬
ever, thefe letters are fometimes, for greater convenience,
made of half fize, and two of them included between the
parallels, as in the feventh and eighth examples, N° 16.
The letters m, n, ch, and g, are femicircles
ter of which is the /, and their radius or heiglttW'-rather
more than one third part of the t.
The letters formed from the three flraight lines / r,
and/] are fegments of larger circles, whofe choreas are the
letters /, r, and f, refpeClively.
It mud be obferved, however, that it is not neceflary,
nor indeed fcarce pofllde, that thefe proportions Ihould be
exafUy kept, efpecially in quick writing ; but they are given
here, becaufe the nearer they are kept to. the more beautiful
tJie writing appears.
Secondly, When m and n are joined^ together, they
are not each of them to be made complete ; but a part is to
be cut off from each of them ; and in the fame manner the
inclined letters, when joined with m or n. are not made
complete, bur, running into one another, lofe each a part,
as N° 17. So the reft of the curve line letters, when join¬
ed together, are made to run into one another fmoothly
avoiding, by this means, that dopping of the pen which
the making of any angle neceffarily occafions ; as tor in-
ftance rnp is not written, as in the fird example N° 18.
but as in the fecond, part of the curved line being in
common both to the rn and p.
Thirdly, The twirl is always made 4t the beginning, ne¬
ver at the end of any letter ; whenever, therefore, the fix lad
charafters (N° 18.) occur, they mud be fuppofed to have
been begun froa» the bottom of the line.—The general rule
is, That all perpendicular and inclined letters are to be be¬
gun from the top, and drawn downwards; but in all indan¬
ces, in which the inclined letters (N° 19.) will join better
widi the preceding or following marks if drawn upwards,
they mud be drawn in that direflion, as in thefe words,
N0 20.
Fourthly, The initial or final vowels (the e mute excep¬
ted) are generally expreffed, and the middle ones omitted,
except in cafes where there are many words confiding of
the fame confonants which might be liable to be taken for
-one another. But all words which have one confonant on¬
ly (except thofe in the table of the alphabet, which are
D WRITING.
expreffed by the letter alone) mud always have the proper
vowel point exprrffed, a, by, to, See. because thefe •little
words are, as it were, the keys of the fenteuces in which
they are found.
Fifthly, Few monofyllables beginning with a vowel are
immediately loftowed with either / or w; for which reafon,
thefe chanufters, having a point before them; denote ht and
•wt reipedhvely, with the proper vowel between them; as bat,
het, hit, hot, hut, and nuat, wet. wit, wot, wut, N5 21.
Sixthly, As the horizontal letters x, k, q and the cur¬
ved ones m, n, ch, and g, may be written at the top or
botiosn, or any part of the line, the vowel following them
may be expreffed by their frnation betw en the parallels ;
as fun, fun, man, rnun N° 22.
Seventhly, The tird mark for the th in the table, not
joining well with the mark for r, which, however, is very
frequently combined with it ; and the other, th, being, by
reafon of our cudonjary method of leaning the letters the
contrary way in common writing, not lo readily made ; t
may be put for th, when the adjoining letter is of half fize
only, as tbr, rih, thm, thn, ths, N° 23 In other cafes,
a letter of half fize figmhes that the adjoining one is to be re-
folved into two letters, as trr, in the lird example N° 24 ;
for here the r being twice as long in proportion to the
t as it ought to have been had only one r been defign-
ed, (hows, that in this cafe the r of double length denotes
rr: but, in thp‘fecond example, the lad charadler does not
figmfy //; for it cannot be reiolved into ll; but it may into
'If; for if you divide the lad charadler into two halves, the
lowtr is our mark for/; in like manner, the third example
is JU.—When there is no other confonant to be joined to
the inclined letters/or r, the lengthening of them by a
greater inclination man ufual denotes that they are to be
relolved into two letters rr, ff, or vv, fv, or 1/; as in the.
three fird examples, N° 25. error, five, feoffee', but
when two /’s form a word, as for example the word
taught, or, as we fhould fpell it, taut, this expedient cannot
be ufed, without going either above or below the line,
which is not to be done upon any account whatfoever. In
this cafe a little break mult be made in the /, to fhow that
there are two /’s, N° 25. This mud be confeffed to be not
altogether regular, and conformable to our rules of joining
the letters; and, had many indanees occurred, their fre¬
quency would have furnifhed a jult objection apainft our al¬
phabet ; but on the contrary, the repetition of the t forming
fewer words than that of the other confonants, was one
reafon of appropriating the perpendicular line to the t. the
word taught being the only one that often occurs in
pradice.
Eighthly, In fome few indances, where a letter joins not
well with the preceding one. as the g with any drawn
downwards, the ch with any upwards, and the / with
neither; we fcruple not to bo-row the oppofite one, or fome
other of nearly the fame found, in its dead; writing, indead
oi voyage, voyach-. fikure, io\ figure; churfh, ior church •,
machejiy, for majefiy ; NQ 26. And when n happens to be
at the bottom of the line and is followed by d\ for the
fake of eafyjoining, we write p indead of the* / as in the
fird example N° 27. fnp tor find; and few words in our
language ending in up, this can caufe little ambiguity.
Ninthly, 'Cm and cn occurring very frequently, for the
fake of difpatch we fhorten the m irks for k and q, when
followed by m or n, as in the third and fiftth examples,
NQ 27;
S II O R T-H A N I
N° 27. Thefe cannot be miftaken for ch and g, the twirl
being on the contrary fide.
Tenthly, The firlt mark, N° 28. placed clofe after a
word, denotes, that there is one fyllabie fHil wanting to
complete the word, and ing being a •very common final fyi-
lable, it is often fodenoted, as, being, writing. No. 28.
Eleventhly, A point (landing by itfelf has a power, as
well as the confonant marks, of reprefenting a common
word. At the top of the line, it fignities the particle a ; as,
a man : in the middle /, or eye ; as, / will, bis eye : in the
o's place 4>; as, 0 Lor if: at the bottom as, you will.
N° 29.
Twelfthly, The common way of writing numbers being
very compendious we generally ufe it when numbers oc¬
cur. The comma, as it does not referable any of our
fhort-hand marks, may always beufed ; but when a full flop
is thought necefiary, ,the fmall circle after the examples,
No. 29, may be ufed inflead of thepointi
To thefe rules it may be proper to add a few obfervatjons.
In writing words (as before obferved) we join-all the Con-
fonants, that are wanted, together ; to which, if they fuffice
to diflinguifh a word, it is needlefs to add any of its vowels.
As for in'iance, to write the word Jlrife, we join the four
confonants of which it is compofed into one continued
mark or figure comprifed within the due limits, as in N°
30. fi'fl example: for if, without regarding the limits, we
fhould make it as in example fecond, the letters would
be the fame indeed ; but the dire&ion in this, and all fimi-
lar cafes, is evidently more incommodious. When, there¬
fore, there are different ways of joining the fame letters to¬
gether, we rnufl accuftom ourfeives to the bed, or mod
lineal. The famenefs of the entire figure, as well as that
of its compofing letters, is worth the writer’s while to main¬
tain ; and alfo facilitates mutual reading between the fel-
low-pradlifers of the fame method. There is a kind of me-
chanifm in the cafe, by which the attention, being lefs fa¬
tigued with any deviations of unufual appearance, eafiiy ap¬
prehends the meaning of that which is more conformable
to a dandard.
Though the letters fir)" are abundantly defcriptive of thp
word Jlrife ; yet if any one pleafes, he may add the point
for the vowel i, (as in the example,- N° 30.) to fugged
the word to him at fird, until he can read it readily with¬
out that aflidance.
In fihgle words the chief difficulty is, to unlearn the un
natural and perplexed method of fpelling to-which’we have
been long habituated. In this word praftice, for t-xampfe,
the co'nfonant c ir$ pronounced as k in the firft fyllable, and
as/in the fecond, and the vuwel e has no pronunciation at
all. But, being ufed to thefe difficulties, it is now become
one to know the word by its true and genuine fpelling ac¬
cording to our fhort-hand alphabet, viz praktis.
It may highly perplex a carelefs writer of new characters,
to dccypber the true fenfe thereof-, though it Jhould be eafy
enough to know it, by a little application andprafiice. But
what child would not fooner l&arn to read this fame fentence,
if, after being taught the ufe bf his alphabet, he fhould have
it thus writ ten ?—It ma biliperpleks a karles riter of mi ka
rakters, to deftfer the tru fens thereof, tho it Jhud be efi enuf
to kno it, hi a lit! aplikafhon and praktis.
Indead, therefore, of ferupling to return from fuch cudo-
mary rules as children are fird initiated in, to a morejud
and alphabetical way'of writing fhort-hand, men may eafiiy
Vol. III. N« 93. 2
) W R I T I N G. 59!
be taught, when ripened into feme acquaintance with their
mother-tongue, to reverfe the liberties perpetually taken in
long-hand ; that is, indead of employing more letters than
are precifeiy neceffary to exprefs the found of words, they
may make ufe of fewer, not only difmifling fuch as are nesd-
lefs to fhe found, but fuch alfo as may be omitted, and
yet leave the fenfe of the words eafiiy difcoverable. If they
can tell what is wanting, it is all one as if it was there ; the
lefs expreffion there is, fo much the better for the purpofes
of brevity, which judifies the greated omiffions, provided
what is left be inteliigi de.
And though the onnffion of the vowels in the middle of
words may, for a while at the fird, make it difficult for a
learner to read even ,his own writing u ithout hefitation ;
yet that difficulty will certainly vamdi, in proportion as the
fhort-hand marks become familiar to him, as it arifes, not
fo much from that omiffion, as from the drange and un¬
ufual appearances which the charafters make to his eye,
and which, for that reafon, do not fugged to him the con-
fbnants, for which they (land, fo immediately, but that the
attention of the mind is neceffmily taken up in recolleAing
them one by one ; whereas, did they appear fo familiar and
well known to him as all to be apprehended in one view,
he would foon difeover the word, though all the middle
vowels were left out., If any one doubts this, he may foon
convince himfelf, by writing in the common long-hand ex-
a£tly the fame letters which he had written before in the
fhort-hand charadters; and if he can read it with eafe when
fo tranferibed, he may be certain that a little cuflom will
make the reading of fhort-hand every whit as eafy to him.
And now, the way being diffidently cleared before him,
the learner, after be has, by repeated trials, acquired a fa¬
cility of forming, with tolerable eitadlnefs, ail the letters of
the alphabet feparately, and of remembering what particu¬
lar confonant each of them reprefents, may proceed to join
two or three of the marks together ; writing at firft only
fhort words, and frequently trying different ways of joining
the marks, in order to difeover the belt, and mofl elegant.
Several of them being formed almoft as eafiiy upwards as
downwards, he will find it convenient fometimes to begin
from the top, fometimes from the bottom of the line, ac¬
cording to the nature of the mark which follows; and when
two marks, which admit of being written downwards ohly*
come together, the line mufl be divided between them, ma¬
king each of them half the ufual depth, as in examples firft
and fecond, N0 31. and, in Tome very rare inftances, he
will be forced to make them three deep, as Jlupid, (example
third ;) except he chufes to make ufe of the expedient of
borrowing the b, a letter not very different in found, writing
Jlubid for Jiupid, as in the fourth example.
That the learner may proceed with the greater eafe and
certainty, we have given fpecimens of writing according to
the above rules, (Plates CLI, CLII,) for his imitation'.
He ought to make himfelf fully vnafter of the firfl fpecimen,
by reading and copying it over and over with-great care,
until it becomes quite natural and familiar to him, before
he proceeds to the fecend ; and he ought in'the fame man¬
ner to make himfelf throughly acquainted with the fecond,
' before he proceeds to tfie third. Thus' moving with flow,
but fare fleps, he will in a very few days find, that every
difficulty has difappeared, and that nothing remains but to
pra&ife till the hahit is acquired. If he has the curiofity to
compare the number ©f ftrokes and dotts in his firft fpeci-
7 K men
S92 S H O R T - H A N D WRITING.
men in fhort-hand, which is the Lord’s prayer, with thofe tains near fix times that number ; which (hews hdw much
ufed when it is wrote in the common way, he will find, that time and labour may be faved, even by the,few fimple rules
the former contains only about 150, while the latter con- already given.
P A R T IL
AN alphabet, formed upon the mod juft and natural plan,
by which, with the help of a few general rules, all the
words of the language to which it is particularly adapted,
may be eafily, neatly, and fpeedily written, will not be
fufficient to fatisfy the expeftations of an inquifitive reader;
who muft befenfible, that however complete the alphabet
may be, yet many compendious applications of it may be
obtained by a proper inquiry into the nature of our language,
and the abbreviations which it admits of. He will not be
fatisfied with being taught only how to exprefs all tbe let
ters of a word by the (horteft and eafieft ftrokes, but will
alfo require further inftruftion how to defcribe intelligibly
words and f^ntences by as few of thofe ftrokes as pofiible.
To inveftigate, from a few things given, many which are
omitted, wilf be found no unpleaiant nor unprofitable ex-
ercife of the learner’s fagacity ; and if the few be properly
givenj the fenfe. of the paflage, and a due attention to the
idiom of our language, will render the difcovery of the o-
miffions more certain, and alfo lefs difficult, than the unex¬
perienced can eafily imagine.—Without fome fuch rules of
abbreviation, one end of (hart-hand, that of following a
fpeaker, would fcarcely be attainable.
Before the invention of the art of printing, the tediouf-
nefs of writing all the words at full length put the copiers
of books upon forming many ways of abbreviating them, as
appears in all manufcripts. In thofe of the New Tt (la¬
ment we find many principal words defcribed by their initial
and final letters only, with a dafh over them. In Latin
manufcripts, thofe terminations, by which the relations of
words to one another are in that language ufually expref
fed, were generally omitted: nor was there any need of
writing them at length ; for the principal^ word being given,
of which the reft were governed in cafe, gender, and num¬
ber, any reader who underftood that language could eafi¬
ly fupply thofe omlffions. Our language, generally ex-
prdling thofe relations by little particles, does not indeed
afford that particular mode of abbreviation. Upon a care¬
ful examination, however, it will be found capable of fur-
uilhing many others as ufeful and extenfive.
But it will be proper, before we proceed further in tffiis
art of abbreviation, to advertife the learner, -who is apt to
be too eager to pufh forward, not to embarrafs himfelf with
it, till, by a competent praftice of writing according to the
rules laid down in the firft part, he is become fo well ac¬
quainted with the characters, as to be able to write and
read them with as much eafe as his own common hand.
The bed way to learn any art is to proceed by degrees, not
ven-uring upon a fecond ftep before the firft is perfectly
mattered. And it is evident, that this method of proceed¬
ing is, on this occafion, particularly neceffary : for though,
in many fentences, the fenfe, and the particular conftruCtion
of the words, may plainly enough point out fuCh of them, as
are defcribed with unufual brevity ; yet how fhall an un-
praCtifed learner,, unable to embrace in one view the words
denoted by the preceding and following marks, determine
\vhat the intermediate contracted ones mult needs be But,
if he will have patience to abftain from this fecond part,
until he can write readily, and read without hefitation
whatever is written, according to the rules of the firft, he
may reft affured that he will meet with little more diffi¬
culty in reading words contracted than he did in thofe writ¬
ten more at length, provided that the rules of abbreviation
be duly attended to. But, if the reader expeCts that we
are to give him every particular manner of abbreviation
which can poffibly be invented, he will be difappointed.
The principal and moil ufeful rules are given; and it is left
to the fagacity of the praCtifer, by obferving the nature of
thefe, and proceeding upon the fame princi; les, to make
fuch further advances as his occafions may require. It
would be vain to pretend to have exhaufted a fubjeCt which
is as extenfWe as the language itlelf in which we write ;
and confequently may be carried further and further by e-
very one, in proportion .to his (kill in the language, and his
knowledge of the fubjeCt treated upon.
The learner has been already taught how to write all
the confonants of any word by one continued mark, thofe
words only excepted which may be more briefly defcribed
by the help of prepofitions and terminations. He may now
advance a ftep further, and join together fuch ffiort words
as are either reprefented by the letter^,of the alphabet a-
lone ; or fuch as, by their frequent occurrence, are become
fo familiar, as to be readily known, though denoted by
their firft con'onants only, This will be found- a greater fa¬
ying of time than can eafily be imagined; and muft there¬
fore, when difpatch is required, be done in all inftances in
which they may be joined neatly and without ambiguity.
Rule I. The different times and modes of the verbs
are generallyexprefled, in the Engliffi language, by the help
of other verbs, for that reafon called auxiliary; as, w;//,
Jhall, have, had, can, could, may, muft. be, &c. Thefe
muft, upon that account, occur very frequently; and, being
fignified by their firlt confonant, they may be joined to one
another; as, can be, ’will be have or has been, to be,
ought to be, muft bs, Plate CLIII N° 1. and when the
negative particle not intervenes, it may be denoted by its
firft confonant, and be joined with them; as, cannot 'be,
N° 2. ’will not be, hc*ve not been, not to be, ought not to
be, N0 3. When thefe joinings are,’by%a little practice,
become eafy to the learner, he may proceed further, and
join the preceding pronouns to thefe auxiliary veNrbs; as, he
muft be, he cannot be, N° 4. This can occafion no* ambi¬
guity: for {hough he vas taught in his alphabet, that thefe
two marks (NQ y.) denoted, the former have,zo& the latter
had-, yet, when placed immediately before muft and can,
their ficuation (hows that th y cannot, in that cafe, fignify
have and had, thofe auxiliaries never admitting ol fuch an
arrangement. And further, as w and ^-are often dropt in
common.fpeech and writing, as he'll for he •will, -we've for
•we have: fo.they may, (op the fake of joining, be omitted
in fliort-hand ; as, he •will, he •will not be, they'have been..
N° 6.
Rule II. The learner was taught in the firft part, That
in
Plrlfe (
>K •)(
7 \
y/
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
25
24
25
26
27
2 8
29
5= If // °\\
K °)f
1 r / \
T1 -14 .! r I-1- I. I.
*r> /O v-5\ r-^
CS (Cv (Tv o..
7f A A A A A
H n 0 ~
'lA \_
i/- r v- ;c_ z
5K (V
^/t s- 7-
- o >L S—
i / \)77 r d
(V ^ "7 A 7 A
A Q„ J t ^ t 7 J
Vf17f Pi A ,7l
’T *141' .1 ' ? f -r .r .r'
U 4 U L L
7 \ 1
A AX \
V. V7 <r7
X ^
• 7' 7'
• ^ e; • r o 1
•VI O .> O
^ I
s:
d- b
~v\
7 ' “M .
(_- / f J{f /'/(’ fd/iu/ty* ///r t /'(’/,t/tr
(ttyrs/o //f // //t\r, > ■ i/tr/w//e _
<t/u> Q^Sew/i///<r//<>)io.
INames , Prep ofit ions
v,/vVf
^•Yi
/y’ /vV
aw*/
V
aaa/wj/
//n'*' //a*/
* 9/a/ys’ <///'>/
haw
\c/h(/Y
all
amartaaf
[ a//
t’/t
(///a//y
^aeotam
ar
7
\m
tta
/fa
*/>/// //■('*//</
/my vy'/Z rayw ‘M < ‘
&
W evv4i
^ay
•{'// -<yy ram
/ft/ti
d/rfc a/1 an
(nfer ay /n
ft/hay
/yyty/a a// ya
u/t/try
r/ra//at
'/a/
//a/h)
/taZf/
r.r ar ar/ya
X.
u/ta/t
o/ta// a/att/f/
y/ar/
Terminations
Z/y ay a/’/r
%
&
/y
:w
///y/it
Zla/i ar o tan
7
■ v/yr/
.x o- x v;
r S/u
\ V(_ y,
/ v ^./i • ■ f\ ^ .* 1 ***', *a r •- * > • ^
ry g. y -ir-i- _ g ('•/ g x
( va_ sm   r- v-\a y rL'-'_,(
^ ct, \ v>_ v' >, vg^-(“X,
I K ( ! 'V V > C i X . '
' y//‘'///'■ >/ Tjtja/m. j vn y” „
Yi-i^yrMrivi^xi
^ y 7 ^ i r x'Y, ( r m n ^ i i \
I .^V'. 7 1 H — v I /• \ i V(, ( ^ GA
r i:; w\ c ( n„( i- c y r ' k >y y
ft- T y C M *_ VI ■-• ( “^ . L A
z c y t,.( A,K yyy „_ v i
X -i- .m -.*H4 ,a r / r i ^ i a
■v r v-' i v.\ i < . u, izX e y a
Y I. "V G_'l >, H-1 'Y^.l^tVIvC.
y i u y i r \ i /l, (i r\ i ^ c. h, j
Plate Cl.I
KjZfert’frfrS '/'>/■ ^'K'JWh
AM1! • 7 YX — Y )•••
y y- ^:, ( > r v ^ •- c K -i
I. I V" M ./VT '(- 7 "Y" .
7,
■| L 7 i_ \ 7. <N_ />//^A//vV4» ”7
I. A •" V , 7 •> -1 ..V 7 ST? A'l A_, T ; y
J (77 r, (^ ^ T ‘0 7 A- \ 7“
X-c :r y xzy i.y py\a -Z7' y/- n
VI „ \ • 7 ^^7 I TW '
-^VZ, t C ^ T TJ 777) 7.71,
( ri^ 771“, “ \ I Y-Tt Y W\ 1-7
LA. '-yV y I TY-W V-^i 7
\ ^ 'W, V 7 X, 7 I • -V ^ ^ 'v^
K7\ ^ 7 -/)',/t^A " MA V V
7 L Y f 7 \A V i L V, G T l-'l-'Y
c v. 'Yz ^py_^ i *-m1\ a A ?-i w;.
7'...'^/.-v../ /. //(,-/. i vn “7,
' :/7- M “A y y 7 )• ^ *—i T I A- \
- (AS»! ? )'- i >7 \ 7, ay : ,.s\ u. -v7
' A,AY7^i_^iY Yl-. 7
t^i A •<•, L VC o ^ v v nrs |. d
| Y l.—Y I f, {: I. A yA U V f.
:A:' (;/V 77 ( i A "Y, 7 (,
Y-AyV I Y \ ✓ L Y, C ■/ 7- Y ( X
/ T A I ^7 ..-,YY.Y\ 77; ( ^ ~> K_\
Y, 7 L "A AA- . '^ATT' LX / M_ L 71
“7"(A, j y i.l y^/Yo( ( v ?
yy-yy y. i ai.\y: / i x:
\ rV. V^M,- -vL a ' A7,1 v ' y 77
K ■ 'Y X/IA^ V )X7 ^ 77-k — y
r i /✓ v, i r- i-x-a -I L v' •
ax \« a ^ y / x L ~v \ -o ay m
r-7 .-..a/)-1 y>v^vy , ( • 1 \j A'
...(• |. A \ /lA- w X V X/, 7 0
, i M/ L 0; ^ y ‘ J ovf ^ 'nn I" V0
■
■
■
//ta'fafir* ^ 'V&„ C )// r > ‘VO rm/mw
■ r^--\v^/\'-^\'z\./^,\
^ V / ft ) i , \o>1^
TA^ fA \ I ^\j—~
^ m y i r\r 'y^ Lx^^v-vwx,^'
*a 11_ ^<^/<-»., ‘'.'t.Ki4-? \> \_.
-o _y p i. •> r -i, • c ? n • r \ e- -i r
Y7, y ^ ^ • c 'a y, v, i
^ m r • ^ -ma v v" ^, c A/
\ i ^ y ^ t H-Y) ri,/L
/ x / y^y qji o ky^n
^ x'A ( /^ r-/ ^ v ^ Q-
vi "k \ ■ y ^ / ' -^ y v c, y • i xu,
I-!-' I., _ H ^ 1-1 'A y I. A"- Y \ X (
v,-\yy ry A.-y^-y y c ^ n
>i (rXA^, (v "-h \-a, r n y ma
~‘N-'L,(X I ^-( l_ MX
x/i.^ ^y y \
y c al x i-1 y \ x-x/ -i/, ^
y e v nx r i '-xn \ v c rn-, (c
-rryX^-'V, /A C Z r _ M ' Xv- i t
v-y — x t j y« / y y-^, y ~l t c —
■ L OH \At_ /o / M ^ ^/l ^ T
i ^ y vx t tx^ "a n ^ i. x yi
i t .x v\,n, y y_ \ x,^- / ^-
\*X' / MM ^ ?
• Vv'-^':- ^ x ) a- fx,y ■ 1/
l-. c y/t/- A T •.VM'Tr ^»x > v
v y ^ x -i - x |. y, yx a yi y
i/°kXA, K^/yrx. Xo~
r-y~ • y T X I- k ^ L XU ik U ,o
Plate CLU
^-f. 1, X ^{/J •K,\./Kwiy-\T_
(i_/-, / c-1 x v'i wi x ) i xr
X y). V, k'w W X \ X |. y~ ~ X-~ |.
y ^'(x_k x (X ■ fxJ-i
.- C w( X X. ' -^/A^ f X XT'
x • i xy^-1. c x • X m
x i- x a • m i x \■!,( i'u - '-rv i
y v~ \ rv, ( y i ixx‘\ i (_ vk^
X l-w^X ) t
p - ^ x a vr • i ^ k / x X
w,y^yvy • l xa\ 'xy ^ -
yy<vp - • >x\y a x.-x , ~
• 1J 1/1 \ y, /> Aly ^ ^■ -^
y A\y/kx. -ix ' x
"Zn^X Z,( 1 /( ^ \ ^ /K" ^./y<^ ^> /l
i.. .v*A *i h' >r.\^-
C-lyy^A^"^^ °v ° • c a . I- 'X ./ v
>r
• ° -l
a v ' a k
a y </t~ y aa
c o’ t. yy- /A/ v; '
y vl- S_ (A > y,
y^yi ( > i y ~r .1,
i z (i z \ n,
t.yi t-X i y,
(v-v > c y yyyw.
- ■
S H O R T - II AN!
in writing all the confonants of which any word was com
pofed, the beginnings of the marks which follow mufl
always be joined to the ends of thole which precede them :
Whenever therefore, they are joined in any other manner,
it is to denote, that each particular mark lignifies a whole
word, and not a fingle letter : as for example, t^e parti¬
cular way of joining the letters in the firft example, N° 7.
is a fufficient indication that they were not intended to re-
prefent a word colliding of thofe two confonants, but two
words; and the n in the middle of the line Handing for
and the t for the, in the may be written as in that example.
So again, the fecond example, N0 7. denotes two words ;
and the / being drawn from the place of the vowel /,
fhows the latter of them to be is: and though the Hraight
perpendicular line ufually reprefents the article the, yet, in
that fituation, it cannot poffibly do fo ; for that article can
never come immediately before a verb, but the pronouns very
frequently do. It is may therefore be very commudioufly
written as in that fecond example; and it is not to be, as
it is, finceit is, may be written as in N° 8. and by drop¬
ping w, as before, we may write if as, for it nuas, it was
, not to be ; it'ere to be, for it were to be ; it feems to be‘, in
N0 9. for the s being drawn from the place of <?, Ihows that
it mull be either it es to be, or it se to be; and it
feems to be is fo very comnjon a phrafe, that it will hot
give much trouble to the reader, though written in this
concife manner.
Rule III. Points being the ihorteft of all marks, it
would argue a great want of ceconomy, as well as invention,
not to make all the ufe of them that can be made confif
tently with the regularity of our fyftem. The power of
reprefenting prepolitions and terminations, which was allot¬
ted to the confonant marks, could not be given to the points:
for, in that fituation, they Hand for the vowels ; and all the
diftinguifhable places, both before and after the eonfonant
marks, are already taken up by the five vowels : but a point
placed dire&ly over or under the beginni' g or end of
any of thofe marks, has as yet had no fignification annexed
to it. AsTor inllance, in the fecond example, N° ,10. the
point being fo placed, that if the t was produced, it would
pafs through it, is very dillihguifhable from all the vowels.
All derivative fubftantives may therefore be very conve
niently reprefented by making the point Hand for the fub-
ftantive derived from the word at the end of whicli it is
placed; fo the two examples, N° 10. fignify forget, for-
getfulnefs.—But as there are derivative adjectives and ad¬
verbs as well as fubflantives, it will be a great compendi¬
um to reprefent them alfo by points, dilfinguifhable, by
their Gtuatioo, both from the fu dlanjcive and the vowel
points ; which may be done by placing them in a line, which,
if produced, would pafs through the fubftantive-point, and
would alfo be perpendicular to the laft confonant mark ; and
by making one placed before the fubftantive-point 'to fignify
the adje&ive, one after it to fignify the adverb : As, for-
getful, forgeifulnefs, forgetfully, N° it.; reafonable, rea-
fonablenefs, reafonably, N° 12, ; Juffictent, fufficiency, fuf-
ficiently, N° 13.
Rule IV, Although the above tlefcribed mode of ab¬
breviation is very extenfive, there being in our language a
great number ofjong words derived from fhort ones ; yet it
is far from being the only ufe which may be made of thefe
adje&ive, fuhltantive, and adverb points. In all difeourfes
whatever, there muft be forae piincipal words, which, ei-
3 WRITING. 593’
ther by their more particular relation to the fubjed, or fre¬
quent occurrence, will be eafily difcoverable, however cotr
cifeiy written. If fuch words begin with a confonant, the
firlt letter, if not the firit vowel and confor.ant, with the
adjedlive, fubftantive, or adverb point annexed, will fug¬
ged them immediately; and therefore will be, though a
brief, yet a fufficient defeription of them. A^ for inltance,
if the following paffage be tranferibed out of a difeourfe
upon the folly of worldly-mindednels, in common long-hand,
after this manner, Our blejfed L , both by his preach¬
ing and ex ,has fully flsown us the vanity and
folly of fee king for folia and lafung h :  in the poj-
fejfion of any of the goods, of this prefent w ; every
one mult immediately fee, that the woids, deferibed by tfieir
initial letters, are too plainly pointed out by the nature of
the fubjedt, and their accompanying epithets, to leave any
room for doubt or miftake. In following a fpeaker, the
fame defeription of them in fhort-hand mu'ft therefore be
allowed to be fufficient. But it may not be amils to give ano¬
ther inftance or two, with the fhort-hand charadlers for the ab¬
breviated words ; as, Life and immortality brought to
light by the gospel; or again,’T'/te resurrection oA the
dead, andafuturejlateof rewardspunishments, are
plainly andpojitively taught, in the gofpel In theie inflances,
immortality, gofpel, refurrettion, rewards, andpunifhment;,
may be wrote as in N° 14. So in writ ng after pleaders,
who frequently ufe the expreflion with fubmijjion to your
hordfhip, the words fubmijjion and Lord/hip may be wrote
as in the fird and fecond examples, N° 15. and if the adjec¬
tive humble be joined to fubmijfton, it may be denoted b*
its fird confonant, and be joined to the fobdantive ; and the
words humble JubmiJJton may be written as in the third ex¬
ample. This will be found a very ufeful compendium ; for
there are many fubllantives to which fome particular adjec¬
tives are ufoaliy joined ; as, human nature, Chrifiian reli¬
gion, natural philojophy, &c. Whenever, therefore, the
fubjetft treated of will lead to the difeovery of the fubdan-
tive, though denoted only l?y its fird confonant, it wjll, at
the fame time, difeover the adjoined adjetfive. This me¬
thod may indeed appear, at fird fight, to clafh with the
rule about derivative fubdantives ; but it will feldom hap¬
pen that the two confonants will compofe any word from
which another can be derived ; or if it /liould< if would
fcarcely ever be fuch a dne as would agree with the context.
It will appear evidently, upon a little confideration of the
nature of this mode of abbreviation, that no limits can be
let to it; but that it may be more or lefs frequently ufed,
in proportion to the knowledge, fkill, and readinefs of the
writer, which will enable him to judge in what indances
fueh liberties may be taken without occafioning ambiguity.
And every writer may accudom htmfelf to mark fuch words
as mod frequently occur in his own particular profeflion,
by the initial letters, with the fubdantive, adjeflive, and ad¬
verb points refpedively, which, through cudom, will eafily
fugged thofe words to him at fird light. But it mud not
be underdood that thefe marks neceffirily imply thofe
words, and no other : They may dand for any other be¬
ginning with the lame letters, which the fenfe of the pada-
ges requires. It cannot therefore be expe&ed that a lid
of them.lfiould be given here ; but the following are fome
of thofe which are mod commonly ufed : as, God, happi-
nefs, heaven. Lord, always, N° 16. ; altogether, cccajlon,,
accordingly, N0 17.; nolwithjlanding, opinion, perhaps,.
religion, s
594 SHORT -HAN
religion, N° 18. ; fnhjctt, together, world, N° 19.
Rule V. An attention to that property of the Englu'h
language, of expreffing the different connexions, and rela¬
tions of one tiling to another, for the moll part, by prepo-
fitions, which the Greek and Latin, and fome modern lan¬
guages, do by varying the terminations of the lubllantives,
will point out a,further application of the dot to the purpo-
fes of abbreviation : for as, in the Latin manufcripts, the
root or body-of the word being given, there was no ne-
ceility of writing the various terminations of the cafes, fince
any reader who underftood that language could himfeif
fupply the particular termination^ which the cafe required ;
fo, in Eogfifh, if the two related fubllantives be luch as
may be readily known, even when reprefented by their firll
confonants only, they miy be joined together, placing a dot
at the point of .their junXion. to (how that they are both
fubflantives; and the prepofition conneXing them may be
omitted, for it may as certainly and as readily be fupplied
by the reader as the cafes in Latin before mentioned.
This coofideration will therefore diXate the fallowing rule,
viz. That a dot placed at the point of concurrence of two
eonfonant marks, as in N® 20. denotes twQ.-fuhlla»fives,
of which thofe marks are the firfl: confonants ; and alfo that
the latter is governed of, or cctnneXed to, the former, by
fome prepofnion which is omitted.
As for example, in this fentence. The fum or fubjlance
of all the commandments is contained in the two following.
viz. the love of.Gob, and the love of our neighbour ;ihz
wot As,love of God may be wrote as in the lalt example :_for
as the particular fituation of the dot denotes that both L
and G are fubllantives, the article before the firll points
out plainly enough the omitted prepofition «/; and the lead
degree of attention to the words which precede and follow
the contraXed mark will drfcover that it mull be the love
of Cod.
Or again, The love of money is the root of all evil;
or, Seekje firjl the kingdom of God. and his righteouf
tiefs: thefe words loVe of tnomy, and theie otherwords king¬
dom o/-.GW,-may be wrote as in N° 2t.
The articles a or the, in this and in many of the fol¬
lowing ways of abbreviation, inay, for the fake of joining,
be omitted, as in the following fentence, Since the light of
the gofpel has foone upon the world, See. the light of the
gofpel may be written as in N° -20.'’
And further, though an adjeXive Ihould precede either
of the fubilantives, yet they may all three be reprefented by
their firlt confonants joined together, with the dot always
placed at the efi^ of the firll fubllantive. No difficulty can
everarifein diliinguilhing the adjeXive from the fubllantives.
For, in the following fentence, The great goodnefs of God
is manifeft in -all his dealings with his creatures', if thefe
words, great goodnefs'of God, be written as in N° 22. the
dot placed at the end of the fecond mark (hows that it mull
be the firll fubllantive, the third mud therefore denote
•the latter fubftamive, and the firll confequently the adjec¬
tive. In like manner, in the following fehtence. His Majefly
the King oj Great Britain, the words King of Great Bri
tain may be wrote a’s in the firll example, N° 23. for the
dot being placed at the end of the firll mark, it is evident
that the firll mull be a fubllantive; and a little attention to
the ufu.il arrangement of words in the Engliffi language fuggells
that the fecond mult be an adjeXive, as adj^Xives generally
precede the fubllanrive's to which they are related : there is
therefore as much given as if it had been written in long-
D WRITING,
hand thus, His Majefly, the K   of G B- ;
which, in a dilcourfc concerning him, would be fufficient to
difeover that the contr^Xed words mult be' King of Great
Britain.
If each of the fubllantives have an adjeXive joined to
them, there can be no difficulty for the firtl and third mull
be adjeXives. except in fome rare inltances in which the
common order is fometimes ctynged, and the lad adjeXive
is put after its fubllantive, as in this, the great goodneji of
God Almighty: in fuch cafes, either the lalt ndjeXive mull
be Separated from the reft of the mark; or, if joined, it mud
have the adjeXive dot annexed; and the great >goodnefs of
God Almighty may be Written as in the fecond example.
N° 23.
This relation of fubdantives, which is exprefied in Latin
by the genitive cafe, jn Englilh by the prepofition of, is
by far the mod common: but the rule is more extenfive,
and ferves to exprefs two fubdantives ronneX^d by any pro-
pofition whatfoever, ss for, in, with, after. 6cc. provided
that the context, or any particular words of the fentence,
eafily indicate not only the two fubftantives which are de¬
noted by their fird confonants, but alfo the prepofition which
ought to bejnierted. As, for example, in this fentence.
Happy is it for us, if, convinced by experience of the vanity
of putting our truft in man, we place all our confidence in
God, the th ee lad words may be expreffed as in the firll
example, N6 24. For the context plainly points out the
two fubdantives; and the verb/»/«£•? marks evidently, that
the omitted prepofition cannot be of, but mull be in.
In this fentence. Our holy religion abfolutely 'forbids all
injlances of revenge, our Saviour expnjly commanding his
difciples to return good for evil-,—good for evil may be
written as in the fecond example; for the verb return ffiows
plainly that it cannot \st good of evil, but mud \>t good for
evil. It may, perhaps, be objeXed here, that v is not the
fird letter of the word evil; but it mud be obferved, that
the words of the rule are, That the dot denotes two fubdan¬
tives, of which thofe marks are theffird confonants, not
the firil letters; and a v.ord may fometimes be fo pointed
out by others which accompany it, as to be eafily difeove-
rable, though tfie initial vowel be omitted.
It may not be improper to add another example or two
for the better underfunding of this rule ; as thus, In this
prejent fate there is no fuch thing to be met with as pure
tmmixed pieafure or pain, gooa or evil; here below all things
are mixed, pieafure with pain, good with evil. The latter
part of the fentence, pieafure with pain, good with evil, may
be w. ote as in the two fird maiks N° 25 for the word
mixed tequ ring the prepofition with after it, (hows, that it
cannot he p of p , g of v ■, but mud be
p — with p , g with v .
Or, He is now become quite blind, he cannot even dijlin-
guijb light from durknefs. The lad three woids may be
wrote as in the third maik, N° 25.
Or again. If we confider, that without health we cannot
enjoy any of thofe pleafures which riches can procure; what
man. that e/iimates things according to their reality, rather
than their appearance, would not prefer health to
riches : or thus, if he had it in his option, would not
rather chufe health than riches; or. would not
chufe health before riches. The three feverai ex-
preffions will be eafily dil’inguiffied, though wrote all in
the fame mannner, ^N° 26, .
Rule VI. The fubiiantivepoint, placed before a fingle
conlonant
SHORT-HAN
confonant mark, denotes, that the fubftantive reprefented
by it is to be repeated, with fome intervening prepofition,
as after, to, by ; as for example, day after day, time to
time, N0 27.
Rule VII. The fubftantive, adjeftive, or adverb point,
placed before two or more confonant marks joined together,
denotes two or more fubftantives, adjedtives, or adverbs fe-
fpeftively, of which thofe marks are the firft confonants,
and alfo that they are connedted by a conjundtion.
j^s for example, Our blejfed Tuoko and Saviour Je-
fus Chriji, by bis death and passion, made a fufficient
satisfaction and atonement for the fins of the
•whple ovorld-,—Lord and Saviour, death and paflion, fat is
fatiion and atonement, being wrote as in N° 28.
Or further. The precepts both of natural and reveal¬
ed religion forbid us to do our neighbours any injury ; ex¬
ample firft, N° 29. Here the point ihows, that both n and r'
are adjedtives; and the word religion, to which they are
connedted, will immediately fuggeft the words natural and
revealed.
Or, to add one other inftance, What doth the Lord thy
God require of thee, but to live S0TiS.Ki.v, righteously,
and godlV, in this prefent •world? example fecond, N° 29.
Here it appears, by the prefixed point, that r, r, and-^, muft
all be adverbs, and confequently that there is nearly as much
expreffed as if the fame fentence had been written in long-
hand after this manner, viz. What doth the Lord thy God
require of thee, but to live f- ly, r ly, and g ly in
this prefent world ? which furely would give very little trou¬
ble to fill up with-the words foberly, right eoufly, and godly.
Thus any feries of fubftantives, adjedtives, or adverbs,
may be expreffed by their firft confonants joined together
with the proper point prefixed, But we muft not indulge our-
felves in doing this at all adventures. It is only to be done
in fuch inftances, wherein the commonnefs of the phrafe,
or the nature of the fubjedt, points out the words fignified
by thofe letters ; or when the words, fo briefly defcribed,
are fuch, that no other can be infertedin their ftead confift-
ently with the fenfe of the paflage.
When great difpatch is required, as in the cafe of follow¬
ing a fpeaker, all omil&ons are allowable, which can after¬
wards be fupplied by a careful attention to the idiom of the
language, and to the connedtion of the contradted words
with thofe which' precede or follow them. And it may
not be improper to obferve, that greater or lefs liberties
of contradling may be taken, in proportion as the fpeaker
is more or lefs accurate in his language. For it is certain,
that any contradlions, where the ftyle is clear and regular,
may be more eafily decyphered, than where it is confufed
and embarrafled. It may happen, indeed, fometimes, that
the words fignified by fuch contradtions will hot occur at firft
fight; but a little thought will difcover them; and the reader
will find, that an attention of this fort will very agreeably
and infenfibly lead him into a more perfedl knowledge of the
idiom of his own'language.
Rule VIII Many long words maybe, and frequently are,
exprefled in common writing by their firft fyllable only, with
a mark to fhe'w that fomething is wanting, as mult 
for multitude, cor for correfpondence. So in ftiort-
hand, long words, efpecially thofe in which the marks for
Vol. III. N°.. 93. 2
* When one fyllable only is v,’anting, a point cannot be ufed
D WRITING. 595
the confonants will not join neatly, maybe denoted by iheir
firft fyllable, with as many points annexed as there are
fyllables wanting; as, multitude, correfpondence*, N° 30-'
And when great difpatch is required, the points tnay be
omitted, efpecially if the words, do not begin with prepofi-
tions ; as, fignification, difficulty^ negligence, N° 3i»
Rule IX. The power given to the confonant-marks of
reprefenring prepofitions and terminations, will enable us to
write great numbers of long words after a very expediti¬
ous manner : for words beginning with prepofitions may
be denoted by their refpedlive prepofitions, together with
the next confonant and vowel ; and oftentimes with the
next confonant only, adding to it the fubftantive, adjec¬
tive, or adverb point, when neceflary. As for inftance, the
firft example, N° 32. exprefles a word beginning with the
two fyllables de-li; andthough there are many words which
begin with thofe fyllables, as deliberate, deliver, delicious,
&c. yet if foch a fentence as the following were to be writ¬
ten thus, He was not hafly in his refolution, but took time
to deli about it, the word deliberate would immedi¬
ately occur to every one.
. The trouble of inferring the vowel may, in many inftan-
' ces, be faved, by beginning the confonant from that point
after the prepofition in which that vowel ftiould be placed ;
as in example fecond, N° 32. the m beginning from the a’s
place after the t fliows, that the next vowel after m is «;
and the mark therefore is equivalent to tranfmu , which
is a fufficient defeription of the word tranfmutation.
A few examples more will fufficiently explain this rule:
as, recommend, recommendation, recommendatory, N° 33.
refgnation, refolution, confanguinity, N° 34. conveniently,
fuperficially, N° 35.
The participles may be abbreviated after the fame man¬
ner, by adding, inftead of the points, the termination ing or
ed to the latter confonant mark; as conf ing for confl-
dering, conf ed fox conf dered, N°36.
Words beginning with double or treble propofitions may be
written after the fame manner ; as, mifnformation, repre-
fentation,mifreprefentaiion, N°37. incomprehcnfbility, ex¬
ample firft, N° 38. The prepofitions muft always be joined to-
ther ; and, if two confonants begin the next fyllable, the
writing of them both will help to difcover the remainder of
the word ; as mifunderfdnding, example fecond, N° 38.
It muft appear plainly to every one, upon the leaft confide-
ration, that the words in the foregoing inftances are abbre¬
viated. There can therefore be no danger of miftaking, for
example, the mark N° 39. for fome (hort word, fuch as
daily, duly, &c. For, by our rule, the disjoined always
fignifies the prepofition de: nor can it be a word confifting
of the prepofition de and the fyllable li or ly only ; for, if
fuch a word had occurred, it would have been fooner writ¬
ten by joining the marks together, as N° 40. This way'of
writing therefore Ihows, that the word begins with the pre¬
pofition de; that the next fyllable is li; and that there are
fome other fyllable, or fyllables, wanting to complete it. Nor
can the confonants in thofe examples in which the vowels were
omitted, be miftaken for terminations; as in this example,
N° 41. the cannot be fuppofed to reprefent the termina¬
tion ical\ fince it would be abfurd to think of deferibing any
word by its prepofition and termination only: for as the
7 L , fame
to exprefs it; for a point fo placed muft denote a vowel.
596 SHORT-HAN
fame prepofitioi) and termination are common to great num¬
bers of words, they alone can never give a good defcription
ot any particular one.
This way of reafoning purfued will lead to the difcovery
of an eitfy and fliort method of denoting the words felf and
felves, which fo frequently follow the pronouns. For, if a
disjoined mark lofes its power of reprefenting a termination,
by being placed clofe after a prepofition, the — muft certainly
lofethatof reprefentiong_/?0« or tion, when placed clofe after
any of the pronouns, fince they never admit of fuch a termi¬
nation. It mull therefore, in that fituation, denote only the
confonant s followed by that vowel from whofe place in
the line it is drawn; and confequently the words felf and
felves may be very commsdioufly reprefented by drawing
the a from the ?’s place, clofe after any of the pronouns; as,
my felf, itfelf, ourfelves, themfelves, See. N°42. And though
the word own Ihould intervene, yet felf or felves may (till
be fignified in the fame manner; as, my oiun felf, his own
felf. See. N° 43.
The words what, who, ivhem, how, Sec. have very often
the word foever added to them, which may, for a reafon
fimilar to the foregoing, be very aptly expreffed by the s
drawn from the place of o\ as whatfoever, howfoever, whom-
foever. Sec. N° 44.
Rule X. In like manner, words ending in any of the
terminations marked in the preceding table of the alphabet,
may be denoted by their firlt confonant and vowel, together
with the proper mark for its termination; as. for example,
ar ry for arbitrary, op ity for opportunity, cu ity
for curiojity, lawfulnef, N° 45.
But it mull be carefully obferved, that the vowel, whe¬
ther it precedes or follows the confonant, mull nev$r be o-
mined; otherwife the confonant might be taken for a pre-
polition, and then this rule would interfere with the fore¬
going : whereas its power of reprefenting a prepofition is
dellroyed by the addition of the vowel, whilll the fingle dif-
joined mark, at the end, retains its power of reprefenting a
termination. The word is therefore deferibed by its be¬
ginning and termination, a vacancy being left in the middle
to be fupplied by the fagacity of the reader.
Rule XI. It cannot have efcaped the obfervation-of any
one who has confidered the Englilh language with any de¬
gree of attention, that words of different fignifications govern,
or require different prepofitions ; that words, for example,
{\gn\fy\r\g dejire, knowledge, ignorance. Sec. require the pre¬
pofition of-, that other words, importing mercy, compajfton,
dependence, Sec. require the prepofition Care there¬
fore being taken to write the prepofitions plainly, the firft con¬
fonant only will in many inllances be found to be fufficiently
deferiptive of the words which require thofe particular prepo¬
fitions. For although there maybe many words which begin
with the fame confonant; yet all thofe which do not require
that particular prepofition, are upon that account immediately
excluded; and the remainderisby that means reduced to fofew,
that it will be eafy to feleft the proper one. In every one of the
following fentences (and many more of the like kind might
be given) theletteridenotes a different word, v/z. in He was
very d of being thought rich’. You may d upon my
promife ; 1 d from him in opinion; He d  long
about the choice of a patron, but at lajl refolved to d 
his work to, Sec Sec. and yet, by the help of the diferimina-
ting prepofitions, the particular word proper to each place is
cafily difcoverable.
D WRITING.
A few inflances will be fufficient to give the learner a
right notion of this method of abbreviation.
For example, in the following fentences; This belongs
to me\ He made fame good observations upon it; I
want to dispose of myhoufe; He agreed with nie in
Opinion ;—the words belongs, obfervations, difpofe, agreed,
may be written as in NQ 46, And in thefe fentences, There
was not the leaf difference between us JVe muf take
particular care to guard againf fuch pajfons as we find
ourfelves mof liable to ; As for his perjonal efate, he
divided it arnongfi all his children in equalJhares;—the
words difference, guarf liable, and divided, may be wrote
as in N° 47.
And it may be further obferved, that as few Englifh
words end with the fyllable to, the propofition to may for
that reafon be joined to the preceding word, which was di-
redted to be fignified by its firfl confonant only. For the
unufualnefs of the ending will be a fufficient hint, that the
mark reprefents not one, but two words; and, therefore.
This belongs to me, maybe written as in example firft, N°48.
and liable to, fatisfattory to, and fubjeci to, may be wrote
as in the fepond, third, and fourth examples, the — in this
laft inftance being made at the bottom of the line, to (how
that the vowel following it is a. But, if any one finds it
difficult to write the/upwards, he may, whenever it is necef-
fary, diftinguiffi the two laft inftances from one another, by
inferting the a, and write fubjefl to as in N° 49.
Other prepofitions, which a; e denoted m the table of the
alphabet by a fingle confonant, may, in like manner, be
joined to the preceding word ; as in the example, He made
fame good obfervations upon it,—obfervations upon may
be written as in N° 50. Nor will there be any great
danger of the reader’s being puzzled by miflaking fuch like
marks for fingle words ; for it will not often happen that
the two confonants of which they are compofed will form
any word, fcarcely ever that they will form fuch a word
as will fuit the place and agree with the context. A little
cuftom will therefore foon fuggeft to the learner, that the
two marks muft denote two words ; the latter of which,
being reprefented in his ffiort-hand alphabet by the latter
confonant mark, muft for that reafon immediately occur to him.
Rule XII. Prepofitions generally require after them
either a noun, or a pronoun. The pronouns being few in
number, and in all languages ufed as fubflitutes for nouns,
muft occur very frequently, and by that means foon become
familiar to the learner ; the pronoun, for that reafon, may
be joined to the prepofition, without danger of creating any
difficulty to the reader.
As for example, in thefe fentences, He gave it to me.
He left it to my, to us, to you, to our, to your, the words
to me, to my, to us, to you, to our, to your, may be wrote
as in N° 51. The h, th, orwh, may, for the fake of joining,
be dropped in the pronouns; which begin with thofe letters, as
his, this, whom, &c. and we may write to his as in example
firft, N® 52. and to this as in example fecond ; diftinguiffi-
ing, if it ever ffiould be thought neceffary, his from this,
by the different fituation of the point; to her and to their,
as in example third: for a diftindtion between them can
not be made, as was done in the inftance before, by the
different placing of the point; but the fenfe of the paffage
will eafily ffiow which it muft be. To whom, to thofe, or
to whofe, to which, to each, may be wrote as in the firft four
examples, N° 53. It was not in my power; in my, as in
SHORT -HAN
the fifth example. It mas thrown under my feet. He
came and dwelt amongst us, You may he depend upon me;
the words under my, amongft us, upon mt, as in NQ 54.
This rule is not to be reftrained to thofe prepofitions on¬
ly which are denoted in the table of the alphabet by a
Angle confonant, as among, under, upon, &c. but may
be extended to others, which muft in that cafe be repre¬
sented by their firft confonant, and be joined to the pro¬
noun ; as, he did it with my confent, writing with my as
in N° 55. This will occafion no ambiguity, fince m can¬
not in this place fignify the word mil/; for fuch a fentence
as, he did it mill my confent, would be neither fenle nor
grammar. Its fituation in the fentence, and connection with
the pronominal adjeCtive my, plainly mark that it muft be
fome prepofition which begins with m.
And though feveral prepofitions Ihould begin with the
fame confonant, yet they may be written in this manner,
provided that the preceding or following words be fuch as
will ferve todiftrnguifti them, and (hew which of them muft
needs there be meant; as in the following examples : He came
privately and took it away w 1 t h ou t m y knowledge-, Tojloop
to fo mean an action mas much beneath his dignity. It is
beyond my reach. Without my may be written as with my,
N° JJ. and the words beneath his, beyond my, as in N° 56.
Aboveravj be diftinguifhedfrom beyond, by prefixingthe ini¬
tial vowel. Thus, in the following fentence,///'/ above my
comprehenfion, above my may be wrote as in example firft,
N° 57. wad between them, before my, behind my, in thefe
fentences, They divided it equally between them, He
had the impudence to do it before my face. He did it
Jlyly behind my back, may be wrote as in the three laft
examples, N° 57.
But it is to be noted here, that when the propofitions
themfelves are abbreviated, as in thefe inftances above, they
cannot help to explain other words, as they did in thofe
mentioned in the beginning of the 1 ith Rule, in which they
were direfted to be written plainly ; for it would be very
puzzling indeed, if that word, which was to affift in ex¬
plaining others, wanted explanation itfelf.
Rule XIII. After the learner has, by a little practice,
made the la'll method of abbreviation familiar to himfelf, he
may venture to combine it with the foregoing, and join the
preceding word, the prepofition, and pronoun all together:
and as he had learned before to write belongs to, as in ex¬
ample firft, N° 58. and as the laft rule taught him to write
to me as in example fecond, he may now join them all to¬
gether, and write belongs to me, extends to us, agreed
with me, depend upon me, as in N° 59.; obfervutions upon
this, as in example firft, N° 60.; and rebellion againjl his,
dijfenftons amongjl his, as in the two following fentences,
He mas a notorious traitor and caught in a final rebel¬
lion against his Majefly, He mas an ill naturedman,
and always endeavouring tof?w dissensions amongst
his neighbours, may be wrote as in N° 60.
When a pronoun, or a prepofition and pronoun, follow
the verb, and are themfelves followed by a prepofition and
pronominal adjeftive, they may all be joined together; as, I
CONGRATULATED him UPON HIS, isc. I CONDOLED
WITH him upon his, N°6i.
The words fome, any, none, which, each, loth, &e.
* As a fubftantive muft necdTarily follow the adjective my,
fhow that it was one.
D W R I T I N G. 597
'"followed by a prepofition and pronoun, vawy, agreeably to
this rule, be denoted by their firft confonants, and be join¬
ed to the prepofition and pronoun; as, fome of them, any of
us, none of them, N0 62. both of them, which of them,
each of them, N° 63. The firft, dot is inferted to diftinguiih
the words from one another which begin with the fame
confonant; as, none, any. See. The latter dot muft never
be omitted, as it is the appointed way of writing the pro¬
nouns when joined to prepofitions ; as, of them', N°64.
Rule XIV. After the learner has for fome time ac-
cuftomed himfelf to the foregoing rule, he may advance a
ftep further, and join the adverbs preceding the verbs, and
the fnbftantives following the pronominal adjectives, to the
verbs and adjeClives refpeCtively, denoting both the adverbs
and fubftantives by their firft confonants, or at moft by their
firft confonants and vowels ; as for example, in this fen¬
tence, jua SAFELY DEPEND UPON MY WORD, fdfelf
depend upon my word may (land as in N° 65. *
Difficult as this may feem to a beginner, yet habit, and
a little reflection upon the nature of our language, will
quickly render it eafy to him. His own experience will
foon convince him, that contractions, when judicioufly
made, may be more certainly and eafily read than the un¬
experienced are apt to imagine. It may, perhaps, for a
while at the firft, be a good method to take the contractions
to pieces, writing in long-hand exactly what is given in
ffiort-hand. The foregoing contraction fo tranferibed would
Hand thus, you may fa d- upon my w— . Here
the prepofition upon will foon fuggeft, that the preceding
word, beginning with the confonant d, muft be depend y
and the word denoted by its initial letters fa, coming be¬
twixt the auxiliary may, and the verb depend, is by its fi¬
tuation, according to the ufual arrangement of words in our
language, plainly enough marked to be an adverb ; fo that
it is nearly the fame as if it had been written thus, You
may fa ly depend upon my w , which is too plain a
defeription to prove a ftumbling-block to any attentive
reader.
Rule XV. Many common phrafes, formed by a fub¬
ftantive preceded by the prepofitions with, without, in, See.
and followed by to, of, See. may be very conveniently con¬
tracted ; as, with regard, refpefl, or reference to, N° 66.
example firft. He bafely broke his promife, withoutany,
regard to his honour ; without any regard to his, as in
example fecond ; in relation to, as in the third example ; in
order to, in confequence, comparifon, or confideration of,
in obedience to your, N° 67.; by reafon of his, by virtue of
his, N° 68. (in this laft instance, the proportionably little d
(hows, that the mark following it is to be divided into two
letters;) upon account of, in the.power of, N° 69.
Rule XVI. Common adverbial phrafes are, in like
manner, often denoted by their initial confonants joined to¬
gether ; as, for the future, at the fame titne, at prefent,
in this manner, N° 70. ; in like manner, in a great mea-
fure, in the fame manner, N° 71.; in fo much that, fo
much the more, in the mean time, N9 72.; in general, in
particular, N° 73.
And when the proportion of equality is expreffed by
fo as, or */— as, with forae one word intervening,
they may be all joined together ; as, fo much as, as much asr
as
there was no occafion to place the point at the end of the w to:
5?8 S H O R T - H A N D W R I T I N G.
as ’well as, as long as, as good, or as great as. See. N° 74.
Rule XVII. The contrafhons which may be made
when it is or it was are followed by an adjedtive, and to
or- that, are fo numerous, that we muft content ourfelves
with giving a few of the mod ufual ; as, it is impojjihle to,
it wsas unnecrjfary to, it is contrary to, N° 75. : it is ac¬
cording to, it is obfervable that, it ij evident that, it is
not to be fuppofed that, &c. N° 76.
The above methods of abbreviation are fucb as are of
mod common ufe and pradtice: and though they ate not
many in number, yet they are very extenfive in their appli¬
cation ; for a fentence can fcarce occur in which fome one
or other of them will not find a place. But yet we are far
from pretending to have exhauded the fubjedl. An accu¬
rate and affiduous attention to the nature and idiom of our
language may fugged others as ufeful and extenfive as tbefe.
Proper care being taken to lay a right foundation, the legi¬
ble ways of contradling will increafe, in proportion to the
writer’s want of them. The more he writes, the more con-
cifely he may venture to write, and yet be able to read his
contradlions with eafe; provided th.<t he builds them upon
fome known particularity of our language : for which rea-
fon we have been more folicitous to explain the grounds of
our rules, than curious in the choice,- or copious in the num¬
ber of examples. But that the learner may have all the af-
lidance neceflary, we have furnifhed him with fpecimens,
(Plates CLIII. CLIV CLV ) where he will find his rules
exemplified; and as the lad fpecimen is taken from a book
not in every perfon’s pofleflion, we have given the paffage ift
a note *.
But it may not be amifs, before we conclude, to make a
remark or two upon abbreviations in general.—Fird, that
imall the various ways that can be, taken of contradling,
(that is of deferibing words by fome fhorter method than
that of writing all the confonants' of which they confid,)
care mud be taken, when the contradfion confids of two or
more words joined together, that no one word of it be repre-
fented by more than one charadter ; and fecondly, that the
whole mark, by fome means or other, if poflible, be lliowi^
to be a contradlion, as it has been generally done in the
foregoing pages, either by the isfertion of points in the mid¬
dle of the marks, as N° (Plate CLIII.) for feme of them ;
(which, when difpatch is required, is never pradlifed to denote
vowels in the middle of words;) or by the unufual ending of
the mark, as N0 78. fox liable to, appears that; for few
words (fince the termination eth, fo frequent in feripture-
language, is now almod grown oblolete) end in th ; or by
the unufud joining of the marks, as, in the, it is. See. N° 7.
Otherwife the reader might be puzzled in hunting for fome
one word confiding of the letters which are written : where¬
as, if he knows it to be a contradlion, he is not bewildered
in his refearcher, but is at juft diredted the right road,
and has nothing to do but to fearch after fome word for
every charadter, which will fuit the defeription, and agree
with the context.
And when contradlions are judicicufly made, the learner,
provided he will obferve the caution already given, (and
which cannot be too often repeated,) of beginning with the
eafied, and of not proceeding to a fecond, until the fird is
become familiar, will certainly find the difficulty of decy¬
phering them leflfen every day.
But, fuppofing that there was more difficulty in the read¬
ing
_ * PROCF.F.DINGSon an Habeas Corpus upon the commitment
(by Sir William Turnbul Secretary of State) of Kendale
and Roe for High Treafon, 31 Odtober 1695.—Sir Bartholo- \
menu Shower, for the prifoners, fpoke as follows.
Sir Bartholemew Shower. I am of counfel for thefe t»
5: and what
ntfubjed, but fee nothing of a fecretary's commitment.  
range, if fuch a power were lodged in this ftate-officer, that there Ihould be n<
recedentsfor it in thofe times, when extrajudicial and general warrants Were f(
equent, that they became a grievance to the people, and fuch a one as laid tin
prefs to have them difeharged, and that upon go< 
To induce your-Lordlhip to bail them, I muft beg your Lordihip’s pardon, and
I hope Mr. Attorney will hold me excufed, if I make a queftion. Whether the
perfon committing hath any authority for fuch a purpofe. It is for my clients, who
think themfelves aggrieved by this imprifonment: and in truth they fay, that
they are fomewhat hardly dealt withal in this cafe; for the information againft
them is only for being privy to, and afiifting the efcape of the cent'"”-1- - v- 
privy to Sir James Montgomery’s efcape. But
fore your Lordlii,
With fubmiffion, I muft infill Upon it, that a fecretary of ftate, quatenus fecreta-
,ry, cannot commit for treafon or felony: he is not an officer for fuch a purpofe
in common parlance. The word fecretary imports only a writer of Utters oro-
ther eforipts foi'afbperior; and, as Spellman explains the word, thisis the fenfe
of it, with the addition of fecrecy, of privacy: and fo is his gloffary upon that
word. He is not a, privy-counfellar, quatenus n fecretary; nor is he a juftice:
and though pdrhaps, in fail, he .may be in the commitfion; yet, unlefshe hath ta¬
ken the oath of that office upon a dedimus, he cannot aft as fuch: and I have feen
five or fix privy-counteliors at a time appearing at a feffions of the peace for this,
county, in the cafe of the Duke of Bedford’s power, as cufos rotulorum, to remove
the clerk of the peace; and when intirpatipn was made to them of the juftices henfion
 1—, : — ' ->t taken, they refufed to vote, and did tliereupon with-
" ot be prefumed or intended to be a juftice
foundation for the petition of rights.
I lhall nrtt controvert the power of the council at prefent, becaufe it doth not
concern the prefent queftiou: .All that I can obferve in the cafe is, that it firft be¬
gan to be practiced in Sir Lionel Jenkyns’s time; and yet, even in 1678, when the
Popilh plot hadincreafed the number of prifoners to a wonderful'degree, it is no-
tonoufly known, that the chief juftice Scroggs was frequently and often fent for to
Whitehall, to examine, and commit, and grant warrants. And fometime fmee
the fecretaries of ftate have thrown that burden Off from themfelves upon their
feeretaries under them, who have been fworn juftices of the peace; and Mr.
Bridgeman hath accordingly executed the office of a juflice of peace at Whitehall,
and that frequently. It hath been a quettion, Whether a chancellor, or keeper of
the great real, can commit; and the better opinion hath been, that he cannot:
And it feems to be agreed by GranviW* and other cafes in Moor's Reports, 839.
•• tic.: id
s illegal, unlefs for a caufe within his jurifd
court of equity: and the matters muft fo appear. 1 muft agree, that any mart
may apprehend another for felony or treafon; but there isa vatt differenae between
an arrening of a traitor or felon upon fufpicion or knowledge, and a formal com¬
mitment to prifon with a charge of treafon. And I am fure Mr. Attorney Gene¬
ral will not infift upon thisreafon; for then the confcquence wift be, that any man
may commit, as well as a fecretary: And I fuppofe that doctrine will fcarce be al¬
lowed; though I think that any man may, as well as he. The reafon of an appre-
1—upon fufpicion, or hue and cry, or the like, is not to detain, but to carry
 inftable or juftice, as in 3. inf. 5 a. Then here the goaler doth not return
that he detains him becaufe he'is guilty or fulpedted; but becaufe, by virt
and fo is the return: and upon the return the authority liy which he commi
ought to appear, otherwife the return is vicious; and here doth appear none b
that of a feefetary. Now, if the office of fecretary doth not imply and catty in
nat or a lecretary. Now, 1
power of committing, the
Our conttitution hath diftributed the adminiftratiori of juftice, both in criminal
andcivilcaufes, into feveral courts; and hath appointedfeveral officers forfeveral
purpofes; fome for civil, fome for criminal matters,; and in criminals fome are
to examine and commit, others to obey and carry, others to receive and keep;
fome to try and fentence, others to execute '; each hath his proper province: and
of tliQfe your Lordlhip will take notice, as alfo of their feveral duties and powers;
and fo do our law-books. But a fecretary is a court-officer of ttate, not relating
to the adminiftration of juftice.
You take notice, as do our books, of head-boroughs, conftables, iheriffs, coro¬
ners, efoheaters, and the like: But neither Coie, Cromfton, Fitzherbert, Smith, or
any book which treats of the jurifdiction of courts, the pleas of the crown, or the
efficers of j uttice, do ever mention a fecretary of ftate: his office rather relates to
foreign negotiations than domeftick; and if any homeVaffairs fall under his cogni¬
zance, it is rather as an imelligcncerthan with any relation to criminals, prjfons, or
gaolers, &c. In all the debates abbut the liberty of the fubjefts, and Wrongful
commitments, which were in parliament in 4 Car. I. or idz8; and amongil all
{he precedents mentioned there upon each fide, which are multitudes; there is
  . itted to hij cuftody.
Befides, the reafon of our law is againft it; for a fecretary cannot adminifter an
oath. Now the law requires, that no man Ihould be committed by an extraju¬
dicial warrant, unlefs upon oath, if there be but a fufpicion, there ought to be
oath of the caufe of that fufpicion; for the perfon committing cannot commit up¬
on another’s fufpicion, unlefs there be oath of fome reafonable caufe for it.
He cafthot take bail for any perfon accufed, he cannot take a recognizance to
profecute. And I may very weil challenge any man living to (hew me any one re¬
cognizance ever returned into any court, that was taken by a fecretary, either for
appearance of a criminal, or for the profecution of one. And the pradlice is al-
wavs.otherwife; for they have often taken bonds to the king with condition to
here. And your Lordlhip, and the court, hatli often had much trouble in
alter; for, they being bound to appear here, the court hath refufed to rc-
leir appearance, becaufe no recognizance returned or taken whereupon
id fueli an appearance.
it feems ttrange, nay abfurd, that our oonftitution, which we admire for
lom, Ihould appoint an officer who would commit, and yet cannot give an
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S H 0 R,T*H A N
jng of them ; yet, provided that they may be certainly made
out by due attention to the fubjeft treated upon, and the
idiom of the language, it will be fufficient: for the learner
mud be advertifed, that thefe contraftions are not defign-
ed to be taught as the common ftandard method of writing
fhort-hand upon ail occafions.—That method which was
taught in the firil part, and which will be as eafily read,
upon a little practice, as coiumon long-hand, will be found
fufficiently (hort for all common purpofes ; and it fhould
therefore be kept to when very great difpatch is not re¬
quired.
Inventors of Ihort-hand have generally introduced into
their fyftems a multitude of arbitrary marks, to fignify par¬
ticular words and phrafes, which are often chofen rather
upon account of their length than their frequent occurrence.
The injudicious application of thefe arbitrary marks is not
S I A
SHOT, a denomination given to all forts of balls for fire¬
arms ; thofe for cannon being of iron, and thofe for guns,
piltols, ere- of lead.
SHOVELLR, in ornithology.. See Anas.
SHOULDER bone, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
i 75-
Shoulder-blade. See Anatomy, p. 176.
SHOWER, in meteorology, a cloud refolved into rain.
See Rain.
SHREW MOUSE. See Mus.
SHREWSBURY, the county-town of Shropfhire, fituated
on the river Severn : W. long. 20 46VN. lat. 520 46/.
It fends two members to parliament.
SHRIMP, in ichthyology. See Squilla.
SHRINE, in eclefiaftical hiftory, a cafe or box, to hold
the relics of fome faint.
SHROPSHIRE, a county of England, bounded by Chefhire
on the north, by Staffordlhire on the call, by Here- -
fordfhire on the fouth, and by Montgomerylhire on the
weft.
SHROVE.TUESDAY, is theTuefdayafterQuinquagefima
Sunday, or the day immediately preceding the firft of
Lent; beirtg fo called from the Saxon word Jhrive, which
hgnifies to confefs, as having been employed by the peo¬
ple in time of popery, in confelling their fins, in order
to receive the facrament, and thereby qualify themfelves
for a more religious obfervation of Lent.
SHROWDS, in a ftiip, are the great ropes which come
down both fides of the mafts, and are faftened below to
the chains on the Ihip’s fide, and aloft to the top of the
maft ; being parcelled and ferved in order to prevent the
raaft’s galling them. The top-maft fhrpwds are faftened
to the puttock-plates, by dead eyes and laniards, as the
others are.
SHRUB, among naturalifts, denotes a dwarf-tree, or a
woody plant lefs than a tree ; fucb are holly, box, pri¬
vet, fag.
SHUTTLE, in the manufa£tures, an inftrument much ufed
b.y weavers, in the middle of which is an eye, or cavity,
wherein is inclofed the fpoul svith the woof.
SI, in mufick, a feventh note or found, added by Le Maire
to the fix ancient notes invented by Guido Aretine, viz.
ut. re, mi, fa, fol, la, Jt.
SIAM, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name, in the
Von. Ill N° 94. 2
D WRITING. 599
the only objedlion againft them. They are not only
burdenfome to the memory, and tedious and difficult to be
learned, but are forgot even by the writer bimfelf, unkfs he
fits down to decypher immediately whilft every thmg is frefh
in his memory.
Thefe objeffions lie not againft the above methods of
abbreviation. They burden the memory with no new and
arbitrary marks, and with but few roles for the extenfion
of the powers of the alphabetical chara&ers; and the
rules are fo general, and applicable to fuch a multitude of
cafes perpetually occurring, that they give this fyitem the
advantage, even in point of expedition, over arbitrary marks,
and at the fame time leave the writing legible, whatever
length of time intervenes, not only to the writer himfelf,
but alfo to every fellow-pra&ifer of the fame method.
S I C
further peninfula of India : E. long. ioi°, N. lat. 140.
SIBA, a province of the hither India, fituated between
Tibet on the eaft, and Labor on the weft.
SIBALDIA, in botany, a genus of the-pentandria penta-
gynia clafs. The calix confiifs of ten fegmems, and the
corolla of five petals inferted into the calix ; the ftyli are
placed on the fide of the germen; and there are five feeds.
The fpecies are two, only one of them, viz. the pro-
cumbens, or baftard cinquefoil, a native of Britain.
SIBERIA, or Asiatic Russia, the moft northern
country of Alia, fituated between 6o° and 130® E. long,
and between 47° and 720 N. lat. being upwards of two
thaufand miles in length from eaft to weft, and one thou-
fand five hundred miles in breadth from north to fourh.
We include the Calmuc Tartars within the limits of Si¬
beria, as they acknowledge themfeives fubjeft to the em¬
pire of Ruffia.
SIBTHORPIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-
ginfperniia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and
the corolla of five equal ones ; the pairs of ftamina are
remote ; the capfule is compreffed, globular, and has
two cells, with a tranfverfe diffepimetiium.
SIBYLS, in pagan antiquity, certain women faid to have
been endowed with a prophetic fpirit, and to have deli¬
vered oracles forefhewing the fates and revolutions of
kingdoms, be.
The moft eminent of the ten fibyls mentioned by ancient
writers, was fhe whom the Romans called the Cumaean
or Erythraean fibyl, from her being born at Erythrae in
Ionia, and removing from thence to Gums in Italy,
where fhe delivered all her oracles from a cave dug out
of the main rock, according to Virgil, Ain. III. 441,
be.
There is ftill preferved, in eight books of Greek verfes,
a collection of verites pretended to have been delivered
by the fibyls ; but the generality of critics look upon it
as fpurious : and it 5s the opinion of Prideaux, that the
ftory of the three bo^ks of the fibyls, fold to Tarquin,
was a ftate-trick or feltch of politics.
SICILY, the largeft ofl all the Italian iflands, anciently
called Trinacria, from its triangular figure s it is fituated
between 12° and idy E. long and between 37° and
390 N. lat. being abo\ut one hundred and feventy miles
long, and one hundred fcroad.
7 M
It
S I G ( 600 } SI
It is feparated from Calabria, in Italy, by the flraights
of Meffina, which, in the narrowed part, is not feven miles
over.
SICTOS, in botany, a genus of the monoecia fyngenefia
clafs. The ealix and corolla of the male have each five
iegments ; and ther-e are three filaments ; the calix and
corolla of the female are the fame with thofe of the male;
the- dylus is trifid ; and the drupa contains one feed.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
'SIDA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia polyandria
clafs. The calix is fimple and angular; the dylus is
divided into many parts ; and there are many capfules,
each containing one feed. There are 23 fpecies, none
of ahem natives of B.ritain.
SIDEREAL yeas.. See Astronomy, p. 458.
SI DERI A, in natural hidory, the name of a genus of
crydals, ufed to exprefs thofe altered in their figure by
particles of iron. Thefe are of a rhomboidal form, and
cOmpolfd only of fix planes. Of this genus there are
four known fpecies : 1. A odloarlefs, pellucid, and thin
one, found in corifiderable Quantities among the iron ores
of the fored of Dean in Gloucederlhire, and in other the
like places. 2. A dull, thick, and brown one, not un¬
common in the fame places with the former. And, 3. A
black and Very glofly kind, a foflxl of very great beauty,
found in the fame place with the others, as alfo in Lei-
cederlhire and Suffex.
SIDERI FIS, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gypnno-
fpermia clafs. The damina are within the tube of the
corolla ; and there is a Ihort digma over-lopping another
one. The fpecies are eleven, none of them natives of
Britain.
SIDEROXYLUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confids of ten fegments
alternated crooked inwards ; the digma is fimple ; and
the berry contains five feeds. There are three fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
SIDMOUTH, a port-town of Devonlhire, fituated on a
bay of the Engl jfh channel, ten miles fouth-ead of Exeter.
SIDON, or Sayd, a port-town of Paledine, in Afiatic
Turky, feventy miles north of Jerufalem It is dill a
place of fome confideration, being the refidence of a
Turkilh balhaw.
SIDRA, an ifland of the Archipelago, fituated at the en¬
trance of the gulph of Napoli.
SIEGE, in the art of war, the encampment of an army
before a fortified place, with a defign to take it.
SIENNA, a city of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany, fitu¬
ated thirty-fix miles fgtutb of Florence.
SIERRA leon, a river of Gainea, which falls into the
Atlantic ocean, in W. long 14°, and N. lat. 70.
SIEUR, a title of refpfeft among the French, like mafier
, among us: it is much ufed by the lawyers, as alfo by fu-
periors in their letters to inferiors.
SIGAN, a town of China, in the province of Xenfi : E.
long. 108°. and N. lat. 340.
SIGESBECKIA, in botany, a plant of the fyngenefia po-
lygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ;
it has no pappus ; the inyolucrum has five leaves ; and
the radius is dimidiated. Thttfe are two fpecies, none
of them natives pf Britain.
SIGETH, a town of lower Hungary, fituated feventy-three
miles fouth-wedof Buda, an'd fubjedt to thehoufeof Auftria.
SIGHT, or Vision. See Optics.
SIGISTAN, the capital of a province of the fame name,
in Perfiat.E. long. 62°, and N. lat. 31°.
SIGN, in general, the mark or charadler of fomething ab-
fent or invifible.
Among phyficians, the term fign denotes fome appear¬
ance in the human body, which ferves to indicate or point
out the condition of the patient,' with regard to health or
difeafes.
Sign, in algebra. See Algebra, p. 80.
Sign, in aftronomy. See Astronomy,, p, 4^5.
SIGNATURE, a figning of a perfon’s name at the bottom
of an aft or deed, wrote by his own hand.
Signature, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xii. 24.
Signature, in printing, is a letter put at the bottom of
the firft page at le^ft, in each Iheet, as a direftioo to the
binder in folding, gathering, and collating them. The
fignatures confid of the capital letters of the alphabet,
which change in every Iheet: if there be more fheets
than letters in the alphabet, to the capital letter is added
a fmall one of the fame fort, as A a, B b ; which are
repeated as often as neceffary. In large volumes it is
ufual to didinguifh the number of alphabets after the fird
three or four, by placing a figure before the fignature, as
5 B, 6 B, tec.
SIGNET, one of the king’s feals, made ufe of in fealing
his private letters, and all grants that pafs by bill figned
under his majedy’s hand : it is always in the cudody of
the fecretaries of date.
Signet, in Scots law. ,See Law, Tit. iii. 16.
SILENE, in botany, a genus of the decandria trigynia
clafs. The calix is ventricofe ; the corolla confitls of
five unguiculated petals ; and the capfule has three cells.
There are 34 fpecies, 6 of them natives of Britain.
SILESIA, a duchy belonging to the king of Pruffia,- two
hundred miles long, and feventy broad : it is bounded by
Brandenburgh on the north, by Poland on the ead: by Hun¬
gary on thefouth, and by Moravia and Bohemia on the wed.
SILESIAN earth, in the materia medica, afineadrin-
gent bole. It is very heavy, of a firm compadl texture, ,
anj in colour of a brownifii yellow. It breaks eafily be¬
tween the fingers, and does notdain the hands; is naturally
of a fmooth Surface, and is readily diffuGble in water,
and melts freely into a butter-like fubdance in the mouth.
It leaves no grittinefs between the teeth, and does not
ferment with acid mendrua, It is found in the perpen¬
dicular fiflures of roiks near the gold-mines at Stri^onium
in Hungary, and is fuppofed to be impregnated with ths
fulphur of that metal. It is a good adnngent, and bet¬
ter than mod of the boles in ufe.
SILIQUA, a term ufed by botanids to denote a pod.
Siliqua. See Botany, p. 637.
SILK, is properly an animal fluid, hardened by the air
being ar> extremely foft and glolfy thread, fpun by the.
filk-worm, the body of which confids of eleven rings.
The humours found in the body of this infeid approach
to the nature of filk ; fince, on being rubbed in the hand,
they leave a folid crud behind. In the fides of the Belly,
all about the ventricle, there are depofited a vad number
of veflels, which contain the filky juice : thefe run with
various windings and meanders to the mouth; and are fo
dilpofedr.
S I L ( -601
Glfpofed, that the creatures can difcharge their contents
at pleafure at the mouth '; and, according to the nature
of the juices that they 'are fupplied with, furniih diffe¬
rent forts of fiik from them, all the fluid contents of theie,
veffeis hardening in the air into that fort of thread that
we find the web or balls of this creature confifl of.
As foon as the filk-worm is arrived at the fize and
ftrength necefl'ary for ‘beginning his cod, he makes his
web; for it is thus' they call that flight tiffue which is the
beginning and ground of this admirable work. This is
his lirfl: day’s employment. On the fecond he forms
his folliculus or ball, and covers himfelf almoft over with
fiik. The third day he is quite hid; and the following
days employs himfelf in thickening and ftrengthening his
ball; always working from one Angle end, which he ne¬
ver breaks by his o- n fault; and which is fo fine, aad
fo long, that^thofe who have examined it attentively
think they fpeak within compafs, when they affirm, that
each ball contains fiik enough to reach the length of fix
Englifh miles.
In ten days time the ball is in its perfection, and is
now to be taken down from the branches of the mulber¬
ry tree, where the worms have hung it. But this point
requires a deal of attention : for there are fome worms
more lazy than others; and it is very dangerous waiting
till they make themfeives a pafiage, which ufualiy hap¬
pens about the fifteenth day of the month.
Thefirfl, fineft, and ftrongeft balls are kepffor the grain,
the reft are carefully wound ; or if it is defired to keep
them all, or if there be more than can be well wound at
once, they lay them for fome time in an oven moderately
hot, or elfe expsfe them for feveral days fuccellively to
the greateft heats of the fun, in order to kill the infeCl,
which, without this precaution, would not fai-l to open
itfelf a way to go and ufe thofe new wings abroad it has
acquired within.
Ordinarily, they only wind the more perfeCl balls;
thofe that are double, or too weak, or too coarfe, are
laid afide, not as altogether ufelefs, but that, being im¬
proper for winding, they are referved to be drawn out
into flcains. The balls are of different colours ; the
moft common are yellow, orange-colour, ifabella, and
fiefti colour; there are fome alfo of a fea-green, others of
a fulphur colour, and others white; but there is no necef-
fity for feparating the colours and (hades to wind them
apart, as all the colours are to be loft in the future fcour-
ing and preparing of the fiik.
In the philofophical tranfaClions, n0 252,rwe find the.
following obfervations concerning the goodnefs of fiik,
which is beft diftinguifhed byits Hghtnefs. Theorgancine
fiik is the beft made in the country of Piedmont of any ;
and two threads are equal in finenefs, thatis, in fmoothnefs,
thicknefs, and length, for the thread of the firft twift.
For the fecond, it matters not whether the Angle thread
be ftrong before the two are joined, unltfs to fee whether
the firft twift prove well.
It i» neceflary that the fiik be clean; and it is to be
obferved, that the ftraw-coloured is generally the lighteft,
and the white the heavieft of all. The fkains ihould be
even, and all ©f in equality, which fhews that the y were
wrought together : otherwife w.etnay with juftice iufpeCl
that it is refufe fiik, and cannot be equally drawn out
and fpun; for one thread will be fhorter.than the other,
■Which’is labour and lofs.
) S I L
Tt will alfo be requifite to fearch the bale more than
once, and take from out of the parcels a flcain to make an
effay; for unlefs it be known, by trial, what one buys,
there is the greateft danger of being cheated' in this com¬
modity. To make an eftimate, and know the lightoefs,
fix the effay upon one eighth of a portee or hand of fiik
of a hundred and ten aunes or elis of Lyons in length,
and fee what it makes of aunes by the eighth part. The
fkain, which is of eighty threads, muft be multiplied by a
hundred and ten aunes of Lyon, and from this number
muft be deduced one eighth : as for example, no by
80 makes 8800, the eighth part of which is 1100 : anduhis
is the eighth part of a portee, or hand of fiik. Now, to cal¬
culate what thefe nooauhes weigh, which is the eighth part
of a portee, or of no.aunes of. Lyons, it will be proper to
take a fkain out of the parcels, which you take out from the
bale which you judge may contain at leaft 1 ipcf aunes,, to
make the one eighth part of a portde; which portee muft:
be divided on two bobbins, half on each ; then fix the
two bobbins on the centre, or beam, and from thence
pafs it through the comb hurdifibir, viz. 550 from the
two bobbins, v/ill make noo, which will be one eighth
part of what you defire to know. This done, you cut
off your fiik, and carry it to put on the hurdiflbir : then
weigh it, and multiply the weight by eight, it will
weigh juft as much as a portee of no aunesof Lyons,
which is the general rule for calculating. When they
draw the fiik out by this means, one may learn to adjuft.
the weight.
There are filksa>f Piedmont, which are very light and
clean, and are to be preferred before any on the faie :
the portee of fiik of the lighteft weighs near twenty-four
penny-weights, and from this it arifes in gravity to twenty-
five and twenty-fixpenny-weights the portee, and fometimes -
to twenty-feveri and twenty-eight: but even thefe weights
maybe difpenfed with, provided that the other qualities be.
good,, that is, that it be well wrought, even and clean.
When the fiik is more than twenty-eight penny-weights
the portee, it muft always be,proportionally cheaper.
Methods of preparing Silks, The feveral preparations
which filks undergo to fit them to be ufed in the manu-
fadture of filken fluff's, are reeling, fpinning, milling,
bleaching, and dying. To wind filks from off the balls,
two nitrehines are neceflary; the one a furnace, with its
copper; the other a reel, or frame, to draw th'e fiik;
The winder, rthen,. feated near the furnace, throws into
the copper of water over the furnace (firft heated and
boiled to a certain degree, which cuftom alone can teach)
a handful or two of balls, which have been firft well
purged of all their loofe furry fubftance. She then ftirs
the whole very brifkly about with birchen rods, bound
and cut like brufhes; and when the heat and agitation
have detached the ends of the filks of the pods, which
are apt to.catch on the rods, (he draws them forth; and
joining ten or twelve, or even fourteen of them together,
fhe forms them intothreads, according to the bignefs re¬
quired to the works they are deftined for: eight ends
fuffieing for ribbands; and velvets, <bc. requiring no lefs
than fourteen. The ends, thus joined into two or three
threads, are firft pafled into the holes of three iron rods,
in the fore part of the reel, then upon the bobbins or
pullies and at laft are drawn out to the reel irfelf, and
there fattened each to an end of an arm or branch of the
reel. Thus ckfpofed, the winder, giving motion to the
real;,.
S I L ( 602 ) SI M
reel, by turning the handle, guides the threads; fubfti-
tutes new ones, when any of them break, or any of the
balls are wound out ; (Irengthens them, where neceflary, .
by adding others; and takes away the balls wouad out,
or that, having been pierced, are full of water.
In this manner, two perfcijs will fpin and reel three
pounds of filk in a day; which is done with greater dif-
patch than is made by the fpinning-wheel or diltaff. In¬
deed, ail filks cannot be fpun and reeled after this manner ;
either by reafon the balls have been perforated by the hlk
worms themfelves; or becaufe they are double, or too
weak to bear the water; or becaufe they are coarfe, &c.
Of afl thefe together, they m. ke a particular kind of Glk,
called floretta; which being carded, or even fpun on the
diftaff, or the wheel, in the condition it comes from the
ball, makes a tolerable filk.
As to the balls, after opening them with fciffars, and
taking out the infers (whi, h are of fome ufe for the
feeding of poultry.,) they arelleeped three or four days in
troughs, the water whereof is changed every.day to prevent
their (linking. When they are well foftened by this fcour-
ing, and cleared of that gummy matter the Worm had
lined the infide withal, and which renders it impenetra¬
ble to the water, and even to air itfelf, they boil them half
an hour in a lye of allies, very clear and well drained ;
and after wafhing them out in the river, and drying them
in the fun, they card and fpin them on the wheel,
and thus make another kind of floretta, fomewhat inferior
to the former.
As to thefp nning and reeling of raw'fdks off the bills,
fuch as they are brought from Italy and the Levant, the
firft is chiefly performed on the fpinning-wheel; and the
latter, either on hand-reels, or on reels mounted on ma¬
chines, which ferve to reel feveral fkains at the fame time.
See Reel..
As to the milling, they ufe a mill compofed of feveral
pieces, which may mill two or three hundred bobbins at
once, and make them into as manylkains.
For the dying of filk, fee Dying.
SILPHIUM, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefiapolygamia
neceffaria clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous; it has no
pappus; tbe calixconfids of three valves; and the radius of
the corolla is dimidiated. There are fix fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
SILVER. See Chemistry, p. 79, 130.
SILVERING, the covering of any thing with filver. It is
ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, which is per¬
formed either with fire, oil, or fize. Metal-gilders filver
by the fire; painter-gilders all theother ways.
To filver copper or brafs : 1. Cleanfe the metal with
.aquafortis, by wafhing it lightly, and immediately throw¬
ing it into fair water ; or by beating it red hot, and
fcouring it with fait and tartar, and fair water, with a
fmall wire-brufh. 2. Diffolve fome frlver in aquafortis,
in a broad-bottomed glafs veffel, or of glazed earth, then
evaporate away the aquafortis over a chaffing-difh of
coals. 3. Put five or fix times its quantity of water,
or as much as will be neceffary to diffolve it perfe&ly, on
the remaining dry calx: evaporate this water with the
like heat: then put more freflt water, and evaporate again,
and, if need be, the third time, making the fire towards
the latter end f» ftrong, as to leave the calx perfectly
dry, which, if your filver is good, will be of a pure
white. 4. Take of this calx, Cemmon-falt, cryftal of
tartar, of each a like quantity or bulk ; and mixingwell
the whole compofition, put the metal into fair water,
and take of the faid powder with your wet fingers, and
rub it well on, till you find every little cavity of the me~
tal fufficientiy filvered over. 5. If you would have it
richly done, you mtffi rub on more of the powder; and
in the laft place wafh the filvered metal in fair water,
and rub it hard with a dry cloth.
SiLVEKina ofC/aJ/es. See Foliating of Looking-glajfes.
SIMIA, tbeMoNKEY, in zoology, a genus of quaarupeds
belonging to (he order of primates. They have four fore¬
teeth in each jaw, placed near each other ; the dog-teeth
are fplitary, and remote ; and the grinders* are obtufe.
There are 33 fpecies : Of thefe, three, viz. thefatyrus,
fylvanuS, and inuus, have no tail Other three of them,
viz. the nemeftrina apedia, and fphinx, have fhort tails.
The other 27 have long tails. The ipecific diftndions are
taken from the colour, and other circumftances.—The
monkey-kind are remarkable for aCbvity, a low fpecies
of ednning, and a facility of imitating the actions of men
and other animals The fagac;ty and dociliry of the fi-
mia are fo well known, that it is needlefs to fpend time
in giving inftances of either.
SIMILE, or Si m i litude, in rhetoric, a comparifon of
two things, which though different in other refpeAs, yet
agree in fome one The difference between a fimile and
companion, is faid to cqnfill in this, that the fimile pro¬
perly belongs to whatever we call the quality of the thing,
and the comparifon to the quantity.
SIMONICAL, is applied to any perfon guilty of fimony.
See Simony.
SIMONIANS, in church-hiftory. a fe<5t of ancient here¬
tics, fo called from their founder Simon Magus or the
magician. The herefies of Simon Magus were princi¬
pally his pretending to be the great power of God, and
thinking that the gifts of the Holy Gholt were venal, and
to be purchafed with money. He is faid to have invent¬
ed the jEons, which were fo many perfons of whom
the Godhead was compofed. His concubine Helen, he
called the firft intelligence, and mother of all things -
and fometimes he called her Minerva, and himfelf Jupi¬
ter. Simon Magus gained a great many profelytes, who
paid himfelf and hi$ concubine divine worfliip; thefe were
the earlieft heretics, and thofe that St John, St Peter, and
St Paul, in their epiltles, fo often warn the Chriltians
againft.
SIMONY, in ecclefiallical law, the crime of buying or fell
ing fpiritual gifs or preferments. In the ancient Chri
Ilian church, this crime was always thought to be com
mitted when men either offered or received money foror
dinationfe. The apoftolical canons lay a double punilh-
ment both of depofition and excommunication on fuch
of the clergy as were found guilty of it. This was the
- firft fort of fimony, and that which was moft properly fo
called ; and to this the ancient* reduced the exafting of
any reward for adminiftering the eucharift or b»ptifm, or
for any fpiritual offices. A fecond fort of fimony con-
fifted in buying the fpiritual preferments of the church :
this was puniffied with depofition in any biffiop, who pro¬
moted any church-officer for-the fake of lucre ; and the
perfons fo promoted were to be degraded from their of¬
fice. By.the laws of Juftinian, every eleftor was to de-
SIN ( 602 ) SIN
pofc upon oath, that he did not chufe the perfon ele&ed
for any gift or promife, or friendfhip, or any other caufe,
but only becaufe he knew him to be a man of the true ca¬
tholic faith, of unblaraeable life, and good learning.
This laft fort of fimony was, when men, by ambitious arts
and undue practices, got themfelves inverted in an office
or preferment to which they had no regular call, or when
they intruded themfelves into other mens places which
were legally filled before. The cafuirts for the church
of Rome maintain, that all compa&s or bargains in which
benefices are concerned, are limonical, when it is done
without the pope’s concurrence ; but that, once obtained,
gives a fan£tion to the thing ; which they found upon this
univerfal propofit,ion, that the pope cannot commit fimo¬
ny in beneficiary matters, fince he hath a power fo abfo-
lute over all the ecclefiaftical goods and benefices, that he
can unite, divide, and beftow them in whatever manner
he pleafes.
Againft the corruption of fimony, there have been ma¬
ny canons made in our own church, which puniffies the
offender with deprivation, difability, &c. and by a fta-
tute of the 31 Eliz. it is enabled, that if any perfon, for
any fum of money, reward, gift, profit,' or benefit, or
by reafon of any promife, Agreement, grant, bond, co¬
venant, or other affurance, ffiall prefent, or collate any
perfon to any benefice with cure, dignity, or living eccle¬
fiaftical, every fuch prefentation, or collation, and every
admirtion or induftion thereupon, ffiall be utterly void,
and the crown ffiall prefent for that turn ; and the perion
that ffiall give or take any fura of money, &c. ftail for¬
feit double the value of one year’s profit of any fuch be¬
nefice ; and the perfon fo corruptly taking any fuch be¬
nefice, ffiall from thenceforth be difabled to have and en¬
joy the fame.
SIMPLE, fomething not mixed or compounded ; in which
fenfe, it ftands oppofed to compound.
Simple, in pharmacy, a general name given to all herbs
or plants, as having each its paiticular virtue, whereby
it becomes a fimple remedy.
SIN, a breach or tranfgreffion of fome divine law, or com¬
mand.
SINAI, a mountain of Arabia Petrea, fituated eaft long.
350, north'lat. 2.90, and memorable on account of the
law’s being given to the Jews on this mount.
SINAPI, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia filiquofa
clafs. The, calix is open ; the petals have ftraight un¬
gues ; and there is a nefarious gland between the ffiort
ftamina andjhe piftillum, and between the long ftamina
and the calix. There are ten fpecies, three' of them na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the nigra, or common muftard ; the
alba, or white muftard ; and the arvenfis, or wild muftard.
Muftard-feed is an attenuant and refolvent in a very
high degree ; it warms the ftomach, and excites an ap¬
petite • but its principal medicinal ufeis external in fina-
pifms, applications made to certain parts when irritation
is intended, but not bliftering. It is ufually mixed with
horfe-radiffi root, and other ingredients of the fame kind,
for this purpofe.
SINAPISM, in pharmacy, an external medicine, in form
of a cataplafm, compofed chiefly of muftard-feed pulve¬
rized, and mixed with the pulp of figs, or with briony,
garlic, onion, or the like.
SINCIPUT, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 156.
Voi.. III. N° 94, 2
SINCOPORA, a promontory of Malacca in the Eaft In¬
dies, fituated in 20 N. lat. oppofite to the ifland of Su«
matra, with which this cape forms the ftraits called the
Straits of Sincopora.
. SINDON, in furgery, a little round piece of linen, filk, -or
lint, ufed in dreffing a wound after trepanning.
SINE, or right Sine of an arch, is a right line drawn
from one end of that arch, perpendicular to the radius
drawn to the other end of the arch ; being always equal
to half the chord of twice the arch. See Trigonome¬
try, and Geometry.
Sine-cures, eccleliaftical benefices without cure of fouls.
SINEW, denotes what we properly call a nerve; though,
in common fpeech, it is rather ufed for a tendon.
SINGING, the affion of making divers infleftions of the
voice, agreeable to the ear, and correfpoHdent to the
notes of a fong, or piece of melody.
SINGULAR number, in grammar. See Grammar.
SINISTER, fomething on, or towards the left-hand ; fi-
nifter is alfo ufed among us for unlucky, though in the
facred rites of divination the Romans frequently ufed it
in an oppofite fenfe.
Sinister, in heraldry. The finifter fide of an efcutcheon
is the left-hand fide; the finifter chief, the left angle of
the chief; the finifter bafe, the left-hand part of the bafe.
SINISTRI, a fe& of ancient heretics, thus called, becaufe
they held the left hand in abhorrence, and made it a point
of religion not to receive any thing therewith.
SINKING fund, a provifion made by parliament, confift-
ing of the furplufage of other funds, intended to be ap¬
propriated to the payment of the national debts ; on the
credit of which very large fums have been borrowed for
public ufes.
SINOPICA terra, in natural hiftory, the name of a red
earth of the ochre-kind, called alfo rubrica finopica, and
by fome authors finopis. It is a very clofe, compa<ft,
and weighty earth, of a fine glowing purple colour. It
is of a pure texture, but not very hard, and of an even,
but dufty furface. It adheres firmly to the tongue, is
peifedlly fine and fmooth to the touch, does not crumble
eafily between the fingers, and ftains the hands. It melts
very flowly in the mouth, and is perfe&ly pure and fine,
and of a very auftere aftringent tafte, and ferments very
violently with aqua-fortis. It was dug in Cappadocia,
and carried for fale to the city Sinope, whence it had its
name. It is now found in plenty in the New-Jerfeys ia
America, and is called by the people there blood-ftone.
Its fine texture and body, with its high florid colour,
muft make it very valuable to painters, and its powerful
aftringency equally fo in medicine.
SINOPLE, in heraldry, denotes vert, or the green colour
in armories.
Sinople is ufed to fignify love, youth, beanty, rejoi¬
cing, and liberty ; whenceit is, that letters of grace, a-
bolition, legitimation, <bc. are always ufed to be fealed
with green wax.
SINUATED leaf, in botany. See Botany, p. 640.
SINUOSITY, a feries of bends and turns in arches, or 0-
ther irregular figures, fometimes jutting out, and fome-
times falling in.
SINUS, in anatomy, denotes a cavity of certain bones, and
other parts, the entrance whereof is narrow, and thebot?y
tom wider and more fpacious.
7 N Sinus,
SIT ( ) S I Z
Sijjcs, in furgery, a little cavity, or facculus, frequently
formed by a wound or ulcer, wherein pus is coiletted.
SION, a town of Switzerland, in the county of Valais, fi-
tuated on the river Rhone, twenty-three miles fouth-eaft
of the lake of Geneva, being a fovereign ftate.
SIPHON, a bended pipe, one end of which being put into
a veflel of liquor, and the other hanging out of the faid
veflel over another, the liquor will run out from the firft
into the laft, after the air has been fucked out of the ex¬
ternal or lower end of the fiphon, and that as long as the
liquor in the upper veffel is above the upper orifice of the
fiphon.
S1PHONANTHUS, a genus of the tetrandria monogynia
clafs. The corollq confifts of one funnel-ihaped petal,
with eight fegments ; and there are two berries contain¬
ing many feeds. There is but one fpecies, a native of
India.
SIRANAGER, a city of hither India, capital of the pro¬
vince of Siba, fituated oh the river Ganges: E. long.
8o°, N. lat. 310 qo'.
SIRE, a title of honour in France, now given to the king
only, as a mark of fovereignty.
SIREN, in antiquity, a kind of fabulous animal, otherwife
called a mermaid.
The firens are reprefented by Ovid, <&c. as fea-mon-
fters, with womens faces and filhes tail; and by others
decked with plumage of various colours. The three fi¬
rens are fuppofed to be the three daughters of the river
Achelous ; and are called Parthenope, Ligea, and Leu
cofia. Homer makes mention of only two firens, and
fome others reckon five. Virgil places them on rocks
where veflels are in danger of fplitting. Some reprefent
them as fuch charming monfters, who fung fo harmoni-
oufly, that failors were wrecked on their rocks without
regret, and even expired in raptures.
S-J.rex, in Zoology, a genus belonging to the order of am¬
phibia meantes. The body ft naked, and furnifhed with
two unguiculated feet, and a tail. It has a great refem-
blanee to a lizard, only it is larger. It is found in marfhy
grounds in Carolina.
SIRIUS, in aftronomy, a bright flar in the conftellation
canis. See Astronomy, p. 487.
SISON, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia clafs.
The fruit is oval and ftriated ; and the involucrum con-
fills of four leaves. There are fix fpecies, three of them
natives of Britain, viz. the amomum, or ballard ftone-
parfley ; the fegetum, or corn-parfley ; and the inunda-
tam, or leaft water-parfnep. The feed of the amomum
is one of the four lelfer hot feeds of the Sops ; and is an
attenuant. wperient, and carminative.
SISYMBRIUM, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia
filiquofa clafs. The pod opens with llraight valves ; and
the calix and corolla are open. The fpecies are 25,
feven of them natives of Britain. The young leaves of
the cordamine, or ladies-fmoke, and of the nofturtium,
or water-creffes, are recommended in the fcurvy, and
eaten in large quantities for that intention with great
fuccefs.
SlSYRINCHIUM, in botany, a genus of the gynandria
triandria clafs. The fpatha confills of two leaves, and
the corolla of fix petals ; and the capfule has three cells.
__ There is but one fpecies, a native of Virginia.
SITE, denotes the fituation of an houfe, &c. and Some¬
times the gropnd plot, or Spot of earth it ftands On.
SITGPHYLAX, in Grecian antiquity, an Athenian magi-
flrate, who had the fuperintendance of the corn, and was
to take^care that nobody bought more than was neceffary
for the provifion of his family.
SITTA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order
of picas. The bill is fubulated, cylindrical, ftrait, and
entire; the Superior mandible being longer than the infe¬
rior, and compreffed at the point ; the tongueGs lacera¬
ted ; and the noftrils wre covered with hairs. There are
three fpecies, dillinguifhed by their colour.
SIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia clafs.
The fruit is Somewhat oval, and llriated; the involutrum
confifts of many leaves ; and the petals are heart-fhaped.
There are 8 fpecies, three of them natives of Britain,
viz. the latifolium, or great water-parfnep ; the nodi-
florum, or creeping water-parfnep ; and the ereftum, or
upright water-parfn^p.
SIXTH, in mufick, one of the fimple original concords, or ' 1
harmonical intervals. See Musick.
SIZE, the name o'f an inftrument ufed for finding the big- i
nefs of fine round pearls. It confifts of thin pieces or
leaves, about two inches long and half an inch broad,
failened together at one end by a rivet. In each of thefe
are round holes drilled of different diameters. Thofein
the firfl leaf ferve for meafuring pearls from half a grain
to feven grains ; thole of the Second, for pearls from
eight grains, or two carats, to five carats, 6c. and thofe
of the third, for pearls from fix carats and a half to eight
carats and a half.
Size is alfo a fort of paint, varnifh, or glue, ufed by paint¬
ers, 6c. , ■
The fhreds and parings of leather, parchment, or
vellum, being boiled in water and drained, make fize.
This fubftance is ufed in many trades.
The manner of ufing fize is to melt fome of it over a
gentle fire ; and Scraping as much whiting into it as may
only colour it, let them be well incorporated together ;
after which you may whiten frames, 6c. with it. After
it dries, melt the fize again, and put more whiting, and
whiten the frames, 6c. feven or eight times, letting it
dry between each time ; but before it is quite dry, be¬
tween each walhing, you mud fmooth and wet it over
with a clean brufh-pencil in fair water.
To make gold-fize, take gum animi and afphaltum, of
each one ounce ; minium, litharge of gold, and umber,
of each half an ounces reduce all into a very fine powder,
and add to them four ounces of linfeed-oil, and eight
ounces of drying-oil ; diged them over a gentle fire that
does not d ime, fo that the mixture may only fimmer,
but not boil ; for fear it fliould run over and fet the houfe
a'-fire, keep it condantly dirring with a dit-k till all the
ingredients are diflolved and incorporated, and do not
leave off dirring it till it becomes thick and ropy ; and
being boiled enough, let it daad till it is almod cold, and
then drain it through a coarfe linen-cloth and keep it for
ufe.
To prepare it for working, pet what quantity you
may have occafion to ufe in a horfe-mufcle (hell, adding
fo much oil of turpentine as will difiblve it; and making
it as thin as the bottom of your feed-lac varnilh, hold it
over a candle, and then drain it through a linen rag into
another died ; add to thefe fo much vermilion as will
make
SLA (60s ) SLA
make It of a darki(h-red : if it is too thick for drawing,
you may thin it with fome oil of turpentine. The chief
uie of this fize is for laying on metals.
The bed gold-fize for burnifhing>.is made as follows :
take fine bole, what quantity you pleafe; grind it finely
on a marble; then fciape into it a little beef-fuet; grind
all well together ; after which mix a fmall proportion of
parchment fize with a double proportion of water, and it
is done.
To make filver-fize : take tobacco-pipe clay, in fine
powder; into which fcrape fome black-lead and a little
Genoa-foap ; and grind them all together with parchment-
fize, as already directed.
SKAITE, in ichthyology. See Raia.
SKELETON, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 151.
SKIE one of the greateft weftern iflands of Scotland, di¬
vided from the counties of Rofs and Invernefs by a nar¬
row channel; being upwards of fixty miles in length and
twenty in breadth.
SKIFF, the lead of two {hip-boats, ferving chiefly to go
aihore in, when the Ihip is in harbour.
SKIN, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 254.
Skin, in commerce, is particularly ufed for the membrane
llripped off the animal to be prepared by the tanner, fltin-
ner, carrier, parchment-maker, &C. and converted into
leather, &c. See Tanning, <&c.
.Skins and the hair of hearts manufactured become
parchment and vellum ; leather, of which are made (hoes
and boots, faddles, harnefles, and furniture for horfes,
gloves and garments, coaches and chairs, houfehold ftuff,
covers of books, drinking veflels, tbc. and furrs forcloath-
ing, hats, caps, <5rr.
SKINNER, one who works in fltins. See Skin.
SKIPTON, atown in the weft riding of Yorkfliire, fitua-
ated thirty five miles weft of York.
SKIRMISH, in war, n diforderly kind of combat, or en¬
counter, in prefence oftwoarmies, between fmall parties,
or perfons, who advance from the body for that purpofe,
and introduce to a general and regular" fight.
SKULL, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 151.
SKY, the blue expanfe of air and atmofphere.
The azure colour of the fky Sir Ifaac Newton attributes
to vapours beginning to condenfe there, and which have
got confirtence enough to refleft the moft reflex ble rays.
SLAB, an ontfide fappy plank or board fawed off from the
fides of a tireber-tree 1 the word is alfo ufed for a flat
piece of marble.
SLATE, a ftone of a compact texture and laminated ftruc-
ture, fplitting into fine plates
Dr Hill diftinguilhes four fpecies of flate ftegania : 1.
The whitiih fteganium, beingafoft, friable, flaty ftone, of
a tolerably fine and clofe texture, confiderably heavy, per- ,
fedtly dull and deftitute of brightnefs, variegated with a
pale brown, or brownifh yellow: this fpecies is very
common in many counties in England, lying near the
furfaceof the ground; it is generally very full of per¬
pendicular as well as horizontal cavities, many of which-,
are filled up with a fpar a little purer and more cryftal-
line than the reft, and is commonly ufed for covering
houfes. 2. The redileganium is a very fine and elegant
flate, of a fmooth furface, firm and compact texture, con¬
fiderably heavy, and of a very beautiful pale purple
glittering all over with fmall gloffy fpangles; it is com-
pofed of a multitude of very thin plates or flakes, laid?
clofely and evenly over one another, and cohering pretty
firmly : this is very common in the northern parts of En¬
gland, and is much valued as a ftrong and beautiful co?
veriog for houfes. 3. The common blue fteganium is
very well known, as an ufeful and valuable ftone, of a
fine fmooth texture and glofly furface, moderately hea¬
vy, and of a pale greyifti blue; compofed of a multitude
of even plates, laid clofe upon one another, and eafily
fplitting at the commiflures of them : this is alfo very
common in the north parts of England, and is ufed in
raoft places for the covering of houfes. There are other
fpecies ofthis flate, viz. The brownifti blue friable ftega¬
nium, ufually called coal flate ; the greyifh black friable
fteganium, commonly called ftiiver ; and the greyifti blue
fparkling|fteganium. 4. The friable, aluminous, black
fteganium, being the Irilh flate of the {hops : this is com¬
pofed of a multitude of thin flakes, laid very evenly and
regularly over one another, and fplits very readily at the
commiflures of them. It is common in many parts of
Ireland, and is found in fome places in England, always
lying near the furface in very thick ftrata. In medicine,,
it is ufed in haemorrhages of ail kinds with fuccefs, and
is taken often as a good medicine in fevers.
There is affort of flate-Hones called, by Dr Hill, am-
mofchifta. Of this kind there are only two fpecies: i.
That compofed only of fparry and cryltalline particles; or
the grey, friable, dull ammolchiftum; being a coarfe,
harih, and rough ftone, of a very loofe texture, confi-
tierably heavy ; and compofed of a large, coarfe, obtufe-
ly angular gritt, furrounded, and in part held together,
by a loofe earthy fpar. This ftone is very common in
mod countries, and is frequently ufed to cover houfes,
inftead of tiles : it bears the weather but badly, and is
apt to crumble after frofts. 2. That compofed of talcy,
fparry, and cryftalline particles. This comprehends five
fpccies, viz. the brownifli white glittering ammofchiftum;
the greenifli gtey ftiining ammofchtftum ; the yellowifli
grey glittering ammolchiftum ; the hard purple and white
laminated ammofchiftum; and the bluilh glittering flate
ftone. Thefe forts pf flate-ftone are very common in
the northern countries, and are ufed in covering houfes,
paving, building, &c.
SLAVE, a perfon in the abfolute power of a mafter, either
b war or conqueft. We find no mention of flaves be¬
fore the deluge ; but immediately after, viz. in the curfe
of Canaan: whence it is eafily inferred, that fervitude
increafed foon after that time; for in Abraham’s time we;
find it generally eftaf liflied.
Among the Romans, when a Have was fet at liberty,
he changed his name into a furname, and took the no-
men or prenomen of his mafter ; to which he added the
cognomen he had been called by when a Have. Great;
part of the Roman wealth confifted in flaves : they had
the power of life and death over them, which no other
nation had ; but this feverity was afterwards moderated
by the laws of the emperors. The flaves were efteemed
the p oper goods of their mafters, and all they got be¬
longed to them ; but if the mafter, was too cruel in bis
corretftion, he was obliged to fell his Have at a moderate
price.
Slavery is abfolutely abolifhed in Britain and France,
as to perfonal fervitude. Slaves make a confiderable ar¬
ticle-'
S L I r 606 ) S M E
tide of the traffick in America. The Britiih fquth-fea
\ company have, by treaty, the foie privilege of farnilh-
ing the Spanilh Weft Indies with flaves.
SLAUGHTER. See Manslaughter, Homicide,
Murder,
SLEDGE, a kind of carriage without wheels, for the
conveyance of very weighty things, as hugeftones, 6c.
SLEEP, is defined to be that ftate wherein the body ap.
pearing perfe&ly at reft, external objects move the or¬
gans of (enfe as ufual, without exciting the ufual fenfa-
tions.
Sleep is broken off unnaturally, when any of the or¬
gans of fenfation is fo bnfkly aded on, that the adion is
propagated to the brain.
Sleep being one of the non-naturals, it is not poflible
for thofe to preferve their health, who do not go to
fleep in a regular manner: for deep repairs the fpirits,
which are dilEpated by watching; and conlequently it re-
ftores the ftrength of thofe who are weak, indifpofed, or la¬
bour much. It like wife promotes perfpiration, cont ributes
greatly to digeftion, and more to nutrition. The night
is the moft proper for fleep; for the vigour of the mind
and body are better reftored in the night than in the
day ; thus nodurnal labour and lucubrations impair the
• health.
SLEEPER, or the great sleeper, in zoology. See
Mus.
Sleepers, in natural hiftory, a name given to fome ani¬
mals which are faid to fleep all the winter ; fnch as bears,
marmotes, dormice, bats, hedge hogs, fwallows, &c.
Thefe do not feed in winter, have no fenlible evacu¬
ations, breathe little or not at all, and moft of the vifce-
ra ceafe from their fundions. Some of thefe creatures
feem to be dead, and others to return to a ftate like that
of the fattus before the birth: in this condition they
continue, till by length of time maturating the procafs,
or by new heat, the fluids are attenuated, the folids fti-
mulated, and the fundions begin where they left off.
Sleepers, in the glafs-trade, are the large iron-bars crof-
fing the fmaller ones, and hindering the paflage of the
coals, but leaving room for the allies.
Sleepers, in a fltip, timbers Jying before and aft, in the
bottom of the (hip, as the rung-heads do: the lowermoft
of them is bolted to the rung heads, and the uppermoft
to t,he futtocks and rungs.
SLESWICK, the capital of the duchy of Slefwick, other-
wife called South Jutland, fituated on the river Sley :
E. long 90 45\ and N. lat. 540 45'. See Jutland.
SLIDING, in mechanics, is when the fame point of a
body, moving along a furface, defcribes a line on that
furface.
SLIGO, a county of Ireland, in the province of Connaught,
bounded by the ocean on the north, by Letrim on the
eaft, by Rofcoramon on the fouth, and by Mayo on the
weft.
SLING, an inftrument ferving for calling ftones with great
violence.. The inhabitants of the Balearic illands were
famous in antiquity for the dexterous management of
the fling : it is faid they bore three kinds of flings, forae
longer, others fhorter, which they ufed according as their
enemies were either nearer or more remote. It is ad-
<$ied, that the firft ferved them for a head-band, the fe-
cond for a girdle, and that a third they eonftantly carried
with them in the hand.
SLIPPING, among gardeners, the tearing off a fprig
from a branch, or a branch from an arm of the tree.
Thefe fort of flips take root more readily than cuttings.
SLOANEA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gytia clafs. The corolla confilts of five petals, and the
calix of five deciduous leaves ; the ftigma is perforated;
and the berry contains many feeds.
SLOATH, in zoology. See Bradypus.
SLOE. See Prunus.
SLOOP, a fort of floating veffel, otherwife called Ihallop.
In our navy, Hoops are tenders on the men of war, and are
ufually of about fixty tons, and carry about thirty men.
SLOUGH a deep muddy place. The caftlkin-of a fnake,
the damp of a coal-pit, and the fear of a wound, are al-
fo called by the fame appellation. The Hough of a wild
boar, is the bed, foil, or mire, wherein he wallows, or
in which he lies in the day-time.
SLUCZK, the capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
in the duchy of Lithuania and kingdom of Poland : fitua¬
ted in E. long 270, and N, lat. 53°,
SLUICE, in hydraulics, a frame of timber, ftone, earth,
ferving to retain and raife the water of the fea, a ri¬
ver, 6f. and on occafion to let it pafs : fuch is the
fluice of a mill, which ftops and colleAs the water of a
rivulet, 6v. in order to difeharge it at length in greater
plenty upon the mill-wheel; fuch alfo are thofe ufed in
drains, to difeharge water off lands ; and fuch are the
fluices of Flanders, which ferve to prevent the wa¬
ters of the fqa overflowing the lower lands, except when
there is occafion to drown them. See Canal.
SLUTTELBURG, a town of Ruffia, in the province of
Ingria, fituated on the fouth-fide of the lake Ladogo, in
E. long. 310 2o\ N. lat. 6o°,
SLUYS, a port-town of Dutch Flanders, fituate oppofiteto
the ifland of Cadfant: E. long 30 ij', N. lat.
■SMACK, a fmall veffel with but one malt.
SMALAND, a province in Sweden, in the territory of
Gothland, bounded by Eaft Gothjand, on the north , by
the Baltic fea, on the eaft; by Bleeking, on the fouth;
and by Halland, on the weft
SMALLAGE, in botany. See Apium.
SMALT, a preparation of arfenic. See Chemistry, p;
145.
SMARAGDUS, in natural hiftory. See Emerald.
SMARIS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
SMELL, with regaid to the organ, is an impreffion made
on the nofe, by little particles continually exhaling from
odorous bodies: with regard to the objeft, it is the figure
and difpofition of odorous effluvia, which ftriking on the
organ, excite the fenfe of fmelling: and with regard to
the foul, it is the perception of the impreflion of the ob¬
ject on the organ, or the affeftion in the foul refulting
therefrom.
The principal organs of fmelling are the noftrils, and
the olfa&ory nerves ; the minute ramifications of which
latter are deferibed throughout the whole concave of the
former. See Anatomy, p. 293.
SMELT, in ichthyology, a fpecies of falmo, See Salmo.
SMELTING, in metallurgy, the fufion or melting of the
ores of metals, in order to feparate the metalline part
from'
S M O c 607 ) S M O
from the earthy, ftony, and other parts. See Chemi-
paj/im.
SMILAX, in botany, a genus of the dicecia hexandria
clafs. The cahx bothSof male and female confiils of_fix
leaves ; none of them have any corolla ; the (tylus of the
female is trifid; and the berry has three cells, contain¬
ing two feeds. There are 13 fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of- Britain.
SMITHERY, a manual art, by which an irregular lump
of iron is wrought into any intended lhape, by means of
fire, hammering, filing, ebv.
SMOKE, a denfe elaftic vapour, arifing from burning bo¬
dies. As this vapour is extremely difagreeable to the
fenfes, and often, prejudicial to the health, mankind have
fallen upon feverai contrivances to enjoy the benefit of
fire, without being annoyed by fmoke. The molt u-
niverfal of thefg contrivances is a tube leading from the
chamber in which the fire is kindled, to the top of the
building, through-whiclvthe fmoke afeends, and is difper-
fed into the atmofphere. Tbele tubes are called .chim¬
neys; which, when conllru&edin a proper manner, carry
oft the fmoke entirely; but, when improperly conflruded,
they carry off the fmoke imperfe&ly, to the great annoy¬
ance of the inhabitants As our mafons at prelent feem to
have a very imperfeft knowledge of the manner in which
chimneys ought to be .built, we can hardly perform a more
acceptable fetvice to the public than to point out the man¬
ner in which they ought to be condruffed fo as to carry
off the fmoke entirely ; as well as to explain the caufes
from which the delefts fo often complained of generally
proceed, and the method of removing them.
Although we would naturally imagine, that the caufes
which occafion fmoke in rooms are exceedingly various ;
yet, upon examination, it will be found that they may
all be reducedjto one of thefe three general heads, each of
which will admit of feverai varieties.
I. To a fault in the form of the tube, or chimney
kfelf.
II. To fome fault in the other parts of the building,
and a wrong pofition of the chimney with refpefl to thefe.
Or,
III. To an improper fituation of the houfe with refpeft
to external obje&s. And it is of the uttnofi confequence,
in attempting a cure, accurately to didinguifh from which
of thele defefts the fraoke proceeds, it will be neceflary
to point out with care the feverai phenomena which are
peculiar to each.
I. Of fmoke occafioned by a fault in the form of the
chimney itfelf. But, before we proceed, it will be necef-
fary to premife fomething with regard to the genet al caufe
of the afeent of fmoke in chimneys.
The earth is every where furrounded with a great body
of air called the atmofphere. This air is an elaftic fluid
fubjefted to many particular laws, as hath been fully ex¬
plained under the.article Pneumatics■, where it hath
been fufficiently demonltrated, that, like other fluids, it
hath a condant tendency to preferve an equilibrium in all its
parts; fo that, if at'any time the weight of it at one place is
diminifhed, the heavier air rulhesfrom all (ides towards that
point, till the equilibrium beagain redored. We there like-
wife, fa w, that heat was one of the mod powerful means of
diflurbing this general equilibrium of the air, by expand¬
ing it to a gIeat degree, and making the fame quantity
Vol. III. N°. 94. 2
occupy a much greater fpace than before, and confequenlly
become lighter. Hence it necefTarily follows, that where-ever
a fire is kindled, the air immediately contiguous to it will
b&heated, and of confequence rarified and madelight; which
mud afeen.d into the higher regions of the atmofphere, till
it becomes of the-fame gravity with the air contiguous to it;
while the denfer cold air below rulhes toward the point
from which it departed, is there heated and rarefied in its
turn, and afeends in the fame manner, carrying the fmoke
or vapour arifing from the burning body along with it. In
this manner that condant fudtion of air towards every fire
is produced, and from this caufe proceeds the condant ten¬
dency of fmoke to afeend upwards from the furface of the
earth. But as the body of our atmofphere is often agitated
with wind, &c. and as it is an eladic fluid, it endeavours to
fpread itfelf every way ; from which caufts the warm ai.r
would quickly be diffufed among the cold air before it could
arife to any confiderable height; fo that the fmoke would
always remain low, and be tofled about near the furface of
the earth: all of which inconveniencies are avoided by confi¬
ning this heated air in a tube", which prevents it from mixing
with the external air, till it arrive at the height to which we
defire it fhould afeend.
Torenderthis dill morechar, feePlateCLVI. where AB
fag- !•) reprefents the tube of a chimney, having a fire at the
bottom at A. It is obvious, that, in this fituatiorr, the air
w'hich was heated by thefireat A, will afeend direflly upwards,
widiout mixing with the external air, till it arrives at B,
beyond which it will be at liberty to difperfe in the atmo¬
fphere ; and the more weighty air which preifes in to fupply
its place can have no accefs to it but at the opening between
A and E, where it alfo is heated by the fire, and in its turn
afeends to the top of the chimney, thereby occafioning a
condant ftream of air to afeend up the chimney, which car¬
ries the fmoke along with it. This is the manner in which
fuliginous vapours are made to afeend in chimneys ; and by
attending to it, we may draw the following corollaries with
regard to the condruftion of this ufeful part of our habi¬
tations.
Id, The higher the chimney, that is, the greater the di¬
dance between the fire-place and the top of the chimney,
the greater will be the difference between the weight of the
column of heated air in the tube, and another column of the
atmofphere of the fame diameter without the chimney, and
confequently the air will enter with the greater force at the
opening AE, and carry up the fmoke more readily along with
it: for as the warm air within the tube continues rarefied
to a high degree till it iffues from the top of the chimney,
and is, in every part of its length, lighter than the fame bulk of
external air marked by the dotted line CD, it follows, that
the longer thefe two columns of unequal gravity are, the
greater mud be the difference of their weight Hence it is,
that high chimneys (c&teris paribus) have a greater fudtion
of air, and are lefs liable to vent ill, than low ones. A fmo-
ky chimney may therefore fometimes be cured by railing it
higher. It is likewife obvious, that if any opening is made
into the chimney, as at F, the air will enter with lefs force
at E, and carry up the fmoke with lefs velocity, and by
that means be in danger of producing fmoke in the room ;
for this opening, as it admits the frefh air into the tube, has
nearly the fame effedt as fhortening the tube fo much would
have.
2d, As the fmoke is forced.up the chimneyjnerely by the
7 O rarefaction
S M O ( 60S ^ S M O
rarefaftion of the air in confequence of heat,, it is evident,
that the more the air is heated, with the greater force (c?-
ieris paribus) will itafcend, becaufe the difference between
the weight'of the external and internal air will be greater ;
and as the'air will be the more heated the nearer it is made
to pals by the fire in its entry into the chimney, it is evi¬
dent, that the fmaller the opening at AE is, or, in other words,
the lower the mantle of the chimney is, the air wilf be for¬
ced to pafs the nearer the fire, and therefore be more rarefied,
and afcend with the greater velocity, fo that lowering the
mantle of the chimney will often cure fmoke.
But it is frequently inconvenient to have the mantle of
the chimney too low. However, the fame effedt may often
be produced by anothef contrivance. For as the fire-place is
ufnally made wider than the length of the grate, a great
deal of Cool air paffes at the two Tides of the grate without
being much heated. This greatly diminilhes thelufhon of the
chimney: but it may eafily be prevented by building up the
vacancies at each fide of the grate, fo as to allow no air to
enter from below, .except what comes immediately through,
or before the fire. For this purpofe, grates confiding of a
neat hewed.(tone at each end, with a bread and bottom of
iron fitted to them, as reprefented at fig 2. are extremely
convenient. But the aperture of the chimney is often not
fuddenly contraffed above the mantle, but goes up tapering
flowly, as in the fame fig. 2. This ftrudture allows a quan¬
tity of cool air to enter at the two corners of the mantle,
and deal up the tube without coming near the fire. The
mod eafyand effedtual method of remedying this defedf, is
to place a (heet of milled iron within the mantle on each
fide, as low down as poffible, making them flant a little up
wards towards the middle of the chimney; as at A, fig. 2.
the mantle being reprefented by the dotted line. By this
contrivance, the air, which enters at the fide of the mantle,
before it can afcend into the chimney, is forced to pafs very
near the fire, and of courfe is much rarified. The good ef-
fefts .of this would be dill more llronglyfelt, if one of thefe
piate$ were placed a little lower than the other, and made fo
long, that the ends diouldcrofs each other, asatAB, fig, 2.
by which means every particle of air that went up the chim¬
ney behoved to pafs immediately above the fire. It is al-
niod unneceflary to obferve, that thele plates.ought to be fo
contrived as to be taken out at pleafureto allow the chimney
to be cleaned.
A rhimney may not only be defective by having the man¬
tle too high, or by being too wide from fide to fide, but alio
by being too deep between the fore fide and the back, as is
often the cafe in very old houfes. In this cafe, the didance
between the fire and the mantle is fo great, that mu;h air
paffes up without being fufficiently rarified, as is reprefented
at fig. 3. This may be fometimes cured by bringing the
grate a little forward, which, by making the fire ail more
powerfully upon the mantle, rarefies the air more in its
paffage. But this can feldom produce the defired effefl,
and it often does harm : for when 'he grate is brought for
ward, there is a great vacancy left between it and the back
. of the chimney, fo that the air paffes under the grate, and
afcends behind it very little rarified; fo that, if the feet of
grace are not very low, there will be as much lod in this
way as will be gained in the other; and as there is not enough
of heated air in the chimneys of this kind to make the va¬
pour'afcend with rapidity, they are often choaked with
thick fuliginous vapours hanging ia them, almoft in equili-
brio with the red of the atmofphere, fo that the lead puff
of wind beats them down the chimney, and pulhes the
fmoke into,the room; whereas, when it is far back, it is dri¬
ven down upon the hearth, and rifes upwards again when
the gud is over, and a great deal of it is catched within the
mantle as it rifes, which in the other cafe would have been
difperfed through the room. When this is the cafe, the
mod effedual method of cure is, to bring the grate forward
till the forepart of it is immediately under the inner edge of
the mantle; then build up the vacancy at the back of it, the
whole width of the fire-place from fide to fide, railing it per¬
pendicularly till it is as high as the back of the grate, and
then bending it foreward towards the mantle, as is repre¬
fented at fig. 4. When it is as high as the. workman can
reach, let it be fuddenly turned backward again, doping a
little upward, as in the figure ; then fit a fheet of milled
iron to the infide of the mantle, making it fiant a little up¬
ward toward the back part, at a fmall dirtance above the
new-eredted mafonry, and extending within a few inches of
the back wall, as at A, fig. 4. By this conftrudlion ail the
air that enters into the chimney is made to pafs immediately
above the fire, between it and the heated iron, upon which
the flame adts with the greater force, as the back of the
fire-place is bent a little forward above the grate, and
the heat is likewife refledled into the room with the
greater force: at the fame time, if the fmoke is at any time
beat down the chimney by a hidden gufl of wind, it will be
catched by the fheet of iron, and prevented from coming into
the voom If the fire-place be very'wide between the
the one fide and the other, {he new mafonry may be carried
quite up to the fheet of iron on each of the fides, 1
3d, As every fire requires a conflant fucceflion of-frefh
air, the tube for conveying this rarefied air to the higher
regions of the atmofphere malt be of a fufficient fize to
contain the whole of it, and allow it a ready paffage; other-
wife a part of it will be forced to feek fome other paffage;
by which means, the apartment in which the fire is placed
will be.conftatuly filled with fmoke. Every chimney there¬
fore ought to have a degree of widenefs fufficient to carry
off the whole of the fmoke arifing from the fire ufually
burnt in it, otherwifethe apartment willbealmofl continually
filled with fmoke.—This is a fault more common at pre-
fent than any of thofe already mentioned, efpecially in large
to\Vns, where the numoer of chimneys in one wall is often fo
great that it is difficult to get a fufficient fpacefor each. The
molt obvious cure, where the fituation admits of it, is to widen
the chimney, by opening a hole a little above the grate thro’
the back-wall of the chimney, flanting a little upward, and
building on the outfide of the wall a fmall chimney open from,
that holt to the top of the building, as in fig. 5. whete AB
reprefents the new tube going through the wall at the opening
at A, which will receive the fuperfluous fmoke, and carry it
off. This additional chimney muft always be carried as high
as the other. But as there are many fituations in which
this method of cure v, ould be impra&icabie, we mui! try e-
very racinod for accelerating the afcent of the fmoke; (for
the mors quickly it afcends, the more narrow may the tube
be;) and with that view, the chimney may be heightened at
top, and contradied at bottom, in any or all the various
ways we have mentioned. But if none of thefe methods
prove effedtual, let the chimney be built quite clofe at the
under part, leaving only as much room as is fufficient to
contain the grate, having a cover of metal fitted to that o-
gening
S M O ( 609 ) SMO
pening, which can be taken ofF or pat on at pleafure; by
which the whole air that enters into the chimney is made to
pafs through the fire like a furnace, and carries ihe fmoke
up it with great velocity. Thefe are well known in large
towns by the name fmoke-chimneys : but as they occafion a
aprodigious watte of fewel without warming the room, and,
unlefs attended with very great care, are in danger of fet-
ting the building on fire, they ought to be as much avoided
as poilibie. But if neither this, nor any of the other me¬
thods prove effedtual, the wall mutt either be taken down
and rebuilt in a proper mariner, or the chimney abandoned
as incurable. As this is a defedf more difficult to be reme¬
died.than any other, we would ttrongly recommend it to every
builder to build his chimneys of a Sufficient width through¬
out ; there is no danger of erring on this extreme, as it is
eafy to remedy any defeft that might arife from it.
4th, As the air which afcends through the chimney con¬
tinues nearly of an equal degree of heat to the top, the
tube ffiould be of an equal degree of width at the top as at
the bottom, as well as through the whole of its length.
It ought not therefore to be made tapering gradually from
the fire-place to the top, but to be fuddenly contra&ed a-
bove the grate, as in fig 6. from which it ought to be con¬
tinued of an equal widenefs throughout its whole length •
but if it is narrower at any one place than another, it ought
to be at the under part, immediately above the fiie, for a
very Short fpace ; becaufe, as this is within reach of the hand,
the foot can be cleaned from it as often as is necefLry, fo
that when the other parts of the chimney are full and
clogged with foot, they will not be narrower than this place
is at that time.
jth, It feldom happens that a .chimney can be carried
quite Straight upwards: and it is an advantage that it is fo,
as they ought always to be bent a little. For if a chimney
be Straight, and of a proper width to tranfmit the whole of
the fmoke and no more, it will not be Sufficient for that
purpore, when there is a heavy fail of rain, or fnow, or
hail, with little wind ; for the great drops will fall perpen¬
dicularly f om the top to the bottom of the chimney ; and
as they, occupy a- confiderable fpace, the fmoke will not
have room to afcend, hut mutt he forced down with the
Shower, and difperfed in the apartment: whereas, if the chim¬
ney is bent, the rain falls upon fome of the Sides, and glides
gently down without disturbing the afcent of the fmoke.
The fame inconvenience will he felt in a ttraigh: chimney,
where it is fo placed as to be expofed to winds which
fometimes enter the top and blow down with a fndden puff:
for, if it be Straight, the air meets with no interruption till
it defcends into the chamber, and there difperies the fmoke;
but if it be crooked, the defcent of the wind will be oh
ftru&ed its force broken, and the bad effe&s of it in a
great meafure prevented. Upon the whole, bent chimneys
are always preferable to Straight ones. However, a perpen¬
dicular chimney may be eafily cured, by fome of the con¬
trivances after mentioned.
Thefe are the moft general defeats arifing from the Struc¬
ture of the chimney itfelf, which are all reducible to the
following caufes : 1. Too little height ; 2. Too great-
widenefs of the bottom of the chimney ; 3. Too little
width; 4. Unequal widenefs between the top and bottom ;
and, 5. Straightnefs of the tube. Wek have pointed out'
the heft methods of curing each of thefe detefts; and to fi¬
nish our remarks on this general head, and give the reader
a more perfedt idea of the beft form of conttrudlion for a
chimney, we have drawn two different feftions of one con-
Siru&ed on the jufteft principles, in figures 6. and 7. the fe-
veral parts of which appear fo plain from the figures, and
the reafons for this conftruffion have been already fo clear¬
ly affigned, that a very Short explanation will be fufficienf.
Figure 6. reprefents a front-view of the fire-place ; fup-
pofing the fore-part of the wall taken down, and the chim¬
ney laid bare from top to bottom; AB, and DC, reprefenting
the two fides of the fire-place ; and BC, 'the mantle, being
cut through, to Shew the manner in which the aperture is
fuddenly contracted, immediately above the fire within the
mantle. The tube from the point E, to the top, ought to
be of an equal widenefs, and bent in any direction that may
be convenient. The two planes, F F, repreSent the two fides
of the fire-place, which ought to be as much Sloped inward
towards the back as the form of the grate will admit of;
for the more they are inclined, the more powerfully will
they reflect the heat into the apartment. Fig. 7. reprefents
a perpendicular SeCtion of the wall, through the middle of
the chimney, to difeover its Shape, if viewed from a fide.
And here it is to be obferved, that it ought ever to-be a rule
to bring the building at the under part of the chimney im¬
mediately behind the grate, as far forward as poffible,
becauSF this throws more heat into the chamber than if it
were placed farther back : but as the fore-part of the grate
ought never to projed beyond the inner edge of the mantle,
care ffiould be taken to have the under part of the mantle
wrought as thin as the nature of the materials will admit
of, making it thicker towards the upper part, fo as to Slope
inwards abwve the fire, as reprefented at B, fig. 7. To
throw the heat outward, let the upper part of the back of
the fire-place be a little inclined outward, as at C; but, af¬
ter it is carried up in this manner a little higher than the
mantle, let it be fuddenly turned back, as in the figure, the
projection above the mantle inclining backward in the faipe
direction, being carried up to the top at an equal widenefs
the whole way.
Although it is neceffary to have all chimneys pretty
wide; yet this, on many occafions, is attended with incon¬
veniences : for as they tranfmit a great quantity of heated
air, too large a portion of that warnf air which ought to
heat the chamber is carried off ; and as it is only when the
fire is firft kindled that the great quantity of grofs vapour
is exhaled which fills the chimney, and maketh a large tube-
neceffary, if it were fo contrived as to contraft or dilate at
pleafure, we might have our chimney of a fufficient width
to convey away-the greatett quantity of fmoke that could
ever have occafibn to pals through it, at the fame time
that we might never allow more air to pafs off at other times
than was neceflarry to carry away the whole of the fmoke,
by which means a much Imaller quantity.of fewel would
keep our apartment equally warm. This we apprehend
might be accomplilhed by the following fimple apparatus.
L^t a'ffieet of milled iron be fixed at the upper part of tire
mantle, on the infide, at B, in fuch a manner, as that, by
means of a fmall wire de, palling through a fmall hole left
for that purpofe in the fore-part of the chimney, it might
be let down at pleafure towards C, or drawn up towards
B, fo as to apply quite clofe to the upper edge of the
chimney between B and C. This, would leave the sube of
ita
S M O
( 610 )
S M O
Its full widtKfs when neceffary, or dofe it to any degree at fo that the air within would be fqon warmed, and continue
pleafure, with the greatefi eafe *. It is unnecefiary to add,' long fo even with a frtjal! degree of heat. However impro«
that the plate at A lig. 4. might be employed in the fame
manner, when it fliould be found convenient. So muehvfor
what relates to the condruftion of the chimney itfelf.
We now proceed to confider the fecond general caufe of
Imoke, viz.
II. Of fmoky houfes proceeding from faults of other
parts of the building, altogether independent of the flrudlure
of the chimney itfelf.
iff, The fir ft we ftiall mention is too great clofenefs of
the 100m. Smoke, as (hewn above, is impelled up the chim¬
ney by the prefture of the air entering at the fire-place and
afcending upwards; but, if freftr air is not admitted into
the apartment in fufficient quantities to fupply the confump-
tion by the fire, the room will be quickly exhaufted,'
and the air in it become as light as the external air at the
top of the chimney, fo that the fmoke will as readily be
difperfed into the chamber as through the chimney. But if
any door or window is opened fo as to admit plenty of free
air, the fmoke will be quickly difpelled, and the proper cir¬
culation eftablifhed : the fame effed will be produced by
making a fmall hole in fome of the fides of the room ; but
unlefs this be done with fome judgment, it may frequently
add to the difeafe, as it may concur with fome of the other
caufes of fmoky houfes, to be afterwards mentioned. A
better method of remedying this evil would be to have a
fmall hole made in the wall at the back of the chimney,
and immediately underneath it: or a fmall perforatio.n,
made in the wall in any other convenient manner; the one
end of which fhould communicate with thqexternal air, and
the other communicate with the chamber in any place near
the grate, and as low down as poffible, through which a
cqnftant fupply of air would be adminiftered to the fire with¬
out the fmalleft inconvenience or trouble. If this were
pradifed, doors and windows might with fafety be made
much clofer than at prefent, and our apartments rendered
equally warm and comfortable with a much fmaller quan¬
tity of fewel than we ufe at prefent. For as the fire, in
the prefent mode of conftruding chambers, is kept alive by
a conftant fucceffion of cold air from the doors, windows,
and other crannies of the room rufhing towards the chimney
in all diredions, the air of the room, which, if not cooled by
-this means, would be quickly heated to a great degree, is
conftantly kept cold in fpite of the ftrong heat of a blazing
per this might be for people in perfed health, it might fure-
ly be of great ufe for thofe who are in a weakly habit of
body ; efpecially if care were taken to carry off the foul air,
by having a fmall tube leading from the upper part of the
room to the top of the houfe, through which the air which
had been rendered noxious by the fmoke of caudles or per-
fpiration would be conveyed away, and a fucceffion of frefti
air admitted from the tube neat the fire-place to fupply that
want. That the reader may more readily comprehend what
is here meant, we have reprefented in fig. 6. a view of two
fmall ?ubes for this^rurpofe fuppoied to be laid open by ta¬
king away the boxing or inner coating of the wall which
ought to cover them. Thefe are of wood, and muft not be
above one inch in diameter. One end, g g, goes quite
through the outer wall of the houfe, and communicates with
the open air. Having a fmall grate upon it to prevent ve.rmin
from entering, The other end, paffes behind thetwo flabs
at the fide of the .fire-place, and open in the infide of the
fire-place'at i i, at which place they have each of them 3.
fmall bit of brafs fitted to them, being clofed with two Ai¬
ding doors exa&ly hke thofe thit are ufed to cover the end
of telefcopes* by means of which more or lefs air may be
admitted at pleafure.
2d, A fecond caufe of fmoke, is the wrong pofition of
doors and windows, with refpe<fl to the fire-places.
As the fmoke is impelled up the chimney by the preffure
of the air, if that air is driven away from the fire-place by
any caufe more powerful than the fuftion occafioned by the
fire, the fmoke rriuft alfo be drawn away with it, and follow
the fame diredioms with that current of air; fo that what¬
ever tends to draw a current of air from the under part of
the chimney, will alfo tend to produce fmoke in the houfe;
from whence it is eafy to conceive how doors or windows
may occafion fmoke when the wind is in certain diredions.
Thus, fuppofe a chamber, A, B, C, D, fig. having a
door or window at E, another at F, and a fire-place at G;
when the wind is in the ditedion D A or C B, the general
current of air will occafion a fort of Judion at the opening
E, fo that the air will be drawn from the chimney G to¬
wards E : and if the current be ftrong, and the opening at
E large, it will become more powerful than the fudion of
the chimney, and produce fmoke in'the apartment. If the
window at F fhould be opened in this cafe, it would not
fire ; u'hicb, at the fame time that it fcorches the parts of mend the matter ; for any wind which fhould enter at F,
bur body which are moft expofed to it, does not warm the would be carried ftreight out at the opening E, and the cur-
parts which ■are turned from it ; and ,we experience at the rent of air would be drawn from the chimney as ftrong as
fame time a burning-heat and piercing cold, which is often ever. If the window at E were fhut, and that at F left
produdive of the moft difagreeable effeds. But if the fire open, and the wind ftill continued in the fame diredion as
were fupplied with air in-the manner abovementioned, there before, the current of air rufhing paft the window would
would be lefs air drawn in through the crannies of the room, have a tendency to draw the air of the room along with it,
> and
# If any one fhoud think, that the wire d would he a difagreable objed in the middle of a chimney-piece, it might
eafily be hid by a pidure of any kind. The.wire might be fixed to a fmall.brafs-handle moving freely tjpward and downward like
that for a hell; only this fhould have a long flit in the middle of it, with notches on each fide, to receive a pin placed in the mid¬
dle of the flit, by means of which the wire might be lengthened or flaortened at pleafure. The whole »f this apparatus is re¬
prefented at fig. 16. where (a) reprefents the wire faftened to the brafs-plate; {b). a piece of brafs, ralfed a little, to ferve as a
handle. The flit in the middle is reprefented by the dark line, having notchesccrat convenient diftances. The pin if is fixed
into the wall, but left at liberty to turn about with eafe; and its head Hands up a little, fo as to be eafily turned with the finger
and thumb. The body of this nail is made fo thin in one direction-, that when it is turned half round, it eafily paffes through
the flit in the plate; but in the other diredion its diameter is greater, fo that when the plate is brought fo as to have one of the
notches oppofite to the nail, and it is then turned half round, it catches the plate fo that it cannot be moved till the nail is again
turned about.
S M O (
and occafion fmoke, but not fo powerfully as if the window
at E were open ; but if the wind were in the diredtion D B,
it would be very bad : but if it blew in the dire&ion C A,
the cafe would be very much altered ; for then a quantity of
air being forced in at the opening F, and finding no ready
pafiage, it would be pent up in the chamber, and force it-
fclf up the chimney with violence. We omit mentioning what
would be the efFedf if the wind were in other direaions, as
it is imagined thefe will be fufficiently obvious to every at¬
tentive obferver ' It is-only neoeffary here to obferve, that
as doors or windows are feldom fo exadtly made, but they
produce feme effedt, as they always admit fome air even
when fiiut, and often occafion fmoke when the wind, blows
from a particular quarter ; and as workmen and others ge¬
nerally apprehend, when houfes are troubled with fmoke in
this manner, that it is occafioned by fome external caufe,
and apply their attention to cure it by altering the top of the
chimney, which never caff produce the imalleft fervice in
this cafe; we would recommend a more particular attention
to be paid to the fituation of doors and windows than is ge¬
nerally beftowed, efpeeially in fuch fituations where they
are expofed to any violent current of air in a particular di-
redtion, as m narrow lanes, or defiles of any fort, where the
wind, when in particular diredlions, is hurried along with a
prodigious rapidity. And, that the effedts of different po-
fitions may be ftill more obvious, we lhall produce feveral
other examples.
Suppofe a chamber, fig. 9. having a door at A, and two
windows B C, with a fire place D. If the wind came in
the diredHqn DA, and if the door tranfmitted as much or
more air than was admitted at both the windows, a current
of air would run from all parts of the chamber towards A,
and therefore would have a tendency to occafion fmoke: but
if as much or more air came in at the windows than could
get out at the door, there could be no fuch current; but, on
the contrary, it would be forced up the chimney, and carry
the fmoke along with it: wherefore in this fituation, a room
might fometimes be cured of fmoke, by making the door
as clofe as poflible ; nothing could be more hurtful in this
cafe than boring a hole in the door. But if the houfe was
in fuch a fituation as to be more frequently expofed to a
wind which came in the dire&ion of AD, it would run little
rifk of being troubled with fmoke.
Suppofe a room, fig. 10. having a door at A, and two
windows B and C, with a fire-place D. If the wind came
in the direffion CB or BC, and both the windows were
open, it is evident that the fmoke would be drawn from the
chimney by the'ftrong current of air paffing through the
room ; or if the window upon which the wind came were
elofed, and the oppofite one open, nearly the fame efFedt
would be produced: but if the window upon which the wind
blew were open, and the oppofite one and the door fhut,
the room would be immediately cleared of fmoke entirely.
In this fituation, it is evident, that if the windows were badly
made, fo as to admit much air, it would tend to occafion
fmoke, efpecially if the door were irr the fame fituation ; it
is therefore of confequence to attend to this circumftance in
a fituation fimilar to this.
Having premifed fo much with regard to fingle rooms,
we (hail now proceed to confider a more compound ftrudlure.
Thus, let fig. xx. reprefent a building confiding of two
chambers, K L, joined by a paffage. The chamber K ha¬
ving a door B communicating with the palfage, a window
Vol. Ill, Na 94. 2
i ) S - M O
F, and fire-place G; and that at L having a door C, ano¬
ther door or window D, the window E, and fire-place H,
the entry to the whole being by the door A. Let us now
confider what would be the efferft of the wind coming from
different direftions upon this building. And firft,. fuppofe'
the wind blew in the dire&ion AM : If all the doors and
windows were clofe fhut, and very little air were admitted,
there would be little rifk of fmoke ; but as there would
furely be fome admitted through thefe different openings,
there would be fome chance that the chamber L would be
troubled with fmoke, becaufe of fome the air which forced
its paffage through the chinks of the door A would pafs
through the doors C and D, which might produce fmoke ia
a fmall degree. There would be little chance that the cham¬
ber K would fmoke in this cafe; becaufe although there is
a general fu&lon through the paffage from B to D, yet as
it is in fomcmeafure interrupted by the clofe door at C, it
will be but fmall; and as the wind is interrupted in its
courfe by the wall of the paffage, fome of it will be forced
through the chinks of the window F, which would more
than counterbalance the effedts of the other fudtion. But
if the door D were open, both the chimneys would-fmoke;
efpecially if the doors B and C were open alfo, as the cur¬
rent would be then very ftrong towards tharpoint. Butin
all cales the fmoke of this houfe would be prevented by
keeping the door at D (hut, and that at A open ; but if the
houfe was in fuch a fituation as to be more expofed to that
wind than any other, it would be better to clofe up the
door D altogether. If the wind more commonly came
from M towards A, it is more than probable that a houfe
fituated like this would be quite free of fmoke,. as the gen.-ral
current of air would be towards the chimneys ; but the
chamber K would run greater rilk than L, as the fudtion
might fometimes be drawn towards, the window F ; but if
the door A were in the oppofite fids of the paffage, that in¬
convenience would be avoided alfo. If the more general
current of air were from K towards L, this houfe behoved
to be troubled with fmoke unlefs the windows were very
clofe: but there would not be the fmalleft chance for that,
when it came from L towards K.
We might now proceed to give more examples of this
fort: but as it would be impoffible to enumerate all the
variety of cafes that might occur, it is imagined that thefe
will befulficient to give the reader an idea of the manner in
which any building ought to be examined in this relpeff ; and
hemuft be left to his own diferetion to apply the principles
above explained to all the variety of cafes that may occur.
In large complicated buildings, it no doubt requires a greater
extent of thought to combine all the various eircumitances
together, and draw a .general conclufion, than in fmaller
and more Ample ones ; but if the following general rules are
attended to, the complaints arifing from this caufe would
be but few. xft, Avoid as much as may be long paffages
leading to verydiftant parts of a building, as there is often
a ftrong current of air in thefe which helps to difturb the free
circulation of air up the chimneys. 2d, Place the chimneys
in general in that fide of the apartment towards which the
wind which in general prevails moft in the fituation where
the houfe is placed blows: And, 3d, make as many, if not
more, doors and windows (efpecially fuch as have occafion
to be moft frequently open) on that fide of the building
from whence the moft prevalent wind does come.
Hid. The third general caufe of fmoke in houfes is the
7 P wrong
S M O (
wrong pofition of the houfe with regard to external ob-
jefrs, which, by interrupting the courfe of the air, makes
it affume various diredtions, and wheel about in eddies, fo as
to prevent it from afcending with eafe^from the chimney
top, or beats it down into the room with violence. This is
more feldom the caufe of fmoky houfes than either of the
two before mentioned; although it feems to be almoft the only
one attended to by the perfons who pretend to cure fmoky
houfes at prefent, as moft of their remedies are adapted to
remove the diforders arifing from this caufe alone. We
fhall briefly point Out the feveral cafes in which this can oc¬
cur, that every one may be enabled to judge for himfelf
when thele cures are proper or not.
The air (as has been faid) is a fluid, and wind a current
oftliatflu d; which, when driven along the furface of the
earth, flows with a fmooth and equal Itream, unlefs when
oppofed by fome objedt which interrupts its courfe; but
when it meets with any; objeft which diredtly oppofes its
courfe, it is in fome meafure pulhed back again, and made
to fpread on every lide, {ill it mee.s with fome open fide, to¬
wards which it flows with great impetuofity. It is likewife
a fluid of confiderable gravity, and therefore prefies upon
the furface Of the earth with great force; fo that, when a
current of it flows along the furface of our globe, it has a
tendency to move forward and prels downward at the
fame time : from whence it happens, that when a current of
air is forced over the top of any high objeft, the fide of which
defcends perpendicularly downward, the velocity of the
current at firfl: overcomes the gravity, and it flies a fltort way
over in that diredlion; but the power of gravity afting up¬
on the under furface, draws it downward, and in a fliort
time overcomes the impetus that it had to rulh forward, and
occafions a fort of eddy nearly fimilar to what we fee a-
mong water bahind a Itone which interrupts the violence of
its currents.
To illnflrate this more plainly, let AB, fig. 12. reprefent
a part of a high building, near to which is a fmaller one
CD; and let the dotted line EF reprefent a current of air
flowing with confiderable force in the direftion FE, It is
plain that it will flow ftraight forward over the top of the
imall building" but when it meets with the large objedl, it
will be interrupted in its courfe, and fpread itfelf on every
fide, as reprefented by the dotted lines GG circ. at laft it
will flow towards that place through which it can efcape
with the greatell eafe. If the oppofing object be large, and
has no opening'through which it can iflue near tho ground,
then it will afcend to the top of it, and flow off in that di¬
rection, carrying the fmoke which afcends from the frnali
chimney C along with it : but if there is any opening be¬
low, either a ftreet or lane, or any other paflage that will
admit the wind to pafs, then will the natural gravity of the
air draw the general current downward to floV off through
the lower paffage; in which cafe, the fmoke which ought to
afcend through the chimney C, meeting with a current of
air oppoung its paflage, will not be at ‘liberty to iflhe
forth, but be forced back again into the room from whence
it proceed, unieTs fome contrivance is fallen upon to pre¬
vent it. #
Again, let A, fig. 13. reprefent a fmall building at the.
fide of a gftkt rock B, and the wind coming in the direction
C D ; when the current of air comes,to the point D, being
hurried forward with great Velocity, it goes a little forward,,
but foon defescds downward, and gradually is reflected more
and more inward, as reprelented by the dotted lines E E,
&c. fo that, defeending downwards upon the top of the chtm-
ney A, the Imoke is beat back again into the apartmeats.
Thus it is that low houfes, when contiguous to high objeds,
are in danger of being diflurbed with fmoke. Ifethe conti’
guous objed be not very high, the diforder may be ured
by heightening the chimney of the low houfe ; but if it is
very high, it will be neceflary to cover the top of the chim¬
ney in iuch a manner as to prevent the wind from entering
it, at the fame time that a paflage is left at fome of the
fides through which the fmoke may iffue with freedom. Ma¬
ny are the contrivances which have been invented for this
purpofe, which are to be met with every where; and as there
is no difficulty m accomplifliing the defired end by an infi¬
nite variety of methods, every one who needs fuch a thing
may pleafe his own fancy in the choice. We have thought
it unrieceflary to add any more but one kind ofthefe, fig. 14.
which will anfwer the end effedually.
It is evident that houfes fituated near high hills, or thick
woods, will be in fome meafure expofed to the fame incon¬
venience ; but it is likewife plain, that if a houfe be fituated
upon the flope of a hill, as at F, fig. 13. it will not be in
any danger of fmoke when the wind blows towards that fide
of the hill upon which it is fituated ; for the current of air
coming over the houfe-top in the direftion G H, is imme¬
diately changed by the flope of the hill to the diredion H C,
which powerfully draws the fmoke upward from the top of
the chimney. But it is alfo evident, that a houfe in this
fituation will be liable to fmoke when the wind blows/re**
the hill; for the current of air coming downward in the di-
redion C H, will beat downward on the chimney F, and
prevent the fmoke from afeending with freedom. But the
efFed will be much heightened, if the doors and windows
are chiefly in the loweimoft fide of the houfe.
Theie are fome dfjfxhe molt general circumftances which
prevent the free afeent of fmoke, arifing from external ob-
jeds : but there are many other leffer caufes which may at
times occafion fmoke, all of which it would be tedious here
to enumerate ; fuch as, blafts of air, refleded from the fides,
of mountains, and coming down valleys with great impetu¬
ofity, occafioning, in particular fituations, eddies or whirl¬
winds of different forts. In fhort, whatever in any mea¬
fure diflurbs the free motion of the air, k in danger of pro¬
ducing fudden gufts, which may occafion fmoke. There¬
fore, whoever builds in a fituation which is not altogether
free, may lay his account with having fome fudden gufts of
fmoke, unlefs he forms the top of his chimney fo as to ob¬
viate it. And there are fpme fituations fo much expofed to
fudden gufts of wind, fometimes whirling round, fometimes
beat fuddenly downward, or as fuddenly carried up again,
that it is difficult to guard againft every danger. In thefe
fituations we would recommend fomething of the form of
what is reprefented at fig. 15. which would be proof againft
every wind whatever.
Having thus traced the caufes of fmoky houfes, and re¬
duced them to diftirtft clafles for the fake of diftiniftnefs ; it
is neceflary. before we quit this fubjeft, to obferve, tha 'n .
many cafes, two or more of thefe may be combined to aug¬
ment the malady, and therefore it is neceflary to have all
thefe circumftances in view in every particular cafe. It now
only remains that we point out the feveral phenomenfi which
may lead us to diftingmfh from which of thefe general cau¬
fes the diforder complained of may proceed. And,
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, S M O ( 61
. if}, If it is owing to a fault in the conftru&ion of tlie
cTiimney itfelf, it will fmoke alcnolt continually, efpecially
in calm weather.
2d, If it does not fmoke in calm weather, or only when
the wind comes from fome particular, quarter, and can then
be cured by opening fome door or window, the fault -may
be looked for in the diftributio.n of the doors or windows of
the houfe. The only cafe in which therd is a difficulty to
diifinguiffi, whether it is owing to, the fault of the chimney
or the houfe, is when it proceeds from too much clofenefs
of the apartment But this may be eafiiy known by trying
it in a calm : for if it proceeds from this caufe, there will
be no fmoke in a perfect calm, if the doors are left open ;
whereas, if the defedt proceeds from a fault in the chimney
itfelf, it will ftili -continue to fmoke when calm, even when
the doors are open.
3d, When the fmoke is occafioned by external caufes,
thefe can be generally feen; but it may be likewife known
by this, that it defcends in fudden puffs with great violence
at times, even when the doors and windows are not alter¬
ed. By attending to thefe few rules with care, there will
be little danger of miftaking the caufe from whence this
diforder proceeds.
We |hall conclude thefe obfervafions with a few remarks
on fome particular cafes which can hardly be reduced to any
of the foregoing heads. And,
iff. It fometimes happens, that the fmoke is prevented
from .afcending with freedom, by having a fmall part of the
top of the chimney broke down, fo as that fome parts of it
remain higher than others, which in fome meafure reduces
it to the (late of a chimney at the fide of a higher one. To
prevent this, it is always proper to have the top of the chim¬
ney finiffied withjftones neatly cut, and firmly built. It is
not to be doubted but that thofe things> which are placed
upon particular chimneys with a view to cure them of fmoke,
do often, from the fame caufe, hurt the neighbouring chim¬
neys built in the fame wall.
2d, A chamber is fometimes filled with fmoke, when a
fire is kindled in a neighbouring chimney, and none in it,
although there is no appearance of fmoke when it has a fire
burning in its own grate. This may fometimes proceed
from a fmall hole breaking through the thin partition that
divides the two chimneys from one another , and as fmoke
is a weighty body, which is only buoyed up by, the warm
air which paffes through the^fire. when it penetrates into
the cold chimney it naturally fubfides, ard comes down to
the chamber with which the chimney communicates, when
there is no fire to carry it off. But this difeafe is gene¬
rally produced by the fmoke entering, at the top of the
chimney, and defending downwards t if this laft is the cafe,
it may be cured, on man' occafions, by,fetting.a pretty high
Hone at the top of the chimney, as a divifion between each
two : hut the fureft method , in all cafes, is to have a fmoke-
board exactly fitted into the chimney above the grate, which
on all occafions effectually prevents it.
3d, It frequently happens, that a chimney does not carry
off the fmoke well at fift when the fire is kindled, although
there is not the fmalleft tendency to it at other times. This
proceeds from the narrownd’s of the chimney for when’
the fire is kindled, the whole tube is filied with cold air, as
weighty as that in, the appariment ; and being expanded by
the fire at the bottom; it endeavours to afcend upward, but
being pent in by the narrowmefs of the tube, and preffed by
3 ) S N E
the column of cold air above it, it is fome time before it can
wholly overcome that refinance, and fome of it is forced
into the chamber, till by degrees the whole chimney is heat¬
ed, and then invents quite well. If the imoke produced by
this means is not very troublefome, it may be borne with;
but if it be extremely difagreabie, it may be cured by ha¬
ving a large ffieet of milled iron, large enough to reach be¬
tween the two fides of the, (irerplace, and as'deep as to
reach from the mantle to the grate, or lower, which might
by any contrivance be hung up before the fire at that time
to aft in fome meafure as a fmoke-chbnney. This woulcf-
quickly make the fire burn, and carry of the fmoke entirely.
After that is effefted, it might then be removed, till another
occafion.
SMOLENSKO. the capital of a province of the fame name
in Mufcoyy, fituated on the confines of Poland : in E.
long. 330, and N. lat. 56°.
SMUGGLERS, in law', thofe perfons who conceal or
run prohibited goods, or goods that have not 'paid his
Majefty’s cultoms.
SMUT, in hufbandry, a difeafe in corn, when the grains,
inftead of being filled with flour, are full of a Itinking
black powder.
There are two remedies for the fmut, recommended by
writers on hufbandry; viz. fteeping the feed in fait brine,,
and changing the feed.
As to the fteeping of feed, when wheat is intended for
drilling, it muft be foaked in a brine of pure fait, diffol-
ved in water, finCe urine is found to be highly prejudicial.
The moft expeditious way of brining w heat for' drilling,
is to lay it in a heap, and waffi it with a flrOng brine
fprinkled on it, ftirring it up with a fhovel, that it may
be all equally brined, or wetted with it ; after this, lift
on fome fine lime all over the furface, and ftir it up, ftill
fifting on more in the fame manner till the whole is duft-
ed with the lime : it will then be foon dry enough to be.
drilled without farther trouble. It muff be quick-lime,
in its full ftrength, that is ufed on this occafion.
The bread made of fmutty corn, is very pernicious,
a£Hng as a narcotic, and occafioning not only fleepineft,
but vertigoes, and even convulfions.
SMYRNA, a city and port-town of Afiatic Turky, fitua¬
ted on a b>y of the Archipelago, in the province of Ionia, in»
Leffer Afia, 100 miles north of Rhodes, and 200 miles near-
ly.fouth of Conflantinople: ,E. long. 270:N. lat. 370 30'.
SMYRNIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digy. .
nia clafs. The fruit is oblong, and flriated ; and the pet
tals are fharp-pointed, and carinated. There, are five
fpecies, only one of them, viz, the-olufatrum, or alex-
anders, a native of Britain.
SNAFFLE, in the manege, is a very flender bit-mouth, .
without any branches, much ufed in England ; the true •
bridles being referved for the fervice of war.
SNAIL, in zoology. See Limax.
SNAKE, in zoology. SccAnguis
Snake root, in botany. See Polygala.
SnakeiWEEd, in botany. . See Polygonum.
SNAPDRAGON, in botany; See Antirrhinum.
SNEEZING, a convulfive motion of the muiclcs of the
whereby the air is expelled from the nofe with
much vehemence and nojfe.
Sneezing is caufcd by the irritation df the upper mem-
a brans _•
s O C ( 614 V s o c
brane of the nofe, occafioned by acrid fubflances floating
in the air, or by. medicines called fter-nutatories.
'SNETHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, twenty-eight
miles north-weft of Norwich.
SNIPE, in ornithology. See Tantalus.
.SNOW, a meteor produced in this manner : When the va¬
pours are become confiderably condenfed, yet not fo far
as to be liquified, or diflblved into water ; then, by a fpe-
cial degree of coldrtefs in the upper region of the air, the
particles of the condenfed vapour are changed into ice ;
feveral of which adhering together, form little fleeces of
a white fubftance, fomewhat heavier than the air ; and
therefore defcend in a flow and gentle manner through it j
being fubjeift, by reafon of its lightnefs, to be driven a-
bout by the various motions of the air and wind ; and
is what, when arrived to the fu, face of the earth, we call
fnow.
Snow fruftifies the ground ; for inftance, by guarding
the corn or other vegetables from-the intenfer cold of
the air, efpecially the cold piercing winds.
SNOWDON-hill, the higheft mountain in Wales, fita-
ated in Caernarvonfhire.
SNOW drop, in botany. See Galanthus.
SNUFF, a powder chiefly made of tobacco, the ufe of
which is too well known to need any defcription here.
SOAL-fish, in ichthyology. See Pleursnectes.
SOAP, a kind of pafte, fometimes hard and dry, and
fometimes foft and liquid, much ufed in wafliing, whiten¬
ing linens, and by dyers, fullers, &<;. See Chemistry,
P- 93. i49> 154- . . ’ .
The purer hard foap is the only fort intended for in¬
ternal ufe. This, triturated with oily or refinous-matters,
renders them foluble in water ; and hence becomes an in¬
gredient in pills compofed of refins, promoting their dif-
folmion in the ftomach, and union with the animal fluids.
Boerhasrve always prefcribed foap in refinous pills, unlefs
where an alkalefcent or putrid ftate of the juices forbad
its ufe. From the fame quality, foap feems well fitted
for diflblving oily or undtuaus matters and vifcidities in
the human body ; thereby opening obftrufhons, and de-
terging all the veflels it pafles through. It is likewife a
powerful menftruum for the calculus, or ftone in the
bladder ; a'folution of it in lime-water being one of the
ftxongeft diflblvents that can with fafety be taken into
- the ftomach : the virtue of this compofition is confider¬
ably greater than the aggregate of the diflblving powers
of the foap and lime-water when unmixed.
SOCAGE, an ancient tenure, by which lands were held
on condition of ploughing the lord’s lands, and doing the
operations of hufbandry, at their own charges.
SOCCUS, in antiquity, a kind of high-Ihoe, reaching a-
bove the ancle, worn by comedians, as -the cothurnus
whs by tragedians.
SOCIETY, in general, denotes a number of perfons united
together for their mutual affiftance, fecurity, intereft, or
entertainment.
The focial principle in man is of fuch an expanfive na¬
ture, that it cannot be confined within the circuit of a
family, of friends, of a neighbourhood: it fpreads into
wider fyftems, and draws men into larger communities
and commonwealths ; fince it is in thefe only, that the
more fublime powers of our nature attain the higheft im¬
provement and perfe&ion of which they are capable.
Zicya/ Society, an academy or college, eftablilhed ft>y
charter, by king Charles II. for promoting natural know¬
ledge, and ufefui arts, by experiments.
It confifts of feveral hundred fellows, or members,
moftly Britifti; -fonae perfons of the higheft rank, and
many eminent gentlemen and learned men of other nations.
Their meetings are held once a week, at their houfe in
Crane-Court, Fleet-ftreet, London; where they oifcourfe
upon the productions and rarities of nature and art, and
confider how the fame may be improved for the good of
mankind: here areaifo read letters, and other philofophi-
cal papers, fent by ingenious perfons both at home and
abroad; upon which they difcourfe in the plaineft man¬
ner, without affecting ftudied fpeeches.
This fdciety, of which his Britannic majefty is perpe¬
tual patron, is governed by a council of twenty-one mem¬
bers ; ten of whom are yearly chofen out of the fociety,
on St. Andrew’s-day.- The chief of the council bears the
title of prefidCnt, whofe proper office is, to call and dif-
folve the meetings; to propofe the matter to be debated;
call for experiments; and admit fuch members as ffiall be
elected, which muft be by a majority of at leal! twenty-
one votes; where'.pon he is admitted, after paying 40 s.
and fubfcribing that he will endeavour to promote the
good of the Royal Society of London by the improvement
of natural knowledge; and being thus admitted, he after¬
wards pays 13 s. a quarter, as long as he continues a
member of the iociety.
Society for the encouragement of arts, manufattares,
and commerce. The puolic fpirit of this age is no-where
more remarkably fhewn, than in the flouriffiing condition
of this valuable fociety, whofe objeCt is the improvement
of the polite, ufefui, and commercial arts, in all their
various branches, by exciting induftry and emulation a-
mong all who can be ftimulated by honorary or pecuniary
rewards. It was fet on foot in the year 1753, by the
Lord Folkftone, Lord Romney, Dr Hales, and feven
01 eight private gentlemen, who were brought together
by the unwearied pains of Mr William Shipley, who had
long laboured to reduce into praftice a fcheme he had
formed for this purpofe This fociety, at their fecond
meeting, determined to make- a beginning, by propofing
rewards for the difcovery of cobalt, for the encourage¬
ment of boys and girls in the art of drawing, and for the
planting of madder in th^ kingdom. And now money
being wanted, a voluntary fubfcription was begun; foon
after which a plan was drawn up for forming, regulating,
and governing the fociety : and now the utility of fuch
a fociety became fo well underftood, that immediately
feveral noblemen and gentlemen offered themfelves as
members; and ever fince that time, its increafe has been
fo extraordinrry, that it confifts of feveral thoufand mem¬
bers, among whom are mort of the nobility, and perfons
of large fortunes in the kingdom. The officers of this
fociety are, a prefident, eight vice-prefidents, a regifter,
a fecretary, and an affiftant-fecretary, who are all chofen
by ballot annually on the firft Tuefday in March. Every
perfon defiring to be a member of this fociety muft be
jpropofed by three members : his name, addition, and
place of abode, being read aloud by the fecretary, he is
ballotted for at the next meeting : he ftiall be deemed a
perpetual member upon payment of twenty guineas, or a
fubfcribing member upon payment of any fum not lefs
S O C ( 6i$
than two guloeas annually. Ladies are alfo admitted
members, and foreigners are likewife admitted as hono¬
rary or correfponding members. The money of the fo-
ciety is placed in the bank of England, in the name of
the prefident and vice-prelidehts, three of whom are em¬
powered to draw any fum the'fociety fhall order, to be
paid. The fociety’s office is oppofite to Beauford build¬
ings in the Strand, in London, where their meetings are
held every Wednesday evening,,from the fecond Wed-
nefday in November, to the laft Wednefday in May, and
at other times every firft and third Wednefday of every
month.
Society for the reformation of manners, and putting in
execution the laws againft immorality and profanenefs.
It v/as fet on foot about forty years'ago, by five or fix
private perfons in London, but is fince exceedingly in-
creafed by numbers of all denominations. A particular
body of the moil confiderable hereof, bear the expence
of profecutions, fee. without any contribution from the
reft. Thefe chiefly apply themfelves to the profecuting
people for fwearing, drunkennefs, and prophaning the fab-
bath. Another body, of about fifty perions, apply them¬
felves to the fuppreffing lewdnefs, and by them above five
hundred lewd houfes have been aftually fupprefted ; a
third body confiftsof conftabies ; and a fourth of inform¬
ers. Befides thefe, there are eight other regular mixed
bodies of houfe-keepers and officers, who infpedt the be¬
haviour of the conftabies and other officers, affift in fearch-
ing diforderly houfes, feiziug offenders, giving informa¬
tion, fee. There are feveral other focieties of this kind
at Briftol, Canterbury, Nottingham, fee.
Society for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, was
o inftituted by king William, in 1701, for fecuring a main¬
tenance for an orthodox clergy, and making other provi-
fions for the propagation of the gofpel in the plantations,
colonies, frontiers, fee. To that end he incorporated the
archbiffiops, feveral biffiops, and other nobility, gentry,
and clergy, to the number of ninety, with privilege to
purchale two thoufand pounds per year, inheritance'and
eftates for lives or years, with other goods to any value.
They meet yearly on the third Friday of February, to
chufe a prefident, vice-prefident,. and other officers; and
the third Friday in every month to tranfadl bufinefs, de¬
pute fit perfons to take fubferiptions for the faidufes, and
of ail moneys fo received to give account to the lord chan¬
cellor, fee. They have a ftanding committee at the chap-
ter-houfe, to prepare matters for the monthly meeting
whiefi is held at St. Martin’s library.
Society for propagating Chrifian knowledge. This was
begun in 1699 forne perfons of worth, fee. Its ori¬
ginal defign was to propagate religion in the plantations,
to fecQre the pious education of the poor at homey and to
reclaim thofe that err in the fundamentals of Chriftianity,
In the year 1791, they had procured confiderable charities,
. and tranfmitted the fame to the plantations, in libraries,
bibles, catechifms, fee. w'ith a voluntary maintenance for
feveral minifters to be employed in the plantations; but
the fociety for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts
being then inftituted, they were incorporated by charter
in the fam.e, and thus difeharged as a particular fociety
. from the further purfuit of that branch of their original
defign; whereupon they wholly turned themfelves to the
other, and are now very confiderable by great accefficns
Von.TII. N° 94. 2
) . SOD
from the clergy and laity," They meet weekly to concert
meafures for raffing charity for educating poor children,
and fetting up fchools for that purpofe, as'alfo for the more
regular difpofal of books for the inftrudion of the igno¬
rant, erroneous, dre.
For the othir focieties eftabliflied by charter, fee
College, Company, Corporation, and Stocks.
Society, in Scots law. See Law, fit. xxii. 5.
SOCII crimints, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. x&xiii.
j°.
SOCINIANS, in church-hiftory, a fed of Chriftian here¬
tics, fo called from their founder Fauftus Socinus, a na¬
tive of Sienna in Italy. He, about the year 1574, began
openly to declare againft the catholic faith, and taught,
1. That the eternal Father was the one only God; that
the Word was no more than an expteffion of the Godhead,
and had not exifted from all eternity; and that Jefus
Chrift wasGodnootherwife than by his fuperiority above
all creatures who were put in fubjedion to him by the
. the.Father. 2. That Jefus Chrift was not a mediator,
between God and men, but fent into the world to ferve
as a pattern of their condud. 3. That the puniffiment
of hell will laft but for a certain time, after which the
body and foul will be deftroyed. And, 4, That it is not 1
lawful for princes to make war. Thefe four tenets were
what Socinus defended with the greateft zeal. In other
matters, he was a Lutheran or a Calvinift; and the truth
is, that he did but refine upon the errors of all the anti-
trinitarians that went before him.
SOCOTORA, an ifland in the Indian ocean, about feventy
miles long, and fifty broad: fituate in E. long. $3°, N.
lat. 1\
SOCRATIC philosophy, the dodrines and opinions,
with regard to morality and religion, maintained and
taught by-Socrates. By the charader of.Socrates left us
by the ancients, particularly by hjs fcholar Plato, Laer¬
tius, fee. he appears to have been one of the beft and
the wifeft perfons in all the heathen world. To him is
aferibed the firft iittroduting of moral philofophy, which
is what is meant by that ufual faying, “That Socrates
“ firft called philofophy down from heaven to earth;” that
is, from the contemplation of the heavens and heavenly
bodies, he l«d men to confider themfelves, their ownpaf-
fions; opinions, faculties, duties, adions, fee. He wrote
nothing himfelf; yet all the Grecian feds of philofophers
refer their origin to his difeipline, particularly the plato-
nifts, peripatetics, academics, cyrenaics, ftoics, fee. but
the greateft part of his philofophy we have in the works
of Pla to.
SODA, or Heat of the fomach, in medicine, the name
of a diftempep confiding in a heat or troublefome burning
about the pit of the ftoinacb, or its left mouth which
fometimes is extended the whole lengtli .of the cefo-
phagus, with a preflu re or fpafmodic conftridion, uftully
attacking the patient by fits. See Medicine.
SODBURY, a market-town of Gloucefterffiire, fituated ten
miles north-eaft of B'iftol.
SODOMY, the unnatural crime of buggery, thus called
from the city of Sodom, which was deftroyed by fire for
the fame. The Levitical law adjudged thofe guilty of
this execrable crime to death, and the civil law affigns
the fame puniffiment to it. Our law alfo makes it felony.
There is no ftatute in Scotland againft fodomy ; the
7 libel
SOL ( 616
libel of the cr'rme is therefore founded on the divine law,
and pra&ice makes its punifhment to be burning alive.
SOFA, in the Turkifli curtoms, a bench of wood raifed
from the ground about a foot high, and placed round a
hall or chamber for the people to fit down upon, or to lie
- along, and in that poftu;e to take a view of what paffes
in the ftreets, &c. for thefe benches are furrounded with
windows; they are covered with fineTuky carpets ; and
upon that are placed cuihionsof fattin, flowered with gold
or fome other rich fluff.
SOFALA, the capital of the territory .of that name in A-
ffica, (ituated at the mouth of the river Sofala, in E.
long. 35°, S. lat. 20°.
SOFFITA, or Soft it, in achiteftnre, any plafond or ceil
ing formed of crofs beams of flying corniches,* the fquare
compartiments or pannels of which are enriched with
fculpture, painting or gilding; fuch are thofe in the pa¬
laces of Italy, and in the apartments of Luxemburg at
Paris.
SOFTENING, in painting, the mixing and diluting of co¬
lours with the brufli or pencil.
SOGEHANA, a country of Afia, fituated on the north fide
of the'river Oxus, which feparated it from the ancient
Baftria, now a part of Ufbec Tartary.
SOHAiVl, a market-town of Cambridgefhire, fituated on a
lake called Soham Meer, intheifle of Ely, fourteen miles
north-eaft of Cambridge. •
SOIL, in agriculture. See Agriculture, p. 50.
SOISSONS, a city of France, in the province of the ifle
of France, fituated on the fiver Ayfe, fifty-five miles
north-eaft: of Paris.
SOL, the Sun, in aftronomy, See Astronomy, p.
435-
Sol, in chemiftry, is gold. See Chemistry, p. 78.
Sol, in'heraldry, denotes Or, the golden colour in the
arms of fovefeign -princes.
SOLiEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 209.
SOLANUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria fnoho-
gynia clafs. The cor Ala is rotated; the antherae are very
clofe together, opening with a double pore at the points;
and the berry has two cells. There are 30 fpecies, two
of them natives of Britain, viz. the nigrum, or common
nightlhade; aod the dulcamara, or woody nightfliade.
Common nightlhade is ufed to allay inflammations.
.Some years ago, the internal ufe of the folanum was
much recommended by fome writers, in cancerous cafes,
fbul ulcers, and fcorbutic eruptions: however, later expe
rience has found this Ample.to be not only of little or no
efficacy in fuch cafes, but to be attended with adiual dag¬
ger to the patient.
SOLAR, fdmething belonging to the fun. See Astrono¬
my, p. 43-5.
SOLDANELLA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia dafs. The corolla is bell-ffiaped, and fplit into
many fegments. There is but one fpecies, a native of
Switzerland.
SOLDER, a metallic or mineral compofition ufed in fol-
dering or joining together other metals.
Solders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin, bifmuth,
and lead; ufually obferving, that in the compofition there
be fome of the metal that is to be foldered mixed
wiih fome higher and finer metals. Goldfmiths dually
make four kinds of folder, viz. folder of eight, where to
) SOL
feven parts of filver there is onebf brafsor copper; folder
of fix, where only a fixth part is copper; folder of four,
artd folder of three. It is the mixture of copper in the
folder that makes railed plate come always cheaper than
flat. The folder ufed by plumbers is made of two pounds
of lead to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by melt¬
ing it, and pouring the bignels of a cfown-ptece. upon a
table ; for if gMod, there will arife little bright ffiining
ftars therein. The folder for copper is made like that of
the plumbers, only with copper and tin ; for very nice
works, inftead of tin they iometimes ufe a quantity of
filver. Solder for tin is made of two thirds of tin and
one of lead: but where the work is any thing delicate, as
in organ pipes, where the juncture is fcarce difcernable, it
is made of one part of bifmuth and three parts of pewter.
SOLDERING, among mechanics, the joining and faftening
together two pieces of the fame metal, or of two differ¬
ent metals, by the fufion and application of fome metal¬
lic compofition on the extremities of the metals to be
joined. See the laft article.
To folder upon filver, brafs, oriron: take filver, five pen¬
ny-weight; brafs, four penny-weight; melt them together
for foft folder, which runs fooneft. Take filver, five penny¬
weight; copper, three penny-weight; melt them together for
hard folder. Beat the folder thin, and lay it on the place to be
fqldered, which muft be firft fitted and bound together with
wire, as occafion requires; then take borax in powder,
and temper it like pap, and lay it upon the folder, letting
it dry; then cover it with quick coals, and blow, and it
will run immediately; take it prefently out of the fire, and
it is done. It is to be obferved, that if any thing is to
be foldered in two places, which Cannot well be done at
onetime, you muft firft folder with the harder folder, and
then with the foft; for if it be firft done with the foft, it
will unfolder again before the other is foldered. Let it
be obferved, that if you would have the folder run about
the piece that is to be foldered, you muft rub luch places
over with chalk.
In the foldering either of gold, filver, copper, and all
the metals before-mentipned, there is generally uled bo¬
rax in powder, and fometimes rofin. As to iron, it is
fufficient that it be heated red hot, and the two extremities
thus-hammered together, by which means they will be¬
come incorporated into one another.
SOLDIER, a military man lifted to fervea prince orftate,
in confideration of a certain daily pay. /
SOLE, in the manege, a nail or fort of horn under a horfe’s
foot, which is much more tender than the other horn that
incompaffes the foot, and by reafon of its hardnefs is pro¬
perly called the horn or hoof.
SOLEA, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes.
SOLEAh among the Romans, a kind of landals or flip¬
pers, which covered only the foie of the feet, and were
bound on with thongs of leather, inftead of which .the
women and the effeminate ones of the other fex tied them
on with purple-coloured ribbons, or fuch as were vari-
oufly adorned with gold and filver.
SOLECISM, in grammar, a falfe manner of fpeaking con-
tiary to the ufe of language and the rules of grammar,
either in r'efpeft of declenfion, conjugation, or fyntax.
SOLEMNITIES of deeds, in Scots law. See Wri¬
tings.
SOLEN, in zoology, a genus of infeds belonging to the
order
SOL (
Order of vermes teftacea. The’fhell is oblong, bivaived,
and opening at both (Ides ; the eardo has .a Tubulated re-
fleded tooth, not inferred into the oppofite valve. There
are eleven fpecies, diftinguilhei by peculiarities in their
(hells.
SOLFAING, in mufick, the naming or pronouncing the
feveral notes of a fong by the fyilables a/, re, mi, fa,
fol, &c and in learning to fing it. See Musick.
SOLICITOR, a perfon employed to take care of, and ma¬
nage fuits depending in the courts of law or equity.
There is alfo a great officer of the law, next to the
attorney-general, who is fly led the king’s folicitor-general;
who holds his office by patent, during the king’s pleafure
has the care and concern of managing the king’s affairs,
and has fees for pleading, befides other fees arifing
by patents, &c. He hath his attendance on the privy-
council ; and the attorney-general and he were anciently
reckoned among the officers of the exchequer; they have
their audience, and come within the bar in ail other
courts.
SOLID, a body whofe parts are fo firmly connected toge¬
ther, as not to give way, or flip from each other upon
the fmalleft impreffion, in which fenfe, folid (lands oppo-
led to fluid.
SOLIDAGO, in botany, a genus of the iyngenefia pply-
gamia luperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked ; the pap¬
pus is fimple ; the calix. is imbricated with (hut fcales.
There are twelve fpecies, two of them natives of Britain.
viz. the virgaurea, or common golden rod; and the cam-
brica, or Welch'golden.rod.
SOLIDITY, that property of matter, of body, by which
it excludes all other bodies from that place which itfelf
poffeffes See Metaphysics.
SOLILOQUY, a reafoning or aifcourfe which a man holds
with himielf; or, more properly, according to Papias, it
is a difcourfe by way of anlwer to 4 quedion that a man
propofes to himfelf.
Soliloquies are become very common things on the
modern Itage; yet can nothing be more unnatural, than
an aftor’s making long fpeeches to himfelf, to convey his
intentions to the audience. Where fuch difcoveries are
neceffary to be made, the poet (houkl rather take care to
give the dramatic perfons fuch confidents as may neceffa-
rily {hare their inmoft thoughts, by which means they
will be more naturally conveyed to the audience: yet is
even this a ffiift an accurate poet would hot be found to
have occafionfor.
SOLITARY, lomething retired or in private, remote from
the company or commerce of others of the fame fpecies.
SOLITARIES, a denomination of nuns of St. P ' r of
Alcantara, inftituted in 1576, the defign of which is to
imitate the fevere penitent life of that Lint: thus they are
to keep a continual filence, neverto open theirmonthsto
any body but themfelves ; employ their time wholly in
fpiritual exercifes, and leave the temporal concerns to a
number of tnaids, who have a particular fuperior in a fe-
parate part of the monaftery. They always go bare footed,
without fandals, gird themfelves with a thick.cord, and
wear no linen,
SOLMS, the capital of the county of Solms, intheland-
graviate of Heffe-Caffel, in Germany, thirty-five miles
north of Frankfort.
SOLO, in mufick, a term ufed in pieces confiding of fe-
617 ) S O O
' veral parts, to mark thofe that are to perform- alone-..
SOLOMON’S islands, a duller of iflands in the Pacific
ocean, fiiuated between 130° and J400 W. lon^, apd.
• between. 70 and 120 S. laV.
Solomon’s seal, in botany. See Convallaria,
SOLOTHURN, one of the cantons of Switzerland, lying
between, thofa of Bafil and Bern, the former on the north,,
and the latter on the fouth.
The city of Solothurn, capital of the Lid canton, is
fituated in E. long. 70 if, and N. lat. 470 18V
SOLSTICE, in aftronomy, that time when the fun is in
one of the folftitial points ; that is, ^'hen he is at his great-
eft diftance from the equator. See Astronomy.
SOLVENT, the fame with dilfolvent. See Dissolvent.
SOLUTION, in chemiftry, denotes an intimate mixture
of folid bodies with fluids, fo as feemingly to form one
homogene liquor;‘the diffolving fluid is termed the dif-
'folvent or menftruum. See Chemistry, paflim.
SOMERSETSHIRE, a county of England, lituated on
\ the Briitol channel, and bounded by Wihff.ire on the
eaft, by Dorfetfliire on the fouth, and by Deyonfliire
on the weft : it is famous for the cloth manafadiure.
SOMERTON, a market-town of Somerfetlhire, twelve
miles fouth of Wales.
.SOMME, a river of France,, which running from eaft to
weft through Picardy, by Amiens and Abbeville, falls
into the Britifti channel near St. Valiery.
SOMNAMBULI, in medicine, perfons who walk in theic
deep, otherwife called noftambuli.
SON, an appellation £iven to a male child, confidered in
the relation he bears to his parents.
SONATA, in mufick, a piece, or compofition, intended
to be performed by inftruments only; in whiah fenfe, it
* (lands oppofed to cantata, or a piec6 defigned for the voice.
SONCHUS, the sqw-thistue, in botany, a genus of
the fyngenefia polygamia asqualis clafs. The receptacle
is naked ; the calix is imbricated, and ventricofe ; and
the pappus is plumofe. There are ten fpecies, three of
them,natives o£ Britain, u/z. the oleraqeus, or common
fow-thiftie; the arvenlis, or tree low-thiftle; and the
paluftris, cr rnarfti fow-th ftle. ,
Sonchus is accounted cooling and attenuant, and ac¬
cordingly preicribed in the (Iranguries, as alfo in inflam- ,
mations of ail kinds, to be.applied externally in the form
of a cataplafm.
SONG, sn poetry, a little compofition, confiding of eafy
and -na-ural verfes, fet to a tune in order to,be: fungi
Song, in mufick,, is applied in general to a (ingle piece of
mufick, whethef com rived .for the voice or an inftriunentv
SGNNA, a book.of Mahometan traditions, wherein all the
orthodox muffeimen .are required to believe.
SONNET, in poetry, a compofition contained in fourteen
verfes, viz. two (lanzas, or meafures, of four verfes each •
and two. of three ; the eight firft verfes being all in three :
rhimes.
SQNNlTitS, among the Mahometans, an appellation gi¬
ve.) to the orthodox,muffelmen, or true believers ; in op-
polition to the feveral heretical, fedis, particularly the
iebbtes, or followers of Ali.
SOOT, a vc! 1; matter, artfing from wood, and other
fuel along w;>h the (moke, or rather, it is the fmoke
iti-.K fixed , gathered on the (ides of the chimney.
. p. 158. and Agriculture, p. 49. ,
.SQPHU
SOU (6
SOPHI, a-title given to the emperor of Perfia; importing
as mUch as wife, fage, or philofopher. There is no prince
in the world whofe authority is more abfolute than that
of the fophi of Perfia.
SOPHISM, in logic, &c. an argument which carries much
of the appearance of truth, and yet leads into error.
SOPHIST, a perfon who ufes fophifms, with a view to
deceive thofe he would perfuade or convince.
SOPHISTICATION, the adulterating any thing with
what is not good or genuine; a pra&ice too common in
the making up medicines for fale; as alfo among vintners,
diltillers, and others, who are accufed of fophifticating
their wines, fpirits, oils, by mixing with them'cheap*
er and coarfer materials: and, in many cafes, the cheat
is carried on Id artfully as to deceive the bed judges.
SOPHOR.A, in botany, a genus of the dec-andria monogy-
nia dais. The calix has five teeth, and is gibbous a-
bove ; the corolla is papilionaceous, with the wings of
the fame lengih as the vexillum ; and the capfule is a
legumen. There are eight fpecies, none of them natives
of Britain.
SOPORIFIC medicines, are thofe capable of procuring
deep, as opiates, See Opiates, dv.
SOR.BONNE, the houfe or college of the faculty of theo¬
logy, in the univerfity of Paris , fometimes alfo ufed for
the faeuh} itfelf, becaufe it ufually aflembles in the houfe
of the forbonne.
SORBUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confids of five leaves, and the corolla
of five petals; and the berry contains three feeds. There
are thr^e fpecies, two of them natives of Britain, viz.
the dpmedica, or the true fervice or forb ; and the au-
ctiparia, quickcn-tree, or mountain-afh.
SORCERY, the crime of witchcraft or divination by the
affidance of an evil fpirit. See Witchcraft.
SORET,' a province of the Hither India, lying northwards
of Guzerat: its chief town is Jaganat.
SOREX, in zoology. See Mus.
SORITES, in logic, a fpecies of reafoning, in which a
great number of propoGtions are fo linked together, that
the predidate of the one becomes continually the fubjedt
of the next following, till at lad a conclufion is formed
by bringing together the fubjedt of the fird propofition
and the predicate of the lad. See Logic.
"SORNERS, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 30.
SORR.EL, in botany. See Rumex.
Wood SoKRUt, in botany. See Oxalis.
Sorrel colour, in the menage, is a reddifh colour, ge¬
nerally thought to be a fign of a good horfe.
SORRENTO, a city and port-town of tbe kingdom of Na¬
ples, eighteen miles fouth o£ that city.
SORTILEGE, a fpecies of divination, performed by means
of fortes or lots.
The fortes prenedinas, famous in antiquity, confided
in putting a number of letters, or even whole words, in¬
to an urn; and then, after Ihaking them together, they
were thrown on the ground, and whatever fentence's could
be made out from them condituted the anfwer of the oracle.
Another kind of fortes confided in taking fome celebra¬
ted poet, as Homer or Virgil; and, opening the book,
whatever prefented itfelf fird to the eye made the anfwer;
and hence it got the name of fortes bomeriae, and fortes
yirgilianae, &c.
IS ) sou
The fuperftitious among the ancient Chridians prafti-
fed a fimilar kind of divination, by opening the Old and
New Teftament; whence it got the name of fortes fanc-
torum.
SOTERIA, in antiquity, facrifices offered'to the gods for
delivering a perfon from danger ; as alfo poetical pieces
compofed for the fame purpofe.
SOTOVENTO islands are fituated on the coad ofTer-
ra-Firma ; the chief of which are Trinidad, Margaretta,
Tortuga, <&c. ’ They are alfo called t$he Lefler Antilles.
SOUBISE, a town of Guienne, in France, fituated on the
river Charente, feventeen miles fouth of Rochelle.
SOUGH, among miners, denotes a padage dug underground,
to convey ofif water from mines.
SOVEREIGN, in matters of government, is applied to
the fupreme magidrate, or magidrates, of an independent
government or date; by reafon their authority is only
bounded by the laws of God, of nature, and the funda¬
mental laws of the-date : fuch are kings, princes, &e.
SOUL, a fpiritual fubdance, which animates the bodies of
living creatures i it is the principle of life and adtivity
within them.
Various have been the opinions of philofophers con¬
cerning the fubdance of the human foul. The Cartefians
make thinking the e/Tence of the foul. . Others again
hold, that man is endowed with three kinds of fouls,
viz. the rational, which is purely fpiritual, and infufed
by the immediate infpiration of God; the irrational, or
fenfitive, which is common to man and brutes ; and lafily,
the vegetative foul, or. principle of growth and nutrition.
That the foul is an immaterial fubdance appears from
hence, that its primary operations of willing and think¬
ing have not only no connedtion with the known proper¬
ties of body,' but feem plainly inconfident with fome of
its mod effential qualities. For the mind difeovers no
relation between thinking and the motion and arrange¬
ment of parts.
As to the immortality of the human foul, the argu¬
ments to prove it may be reduced to the following heads :
I. The nature of the foul itfelf, its defires, fenfe of mo-
tal good and evil, gradual increafe in knowledge and per-
fedlion, &c. 2. The moral attributes of God.
Under the former of thefe heads it is urged, that the
foul, being an immaterial intelligent fubdance, does not
depend on the body for its exidence ; and therefore may,
nay, and mud, exid after the difiblution of the body,
unlefs annihilated by the fame power which gave it a be¬
ing at fird. This argument, efpecially if the infinite ca¬
pacity of the foul, its drong defire-after immortality, its
rational aftivity and advancement towards perfetflion, be
likewife bonfidered, will appear perfectly conclufive to men
of a philofophical turn ; becaufe nature, or rather the
God of nature, does nothing in vain.'
But arguments drawn from the latter head, viz. the
moral attributes of the Deity, are not only better adap¬
ted to convince men unacquainted with abftraft reafoning,
but equally certain and conclufive with the former : for
as the judice of God can never fuffer the wicked to e-
fcapeunpunifhed, nor the good to remain always unreward¬
ed ; therefore, arguments drawn from the manifed and
condant pfofperity of the wicked, and the frequent un-
happinefs of good men in this life, mud convince every
thinking perfon, that there is a future date wherein all
SPA ( 6
will be fet right, and God’s attributes of wifdora, juflice,
and goodnefs. Fully vindicated. We fliall only add, that
had the virtuous and confcientious part of mankind no
hopes of a future ftate, they would be of all men moft
miferable : but as this is abfolutely inconli tent with the
moral charadter of the Deity, the certainty of fuch a ftate
is clear to a demonftration.
SOUND, a Ample perception, or idea, communicated to
the foul, by means of the ear, which is the primary or¬
gan of hearing. See Anatomy, p. 295. and Pneu¬
matics, p./j88.
Sound, in geography, denotes in general any ftreight, or
inlet, of the fca, between two head-lands. However,
the name found isgiven, by way of eminence, to the ftreight
between Sweden and Denmark, joining the German ocean
to the Baltic, being about four miles over.
SOUNDING, in navigation, is the trying the depth of the
water, and the quality of the bottom, either by an inch
or three-quarter rope, with a det^) fen-lead at the end of
it. See Navigation.
SOUP, a kind of pottage made of bread and broth, or the
juice of flelh, or fame other matters, nlually ferved at
the beginning of a meal.
SOURIS, in the manege, is a cartilage in thenoftrils of a
horfe, by means of which he fnorts.
SOUTH, one of the four cardinal points from which the
winds Mow. See Navigation, and Pneumatics.
SOUTHAM, a market town ot Warwickfture, fuuatedfe-
ven miles fouth call of Warwick.
SOUTHAMPTON, a borough and port town of Hamp-
fhire, fituated on a bay of the Englifh channel, twelve
miles fouth weft of Winchefter. It fends two members to
parliament.
SOUTHERN-WOOD, in botany. See Artemisia.
SOUTHM0ULTON, a market-town of Devonfhtre, fitu¬
ated twenty-four miles north-weft of Exeter.
SOUTHPETHERTON, a market town of Somerfetfhire,
fituated twenty-two miles fouth of Wells.
SOUTHWARK, a borough of Surry, and a fuburb to
London with which it has a communication by a magni¬
ficent bridge. It is fituated on the fouth fide of the
Thames, and fends two members to parliament.
SOUTHWELL, a market-town of Nottinghamfhire, fitu¬
ated eight miles north-eaft.of Nottingham.
.SOUTHWOULD, a port-town of Suffolk, fituated on a
bay of the German Sea, forty-two miles eaft of Bury.
SOUVIGNY, a town of France, in the province of Lyo-
nois, and territory of Bourbonois, fituated fifty miles
fouth-eaft of Bourges.
SOW, in zoology. See Sus.
Sow, in the iron-works, the name of the block or lump of
metal they work at .once in the iron furnace.
SOWING, in agriculture. See Agriculture, p J9.
SPAW, a town of Germany,-in the circle of Weftphalia,
and bifhopric of Liege, fituated feventeen miles fouth
eaft of Liege, famous for its mineral waters ever fince
the. time of the Romans, of which there are fiill great
quantities fent abroad to all parts of Europe.
Spaw waters are the lighted and moft fubtile of all
the mineral waters. One very remarkable virtue of this
water is, that it greatly relieves in all diforders of the
kidneys, ureters, and bladder, whether occafioned by flone,
• gravel, or ulcerations. It pofieffes, befide, all the vir-
Vol. III. N°. 94. 2
9 ) SPA
tues of the other mineral waters, and is of the grcateft
fervice in edulcorating fharp, and dividing vifcuous hu¬
mours, 'and removing all difeafes arifing from thefe
caufes, by difpofing them to pafs off by proper emunc-
tories.
SPACE is defined by Mr Locke to be a fimple idea
which we attain'-both by our fight and touch ; the modes
whereof are diftance, capacity, extenfion, duration,
See Metaphysics.
Space, in geometry, denotes the area of any figure, or
that which fills the intervalor diftance between the lines
that terminate it.
SPAGIRIC art, a name given by authors to that fpecies
of chemiftry which works on the metals, and is employed
in the learch of the philofopher’s ftone.
SPAM’/; horfemen in the Ottoman army, chiefly raifed
in Afia The great Ifrength of the grand feigniors army
confifts in the janizaries who are the foot, and the fpahi’s,
who are the horfe.
SPAIN, including Portugal, is a large peninfula of Eu¬
rope, lying between io° weft and 30 eaif longitude, and
between 300 and 44° north latitude, being about feven
hundred miles in length from eaft to weft, and about five
hundred in breadth from north to fouth : it is bounded
by the bay of Bifcay, on the north ; by the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparate it frum France, on the north-
eaft ; by the Mediterranean fea, on the fouth eaft j and
by the Atlantic-ocean, on the weft.
JVew Spain. See Mexico.
SPALATRO, a city and port-town of Dalmatia, fituated
on the gulph of Venice : E. long. 170 45', N. lat. 43°
16'.
SPALDING, a market town of Lincolnfhire, fituated
under the meridian of London, thirty miles fouth-eaft of
Lincoln.
SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the thumb’s
end and the tip of the little finger, when both are ftretch-
ed out. The fpan is eftimated at three hand’s breadths,
or nine inches.
SPANDAW, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and Marquifate of Brandenburg, fituated on the
river Havel, eight miles north-weft of Berlin.
SPANIEL, in zoology. SccCanis.
SPAR, in natural hiftory, a clafs of feflils, not inflammable
nor foluble in water; when pure, it is pellucid and colour-
lefs, and emulating the appearance of cryftal, but want¬
ing its diftinguifhing characters; compofed of plane and
equable plates, not flexile nor elafiic, not giving fire
with fteel, readily calcining inafmall fire, and ferment¬
ing violently with acids, and wholly foluble in them.
The fpars, in general, are found in the fifth res, of
ftones, and about mines. 1 Derbyfhire affords enough of
them to fupply the whole world ; and the German mines
aflf rd yet larger quantities,
SPARADRAPUM. in pharmacy; <&c. a fort of cere cloth,
called alio tela Guaiten, the form whereof is directed as
follows. T^ke of the diapalma plaifter, and diachylon with
the gums, ea h one pound ; cerufs, half a pound ; root
of oris finely powdered, an ounce and a half. Mix thofe
together; and whilft they are in fufion, dip them in foft
worn-out linen-rags, fo that they may be covered With
the plaifter on each- fide ; then take them out, fpread
them, and let them dry; and fmoothe the furfaces with
S P E ( 620 ) S P E
a knife or fpatula. The principal ufe of thefe isforiffues.
SPARGANIUM, in botany, a genus of the monceaa tri-
andria clafs. The amentum of both male and female is
roundifh; and the calixof.both confffts of three leaves; nei¬
ther of them have any corolla ; the ftigma of the female
is bifid; and the drupa is dry, and contains two feeds.
There are two fpecies, both natives of Britain, v/z. the
ereAum, or great-bur-reed; and the natans, or leaft
bur reed.
SPARROW, in ornithology. See Fr ingill A.
Spa'rrow-hawk, in ornithology. See Falco.
SPARTIUM, in botany, a genus of the diadeiphia decan-
dna clafs. The ftigma is longitudinal, and downy above;
the laments adhere to the carina; and thecalix is longeft
on the bade part. There are 10 fpecies, only one of
them, viz. the fcoparcium, or common broom, a native
of Britain.
SPARFIVENTO cape, the moft fouthern point or pro¬
montory of Italy : fituated in E. long. i6° 30', N. lat.
38° 20/.
SPARUS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order
of thoracici. The fore teeth and dog-teeth are very
ftrong; the grinders are obtufe, and thick let ; the lips
are folded over; there are five rays in die gill-membrane,
and the opercula are fcaly; the body is comprefled; the
lateral line is crooked behind ; and the pedoral fins are
roundiih. There are 26 pecies. *
SPASM, in medicine, a convulfion.
A fpafm, according to Hoffman, may be univerfal or
particular, falutary or morbous. An univerfal fpafm
happens if the whole vaftular genus, chiefly the heart
and arteries, as alfo the fibres of the fyftem afeaffed-
ed, and there is a preternatural conftridion therein,
whereby the fyftol-e and diaftole arelncreafed, and the
progrefs of the blood accelerated ; this conftitut.es a fe¬
ver, whfereof a frequent pulfe is the moft certain fign.
See Medicine.
SPASMODIC, fomething belonging to a fpafm or convul¬
fion. See the laft article.
SPATHA, in botany. See Botany, p. 636.
SPAVIN, in the manege, a difeafe in horfes, being a fwell-
ing or ftiffnefs, ufually in the ham, occafioning a lamenefs.
See Farriery, p. 572.
SPAYING, or Spading, the operation of caftrating the
females of feveral kinds of animals, as fows, bitches,
&c. to prevent anyr further conception, and promote
their fattening.
It is performed by cutting them in the mid flank, on the
left-fide, with a fharp knife or lancet, taking out the u-
terus and cutting it off, and fo ftitching up the wound,
anointing the part with tar, and keeping the animal warm
for two or three days. The ufual way is fo make the
incifion aflope two inches and a half long, that the Yore
finger may be put in towards the back to feel for the ova¬
ries, which are two kernels as big as acorns -on both fides
of the uterus, one of which is drawn to the wound, the
firing thereof cut, and thus both taken out.
SPE AKER of the houfeof commons, a member of the houfe,
eleded oy a majority of the votes thereof, to ad as chair¬
man or prefide.nt in puiting queftions, reading briefs or
bills, keeping order, reprimanding the refradory, ad¬
journing the lioufe, See Parliament.
SPEAKING, the art or ad of exprefling one’s thoughts in
articulate founds or words. *
SPECIAL, lomething that is particular, or has a particu¬
lar defignation ; from the Latin fpecies, in oppolition to
general from genus.
SPECIES, in logic, a relative term, exprefling an idea
which is comprifed under fome general one called a genus.
See Logic and Metaphys 1 cs.
Species, in optics, the image'painted on the retina, by
the rays of light refleded from the feveral points of the
furface of an objed.
Species, in commerce, are the feveral pieces of gold, fil-
ver, copper, fee which having paffed their full prepara¬
tion and coinage are current in public. See Money.
SPECIFIC, in philofophy, that which is peculiar to any
thing, and diftmguilhes it from all others.
Specific in medicine, a remedy whofe virtue and effed
is peculiarly adapted to fome certain difeafe, is adequate
thereto, and exerts its whole force immediately thereon.
SPECIFICATION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. viii. 7.
SPECTACLES, in dioptrics, a machine confiding of two
lenfes, fet in filver, horn, fee. to aflift the defeds of the
organ of fight.
Old people, and others who have flat eyes, ufe convex
fpedacles, which caufe the rays of light to converge fo
as to fall upon the retina : whereas myopes, or ftiort-
fighted perfons, ufe concave lenfes for fpedacles, which
caufing the rays to diverge, prevent their meeting ere they
reach the retina. See Optics.
SPECULARIS lapis, in natural hiftory, a genus of talcs
compofed of large plates vifibly feparate, and of extreme
thinnefs ; and each fiflile again feparated into a number
of plates ftill finer.
Of this genus there are three fpecies. 1. The white
(hining fpeeularis, with large and broad leaves, common¬
ly called ifing-glafs and Mufcovy-glafs : its lamellae, or
leaves, are extremely thin, elaftid, and tranfparent; it
makes not the leaft effervefcence with aqua-fortis, and is
not eafily calcined in the fire. It is imported in great
quantities : the miniature painters cover their pidures
with it ; the lantern-makers fometimes ufe it ihftead of
horn : and minute objeds are ufually preferved between
two plates of it, for examination by the microfcope. 2.
The bright brown fpecularis, with broad leaves ; a very
valuable fpecies, though inferior to the former. 3 The
purple bright fpecularis, with broad leaves ; which is the
moft elegant of all the talcs, and not lefs beautifully tranf¬
parent than the firft kind.
SPECULATIVE, lomething relating to the theory of fome
art or fcience, in contradiftindion to pradical
SPECULUM, a looking glass, or mirrour, capable
of refleding the rays of the fun, fee. See Optics.
Speculum, in furgery, an inftrument for dilating a wound,
or the like, in order to examine it attentively. See
Surgery.
SPEECH, in general, the art or ad of exprefling a perfon’s
thoughts, by means of articulate founds, which v. e call
words. See Language and Grammar.
SPEEDWELL, in botany. See Veronica.
SPELL, in general, denotes the -^me with charm or amu¬
let. See Charm and Amulet.
SPELLING, in grammar, that part of orthography which
teacjres
S P I (6
teaches the true manner of refolving words into their
fyllables. See Grammar.
SPERGULA, in botany, a genus of the decandria penta-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves, and the
corolla of five entire petals ; the capfule is oval, with one
cell and five valves. There are five fpecies, three of
them natives of Britain, viz. the arvenfis, or corn-fpurrey;
the pentandria, or fmall fpurrey j and the nodofa, or
knotted fpurrey.
SPERM. See Seed.
.SPERMA-ceti, a white flaky fubrtance, prepared from
♦ the oil of a fpecies of whale, called phyfeter macrocepha-
1ns. See Physeter.
SPERMACOCE, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confilts of one funnel-
fliaped petal; and it has two bidentated feeds. There
are fix fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
V SPERMATIC, in anatomy, fomething belonging to the
fperm or feed. See Anatomy, p. 270.
SPEY, a river of Scotland, which, running north-eaft,
through Badenoch and Murray, falls into the German
fea, call of the frith of Murray.
SPHACELUS,* in furgery and medicine, an abfolute and-
perfect corruption or death of the parts. See Medicine
and Surgery.
SPHhERANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia fegregata clafs. The receptacle is naked ; it
has no pappus ; the ealix is imbricated. There are two
fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
SPHAGNUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
mufcorum clafs. The antherse areoperculated, and there
is no calyptra. The fpecies are three, all natives of Bri
tain, viz. the paluftre, or grey bog-mofs ; thealpinum,
or mountain bog mofs ; and the arboreum, 01 creeping
bog-mofs.
Oj SPHENOlDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 158.
SPHERE, is a folid contained under one uniform round
furface', fiich as would be formed by the revolution of a
circle about a diameter thereof, as an axis. See Geo¬
metry, and Astronomy.
SPHEROID, in geometry, a folid, approaching to the fi¬
gure of a fphere.
The fpheroid is generated by the entire revolution of
a femi-ellipfis about its axis.
SPHINCTER, in anatomy, a term applied to a kind of
circular mufclesj or mufcles in form of rings, which ferve
to clofe and draw up feveral orifices of the body, and
prevent the excretion of the contents
SPHINX, in fculpture, &c. a figure or reprefentation of
a moniter of that name, famed among the ancients, now
molMy ufed as an ornament in gardens, terraces, &c. It
is reprefenred with the head and breads of a'woman, the
wings of a bird, the claws of a lion, and the reit of the
body like a dog.
SPICA vi.rginis, a liar of the firft magnitude, in the
conftellation virgo. See Astronomy, p. 487,
SPICE, any kind of aromatic drug that has hot and pun¬
gent qualities : fuch are pepper, nutmeg, ginger, cinna¬
mon, cloves, &c
Spice-1 seands firuated in the Eaft Indies, See Banda,
Moeucca-islands, and Ceylon.
SPIDER, in zoology. See Aranea,
Spi-DEk-wort, in botany. See Phalangium.
!I ) S P I
SPIEL, in the glafs-trade, an iron inftrument, hooked at
the end, and pointed, with which the workmen take the
metal up out of the melting-pots, for proofs or eflays, to
fee whether it be St for work.
SPIGELBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weltphaiia, capital of the county of Spigelburg: Ei long.
90 25', N. lat. j2° 6r.
SPIGELIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono¬
gynia clafs. The corolla is funnel-fhaped ; and the capfule
has two cells, and containing many feeds.
SPIKE, or o/Vs/Spike, a name given to an eflential oil
dirtilled from lavender, and much ufed by the varaifh-
makers and the painters in enamel.
SPIKENARD, in botany. See Nardus.
Ploughman's Spikenard, in botany. See Conyza.
SPILIMBERGO, a town of Italy, in the territory of Ve¬
nice, and province of Friuli : fituated forty-five miles
north of Venice.
SPILSBY, a market-town of Lincolnfliire: fituated twenty-
feven miles eaft of Lincoln.
SPINA ventosa, in furgery, that fpecies of corruption of
the bones which takes its rife in the internal parts, and by
degrees enlarges the bone, and raifes it into a tumour.
See Surgery.
SPINACHIA, in botany, a genus of the dicecia pentandria
clafs. The calix of the male confifts of five fegments,
and that of the female of four; neither of them have any
corolla ; the ftyli are four ; and there is one hard feed
within the calix. The fpecies are two, none of them
natives of Britain.
SPINAL marrow. See Anatomy, p. 288.
SPINALIS in anatomy, -the names of feveral mufcles, tec..
See Anatomy, p 195 <bc.
SPINE spina dorsi, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 166.
SPINET, or Spinnet, a mufical inftrument, ranked in the
fecond or third place among harmonious inftruments.
SPINNING, the a<ft or art of reducing fiik, flax, hemp,
wool, hair, or other matters, into thread. Spinning is
either performed on the wheel with a diftaff and fpindle,
or with other machines proper for the feveral kinds of
working. Hemp, fl;x, nettle-thread, and the like ve¬
getable matters, are to be wetted in fpinning ; filks,
wools, 6v. are to be fpun dry, and do not need water ;
but there is a way of (pinning (ilk as- it comes oflr the
cafes or balls, where hot and even boiling water is to be
ufed
SPINOZISM, the do&rine of Spinoza, or atheifm and
pansheifim propofed after the manner of Spinoza, who was
born a Jew at Amfterdam.
The great principles of Spinozifm, is* that there is no¬
thing properly and abfolutely exifting befides matter and
the modifications of matter ; among which are even com¬
prehended thought,, abftraift and general ideas, compari-
fons, relations,‘combinations of relations,
The chief articles in Spinoza’s fyftem are reducible to.
thefe. That there is but one fubftance in nature ; and
that this only fubilance is endued with an infinite number-
of attributes, among which are extenfion and cogitation:
that all the bodies in the univerfe are modifications of
this fubftance cohfidered as it is extended and that all
the fouls of men are’modifications of the fame fubftance
confidered as cogitative : that God is a neceflary and in¬
finitely perfeit Being, and is the caufe of all things that
S P L ( d:
but not a different being from them : that there is
but one being and one nature, and that this nature pro¬
duces within itfelf, by an immanent a£t, all thofe which
we call creatures ; and that this being is at the fame time
both agent and patient, efficient caufe .and fuhjedt, but
that he produces nothing.but modifications of himfelf.
:SPIRjE'A, in botany, a genus of the icofandria pentagynia
dais. The calix confiits of five fegments, and the corolla
of five petals; and the capfiile contains many feeds. There
are eleven fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
SPIRAL, in geometry, a curve line of the circular kind,
which,, in its progrefs, recedes from its center.
Spiral, in architecture and fculptu.e, implies a curve that
afcends, winding about a cone or fpire, fo as all the
points, thereof continually approach the axis. It is dif-
tinguifhed from the helix, by its winding around a cone,
whereas the helix winds in the, fame manner around a
cylinder. *
SPIRE, in architecture, was ufed by the ancients for the
bafe of a column, and fometimes for the aftragal or tore.
But among the moderns, it denotes a fteeple that conti¬
nually diminifhes as it afcends, whether conically or pyra¬
midally.
vJpire, in geography, an imperial city of Germany, capi¬
tal of a biffiopric of the fame name, and fituated in the
palatinate of the Rhine, fifteen miles fouth-wdt of Hei-
delburg : E.long. 8° i"]', N. lat. 490 I6'.
SPIRIT, in metaphyfics, an incorporeal being or intelli¬
gence ; in which fenfe, God is faid to be a fpirit, as are
angels and the human foul.
Spirits, or Animal stirits, in phyfiology. See Ana¬
tomy, p. 253, anduETHER.
Spirit, in chemiflry, a name applied to feveral very diffe¬
rent fubftances. However, in general, it denotes any dif-
tilled volatil liquor that is not infipid, as phlegm, or
pure water, not inflammable as oil: but under this ge¬
neral idea are comprehended liquors of quite oppofite
natures, feme being acid, and others alkaline; which laftare
fuch enemies to the former, that as foon as they- are put
together, they raife a violent effervefcence, and grow hot:
and to thefe may be added a third fort, called vinous or
inflammable fpirits ; which, though very fubtile or pene
trating, are not manifeflly either acid or alkaline. See
Chemistry, p. 69, 95, 161,
SPIRITUAL, in general, lomething belonging to, or par¬
taking of, the nature of fpirit. See Spirit.
SPIRITUALITIES of a hijhep, are the profits he receives
as a bilhop, and not as a baron of parliament: fuch are
the duties of his vifitation, prefentation money, what a-
rifes from the ordination and inftitution of prielts, the in¬
come of his jurifdiCtion, <bc.
SPITHEAD, a road between Portfmouth and the ifle of
Wight, where the Royal navy of Great Britain fre¬
quently rendezvous
SPITTLE, in phyfiology. See Saliva.
SPITZBERGEN. See Groenland.
SPLACHNUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
mufei clafs. The calix of the male flower is a fmooth
conic calyptra; the antherae are cylindric; and the
receptacle coloured, membranaceous, and very large.
There are four fpecies, only one of them, viz. the ampul-
Jaceum, or common folacbnum, a native of Britain.
2 ) S P O
SPLEEN, in anatomy See Anatomy, p! 266.
-Spleen-wort. See Aspleni.um
SPLENEIIC, a perfon affected wuh obllruftion of the
Ipleen.
SPLENIUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.216.
SPLENT, orSpLiHT, among farriers, a callous, inlenfible
. excrefcence, breeding on the lhank bone of horfes. See
Farriery, p. 573.
SPLICING, in the iea-language, is the untwifting the ends
of two cables or ropes, and working the feveral ftrands
into one another by a fidd, fo that they become as (trong
as if they were but one rope.
SPODIUM, in pharmacy, one of the fouleft recrements of
copper.
SPOILS, whatever is taken from the enemy in time of war.
Among the ancient Greeks, the fpoiis were divided in
common among the whole army; only the general’s ihars
was large!!: but among the Romans, the fpoiis belonged
to the republic.
SPOLETI O, the capital of Umbria, in Italy : it is fitua¬
ted fifty miles north-ea!t of Rome
SPONDEE, in ancient poetry, a foot confiding of two long
fyllables; as, omnes.
SPONDIAS, in botany, a genus of the decandria penta-
gynia clafs. The calix has five teeth, and the corolla
five petals; and the drupa has five cells. T here are
two ipecies, both natives of America.
SPONGIA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of
vermes zoophyta. The whole texture is a congeries
of bibulous cells. There are fix fpecies, all found in the
bottom of the fea, and fubmarine rocks. Spunges are
much ufed by furgeons, and others, for fucking up fuper-
fluous moifturc ; whtch they ealily part with by pref-
fure
SPONSORS, among Chridians, are thofe perfons, who,
in the office of baptihn, anfwer or are fureties for the
' perfons baptized.
SPONTANEOUS, a term applied to fuch motions of the
body, and operations of ihe mind, as we perform of our-
felves, wi hout any condraint.
SPOON BILL, in ornithology. See Platea.
SPOONING, in the fea-language, is faid of a !hip, which,
being under fail in a dorm at fea, is unable to bear it, and
coniequently forced to put right before the wind.
SPORADES, among ancient adronomers, a name given
to inch dars as were not included in any condellation.
SPORADIC diseases, among phyficians, are fuch as
feize particular perfons at anytime orfeafon, and in any
place; in which fenfe they are didinguifhed from epide¬
mical and endemic difeafes.
SPOTS, inadronomy, cei tain places of the fun’s or moon’s
dife, obferved to be either more bright, or darker, than
the red; and accordingly, called fseculae and maculae.
See Astronomy.
SPOUT, or Water-spout, an extraordinary and dan¬
gerous meteor, obferved at fea, and fometimes at land,
called by the Latins typho and fipho. Its firl! appear¬
ance is in form of a deep cloud, the upper part of which
is white, and the lower black: then from the lower
part of this cloud hangs, or rather falls down, what is
properly called t he (pout, in form of a conical tube, big-
ged at top; and under this tube, there is always a great
boiling,
SPY ( 62, ) ' . S T A
bo'liRg and flying u,> of the water of the fea, as in a
jet d'eau For fome yards above the furface of the fea,
the water (lands as a column or pillar, from the extre¬
mity whereof it fpreads and goes off, as in a kind of
fmoke. Frequently, the cone defeends fo low, as to
touch the middle of this column, and continue for fome
time contiguous to it; though fometimes it only points
to it, at fome diftance, either in a perpendicular or o-
blitjue line. Frequently it is fearce diftinguilhahle whe-.
ther the cone or the column appear the firii, both ap-
pt,!mg all of a fudden againd each other. But fome-
fmer the water boils up from the fea to a great height,
without any appearance of a fpout pointing to it, either
perpendicularly or obliquely. Indeed, generally, the
*b(> ling or flying up of the water has the priority, this
always preceding its being formed into a column. Ge¬
nerally, the cone does not appear hollow, till towards
the end, when the fea-water is violently thrown up along
its middle, as fmoke up a chimney. Soon afier this, the
fpout or canal breaks and difappears ; the boiling up of
the water, and even the pillar, continuing to the lad,
■ and for foroe time afterwards ; fometimes till the fpout
form itfelf again, and appear anew ; which it fometimes
does feveral times in a quarter of an hour.
M. de la Pyme, from a near obfervation of two or
three fpouts in Yorkfhire, deferibed in the Philofophical
Tranfa&iohs, gathers, that the water-fpout is nothing bgt
a gyration of clouds by contrary winds, meeting in a
point or centre ; and there, where the greateft condenfa-
tion and gravitation is, falling down into a pipe or great
tube, fomewhat like Archimedes’s fpiral ferew; and, in
its working and whirling motion, abforbiog and raifing
the water, in the fame manner as.the fpiral ferew does ;
and thus deftroying (hips, <bc.
SPRAT, in ichthyology. SccClupea.
SPRING, in natural hiflory, a fountain or fource of water,
rifing cut of the ground. See Hydrostatics.
Spring, in mechanics, denotes a thin piece of tempered
fleel, or other elaftic fubftance; which, being wound up,
ferves to put feveral machines in motion by its elafticity,
or endeavour to unbend itfelf: fuch is the fpriog of a
clock, watch, and the like.
Spring tide. See Astronomy, p. 473, <bc.
SPUNGE. See Spongia.
SPUNGING, in gunnery, the cleaning a gun’s infide with
a fpunge, in order to prevent any fparks of fire from re¬
maining in her, which would endanger the life of him
who (hould load her again.
SPUN yarn, among failors, is a kind of line made from
rop yarn, and ufed for feizing or faftening things toge¬
ther.
SPUR, a piece or metal, confiding of two branches encom-
paffing a horfeman’s heel, and a rowel-in form of a (lar,
advancing out behind to prick the horfe.
SPURGE, in botany. See Euphorbia.
Spurge laurel. See Daphne.
SPURKE i S, in a (hip, fpaces betv/een the upper andlowex
futtocks, or betwixt the rungs fore and aft.
SPURRY, in botany. See Spergula.
SPUTUM, among phyficians, denotes the -fame with the
faliva or fpittle. See Saliva.
SPY, a perfon hired to watch the a&ions, motions, &c.
Vot: III N° 95- 2
of another; particularly of what paffes in a camp. When
a fpy is difcovqred, he is hanged immediately.
SQUADRON, in military affairs, denotes a body of horfe
whofe number of men is not fixed; but is ufually from
one to two hundred.
Squadron offhips, a divifion or part of afleet, command¬
ed by a vice admiral, or commodore.
SQUALUS, the shark kind, in ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the order of amphibia nuntes. There are
five fpiracula, one on. each fide of the neck; the body is ob¬
long, and fomewhat cylindrical ; and the mouth isfituate
in the anterior part of the head. There are 15 fpeciek,
all inhabitants of the pcean.
SQUAMARIA, in botany. See Lathraea.
SQUAMOUS, in anatomy, an appellation given to thefpa-
rious or falfe futures of the (hull, becaufe compofed of
fquamasorfealeslikethofeoffiflies. SeeANATOMY.p 152.
SQUARE, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure-, both equi¬
lateral and equiangular. SeeGEOMETRY.
Square root. See Arithmetick, p 420.
Hollow Square, in the military art, is a body of foot
drawn up with an empty fpace in the middle for the co¬
lours, drums, and baggage ; faced and covered by the
pikes every way, to keep off horfe.
Square, anindrument confiding of two rules, or branches,
(aliened perpendicularly at one end of thtir extremes,, fo
as to form a right angle : it is of great ufe in the deferip-
tion and menfuration of right angles, and laying down
perpendiculars.
SQUATINA. See Squalus.
SQUILL, in botany. See Scilla.
SQUINTING. See Strabismus.
SQUIRREL, in zoology. See Sciurus.
STABLE, a place or houfe for horfes, <fac. furniflied with
(tails and proper apartments to contain their food,
STACHYS, in botany, a genus of thedidynamiagymnofper.
miaclafs. The upper labium is vaulted, and the inferior
one reflefted in the edges ; the intermediate labium being
larged, and emarginated ; and the (lamina are reflctSled to¬
wards thefides. There are i 2fpecies,three of them natives
of Britain, viz. the germanica, or bafc hore-hound; Thefil-
vatica, or hedge nettle; and the paludr is, or clown’s all he^l;.
STADIUM, an ancient Greek long meaftre.
Stadium was alfo the courfe or career wherein the
Greeks ran their races.
STADTHOLDER, the principal governor or magi (Irate
of the United Provinces.
The ftadtholder feem* to be impowered, either dire<5t!y
or by his influence, to change both the deputies, magi-
ftrares, and officers, in every province and city. He is
prefident in the dates of every |v ovince, though he has •
not fo much as a feat or vote in the dates-genera'l : l:nt
as he influences the dates of each province to fend whac
deputies he plealas to the dates-general, he has, in cffedl
the appointing the perfons that conditute the dates-ge„
neral, and may be deemed fovereign of the united pro¬
vinces. The dadthoklers had once a very great power.
Ws find one of their dadiholders appointing what towns
(hould fend deputies or members to the affembly of the
dates of Holland : but the dadtholderfliip was never he¬
reditary till now when in the year 1747 it was made fo
in the family of Orange,
It
S T A
It is obferved, that the hates parted by the ftadtholder’s
eldert Ton, and appointed his younger Ton prince Maurice
of Orange their iladthoider ; and at other times they
have fupprerted the rtadtholderfliip entirely. The ftad-
thol'der always in <the council of date, when the votes
happen to be. equal, has a decilive voice.
STAEHELINA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia po-
Jygamia sequalis clafs. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus is feathered ; and the calix is imbricated with
fcales, membranaceous, coloured,. and reflefted at the
points. There are two fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
STAFF, an inflrument ordinarily ufed to red on in walk¬
ing. The daff is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of natural
weapon both of offence and defence, and forfeveral other
purpofes.
Staff, in mufrek, five lines on which with the interme¬
diate fpaces the notes of a fong or piece of murtck are
marked.
STAFFORD, the county^town of Staffordlhire, is fituated
one hundred and thirty miles north-wed'pfLondon. It
fends two members to parliament.
STAG, in zoology. See Cervus.
STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of aftion and
reprcfentation, included between the pit and the fcenes,
and anfwering to the profcenium or pulpitum of the an¬
cients.
STAGGERS. See Farriery, p 552.
STAINES, a town of Middlefex, fituated nineteen mea-
fured miles wed of London.
STAIR-CASE, in architedture, an afcent inclofed between
walls, or a balludrade, confiding of dairs, or deps, with
landing-places and rails, ferving to make a communica¬
tion between the feveral dories of a houfe. See Archi¬
tecture, p. 360.
STALACTITiE, in natural hidory, crydalline fpars form¬
ed into oblong, conical, round, or irregular bodies, com-
pofed of various cruds, and ufually found hanging in form
of icicles from the roofs of grottos, tec.
STALBRIDGE, a market-town of .Dorfetfture, fituated
eighteen miles north of Dorcheder.
STALK, in botany, that part of a plant which rifes im¬
mediately from the root, and which fupports the leaves
of the flowers and the fruit.
STALLION, or stone-horsk, in the menage, an ungelt
horfe, defigned for the covering of mares, in order to
propagate the fpecies. See Equus.
STAMFORD, a borough-town of Lincolnfliire, fituated
thirty-five miles fouth of Lincoln. It fends two members
to parliament.
STAMINA. See Botany, p. 635.
Stamina, in the animal body, are defined to be thefe fim-
ple original parts, which exided fird in the embryo, or
even in the feed; and by whofe didinftion, augrhenta
tion, and accretion, by additional juices, the animal body,
at its utmod bulk, is fuppofed to be formed.
STAMINEOUS, in botany, a term for thofe flowers of
plants which have no petals or flower-leaves, but-confid
only of a number of damina and pi (tils placed in a cup.
STAMP-duties, certain impofitiohs laid on all parchment
and paper, on which deeds, grants, or other inllruments,
or any procefs in law or equity, are ingrofled or written.
Tbefe duties, when fird granted, were from farty (hillings
S T A
for letters-patent, tec. to fixpenee for the ufual deeds;
and one penny for declarations, pleadings, tec. They
have been, in general, doubled and trebled, by fubfequent
datutes ; and the common damp now is the treble fix-
penny. Perfons writing or engrofling any thing charged
with the duty on parchment or paper, before it is damped,
or if it be marked with any lower duty than what is re¬
quired, are liable to forfeit 5 1.; and the deed (hall not
be deemed good in law, till fuch penalty is paid, and the
• fame be damped, tec.
STAMPALIA, an idand of the Archipelago, about fifty
miles in circumference, fituated in E. long. 26° 30/, and
N. lat. 3<SP 20'.
STANCHION, or Stanchions, inafirip, thofe pillars,
which being fet up pillar-wife, do fupport and drengthen
the wade-trees.
STAND, in commerce, a weight, from two hundred and
a half to three hundred, of pitch.
STANDARD, in war, a (ort of banner, or flag, borne
as a fignal for the joining together of the feveral troops
belonging to the fame body. See Flag, tec.
Standard, in commerce, the original of a weight, mea-
fure, or coin, committed to the keeping of a magidrate,
or depofited in fome public place, to regulate, adjud,
and try the weights uied by particular perions in traftkk.
See Money.
STANDON, a town of Hertfordfliire, fituated under the
meridian of London, and feven miles north of Hertford.
STANHOPE, a market-town of Durham, fituated fixtsen
miles wdt of Durham.
STANLEY, a town of Glocederfhire, fituated twelve
miles fouth of Gloceder.
STANNARIES, the mines and works where tin is dug
and purified, as in Cornwal, Devonfhire, tec. There
are four courts of the dartnanes in Devonftiire, and as
many in Cornwal; and great liberties were granted them
by feveral atts of parliament in the time of Edward I.
tec. though fomewhat abridged under Edward III. and
Charles I.
STANNUM, tin Sei; Chemistry, p. 83, 135.
STANTON, a town £>f Lincolnfliire, fituated feventeen
miles eaft of Lincoln, under the meridian of London.
STANZA, in poetry, a certain dated number ot verfes,
generally containing a perfedt fenfe, that ought to end
with ibme lively and ingenious thought, or juft and per¬
tinent refledtion.
STAPELIA, in botany, a genus of thepentandria digynia
clafs of plants. The plant is contorted, with a double
ftar-like nedlarium covering thefrudtification. There are
two fpecies, both natives of the Cape of Good Hope.
STAPES, in anatomy See Anatomy, p. 296.
STAPHYLAiA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria tri-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and the.
corolla of five petals ; the capfules are infledled.and con¬
nate ; and there are two globular feeds. There are two
fpecies, b.uh natives of the Cape of Good Hope.
STAPHYLINUS, in zoology, a genus of infedts belong¬
ing to the order of coieoptera : the antennae are {lender;
the elytra are dimidiated, and cover the wings; and the
tail is fimple, and furniflied with two oblong bladders.
There are 17 fpecies, principally diitinguiflied by their
cojour. .
STAPLE primarily fignifies a public place or market, whi¬
ther
( )
S T A (62
tfcer merchants, &c. are obliged to bring their goods to
be bought by the people, as the Greve, or the places a-
long the Seine, -for fale of wines and corn, at Pans, whe¬
ther the merchants of other parts are obliged to bring
thole commodities.
Formerly the merchants of England were obliged to
carry their wool, cloth, lead, and other like ftaple-com-
medities of this realm, in order to utter the fame by
wnolefale ; and thefe ftaples were appointed to be con-
ftantly kept at York, Lincoln, Newcatlle upon Tyne,
Norwich Weftminfter, Canterbury, Chichefter, Win-
chefter, Exeter, and Briflol ; in each whereof a public
mart was appointed to be kept, and each of them had a
court of the mayor of the ftaple, for deciding differences,
hud according to the law-merchant, in a fummary way.
STAR, in altronomy. See Astronomy,
Falling, Srin meteorology, fiery meteors, which dart
through the fky, in form of a (far; being occafioned by
a nitro-fulphureous matter, the common caufe of ?11 fuch
meteors.
Star, in heraldry, a charge frequently borne on the fhield,
and the honourable ordinaries, in figure of a {far ; which
differs only from the mullet, in not being pierced as this
laft is. See Mullet.
Star, is alfo a badge of honour, worn by the knights of
the garter, bath, and thiflle. See Garter.
Star of Bethlehem, in botany. See Ornithogalum.
Star-board, in the fea-language. denotes the right-hand
fide of a flrip: thus they fay, flar-board the helm, orhelm
a ftar board, when he that conds would have the men at
the helm, or fteering-wheel, put the helm to the right-
fide of the {hip.
Star chamber, a chamber at Weftminfler, fo called from
having its roof painted with gilt ftars, wherein the chan¬
cellor, affifted by others appointed for that purpofe, for¬
merly had authority to punifh routs, riots, and other mif
demeanors that wers not by the common law provided
againft.
Star fish. See Asterias
Star shot, a gelatinous fubftaoce frequently found in
fields, and fuppofed by the vulgar to have been produ
ced from the meteor called a falling ftar ; but, in rea¬
lity, is the half-digefted food of herons, fea-mews, and
the like birds; for thefe birds, when fhen, have been
found, when dying, to difgorge a iubftance of. the fame
kind.
Star-stone, in natural hiftory, a name given to certain
extraneous foflile ftones. inform/)? fliort and common¬
ly fomewhat crooked, columns, compofed of feveral joints;
each relembling the figure of a radia ' cd (tar, with .a greater
or fmalier number of rays'in the different fpecies: they
are ufually found of about an inch in length, and of the
thicknefs of a goofe-quill. Some of them have five angles,
or rays, and others only four, and in iome the angles are
equi-dilfant, while in others they.are irregularly fo ; in
fome alfo they are fhort and blunt, while in others they
are long, narrow, and pointed; and fomehave their angles
fo very fliort and obtufe, that at firft fight they might be
taken for entrochoafteriae. The feveral joints in the fame
fpecimen are ufually all of the fame thicknefs; this how¬
ever is not always the cafe, but in fome they are larger
at end and in others at the middle, than in any o-
. ther part of the body ; and fome fpecies have one of the
5 ) S T A
rays bifid ; fo as to emulate the appearance of a fix.rayed
kind.
Star-thistle. See Centaurea.
Star-wort. SeeAsTER.
STARCH, a fecula, or fediment, found at the bottom of
veffels wherein wheat has been fleeped in water ; of which
fecula, after feparating the bran from it, by palling it
through fieves, they form a kind of loaves, which being
dried in the fun or an oven, is afterwards cut into little
pieces, and fo fold. The belt ftarch is white, fbft, and
friable, and eafily broken into powder. Such as require
fine ftarch do not content themfelves, like the ftarch-men,
witKrefufe wheat, but ufe the fined grain. The procefs
is as follows : The grain being well cleaned is put to fer¬
ment in veflels full of water, which they expofe to the
fun while in its greateft heat, changing the water twice
a-day, for the fpace of eight or twelve days, according
to the feafon. When the grain burfts eafily under the
finger,'they judge it fufficiently fermented. The fer¬
mentation perfected, and the grain thus foftened, it is
put, handful by handful, into a canvas bag, to feparate
the flour from the huflts,'which is done by rubbing and
beating it an a plank laid acrofs the mouth of an empty
veffel that is to receive the flour.
As the velRls are filled with this liquid flour, there is
feen fwimming at the top redifli water, which is to be care¬
fully feummed off from time to time, and clean water is
to be put in its place ; which, after flirring the whole to¬
gether, is alfo to be {trained through a cloth or fieve,
and what is left behind put into the veffel with new wa¬
ter, and expofed to the fun for fome time. As the fedi¬
ment thickens at the bottom, they drain off the water
four or five times, by inclining the veflel, but without
palling it through the fieve. What remains at bottom is
the Itareh, which they cut in pieces to get out, and leave
it to dry in the fun. When dry, it is laid up for ufe.
STARGARD, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per-Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, fituated twenty
miles eaft of Stetin.
STAR1A, a city of Ruflia, in the province of Great No-
vogorod, fituated at the fouth end of the Ilmen-lake : E,
long. 340 20', N. lat. 58®.
STARLING. SeeSTURNus.
START-point, a cape or promontory of Devonfliire,.
in the Engliflr channel, twelve miles fouth of Dartmouth.
STATE, or estate, an empire, kingdom, province, or
extent of country under the lame government.
STATEN ISLAND, an ifland of the province of Notv
York, in North America, fituated near the mouth of HuJ-
fon’s river: in W. long, 72° ^1, N. lat. 41°.
STATERA romana, or steel-yard, a name given to
the Roman balance.
STATES, or Estates, a term applied'to feveral orders
or claff-s of people affembled to confult of matters for the
public good.
Thus ftates-general is the name of an affembly confid¬
ing of the deputies of the feven United Provinces : thefe
are ufually thirty in number, fome provinces (ending two,
others more; and whatever refolution the ftates-general
take, muft be confirmed by every province, and by every
city'and republic in that province, before it has the force
of a law. The deputies of each'province, of what num¬
ber foever they be, have only one voi ce, and are efteemed ;
S T A ( 616
ks but one perfon, the votes being given by provinces.
Each province prefides in the afTembiy in its turn, ac¬
cording to the order fettled among them. Guelderland
prefides firft, then Holland, eb'c.
States of Holland are the deputies of eighteen cities,
and one reprefentative of the nobility, confHtnting the
Hates of the province of Holland: the other provinces
have likewife their Hates, reprefenting their fovereignty,
deputies from which make what they call the Hates-ge-
neral. In an alLmbly of the Hates of a particular pro¬
vince, one diflenting voice prevents their coming to any
refolmion.
STATICE, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigynia
clafs. The calix is one entire plaited leaf; the corolla
conlifls of five petals; it has but one feed. There are
14 fpecies, three of them natives of Britain, viz. the ar-
meria, or fea gilly-flower ; the fimonium, or fea-laven-
der; and the reticulata, or matted fea-lavender.
STATICS, that branch of mathematics which confiders the
motion of bodies arifing from gravity. See Hydrosta¬
tics,'and Mechanics.
STATION, in geometry, furveying, a place pitched
upon to make an obfervation, take an angle, or the like.
STATIONARY, in aHronomy, fignifics the appearance of
a planet, when it feems to remain immoveable on the fame
point of the zodiac for feveral days. See Astronomy.
Stationary-days, in church-hiftory, an appellation gi¬
ven to the weekly fall-days. viz. Wednefdays, and Fri¬
days; other wife called half-falls, and falls of the fourth
and fixth days of the week.
Thefe falls are certainly as ancient as Clemens Alex-
andrinus and Tertullian, who both mention them ; and
the reafon of their inflitution is, becaufe on the fourth
day of the week the Jews took-council to put our Saviour
to death, which was actually accomplilhed on the fixth :
however, being in continual ufe throughout the year,
they were not kept with fuch rigour and flriftnefs as Lent.
See the article Lent.
ST^ATIVA, among the Romans, a Handing camp kept for
the defence of the frontiers of the empire. Thefe camps
gave rife to a great many towns, which took their names
from the legion Hationed there.
STATUARY, a branch of fculpture, employed in the ma¬
king of Hatues. See Sculpture, and the next article.
Statuary is one of thofe arts wherein the ancients fur-
’ palled the moderns ; and indeed it was much more popu¬
lar, and more cultivated, among the former than the latter.
STATUE, is defined to be a piece of fculpture in full re¬
lievo, reprefenting a human figure.
Statues are formed with the chiffel of feveral matters,
as Hone, marble, .plafter, &c. They are alfo call of va
rious kinds; of metals, particularly gold, filver, brafs,
and lead.
Every flatue, refembling the perfon it is intended to
reprefent, is calledJlatUa iconica. Statues acquire various
other denominations. 1. Thus allegorical Hatue, is that
which, under a human figure, or other fymbol, reprefents
fomething of another kind, as a part of the earth, a fea-
Ibn, age, element, temperament, hour, fee. 2. Curule
llatues, are thofe which are reprefentedin chariots drawn
by bigse, or quadrigae, that is, by two or four horfes;
of which kind there were feveral in the circufes, hippo¬
dromes, fee. or in cars, as we fee feme, with triumphal
) S T E
arches, on antique medals. 3. Equeflrian fiatue, that
which reprefents fome illuflrious perfon ort hofte-back,
as that famous one of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome ; that
of king Charles I. at Charing-crofs, king George II. in
LeiceHer-fquare, London; king Charles II. in the Pariia-
ment-clofe, Edinburgh ; king William III. at the crofs,
Glafgow; fee. 4. Greek ttatue, denotes a figure that is
naked and antique; it being in the manner the Greeks re-
prefented their deities, athletae of the Olympic games,
and heroes: llatues of the heroes were particularly
called Achillean Hatties, by reafon of the great number
of figures of that prince in moll of the cities of Greece.
5. Hydraulic Hatue, is any figure placed as an ornament
of a fountain or grotto, or that does the office of a jet
d’eau, a cock, fpout, or the like, by any of its parts; the
like is to be underftoodof any animal ferving for the fame
ufe. 6. Pedefltian Hatue, a Hatue Handing on foot; as
that of king George II. in the royal infirmary, Edinburgh;
that of king Charles II. in the royal-exchange, London;
arid of king James II. m the privy-Gardens. 7. Roman
Hatue, is an appellation given to iuch as are cloathed,
and which receive various names from their various dref-
fes. Thofe of emperors, with long gowns over their ar¬
mour, Were called ftatuxpaludatai: thofe of captains and
cavaliers, with coats of arms, tboracat* : thofe of fol-
diers, with cuirafles, lo’icaUe: thofe of fenators and au-
gurs, trabe t.-e: th.ife of raagtHrates, with long robes,
togata: thofe of the people, with a plain tunica, tunicata:
andlaftiy, thofe of the women, with long Wl\m, Jiolatte.
The Romans had another divifion of Hatues into divine,
which were thofe confecrated to the gods, as Jupiter, Mars,
Apollo, fec.\ Heroes, which were thofeof the demi-gods,
as Hercules, fec.\ and AuguHi, which were thofe of the
emperors, as thofe two of Caefar and Augultus under the
portico of the capitol. In repairing a Hatue caH in a
mould, they touch it up with a chifFel, graver, or other
inflrument, to fimfh the places which have not come well
off: they alfo clear off the barb, and what is redundant
in the joints and projedtures.
STATURE, the fize or height of a man.
STATUTE, in its general fenfe,dignifies a law, ordinance,
decree, fee. See Law, fee.
Statute, in our laws and cufloms, more immediately
fignifies an a<5t of parliament made by the three eflates of
the realm: and fuch Hatutes are either general, of which
the courts at WeHminHermuH take notice, without plead¬
ing them; or they are fpecial and private, which lall mull
be pleaded.
STAVANGER, a port-town of Norway, in the province
of Bergen, capital of the territory Stavenger, fituated on
a peninfula in the German ocean : E. long. 6° 3c/, N.
lat. 590 30'.
STAVEREN, a port-town of the United-Netherlands, in
the province of Well Friefland, fituated on the Zuyder-
fea: E. long. 50 I2,) N. lat. 530.
STAY, in the fea language, a big flrong rope faHened to
the top of one mafl, and to the foot of that next before
it towards the prow, ferving to keep it firm, and prevent
its falling aftwards or towards the poop.
STEADY, a word of command at fea, for the man at the
helm to keep the ffiip Heady in her courfe, and not to
make angles (or yaws, as they call them) in and out.
STEATITES, in the hiHory of foffils, a name given by
v late
S T E ( 627 ■) S T E
late authors, to a fubftance called, in Englilli, foa^-earth.
Dr Woodward much recommends is as a fubftance for
making porcelain.; and repeated trials of it have been made
fince his time, and feme of theta very lately, in all which
it has afforded the find! earthen-ware ever made with us,
and rromifes fair, with good management, for the equal¬
ling any in the world. It is dug in many parts of Devoa-
ftiire and Cornwall, and the neighbouring counties ; the
cliff of the Lizard-point is almoff wholly cotnpofed of it,
and the adjacent little iflands abound with it; and from
all thefe places it might be brought, at a fmall expehce,
in any quantities. It is known from all other earths by
tlu fe charadlers: it is compofed of extremely fine parti¬
cles; and is of a firm, equal and regular texture, and a
great weight. It is very firm and hard as it lies in the
earth, but when itbas been fome time expofed tq,the air,
it becomes aimoft of a ftony hardnefs. It is of a perfedly
fine, fmooth, and gloffy furface, fofter to the touch than
any ether fpecies of earth, and does not at all adhere to
the tongue, or (lain the fingers in handling ; but d awn
along a rough furface, as a piece of cloth, or the like', it
marks it with a fine and even white line. In Colour it is
a dear white, veined and variegated very beautifully with
purple of different degrees of deepnefs; and is of fo fine
a ftrudure of parts, that when cut into thin pieces, it is
in fome degree tranfparent. It makes no effervefcence
with acids, and burns to a pure white, even in its pur¬
ple parts.
STEATOMA, a kind of eneyfted tumour, confifling of a
matter like fuel or lard, foft, without pain, and without
difcolouring the fkin.
STEEL, a kind of iron refined and purified by the fire with
other ingredients.- See Chemistry, p. 134,
Steel glasses, a name given byfome authors to the me¬
talline fpheres ufed in optics. Thefe, according to Car¬
dan, are made of three parts of brafs, one part of tin, and
one of filver, with an eighte nth part of antimony; but
mod either totally leave out the filver, or add only a
twenty .fourth part, to fave the expence. There are many
other methods, diredted by feveral anthors; but moft ufe
arfenic and tartar mixed with the metals. Thefe are af¬
terwards to be polifhed with emery, rotten-done, putty,
and the like.
STEEL-YARD. See Mechanics.
STEEPLE, an appendage erefted generally on the weftern
end of a church, to hold the bells. Steeples are deno¬
minated from their form, either fpires or towers ; the
fird are fuch as afeend continually ^iminifhing either co¬
nically or pyramidically ; the latter are mere parallele¬
pipeds, and are covered a-top platform-like.
STEERAGE, on board a (hip, that part of the {hip next
below the quarter-deck, before the bulk-head of the great
cShhin, where the deerfman dands in mod (hips of war.
S‘-e the next arti.le.
STEERING in navigation, the direfHng a veffel from one
place to another by means of the helm and rudder. He
is held the bed deerfmao who caufes the lead motion in
putting the helm over to and again, and who bed keeps
the ill ip from making yaws, that is, from running in and
om See Navigation.
STEEVE 'on bo rd a fhip The feamen fay the bowfpiit
or the beak head of a fhip deeves, when it dands too up-
riglv, or not draight enough foreward.
Vol. III. N° 95, 2
STEGANIUM. See Slate.
STEGANOGRAPHY, the art of fecret writing, or of
writing in cyphers known only to the perfons correfpond-
ing.
STEGEBURG, a port-town of Sweden, in the province
of Ead Gothland, fituated on a bay of the Baltic: E.
long. 16?, N. lat, 58® 3c/.
STEGNOTICS, in medicine, remedies proper to clofeand
dop the orifices of the veffels oremuoflories when relaxed,
dretched, lacerated, fuch as pomegranate-leaves and
rofes, plaintain-leaves, tormentil-roots, &c.
STELLATE., among botanifls, expreffes .leaves which
grow not lefs than fix at a joint, and are arranged like
the rays of a dar.
STELLERA, in botany, a genus of the oftandria mono-
gynia clafs. It has" no calix, the corolla confids of four
fegments; the (lamina are very fliort ; and there is but
one rodrated feed. There are two fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
STELLIONATE, inScotslaw. SeeLA\V,Tit. xxxiii. 36.
STEM, in botany, that part of a plant arifing out of the
root, and which fudains the leaves, flowers, fruits,
Stem of a /hip, that main piece of timber which comes
bending from the keel below, where it isfcarfpd, as they
call it; that is, pieced in; and rifes compaffing right be¬
fore the forecadle. This dem it is which guides the
ra’ie of the fhip, and all the butt-ends of the planks are
fixed into it. This, in the fetdion of a fird-rate (hip, is
called the main dem.
STEMPLES, in mining, crofs-bars of wood in the (hafts
which are funk to mines. In many places the way is to
finh a perpendicular hole or (haft, the fides of which they
drengthen from top to bottom with wood-work, to pre¬
vent the earth from falling in: the tranfverfe pieces of
wood ufed for this purpofe, they call demples; and by
means of thefe the miners, in fome places, defeend with¬
out ufieg any rope, catching hold of thefe with their
hands and feet.
STENOGRAPHY, the art of writing fhort-hand. See
Short-hand Writing.
STENONIAN duct, in anatomy. See, As atom y, p.
?°7-
STEP of the maft and capftan, in a flnp, is that piece of
timber whereon the malls 01 capfians do Hand at bottom.
STEPHEN, or St. Stephen's dav, a fedival of the
Chridian church, obferved on the 26th of December, in
memory of the fird mwrtyr St. Stephen.
STERCULIA, in botany, a genus of the monoecia mono-
delphia clafs. The calix both of male and female confids
of five fegments; neither of them have any cocoUa , the
male has 15 filaments; the germen reds upon a column;
and there are five capfules containing many feeds. There
are two fpecies, both natives of India.
STEREOGRAPHIC projection, is the projection of
the circles of the fphere on the plane of fome one great
circle, the eye being placed in the pole of that circle.
STEREOGRAPHY, the art of drawing the forms and fi¬
gures of the folids upon a plane.
STEREOMETRY, that part of geometry which teaches
how to meafure folid bodies, i. e. to find the foiidity or
/did content of bodies, as globes, cylinders, cubes, veffels,
fliips, he. See Geometry.
STEREOTOM Y, the art or aCt of cutting folids, or ma-
7 T _ king
S T E ( 62S ) S T I
king feflions thereof, as walls or other members in the
profiles of arcbitefture.
STERILITY, the quality of a thing that is barren, in op-
pofition to fertility.
Nature has annexed fterility to all monftrous produc
tions, that all the creation might not degenerate. Hence
the Iterility of mules, eirc.
STERLING, a term frequent in Britilh commerce. A
pound, (hilling, or penny fierling, (ignifies as much as a
pound, (hilling, or penny of lawful money of Great Bri¬
tain, as fettled by authority. See Money.
STERN of a /hip, ufually denotes all the hindermoft part
of her, but properly it is only the outmoll part abaft.
STERNBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony and marquifate of Brandenburg, (ituated
twenty-three miles north-ea(! of Frankfort upon the O-
der.
STERNOHYOIDAlUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
P 22?.
STERNUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 175.
STERNUTATORY, a medicine proper to produce fnee-
zing. Sternutatives are of two kinds, gentle and violent.
Of The firft kind are betony, fage, marjoram, tobacco,
and the whole fafhionable tribe of fnuffs. Of the latter
kind are euphorbium, white hellebore, pellitory, foe.
STETIN, a city and port-town of Germany, in the circle
ofLJpper Saxony, capital of the duchy of Poms*rnia,
fitoated on the weft (here of the river Oder : E. long.
140 yo', N. lat 530 30'.
STEVENAGE, a market-town of Flertforddiire, (itua¬
ted thirty miles north of London, and ten north-weft of
Hertford.
STEW, a final 1 kind of (i(h-pond, the peculiar office of
which is to maintain fi(h, and keep them in readinefs for
the daily ufe of the family foe.
Stews, were alfo places anciently permitted in England to
women of profefled incontinency, for the profFerof their bo¬
dies to allcomers. Thefe were under particular rules and
laws of difeipline, appointed by the lord of the manor.
STEWARD, an officer appointed in another’s (lead or
place, and always tTen for a principal officer within his
jurifdi&ion. Of thefe there are various kinds. The
g'-eateft officer-under the crown is the lord high fteward
of England, an office that was anciently the inheritance
of the earls of Leicefter, till forfeited by Simon de Mount
forr to king Henry III. But the power of this officer is
fo very great, that it has not been judged (afe to truft it
any longer in the hands of a fubjeft, excepting only pfo
hoc vice, occafionally; as, to officiate at a coronation, at
the arraignment of a nobleman for high-treafon or the
like. During his office, the (leward bears a white flaff
in his hand; and the trial, foe. ended, he breaks the
ftaff, and with it his commiffion expires. There is hke-
wife a lord fteward of the Log's houfehold, who is the
chief officer of the kings court, has the care of the king’s
houfe, and authority over all the officers and fervants of
the houfehold, except fuch as belong to the chapel, cham¬
ber. and ftable.
STEWART, in Scots law. See Law, Tit iv. 5.
STEWARTEA, in botany, a genus ef the monadelphia
polyandria clal's. The calix is (imple ; the (Hgma is
quinquefid; the berry has five lobes, and one feed. There
is but one fpecies, a native of Virginia.
STEYNING, a borough-town.of Suffolk : fituated forty
miles fouth of London, and thirteen miles weft of Lewes.
It fends two m< mt'ers to parliament.
STIBIUM, or Antimony. See Chemistry, p. 87, 139.
STICKLEBACK, in ichthyology. See Gasterosteus.
STIGMA, in botany. See Botany, p. 637.
ST IGMATA, the apertures in different parts of the bodies
of infe&s, communicating with tiie trachese, or air-veifeis,
and ferving for the office of refpiration.
Stigmata, in antiquity, certain marks impreffed on the
left (boulders of the foldiers when lilted.
STIGMATIZING, among the ancient's, was inflidted up¬
on (laves, as a puniftirnent, but more frequently as a mark
to know them by, in which cafe it was done by applying
a red-hot iron marked with certain letters to their fore¬
heads, till a fair impreffion was mide, and then pouring
ink into their furrows, that the infetiption might be the
more confpicuous.
STILE. See Style.
S FILES, in carpentry, denote the upright pieces which
go from the bottom to the top of any wamfeot, or the
like.
STILLATITIOUS OILS, fuch as are produced by dif-
tillauon, in oppofition to thofe got by infufion, expreffion,
foe.
STILL bottoms, in the diftillery, a name given by the
traders to what remains in the ftill after the working the
waffi tmo low wines. Thefe bo ms are ptocured in the
greateft quantity from the malt-waffi, and are of fo much
value to the diftiller, in the fattening of hogs, foe. that
he often finds them one of the moft valuable articles of
the bufinefs.
'STIMULATING, a property in bodies, whereby they
vtlheart and caufe vibrations and infleftions of the fibres
of the nerves, and a greater derivation of nervous fluid
into the parts affedted. Stimulants produce pain, heat,
rednefs, foe.
STING, an apparatus in the body of certain infedts, in
form of a little fpear, ferving them as a weapon of offence.
See Apis
STINE, in zoology. See Alauda.
STIPA in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia clafs.
The calix confifts of two valves, containing one flower ;
the exterior valve of the corolla terminates in an awn-;
and it is jointed at the bafe. Thei*e are feven fpecies,
only one of them, viz. the pennata, or feather-grafs, a
native of Britain
STIPEND, among ihe Romans, fignified the fame with
tribute ; and hence ftipendiarii were the fame with tri-
butarii.
Stipend, in Scots law. See Law, Tit v. 10, foe.
STIPULATION, in the civil law, the adt of ftipulating,
that is, of treating and concluding terms and conditions
to be inferted in a contradf. Stipulations were ancient¬
ly performed at Rome, with abundance of ceremonies-;
the firft whereof was, that one party ffiould interrogate,
and the other anfwer, to give his confent, and oblige
hinafelf. By the ancient Roman law, no body could
ftipulate but for himfelf ; but as the tabelliones were
public fervants, they were allowed to ftipulate for their
mafters; and the notaries, fucceeding the tabelliones, have
inherited the fame privilege.
STIRIA duchy, in Germany, is part of the circle of
Auftria,
S T O ( 629 ) S T O
AuftHa, boutided by the duchy of Auftria on the north,
by Hungary on the eaft, and by Carinthia and Carnicla
on the fouth-weft.
STIRLING, a town of Scotland, capital of the county of
Stirling : l-ituated on the river Forth, thirty nailes north
weft of Edinburgh; defended by a caftle and other works.
STIRRUP, in the manege, a reft, or fupport for the
horienian’s foot, ferving to keep him firm in his feat,
and to enable him to mount.
Stirrup of a Jhipy a piece of timber put upon a fhip’s keel,
when lome of her keel happens to be beaten off, and they
cannot come conveniently to put or fit in a new piece ;
then they patch in a piece of timber, and bind it on with
an iron, which goes under the ftup’s keel, and comes up
on each-fide of the lhip; where it is nailed ftrongly with
fpikes ; and this they call a (tirrup.
STIVES, the ancient Thebes, in the province of Achaia,
now Livadia, in European Turkey.
STOCKHERN, a to.vn of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphaiu, and biftiopric of Liege: fituated on the river
Maes, twelve miles north of Maeftricht,
STOCK, in gardening, &c. the ftem or trunk of a tree.
STOCKBRIDGE, a borough town of Hampihire, fitua¬
ted leven miles north-weft of Winchefter. It fends two
members to parliament.
Stock.brok£r. See Broker, and the next article.
Stock-jobb ; ng, the art or m ftery of trafficking in the
public ftocks or funds. See Stocks.
STOCKHOLM, the capital city of Sweden, fituated on
feveral (mail iftands in the Meller Lake : E. long. 180,
FI. lat. 59° 30 , three hundred miles north-eaft of Co¬
penhagen, nine hundred north-eaft of London, and four
hundred weft of Peterfburgh T is neither walled nor
forftfied, being fufficiently fecured by nature, with little
rocks and iflands, which furround it, though it has a
fpacious harbour fufficient for the largeft fleets. That
part of the town which is properly the city, ftands upon
a little ifland that is not more than a mile and a half in
circumference, but the fuburbs on the adjacent ifland
are much larger. The inhabitants are computed about
thirty thoufand.
STOCKING, that part of the cloathing of the leg and
foot which fcreens them from the cold. <bc. Anciently,
the only (lockings irr ufe were made of cloth, or of milled,
fluffs fewed together; but fince the invention of knitting
and weaving (lockings of (ilk, wool, cotton, thread, <bc.
the ufe of cloth (lockings is quite out of doors.
STOCKPORT, a market-town of Cheihire, fituated thirty
four miles north-eaft of Chefter.
STOCKTON, a port-town of Durham, fituated near
the mouth of the river Tees, fixteen miles fouth of Dur¬
ham.
STOCKZOW, a town of Bohemia, in the duchy of Sftefia,
fituated on the river Viftula, thirty-feven miles foutb.eafl
of Troppaw.
STOCKS utPublic Yvhtx* in England. As there are few
fubje&s of converfauon more general than the value or
flocks, and hardly any thing fo little nnderftood, we (hail
here give account of them in as clear and concife a man¬
ner as poffible; prefenting our readers with the rationale
* Of thefe a general account only was given under the words
them in conneltion with the prefent article, the better to iiluflr;
of the ftocks, and a fitort hiftory of the fevefal edmpa1--
nies#, deicribing the nature of their feparate funds, the
ufes to which they are applied, and the ^various purpofes-
they anfwer, both with refpedt to the government, the
companies themfelves, and the community in general.
In order to have a clear idea of the money-tranfac-
tions of the feveral companies, it is neceffary to know
fomething of money in general, and the difference between
that and the current fpecie. Seethe article Money.
Money is the (landard of the value of all the necefla-
ries and accommodations of life ; and paper money is the
reprefentative of that (tandard to fuch a degree, as to fup-
ply its place, and to anfwer all the purpofes of gold and fil-
ver coin. Nothing is neceffary to make this reprefentative
of money fupply the place of fpecie, but the credit of that
office or company who delivers it: which credit confifts in
its always being ready to turn it into fpecie whenever re¬
quired. This is exadly the cafe of the bank of England':
the notes of this company are of the fame value as the cur¬
rent coin, as they may be turned into it whenever the pef-
feffor pleafes. From hence, as notes are a kind of money,
the counterfeiting them is punilhed with death as well as
coining
The method of depofiting money in the bank, and ex¬
changing it for notes (though they bear no intereft) is attend¬
ed with many conventencies ; as they are not only fafec
than money in the hands of the owner himfelf, but as the
notes are more portable and capable of a much more eafy
conveyance; fince a bank note for a very large fum may
be lent by the poft, and, to prevent the defigns of robbers,
may, without damage, be cut in two, and fent at two fe¬
veral times. Or hills, called bank port-bills, may be had
by application at the bank, which are particularly calcula¬
ted to prevent Ioffes by robberies, they being made payable
to the o-der of the per'on who takes them out at a certain
number of days after fight ; which gives an opportunity to
(lop bills at the bank ft they (hould be loft, and prevents
their being fo eafily negotuted by ftrangers as common bank
notes are : and whoever confiders the hazard, the expence
and trouble there would be in fending large furas of gold and
(liver to and from diftant places, muft alfo confider this as a
very fingular advantage. Befide which, another benefit at¬
tends them-; for if they are deftroyed by time, or other ac¬
cidents, the bank will, on oath being made of fuch acci¬
dent, and-fecurity being given,-pay the money to the perfon
who was in poflelfion of them.
Bank notes d ffer from all kinds of flock in thefe three
particulars. 1 They are always of the fame value 2.
They are paid off without being transferred; and, 3. They
bear no intereft : while ftocks are a (hare in a company’s
funds, bought without any condition of having the princi¬
pal returned. India bonds indeed (by fome perfons, tho’
erroneoufly, denominated (lock) are to be excepted; they
being made payable at fix months notice, either on the fide
of the company or of the pofleffor.
By the word flock vm originally meant a particular funi
of money contributed to the eftabliffiing a fund to enable a
company to carry on a certain trade, by means of which the
perfon became a partner in that trade, and received a (hare
of the profit made thereby, in proportion to the money tm.-
ployed-
COMPANY, and BANK, as it would be neceflary to refume
iteit. - . ...
S T O ‘ ( <*
filoyed. But this term has been extended farther, though
improperly, to fignify any fum of money which l^as been
lent to the gorei nment, on condition of receiving a certain
interell till the money is repaid, and which makes a part of
the national debt. As the fecurity both of the government
and of the public companies is elleemed preferable to that
of any private psrlon, as the flocks are negotiable and may
be fold at any time, -and as the interefl is always punctually
paid when due; fo they are thereby enabled to borrow mo¬
ney on a lower interefl: than what could be obtained from
lending it to private perfons, where there muft be always fome
danger of lofihg both principal and interefh
But as every capital flock or fund of a company is raifed
for a particular purpofe, and limited by parliament to a cer¬
tain fum, it itecdfarily follows, that when that fund is corn-
pleated, no flock can be bought of the company; though
fhares already purchafed may be transferred from one per-
fon to another. This being the cafe, there is frequently a
great difproportion between the original value of the fhares,
and what is given for them when transferred : for if there
are more buyers than fellers, a perfon who is indifferent
» about felling will not part with his fhare without a confi
derabk profit to himfelf; and, on the contrary, if many are
difpofed to fell, and few inclined to buy, the value of
fuch fliares will naturally fall, in proportion to the impatience
of thofe who want to turn their flock into fpecie.
Thefe obfervations may ferve to give our readers fome
idea of the nature of that unjuftifiable and difhonefl prac
tice called flock jobbing, the myflery of which confifts in
nothing more than this: The perfons concerned in that
pradlice, who are denominated flock-jobbers, make contradb
to buy or fell, at a certain diflant time, a certain quantity
of fome particular flock, againft which time they endeavour,
according as their contraA is, either to raife or lower fuch
flock, by raifing rumours and fpreading fictitious flories in
order to induce people either to fell out in a hurry, and
confequently cheap, if they are to deliver flock, or to be¬
come unwilling to fell, and confequently to make it dearer,
if they are to receive flock.
The perfons who make thefe contracts are not in general
poflVlTedof any real flock ; and when the time comes that they
are to receive or deliver the quantity they ha^e contracted
for, they only pay fuch a fum of money as makes the dif
ference between the price the flock was at when they made
the comract, and the price it happens to be at when the
contract is fulfilled; and it is no uncommon thing for per¬
fons not worth too 1. to make contracts for the buying or
felling 100,000 1. flock. In the language of Exchange Al¬
ley, the buyer in this cafe is called the Bull, and (he feller
the Bear.
Befide thefe, there are another fet of men, who, though
of a higher rank, may properly enough come under the
fame denomination. Thefe ate your great monied men,
who are dealers in flock, and comraCters with the government
whenever any new money is to be borrowed. Thefe in¬
deed are not fictitious, but real buyers and fellers of flock;
but by raifing falfe hopes,- or creating groundlefs fears, by
pretending to buy'or fell large quantities of flock on a fud-
den, by ufing. the fore-mentioned fet of men as their inftru-
ments, and other like practices, are enabled to raife or lower
the flocks one or two per cent, at pleafure.
However, the real value of one flock above another, on
^pcoynt of its being more profitable to the proprietors, or
3o ) S T O
any thing that will really, or only in imagination, afifeCl
the credit of a company, or endanger the government, by
which that credit is fecured, muft naturally have a confi-
derable effeCt on the .flocks.- Thus, with refpeCt to the
Intereft of the proprietors, a (hare in the flock of a trading
company which .produces 5 1. or 6 1. per cent, per ann.
muft be more valuable than an annuity with government fer
enrity, that produces no more than 3 1. or 4 1. per cent,
pet annum; and cpnfequently fuch flock muft fell at a higher
price than !uch an annuity. Though it muft be obferved,
that a (hare in the flock of a trading company producing
j 1 or 6 1 per cent, per annum, will not fetch fe much
money at market as a government annuity producing the
fame fum; becauie the lecurity of the company is not rec-
konedequalto that of the government, and the continuance
of their paying fo much per annum is more precarious, as
their dividend is, or ought to be, always in proportion to
the profits of their trade.
As the (locks of the Eaft India, the bank, and South-Sea
companies, are diftinguiihed by different denominations, and
are of a very different nature, we (hall give a (hort hiftory
of each of them, together with an account of the different
flocks each is pofleffed of; beginning with the Eaft India
company, as the firft eftabldhed.
Of the E'ifl India Company,
There is no trading company in Europe,'the»Dutch Eaft
India company excepted, which can be put in competition
with this. Ttn was firft eflabhflied in the latter end of the
reign of queen Elizabeth ; and its privileges have been en¬
larged, or confirmed, by almoft ev#ry monarch fince. Its
(hares, or fubfetiptions were originally only 50 1. (terling;
and its capital only 369,891 1.5 s. but the direflors ha¬
ving aconfiderable dividend to make in 1676, it was agreed
to join the profits to the capital, by which the (hares were
doubled, and confequently each became of 100 1. value, and
the capital 739,782 I. 10 s.; to which capital, if 963,639!.
the profits of the company to the y. ar 1683, be added, the
whole flock will be found to be 1,703,402 1.
However, this company having fuilained feveral Ioffes
by the Dutch, and the fubjedfs of the great Mogul, was ira
a declining way at the Revolution, when the war with France
reduced it fo low, that it appearing fcarcely pollibly to be
fupported, a new one was eredled. The merchants forming
the new Eafl India company received their charter in 1698,
having, in confideration of the grant thereof, lent the go.
vernment two millions at 8 per cent, per annum; and pu(h.
ing their trade with vigour, they foon carried on twice the
bufinefs that was ever done by the old company. But af¬
ter the two companies had fubfifted a few years in a feparate
(late, means were contrived to unite them; which was ef-
fedted in 1702, when a new charter was granted them under
the title of the United Company of Merchants trading to
the Eafl: Indies.
To the two millions advanced by the new company, the
united company in the 6th of queen Anne lent the govern¬
ment 1,200,000 I. which made their whole loan amount to
3,200,000 1 A further fura was alfo lent by the company
in 173b, on a renewal of their charter, the interefl of
which is reduced to 3 per cent, and called the India 3 per
cent, annuities.
As to India flock, it is of a quite different nature ; for
as that is not money put out to interefl, but the trading
flock
S T O ( ) s T O
flock of the company; and the proprietors of the {hares, in-
ftead of receiving a regular annuity, have a dividend of the
profits arifing from the company’s trade ; which, as it is
more valuable, thefe {hares generally fell at a price much
abovethe original value.
As to the management of this united company, all per-
fo«s without exception, natives and foreigners, men and
women, are admitted members of it, and 500 1. in the
Hock of the company gives the owner a vote in the gene¬
ral court, and 2000 J. qualifies him to be chofen a director.
The diredtors are 24 in number, including the chairman,
and depety chairman, who may be re-eiedfed for four years
fucctffi'veiy. The chairman has a faiary of 200 1. a year,
and each of the diredtors 150 1. The meetings or courts of
diredtors are to be held at lead once a-week; but are com¬
monly oftener, being fummon?d as occalion requires.
Out of the body of diretS '-rs are chofen feveral committees,
who have the peculiar infpedtion of certain branches of the
company’s bufinds; as the committee of corre pondence, a
committee of buying, a comm ’tee or treafury, a houfecom-
mittee, a committee of waiehoufes. a commitee of (hip¬
ping, a committee of accompts, a committee of law-iuits,
and a committee to prevent the growth of private trade,
&t. who have under them a fecretary, caihier, clerks,
warehoufe-keepers, &c.
Other officers of the company are governors and fadtors
abroad; fome of whom have guards of foldiers, and live in
all the date of fovereign princes.
Of the Bank of England,
The company of the bank was incorporated by parlia¬
ment, in the 5th and 6th years of king William and queen
Mary, by the name of the Governor and Company of the
Bank of England, in confideration ofthe loan of 1,200,000!.
granted to the government, for which the fubfcribers re¬
ceived almod 8 per cent. By this charter, the company
are not to borrow under their common feal, unlefs by adt
of parliament; they are not to trade, or fuffer any perfon
in trud for them to trade in any goods or merchandize ;
but they may deal in bills .of exchange, in buying or felling
bullion, and foreign gold and filver coin, 6v.
By an adl of parliament pafled in the 8th and 9th year of
king William III. they were impowered to enlarge their
capital dock to 2,20.1,171 1. 10 s. It was then alfo enac¬
ted, that bank-dock Ihnuld be a perfonal, and not a real
edate ; that no contradt either in word or writing, for buy¬
ing or felling bank-dock, fhould be good in law, nnlefs
regidered in the books of the bank within feven days, and
the dock transferred in 14 days; and that it ffiould be fe¬
lony, without benefit of clergy, to counterfeit the common
feal of the bank or sny fealed bank-bill, or any bank-note,
or to alter or eiafe fuch bills or notes.
By another adf pafTed in the 7th of queen Anne, the com¬
pany were impowered to augment their capital 104,402,3431.
and they then advanced 400.000 1. more to the go¬
vernment, and in 1714 they advanced another loan of
1,500.000 1.
In the third year of the reign of king George I. the in-
tered of thei; capital dock was reduced to 5 per ce>it.
when the bank agreed to deliver up as many exchequer-bills
as amounted to a,000,000 1. and to accept an annuity of
100,000 1 and it w-.s declared lawful for the bank to call
Von. III. N°. 95. ■ 2
from their members, in proportion to their interefts in the
capital dock, fuch fums of money as in a general- court
fhouid be found netefTary. If any member ffiduL- negleft
to pay his fhare of the moneys lo called for, at the time
appointed by notice in the Loudon Gazette, and fixed upon
the Royal Exchange, it fliould be lawful for the bank not
only to dop the dividend of fuch member, and to apply it
toward payment' of the money in quedion ; but.alfo to Hop
the transfers of the fhare of fuch defaulter, and to charge
him with an intered of 5 1. per cent, per annum for the
money fo omitted to be paid : and if the principal and inte¬
red fhould be three months unpaid, the bank fhould then
have power to fell fo much ofthe dock belonging to the de¬
faulter as would fatisfy the fame!
After-this the bank 1 educed the mtered <jf the 2,000,000 1.
lent to" the government from 5 to 4 per cent, and pur-
chafed feveral other annuities, which were afterward re¬
deemed by the government, and the national debt due to
the bank reduced to 1,600,000 1. But in 1742, the com¬
pany engaged to fupply the government with 1,600,000 i.
at 3 per cent, which is now called the 3 per cent, an¬
nuities, fo that the government was now indebted to the
company 3,200,000 1. the one half carrying 4, and the 0-
tlier 3 percent.
In the year 1746, the company agreed that-the fem of
986,800 1. due to them in the exchequer-bills unfatisfied,
on the duties for licences to fell fpirituous liquors by retail,
fhould be cancelled, and in lieu thereof to accept of an an¬
nuity of 39,442 1. the intereft of that fum at 4 per cent.
The company alfo agreed to advance the further fum of
1,000,000 1. into the exchequer, upon the credit of the
duties arifing by the malt and land tax, at 4 per cent, for
exchequer-bills to be iffued for that purpofe ; in confide-
rution of which, the company were enabled to augment their
capital with 986,800!. the intereft of which, as well as
that of the other annuities, was reduced to 3 1. 10 s. per
cent, till the 25th of December 1757, and from that time
to carry only 3 per cent.
And in order to enable them to circulate the faid exche¬
quer bills, they eftablifhed what is now called bank circula¬
tion : the nature of which not being well underftood, we
fhall take the liberty to be a little more particular in its
explanation than we have been with regard to the other
’ flocks.
The company of the bank are obliged to keep cafh fuf-
ficient to anfwer not only the common, but alfo any extra¬
ordinary demand that may be made upon them ; and what¬
ever money they have by them, over and above the fum
fuppofed necefTary for thefe purpofes, they emplpy in what
may be called the trade of the company ; that is to fay, in
difeaunting bills of exchange, in buying of gold and filver,
and in government fecurities, <bc. But when the bank en¬
tered into the above mentioned contrail, as they did not
keep unemployed a larger fum of money than what they
deemed neceflary to anfwer their ordinary and extraordinary
demands, they could not conveniently takeout of their cur¬
rent cafh fo large a fum as alnillion, with which they were
obliged to furnifli the government, without either leflening
that fum they employed in difeounting, buying gold and fi¬
ver, <bc. (which would have been very disadvantageous to
them,) or inventing fome method that fhould anfwer all the
purpofes of keeping the million in cafh. The method
7 U which. -
S T O ( ($3
wtich they chofe, and which fully anfwers their end, was
as follows.
Tkey-opened afubfcription, which they renew annually,
for a million of money; wherein the fubfcribers advance
Tto p:r cent, andenterinto a contraft to pay the remainder,
or any part thereof, whenever the bankfliall call upon them,
tinder the penalty of forfeiting the to per cent, fo advan¬
ced ; in confideration of which, the bank pays the fubfcri¬
bers 4 per cent, interell: for the money paid in, and -J- per
ceht. for the whole fum they agree tofurnifli; and in cafe
a call fhould be made upon them for the whole, or any part
thereof the bank farther .agrees to pay them at the rate of .
.5 per cent, per annum for fuch fum till they repay it,
which they are under an obligation to do^at the end of the
year. By this means the bank obtains all the purpofes of
keeping a million of money by them; and though the fub¬
fcribers. if no call is made upon them (which is in general
the cafe,) receive 6± per ctnt. for the money they advance,
yet the company gams the fum of 23,500 1 per annum by
the contrart ; as will appear by the following account.
The bank receives from the government
for the advance of a million   £ 30,000
The bank pays to the lubfcribers who advance
100,000 1 and engage to pay (when called
for) 900,000 1 more — — 6,500
The dear gain to the bank therefore is 23,500
This is the date of thecafe, provided the company fhould
make no call on the fubfcribers; which they will be very
unwilling to do, becaufe it would not only ieffen their pro¬
fit, but affedt the public credit in general.
Bank-flock may not improperly be called a trading flock,
fince with this they deal very largely in foreign gold and
filver, in difcounting bills of exchange, Befide* which,'
they are allowed by the government very confiderable fonts
annually for the management of the annuities paid at their
office. All which advantages render a ffiare in their flock
very valuable, though it is not equal in value to the Eafl
India flock. The company make dividends of the profits
half-yearly, of which notice is publicly given when tbofe
who have occafion for their money may readily receive it ;
but private perfons, if they judge convenient, are permitted
to continue their fund's, and to have their intereft added to
the principal.
This company is undef thediredlion ofagovernor, deputy-
governor, and 24 directors, who are annually elected by the
general court, in the fame manner as in the Eafllndiacorn
pany. Thirteen, or more, compofe a court of diredors for
managing the aff irs of the corapany.
The officers of this company are very numerous.
Of the South-Sea Company.
During the long war with France in the reign of queen
Anne, the payment of the failors of the royal navy being
negleded, and they receiving tickets inflead of money* Werp
frequently obliged by their neceffities to fell tbefe ticket"
to avaricious men at a difeount of 40 1. and fometimes 50 1
per cent. By this and other means the debts of the na
tion unprovided for by parliament, and which amounted to
9,471,321 1. fell into the hands of thefe ufurers. On
\vh:ch, Mr Harley, at that time chancellor of the exche
quer, and afterward earl of Oxford* propofed a fcheme to
2 ) S T O
allow the proprietors of thefe debts and deficiencies 6 1.
percent, per annum, and to inco; porate them in order to
their carrying on a trade to the Sou h-Sea ; and they were
accordingly incorporated under the title of the G ivernor and
Co'mpany of Merchants of Great Britain trading to the
South-Seas and other parts of America, and lor encou-
raging the Fiffiery, <&c.
Though this company feem id formed for the fake of com¬
merce, it is certain the mtniilry never thought lerioufly, du¬
ring the courfe of the v ar, .about making any fettlenieots on
the coad of South America, which was what flattered the'ex-
peftations of the people ; nor was it indeed ever ctrried in¬
to execution, or any trade ever undertaken by ibis compa.
ny, except the Affiento, in purfuance of the treaty of J-
trecht, for furniffiing the Spaniards with negroes, of which
this company was deprived by the late convention between
the courts of Great Britain and Spain, foon after the treaty
of Aix la Chtpelle in 1748
After this, fome other fums were lent to thegovernment
in the reign of queen Anne at 6 per cent In the third of
George I. the interell of the whole was reduced to 5 per cent,
and they advanced two millions more tothe government at the
fame interell. By rhe llatute of the 6‘hef George I it was
declared that this company might redeem all or any of the
reedeemable national debts, in confideration ol which.the
company were empowered to augment their capita! accor.
ding to the fums they fficuld difeharge : and for enabling dm
company to raife fuch fums for purchafing annuities, ex¬
changing for ready money new exchequer bills, carrying on
their trade, &c. the company m ght, by fuch means as they
ffiouid think proper, raife fudh fums of money as in a gene¬
ral court of the company ffiouid be judged neceffary. The
company were alfo impowere.d to raife money on contrafls,
bills, bonds, or obligations under their common feal, on the
credit of their capital flock. But if the tub-governor, de¬
puty-governor, or other member's of the company, ftould
purchafe lands or reyennes of he crown upon account of
the corporation, or lend money by loan or anticipation on
any branch of the revenue, other than fuch part only on
which a credit of loan was granted by parliament, fuch fob-
governor, or other member of the company, fhould forfeit
treble the value of tne money fb lent.
The fatal South Sea-fcheme, tranfadled in the year 1720,
was executed upon the lafl mentioned flatute. Toe compa¬
ny had at firfl fet out with good fuceefs, and the value of
their flock for the firfl five years had nfen fafter than that
of any other company; and his Majefly, after purchafing
10,000 1. flock, had condescended to be their governor.
Things were in this fituation, when, taking advantage of the
above flatute, the South Sea bubble was proje&ed. The
pretended defign of which was to raife a fund for carrying
on a trade to the South Seas, and put chafing annuities, &c,
paid to the other companies : and propolals were printed
and dulributed, fhewing the advantages of the defign, and
inviting perfons into it. The fum ne-efTiry for carrying it
on, together with the profits th^t were-to arife from it,
were divided into a certain number of fhares, or fubfenp-
tions, to be.purchafed by perfons difpofid to adventure there¬
in. - And the better to carry on the deception, the diredtors
engaged to make very large dividends, and adlually declared,
that every too 1 original flock would yield 50 L per an¬
num, winch occafioned fo great a rife of their (lock, that a
fhareofxool. was.fold for upward of 1 coo l. This was
S T O ( 633 ) s T O
In the month of July; but before the end of Septemberit
fell to 150 1. by which multitudes were ruined, and fuch
a fcene of ddtrefs occafioned as is fcarcely to be conceived.
But the confequences of this infamous fcheme are too well
known. We fhall pafs over-all the other tranfadfions of
this company in the reign of king George I. as not material
to oifr prefent purpoie.
By a ftatue of the 6th of his late Majefly, it was enadled,
that from and after the 24th of June 1733, the capitdftock
of this company, which amounted to 14,651,103!. 8 s. i d.
and the lhares of the refpedtivc proprietors, Ihould be divi¬
ded into four equal parts; three-fourths of which fhouldbe
converted into a jomt flock, attended with annuities, after
the rate of 4 per cent, until redemption by parliament, and
fhould be called The new South Sea annuities ; and the o
ther fourth part IhoulH remain in the company as a trading
capital flock, attended with the refldue of the annuities or
funds payable at the exchequer to the company for their
whole capital, uii redemption; and attended with the Gme
films allowed for charges of management, and with all ef-
fedis, profits of trade, debts, privileges and advantages be
longing to fhe South Sea company. That the accomptant
of the company (hould. twice every year, at Chriflm is and
midfummer, or within one month after, ftate an account
of the company’s affairs, which fhould be laid before the
next general court, in order to their decla ing a dividend
and all dividends fhouid be made put of ths dear profits,
and fhould dot exceed what the company might reafonably
divide without incurring any farther debt ; provided that
the company fhould not at any time divide more than 4 per
c?ut. per annum, until their debts were difeharged; and that
the South Sea company, and their trading flock, fhould, ex-
clufively from the new joint annuities, be liable to all the
deb's and incumbrances of the company; and that the com¬
pany fhould caufe to be kept within the city of -London, an
office and books, in whuh all transfers of the new annuities
fiiouid be entered ind figned by the party making fuch tranf-
fer, or his attorney; and the perfon to whom fuch transfer
ffiouid be made, or his attorney, flmuld underwrite his ac¬
ceptance, and no other method of transferring the annuities
Ihould be good in law
The annuities of this company, as well as the other, are
nbw reduced to 31. percent.
This company is under the direfHon of a governor, fub-
governor, deputy governor, ard 21 diredlors; but no perfon
is qualified to be governor, his Majefly excepted, unlefs fnch
governor has, in his own name and right, 5000 1. in the tra¬
ding flock; the fub governor is to have 4000 1. the deputy
30001. and a director 2000 1. in the fame flock. In every
general court, every .member having in his own name and
fight 500 1. in trading flock, hPs one vote ; if 2000 1. two
votes ; if 30001. three votes ; and if 50001. four votes.
The Eafl <ndia Cmpany, the Bank of England, and the
South Sea G mpany. pje the only incorporated bodies to
which die government is indebted, except the Million Bank,
whofe capita! is only one million, conflitutcd to purchafe the
reverfion of the long exrfiequer-orders.
The interefl of all the debts owing by the government is
now.reduced" 3 percent, excepting only the annuities for
the years 1756 and 1758, the life-annuities, and the ex¬
chequer-orders; but the South Sea company fllil continues
to divide *bur percent, onthCir prefent capital flock, which
they are enabled to do from the profits they make on the
fums allowed to them for management of the annuities paid
at, their office, and from the int-erefl of annuities which aie
not claimed by the proprietors.
As the prices of the different flocks are continually fluc¬
tuating above and below par; fo when a perfon who is uot
acquainted with tranfaClions of that nature, reach in the
papers the prices 6f flocks, where bank-flock is marked per¬
haps 127 1. India ditto 134 a 134^- South Sea ditto 97J,
6<r. he is to underfland that a tool, of thofe refpeftive
flocks fell at inch a time for thofe feveral fums.
In comparing the prices of the different flocks one with
another, it mult be remembered, that the intereftdue on
them from the time of the laft payment, is taken into the
current puce; and the feller never receives any feparate con-
dideration for it, except in the cafe of India bonds, where
the intereft due is calculated to the day of the (ale, and paid
by the purchafer over and above the premium agreed for.
But as the mtereft on the different flocks is paid at differ¬
ent times, this, if not rightly un.derftood, would lead a 'per¬
fon nor well acquainted with them into confiderable miflakes
in his computation of their value ; feme always having a
quarter’s interefl due on them more than others, which
makes an appearance of a confiderable difference in ths-
price, when m reality there is hone at all. Thus, for
inftance, old South Sea annuities fell at prefent for £. 85-J
ox £ 85. 10s. while new South Sea annuities fetch only
£ 84-^, ox £ 84 15 s. though each of them produce the
fame annual fum of £ 3 per cent, but the old annuities have
a quarter’s interefl more due on them than the new annui¬
ties, which amounts to 15 s. the exarf difference. There is,
however, one or two caufes that will always make one'fpecies
of annuities fell fomewhat lower than another, though of
the fame real value; one of which is, the annuities making
but a fmall capital, and there not being for that reafon fo
many people at all times ready to buy into it as into o-
thers where the quantity is larger; becaufe it is apprehend¬
ed, that whenever the government pays off the national^debt,
they v/ill begin with that particular fpecies of annuity the
capital of which is the fmalleft.
A flock may likewife be affe&ed bythe court of chancery;
for if that court ffiouid order the money which is under their
direflion to be laid out in any particular flock, that flock,
by having more purchafers, will be railed to a higher price
than any other of the like value.
By what has been find, the reader will perceive how much
the credit and intereft of the nation depends on the fupport
of the public funds. While the annuities, and interefl for
money advanced, is there regularly paid, and the principal
infuredby both prince and people (a fecurity not to be had
in other nations) foreigners will lend us their property, and
all Europe be interefted in our welfare ; the paper of the
companies will be converted into money and merchandize,
and Great Britain can never want cafh to can y her fchemes
into execution
In other nations, credit is founded on the word of the
the prince, if a monarchy; or that of the people, if a re¬
public : but here, it is eitabhffied on the interefts of
prince and people; which is the ftrongeft fecurity: for how¬
ever lovely and engaging honefty may be in other relpedfs,
interefl in money-matters will always obtain confidence; be¬
caufe many people pay great regard to their intereft, who,
have but little veneration for virtue.
Stock t,.
S T O ( *34 ) S T O
Stocks, among (hip-carpenters, a frame of timber, and
great pofts, made afhore, to build pinnaces, ketches, boats,
and ftich fmall craft, and fonretimes fmail frigates.
Hence we fay, a (hip is on the (locks, when (he is a-
biiildihg.
Stock s, a wooden machine to put ihe legs of offenders in,
for the fecuring of diforderly perfons, and by way of
punifhment in divers cafes, ordained by (latute,
STOEBE, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polygamia
fegregata clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ; the pap¬
pus is feathered ; and every flofcule has a five-leaved
calix. There is but one fpecies, a native of ^Ethiopia.
STOICS, a fedt of ancient philofophers, the followers of
Zeno, thus called from the Greek stoa, whichfignifies a
porch or portico, in regard Zeno ufed to teach under a
portico or piazza.
To the praife of the Stoics in general, it mud be con-
feffed, that, lefs intent than other philofophers upon fri¬
volous and often dangerous fpeculations, they devored
their (ludies to the clearing up of thole great principles
of morality which were the firmed fupports of fociety ;
bin fhe drynefs and diffnefs that prevailed in their wri¬
tings, as well as in their manners, difguded mod of their
readers, and abundantly leffened their utility. Zeno’s chief
followers, among the Greeks, were Lucippus, Cleanthes,
Chryfippias, Diogenes Babylonius, Antipater, Panaetius,
Poffidonius, and Epidletus ; among the Ramans, Cato,
Varro, Cicero, Seneca, theemperor Antoninus, <bc. The
Stoics cultivated h gic, phyfics, metaphyfics, drr. but efpe-
ciallyethics. The prnciplesof theirdogmata, of the former
kinds, are, that there are certain catalepfiasor comprehen-
dons, called innate ideas or principles, naturally found in
the mind; that God is the fetninal caufe of the univerfe ;
and, with the Platonids, that the world is an animal, by
reafon of God’s inhabiting and informing every part there¬
of; that nature is an artificial fire tending to generation;
and that the world is at lad to be dedroyed by a confla¬
gration, As for the morality of the Stoics, it was couched
much in paradoxes ; as, that a wife man is void of all paffi.
ons, or perturbation of mind; that pain is no real evil, but
that a wife man is happy in the midd of torture, is always
the fame, and is always joyful ; that there is none elfe
free; that none elfe ought to be edeemed king, magi-
drate, poet, or philofopher ; that all wife men are great
men ; that they are the only friends or lovers ; that no¬
thing can happen to them beyond their expectations; that
all virtues are infenfibiy connected together; that all good
things are equal, and equally to be defired ; that good-
nefs admits of no increafe or diminution. They own but
one God, whom they however call by various names,
as Fate, Jupiter, <bc. by which they did not mean vari¬
ous things, but various powers and relations of the fame
thing. Providence they expreffed under the name Fate,
which Chryfippus defines to be a natural feries or com-
pofition of things mutually following each other, by an
immutable nexus or tie, fixed from all eternity. They
held the immortality of the foul.
STOKEGOMER, a market-town of Somerfetdrire, fitua-
ted twenty.two miles wed of Wei's.
STOKESLY, a market-town of Yorkfhire, fituated thirty
miles north of York.
STOLBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and territory of Thuringia, fifty-eight miles
north-wed of Leigfic.
STOLE, a facerdotal ornament wore by the Romifli parifli-
prieds over their furplice, as a mark of fuperionty in
their refperiive churches ; and by other prieds,’ over the
alb, at celebrating of mais, in which caie it goes a-cro(s
the domach , - and by deacons, over the left (houlder,
fcatf-wife ; when the pried reads the gofpel for any one,
he lays the bottom of his dole on his head. The dole
is a broad fwath, or dip of (luff, hanging from the neck
to the feet, with three erodes thereon.
Groom of /A? Stole, the elded gentleman of his Majedy’s
bed chamber, whofe office and honour it is to prefent
and put on his majedy’s fird garment, or (htrt, every
morning, and to order the things in the chamber.
Order of the Stole, an order of knights indituted by the
kings of Arragon. Another military order, 'at Venice,
is called the order of the golden dole ; thus called from
a golden Hole, which thofe knights wore over their
(houlder, reaching to the knee, both before and behind,
a palm and a half broad. None are ratfed to this order
but patricians, or noble Venetians.
STOMACH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 258.
STOMACHIC, in pharmacy, medicines that tlrengthen
the domach, and promote digedion, tec.
Stomachic corroboratives are fuch as drengthen the
tone of the domach and intedines; among which are car¬
minatives, as the roots of galangals, red gentian, zedoary,
pimpinella, calamus, aromaticus, and arum. Of barks
and rinds, thofe of canella alba, (affafras, citrons, Seville
and China oranges, tec. Of fpices, pepper, ginger,
cloves, cinnamon, cardamums, and mace.
STONES, in natural hidory, are defined to be effentially
compound foffiis, not inflammable, nor foluble in water
or oil, nor at all duftile; found in continued drata, or beds,
of great extent; formed either of a congeries of fmall par¬
ticles, in fome degree refemblingfand, and lodged in a fmoo-
ther cementitious matter; or elfe of this cementitious matter,
and the grin or fand-like particles, running together into
one fmooth mafs; dr, finally, of granules cohering by con-
ta£I, without any cementitious matter among them; orcom-
pofed of crydal or fpar, ufually debafed by earth, and often
mixed with talc and other extraneous particles.
Of this clafs of foffiis there are three orders ; and un¬
der thefe, eight genera.
The fird order comprenends all the coarfe, harffi, and
rough dones, of a lax texture, and compofed of a vifible
grin, refembliflg fand in form, and ufually immerfed in
a cementitious matter, and of little natural brightnefs ;
fcarce capable of any poliffi, and naturally mouldering a-
way in form of powder from the tools of the workmen.
The genera of this order are two, viz. the ammochida
and pfaduria ; the former of which conditute our grey
and rough fiites; and the latter comprehends mod of the
dones ufed in building, particularly Portland done.
The fecond order confids of dones moderately fine,
of a more compadt and even texture, fcarce didinguiffi-
able condrudlion, and affording no fand-like particles to
the view': of fome natural brightnefs, capable of a tole¬
rable poliffi, and flying off from the tools of the workmen
in form of fmall chips. Under this order are compre¬
hended the fympexia and degania.
S T O ( 035 ) S T O
The third order cor.fifts of ftoces of a very fine fub-
flance and elegant ftruftnre, naturally of a great bright-
nefs; and capable of an elegant polifh ; compofed of
grannies of various Ihapes and but ufually flattifli,
fometimes more, lenktimes lefs diftmd ; and, in fome
fpecies, running together into uniform maffes, but never
lodged in any cementitious fubdance Of this order are
the marbles, alabaiters, porphyries, and granites.
Stone in the bladder. See Medicine, and Surgery.
Stone alfo denotes a certain quantity or weight of fome
commodities.
A ftone of beef, at London, is the quantity of eight
pounds ; in Hertfordfhire, twelve pounds; in Scotland,
fixteen pounds.
Stone chatter, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
STONEHENGE, in antiquity, a famed pile or monu¬
ment of huge ftones on Salifbury plain, fi# miles diftant
from that city.
It corfifts of the remains of four ranks of rough {tones,
ranged one within another, fome of them, efpecially in
the outermoft and third rank, twenty feet high, and
feveh broad ; fuftaining others laid acrofs their heads,
and fattened by mortifes ; fo that the whole mutt have
anciently hung together.
Antiquaries are now pretty well agreed that it was a
Britifh temple ; and Dr Langwith thinks it might eafily
be made probable, at leaft, that it was dedicated to the
fun and moon. Inigo Jones has given a fine fcheme;of
the work, and ftrives hard to perfuade the world, that
it was Roman : but Dr Langwith, who took his mea-
fures on the fpot, affures us he could by no means_recon-
cile them with that fcheme.
STONEY stratford, a market-town of Buckingham-
fhire, fourteen miles north of Ailettmry.
STOOL, in medicine, an evacuation or difeharge of the
faeces, <bc. by the anus.
STOPPER, in a fhip, a piece of cable-laid rope, having a
wale-knot at one end, with a laniard fattened to it; and
the other end is fpliced round a thimble in the ring-bolts
upon deck, and at the bits : its ufe is to ftop the cable,
that it may not run out too faft ; in order to which, they
make turns with the laniard about the cable, and the wale-
knot flops it, fo that it cannot flip away fatter than is
neceflary.
STORAX, or Styrax, in natural hiflory, a dry and folid
refin, of a reddifn colour, and a peculiarly fragrant fmell ;
of which there are two kinds, the ftyrax calamita, or
ftyraxin tears, and the ttyrax vulgaris; whereof the for¬
mer is by far the purer and finer kind, imported in fmall
loofe granules, or elfe in large mattes compofed of fuch
granules : it anciently ufed to be packed up in reeds, for
the more feciire carriage ; whence the name. The com¬
mon ftorax is likewife a fine and pure refin, tho igh lefs
fo than the former ; and is brought to us in large lumps,
not formed of granules, but of one uniform confiftence.
Thefe are the two genuine kinds of ftorax ; but nei¬
ther of .them is that met with in our‘(hops, which is a
kind of faw-duft connetfed into lumps, by juft fo much
of the ftorax refin as will make the other matters hang
together. This is what our apothecaries ufe, under .the
name of ftorax ; but it is advifeable,‘to ftrain carefully
the pure refin from the filth, and ufe no part of the latter.
The two genuine kinds of floras, which ought always
Vol. III NO 95. 2
to be ufed where they can be had, differ only in this ;
that the granulated ftorax flows naturally from the ftyraX
tree, and the common kind is obtained from the fame tree
by incifion.
Storax is brought to us from Syria, and the Eafl-In-
dies ; and ought to be chofen pure, very fragrant, and
of an acid tafte. It is much recommended as a detergent
and balfamic, in diforders of the,breaft t it is alfo elk" ru¬
ed a cordial, and is recommended in vertigoes and o-
ther diforders of the head and nerves.
Liquid Storax, in pharmacy, is a drug very different
from the refin above deferibed ; being a relinous juice,
of the confiftence of venice-turpentine, or thicker : it is,
when clean, pellucid, of a brownifti dolour, with a caft
fometimes of reddifh, and fometimes of greyifli in it. Its
fmell is fomewhat like that of common ftorax, only much
ftronger, and even difagreeable : its tafte is acrid, aro¬
matic, and fomewhat bitterifh ; and it is oily, or umflu-
ous. It fhould be ehofen thin, pellucid, of a clean brown
colour, and of a very ftrong fmell.
STORGE, a greek term, frequently ufed for the parental
inftind, or natural affedion, which almoft all animals
bear their young ; whereby they are moft powerfully
moved to defend them from dangers, and procure for
them fuitable nourifliment.
STORK, in ornithology. SeeARDiA.
STORM bird. See Procellaria.
STORMAR, the fouth divifion of Holftein, whereof Ham¬
burgh is the chief town.
STORTFORD, a market-town of Hertfordfliire, thirty
miles north of London.
STOVES, in gardening, are buildings ereded for the pre-
fervation of tender exotic plants, which, without that
affiftance, wfill not bear the cold of our winter, becaufe
they require an artificial warmth.
Stoves are of two kinds, diftinguiftied by the names of
the dry and the bark-ftoves.
The dry ftote has the flues, in which the fmoke is
carried, either laid under the pavement of the floor, of
ereded in the back part of the houfe over each other, and
returned fix or eight times all along the ftove. In thefe
ftoves the plants are placed on fcaffolds, and benches of
boards, railed above one another ; and the plants prin¬
cipally preferved in thefe are the aloes, cerufes, eu-
phorbiums, tithymals, and other fucculent plants, which
are impatient of moifture in winter, and therefore are not
to be kept among trees, or herbaceous plants, which per-
fpire freely.
The bark-ftoves are made with a large pit, nearly of
the length of the houfe, which is three feet deep, and
fix or feven feet wide. This pit is to be filled with fretti
tanner’s bark to make a hot-bed, and in this the pots
containing the tender plants are to be plunged.
STOURBRIDGE, a market-town, nineteen miles north
of Worcefter.
STOUTH-rief, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 30.
STOW, a market-town, twenty miles eaft of Gioceftcr.
STOWAGE, in the fea-language, the placing goods or¬
derly in the hold of a fhip, viz. the hxeavieft next the
ballaft,
STOWEY, a market-town of Somerfetftiire, eighteen miles
weft of Wells.
STOW MARKET, a town of Suffolk, ten miles eaft of Bury.
7 X STRA-
S T H ( 636
STRABISMUS, sctuiNTisc, a diftortion of the ejes,
whereby their pupils are turned from, inltead of being
directed towards, objedts at which they look : fometimes
only one eye, but more frequently both are thus affedted.
See Medicine, p. 155.
STRAIN, in furgery, a riolent extenfion of the finews, or
tendons, of fome mufcle.
STRAIT, is a narrow paffage out of one fea into another,
as thofe of Gi^riltar and Magellan.
STRAKES, in the fea-language, lignify the uniform ranges
of planks on the bottom, decks, and (ides of lh;ps ; and
the garboard-drake is that next the keel.
STRALSUND, a ftrong city and port-town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony and duchy of Pomerania,
fubjeft to Sweden: E. long. 130 22', and N lat. 540 23'.
STRAND, fignjfies any {here of the fea, or bank of a great
river : hence an immunity from paying culloms on goods
or veflels, was anciently expreffed by (trand and ftream.
STRANDED, among feamen, is faid of a (hip that is
driven afhore by a temped, or runs on ground through
ill Iteerag'-, and fo perifhes,
STRANGFORD, a town of Ireland, that gives name
to a loch and bay in the county of Down and province
of Ulfter, fituated nine miles call of Down.
STRANGURY, in medicine a fupprelTxon of urine. See
Medicine, p. 160.
STRANRAER, a parliament-town of Scotland, fituated
in the (hire of Galloway, on a bay of the frith of Clyde.
STRAPS 0/a faddle, are (Irong leather-thongs, nailed to
the bows of a laddie, in order to make the girths, ebc.
fad.
STRAP ADO, a kind of military punidiment, wherein the
criminal is hoided up by a rope, and let down, fo that,
by the weight of his body incite fall, his arms are dif-
located
STRASBURG, a free imperial city of Germany, capital
of the landgraviate of Allace, fituated near the wedern
bank of the Rhine, in E. long. 70 35',- and N lat. 48°
r' 38'- •
STRATA, in natural hidory, the feveral beds or layers of
different matters, whereof the body of the earth is com-
pofed.
The drata include all the layers of earths, minerals,
metals, dones, <bc. lying under the upper tegument, or
ftratum, the turf or mould.
The time when thefe feveral drata were laid, was
doubtlefs at the creation ; unlefs, with fome great natu-
rahdst as Steno, Dr. Woodward, we fuppofe the
globe of the eauth to have been diflblved by the deluge.
STRATAGEM, in the art of war, any device for the de¬
ceiving and lurprifing an enemy.
STRAFEGUS, in Grecian antiquity, an annual officer a-
mong the Athenians, whereof there were two chofen, to
command the troops of the date.
STRAFFORD, a populous market town of Warwickffiire,
fituared on the river Avon, fix m les fouth of Warwick ;
remarkable tor being the birth-plac. of the inimitable
Shakefpeare, and lately for the Jubilee held there in ho¬
nour of his memory, September 1769.
STRA 1 HNAVER, a fubdivifion or diltridl of the county
01 Sutherland, in Scotland, having the Caledonian ocean
on the north and weft.
STRA i IFICATION, in chemiftry, the ranging any thing
} S T R
to be calcined in feveral layers or ftrata one above an¬
other.
STRA FIOTES, in botany, a genus of the polyandria hex-
agynia clafs. The (patha canfids of two leaves, and the
periaathium of three fegments ; the corolla has three pe¬
tals, and the berry h.<.s lix cells. Tnere are two fpecies,
oneofihem, o/z. the abides, water-aloe, or £re(h*water
foklier, a native of Britain.
STRA F TON, a m irxct-town of Cornwal, fituated a little
loutn ot the Bnltoi channel, Jourtcen miles north-weft
of Launceftun.
STRAWBERRY, in botany. See Fragaria.
Strawberry tree, in botany See Arbutus.
S1 RENG i H, in piiyfiobgy, me iame wnii io, a. or power.
STR.ENGTHENERo, m ph artnacy, medicines that add
to the bulk ana hrmnels ot ttie iohds: ana mch are all
abforbent, aggluunant, and adringent medicines.
SlRIeE, in the ancient architGruie, the lame with the flu-
tings oi columns See Flutes.
STRIA FED leaf, among boiamlts, one that has a number
ot longitudinal .arrows on its lurface.
STRiGONENSIS terra, earth of Strigomum, in the
materia medica, a red earth, of the boie kind, found a-
bout the gold-mines at S.rigonium in Hungary, ana ufed
in fome places as an adringent and fudorific.
It is but of a coarle and impure texture, and lighter
than mod of the boles in colour; n is of a Itrpng, but
dull red, and is of a tolerably imooth inrface ; it is apt
to crumble to pieces between the fingers, and dams the
diin in handling; it melts freely in the mouth, and has a
remarkable fmoothneis, but very little adringency in its
taite, and leaves a fenfible grminefs between the leech ;
it is lometimes veined and Ipotted with iimall moleculas of
an earth, like the whitiih variegations of the red French
bole.
STRIKE, a meafuremf capacity, containing foar buffiels.
Strike, among feamen, is a word varioudy ufed : w&en a
(hip, in a fight, or on meeting with a ihip of war, jets
down or lowers her top-fails, at lead half-mall high, they
fay (he (Inkes, meaning (he yields, or fubmits, or pays
relpett to the (hip of war. Alfo, when a (hip touches
ground, in ffioal-water, they fay (he (trikes. An > when
a top-mad is to be taken down, the word of command is,
Strike the top-mad, 'tic.
STRIX, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of
accipttres. The bill is hooked, but has no cere or wax ;
the noltnls are covered with letaceous leathers ; the head
is very large, as are alio the ears and eyes ; and the tongue
is bihd. There are twelve fpecies, comprehending all
the owl-kind. They are night-birds, and feed upon mice,
b.its, tc.
STROBiLUS, among botanids. See Botany, p. 637.
STROMA FEUS, in ichthyology, a genus oeiongmg to
the order.of apodes. The head is compreffed, the teeth
are in the jaws gnd palate; the body is oval, and fltsny;
and the tail is forked There are two fpecies.
SFROMBOLI, one of the Lipan tdands, fifty miles north
ot Mt.ffina. -
STRONGOLI, a town of the Hither Calabria, in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated on the gulph of Taranto.
ST ROPHE, in anef-nt poetry, a certain number of verfes,
m -iuu.rg a p'erfedl'.enfe. and making the firft part of anode.
STROUD, a market-town, nine miles fouth of Gloceder.
STRUMAS,
STY ( 637 ) SUB
STRUMiE, fcrophnlous tumours arifing on the neck and
thr. at, conftituting what is commonly called the king’s
evil See Medicine, p. 137, &c.
ST RUTHIO,'the ostrich, in ornithology, a genus be-
longing to the order of grallse. The bill is fomewhat co¬
nical ; the noftrils are oval; the wings are Ihort, and not
fit for flying ; and the feet are of the running kind.
There are three fpecies The cameluf, or common ofthch,
is a native of Syria, Arabia, Lybia, and Africa. This
is the largeft ot all birds ; it runs fwifter than any ani¬
mal; it lays about 50 eggs in the fand, and fits upon
them ohly during the night, the heat of the fun being
fuflicient during the day.
STRYCHNOS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia ctafs. The corolla confifls of five legments; and
the berry has but one cell. - There are two Ipecies, both
natives of Britain,
STUCCO, in building, a compofition of white marble,
pulverized and mixed with plaiter of lime ; and the whole
being fifted and wrought up with water, is to be ufed i ke
common plafter: ;his is what Pliny means by marmora-
tum'opus, and albariutn opus.
STUFF, in commerce, a general name for all kinds of fa-
bricks of gold, filver, filk, wool, hair, cotton, or thread,
manufadtured on the loom ; of which number ace velvets,
brocades, mohairs, fattins, taffeties, cloths, lerges, 6c.
STUM, in the wine-trade, denotes the unfermenteo jiaice
of the grape, after it has been feverai times racked off
and feparated from its fediment. The calks are; for this
purpole, well matched, or fumigated with brimftone e-
very time, to prevent the liquor from fermenting, as it
would otherwiie readily do, and become wine.
STUPOR, a numbnefs in any part of the body, whether
oecalioned by ligatures obitrudting the blood’s motion, by
the palfy, or the I ke.
STUPH-'U or Stupe, in medicine, is a piece of cloth
dipped in feme proper liquor, and applied to an affedted
part, by way of fomentation or epithem.
STURGEON. See Accipenser.
STURMINSTER, a market town, eighteen miles north
ot Dorcheftei.
STURNUS, the starling, in ornithology, a genus be¬
longing 10 the order of pafleres. The beak is tubulated,
deprtfled, and forhewhat blunt; the fuperior mandiole is
entire, and lomewhat open at the edges ; the noflrils are
marginated above; and the tongue s flis p and emargi-
nated. There are five fpecies, uittioguilhcj by the.r co
lour.
STYLE, a word of various fignifications, originally dedu¬
ced from stylos, a kind of bodkin, wherewith the an¬
cients wrote on plates of lead, or on wax, 6c. and which
is ftill ufed to write on ivory-leaves, and paper prepared
for that purpofe, 6c.
Style, in dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a dial,
raifed on the plane thereof, to project a lhadow. See
D I ALLING.
Style, in botany. See Botany, p, 637.
Style, in matters of language, a particular manner of ex¬
prefling one’s thoughts agreeably to the rules of fyntax ;
j or, as F. Buffi r more accurately defines it, the manner
wherein the words, conftrufted aacording to the laws of
fyntax, are arranged amonguhemfelves, notably to .the
genius oi the language. See Composition.
Style, in jurifprudence, the particular form or manner
of proceeding in each court of jurifdidlion, agreeable to
the rules and orders eflabliflied therein : thus we fay the
ftyle of the court of Rome, of Chancery* of Parliament,
of the Privy'council, 6c.
Style, the Julian manner, of computing time, as the-
iVcw Style is the Gregorian method of computation.
See Astronomy, p. 490.
STYLET, a fmall dangerous kind of po^inard, which may
be concealed in the hand, chiefly ufed in treacherous aft-
faflinations. The blade is ufually triangular, and fo flen-
der that the wound it makes is almoft imperceptible.
SY YLITES, an appellation given to a kind of folitaries,
who fpend their lives feated on the tops of columns, to
be, as they imagine, the better difpofed for meditation,
6c. Of thefe we find feverai mentioned in ancient-wrs-
ters, and even as low as the eleventh century. The
founder of the order was St. Simon Stylites, a famous
anchoret in the fifth century, who took up his abode on
a column fix cubits high ; then on a fecund, of twelve
cubits a third, of twenty-two ; and, at lad, on another
of thirty-fix. The extremity of thefe columns were on¬
ly three feet in diameter, with a kind of.rail or ledge a-
bout it that reached almoft to the girdle, fomewhat re-
fembling a pulpit. There was no lying down in it. The
faquirs, or devout people of the call, imitate this extra¬
ordinary kind of life even to this day. ,
STYLOGLOSSUS, in anatomy See Anatomy, p. 304.
STYLOHYOlDaEUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
304.
STYLOIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. ijj.
STYLOPHARYNG4EUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy,.
P 3°4
STYPTIC; in pharmacy, medicines which by their aftrirv-
gent qualities (top haemorrhages.
S t YRAX, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria mono-
gynia clafs The Calix confilts of five teeth, and the c»-
rolla of one funnei-fhaped petal ; and the drupa has one
cell, containing two feeds. There is but one fpecies, a .
native of Syria. See Sitorax
SUBAL i ERN, a iubordinate officer, or one who difehar-
ges bis poff under the command, and fubjedt to the direc¬
tion of another : fuch are lieutenants, fub-iieutenants,
coronets and enfigns, who ferve under the captain.
SUBBUTEO. in ornithology. See Falco.
SUBCLAVIAN, in aoatomy, is applied to any thing un¬
der the arm-pit or fhqulder, whether artery, nerve, vein,
o, muficle.
SUBCOSTAL muscles. See Anatomy, p. 215.
SUBER, in botany. See Quercus. .
SUBJECT, a perfon under the rule and dominion of a fc-
vereign pr.nce or date.
Subject, is alfo uled for the matter-of. an art or fciencs>,
or that which it confiders, or whereon it is employed :
thus the human body is the fubjeifl of medicine,
SUBJUNC ’IVE in grammar. See Grammar.
SUBLIM ATE, a chemical preparation, the halts whereof
is mercury or quick-iilver. See Ghemis-; ry, p. 138.
SUBLIMATION, the condenfin'g and collefiihg ;in a (olid
fonn, by means of vtffels aptly confirufted. the fumes of
bodies railed from them by the application of a proper
heat. See Chemi stry, p. 138.
SUBLINGUAL glands. See Anatomy, p. ;o.7-
SUB MIS*-
sue ( ) S U G
"SUBMISSION, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxii. 15.
. SUBORDINATION, a relative term, expreffing the de¬
gree of inferiority between one thing and another.
SUBORNATION 6f perjury, in S.eots law. See
Law, Tit. xxxiii. 35.'
SUBPOENA, inlaw, a writ whereby all common perfons,
or thofe under the degree of peerage, may be called in¬
to chancery, in any cafe where the law cannot afford a
remedy.
SUBREPTIQN, the adt of obtaining'a favour from a fu-
perior. by furprife or a falfe reprefentation.
SUBREPTITIOUS, a term applied to a letter, licence,
patent, or other adf, fraudulently obtained of a fuperior,
by concealing fome truth, which, had it been,known,
would have prevented the concellion or grant.
SUBROGATION, in the civil law, the adt of fubftituting
a perfon in the place, and entitling him to the rights of
another.
SUBSCAPULARIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 196.
SUBSCRIPTION, in general, fignifies the lignature put
' at the bottom of a letter, writing, or inftrument.
SUBSEQUENT, fomething that comes after another,
particularly with regard to the order of time
SUBSIDY, in law, fignifies an aid or' tax granted' to the
king, by parliament, for the neceffary occafions of the
kingdom ; and is to be levied on every fubjedl of ability,
according to the rate or value of his lands or goods: but
this word, in fome of our ftatutes, is confounded with
. that of cuftoms.
SUBSISTENCE, in the military art, is the money paid
to the foldiers weekly, not amounting to their full pay ;
becaufe their cloaths, accoutrements, tents, bread,
are to be paid.
SUBSTANCE, fomethisg that we conceive to fubfift of
itfelf, independently of any created being, or any parti¬
cular mode or accident. See Metaphysics.
SUBSTANTIAL, in thefchools, fomething belonging to
the nature of fubftance.
SUBSTANTIVE, in grammar. See Grammar.
SUBSTITUTE, a perton appointed to officiate for ano¬
ther, in cafe of abfence or other legal impediment.
SUBSTITUTION, in the civil-law, a difpofition of a te*
/lament, whereby the teftator fubllitutes one heir for a-
nother, who has only the ufufruit, and not the property
of the thing left him.
SUBSTRACTION, inarithmetick. SeeArithmetick,
p. 370. •
Substractiqn, in algebra. See Algebra, p. 81.
SUBTENSE, in geometry, the fame with the chord of an
arch. See Chord.
SUBTERRANEOUS, whatever is under-ground : thus,
naturalifts fpeak of fubterraneous fires, damps, drc.
SUBTILE, in phyfics, an appellation given to whatever
is extremely fmall, fine, and delicate ; fuch as the ani- ,
v mal fpirits, the-effluvia of odorous bodies, &c. are fup-
pofed to be.
SUBULARIA, in botany, a genus of the tetradyn&mia
filiculofa clafs. The pod is entire, oval, with oval con¬
cave valves ; and the flylus is (hotter than the pod.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the aquatica, or awl-wort,
a native of Britain.
SUBULATED, fomething in the fltape of an awl.
SUCCEDANEUM, in pharmacy, denotes a drug fubfli-
tufed in the place of another, in medical compofition.’
SUCCESSION, in pbilofophy, an idea which we get by
refleAing on that tram of ideas conftantly following one
another in our minds when awake.
Succession, in Scots law. See" Law, Tit. xxvii. i,
&c. xxviii. 1, &c.
SUCCESSOR, in law, one that facceeds, or comes in the
place of another. '
SUCCINUM, in natural hiflory. See Amber.
SUCC1SA, in botany. See Scabiosa.
SUCCORY, in botany. See Cichorium.
SUCCUBUS, a term ufed by fome imaginary writers, for
a daemon who affumes the fhape of a woman, and as fuch
lies with a man ; in which fenfe, it flands oppofed to in¬
cubus, which was a daemon in form of a man, that they
luppofed to lie with a woman.
But the truth is, the fuccubus is only a fpecies of the
incubus, or night-mare. See Mtdicine, p. 157.
SUCCULA, in mechanics, a bare axis, or cylinder, with
(laves to move it round ; but without any tympanum or
peritrochium.
SUCCULENT plants, thofe whofe leaves are thick, and
abound with juice.
SUCHUEN, a province of China, bounded by that of
Xenli on the north, by Honam and Huquam on the eaft,
by Quecheu and Yunam on the fouth. and by the moun¬
tains of India on the wed: its chief town is Chingtu.
SUCKERS, in gardening, the fame with off-fets. See
Off sets.
SUCTION, the aft of fucking or drawing up a fluid, as
air, water, milk, or the like, by means of the mouth
and lungs. See Pneumatics, and Hydrostatics.
SUDATORY, a name given by the ancient Romans to their
hot or fweating-rooms; fometimes alfo called laconica.
SUDBURY, a borough-town of Suffolk, thirteen miles
fouth of Bury. It (ends two members to parliament.
SUDORIFIC, an appellation given to any medicine that
caufes or promotes fweat.
SUEZ, a port-town of Egypt, fituated at the bottom of
the Red-fea, feventy miles cafl of Cairo : it is from this
town that the ifthmus of Suez, which joins Africa to
Afia, takes its name.
SUFFOCATION, in medicine, the privation of refpira-
tion, or breathing; which is fometimes occafioned by a
congeftion of blood in the lungs, fo as to prevent the in-
grefs of the air.
SUFFOLK, a county of England, bounded by*Norfolk
on the north, by the Germun-fea on the eaft, by Eflex,
from which it is feparated by the river Maningtree, on
the fouth, and by Cambndgelhiie on the weft ; being
fixty two miles long, and twenty-eight broad.
SUFFRAGAN, an appellation given to fimple biftiops, with
refpeft to archbifliops, on whom they depend, and to
whom appeals lie from'the bifhbps courts.
SUFFRAGE, denotes a vote given in an affembly, where
fomething is deliberated on, or where a perfon is ekdled
to an office or benefice.
SUFFRUTEX, among botanifts, denotes an under-fhrub,
or the lowed kind of woody plants, as lavender, rue. frc.
SUGAR, in natural hiftory, is properly the effential fait of
the fugar-cane, as tartar is of the grape. See Chemi¬
stry p. 161. and Saccharum.
This plant rifes to tight, nine, or more feet high ; the
ftalk.
S U G
ftalk, or cane, being round, jointed,, and two or three
inches in diameter at the bottoift': the joints are three or
four inches afunder, and in a rich foil more : the leaves
are long and narrow, and of a yellowifh green colour;
as is alfo the ftalk itfelf, the top of which is ornamented
with a panicle, or clufter of arundinacecus flowers, two
or three feet in length.
They propagate the fugar-cane, by planting cuttings
of it in the ground in furrows, dug paraMel for that pur-
pofe; the cuttings are laid level and even, and are co¬
vered up with earth ; they foon fhoot out new plants from
their knots or joints : the ground is to be kept clear, at
times, from weeds ; and the canes grow fo quick, that in
eight, ten, or twelve months, they are fit to cut for
making of fugar from them. The manner of doing it is
thus : They cut off the reeds at one of the joints near the
roots ; they are then cleared of the leaves, and tied up
in bundles, and fent to the mills, which are worked ei¬
ther by water or horfes.
The fugar-mill is compofed of three rollers of an equal
fize, and all armed with iron-plates, where the canes are
to pafs between them; only the middle roll^is much
higher than the reft, to give the larger fweep to?*the two
poles to which the horfes are yoked. This great roller
in the middle is furnifhed with a cog full of teeth, which
catch the notches in the two fide-rollers, and force them
about to bruife the canes, which pafs quite round the
great roller, and come out dry and fqueezed from all
their juice; which runs into a veftel or ba ;k under the
mill, and is thence conveyed through a narrow fpout into
the fir ft boiler.
After the juice is Jet out of the firft veffel, it is recei¬
ved into another; in which it is boiled more brifldy, and
fcummed from time to time with a large kind of fpoon,
pierced with holes to let the liquor through, while it
retains the fcum and foulnefs feparated from it in boil¬
ing: towards the end of this boiling, they throw into it
a ftrong lixivium of wood-alhes, with fome q|fick-lime
among it: this greatly promotes the feparation of the
foulnefs that yet remains amongft it; and, after it has
boiled fome time with this addition, they ftrain it off.
The faeces left in the cloths make a kind of wifle, when
fermented properly with water. The ftrained liquor,
which is now tolerably clean, is let into a third boiler,
in which it is boiled down to the confiftence of fugar o-
ver a very brilk fire, the people who attend it continually
ftirrirfg and fcumming it.
Great caution is to be ufed that the boiling matter does
not rife over the Tides of the veffel, which would be of
very dangerous confequence : they prevent this by taking
up quantities of th& boiling matter with a ladle, lifting it
up high, and letting it run in again, and by now' and then
adding a fmall piece of butter, or fat of fbme kind, which
takes down the bubbling almoft inftantaneoufly. They
are very careful that no lemon-juice, or any other acid
of that kind, comes near the veffels, a ».-ry fmall ad¬
mixture of that being fufficient to keep the matter from
granulating. When the bquor is boiled enough, which
is known by its concreting on throwing a fpoonful of it
up into the air, it is then let out into a fourth veffel, un¬
der which there is a very gentle fire, only kept up that
it may have leifure to granulate ; when it has begun to
granulate, it is let out-of this laft boHer into a kind of
Vol. HI. M° 95, 2
S U I
conic earthen veffels, open at both ends ; the wideft a-
perture is placed upwards, and the fmaller end downwards,
its aperture being flopped with a wooden plug. It is left
in thefe veffels twenty-four hours to concrete: after this
they are removed into fugar-houfes, and are there arran¬
ged in regular order, with a veffel of earthen-ware under
each ; the plug is then taken out of the bottom aperture of
each, and they are left in this condition for about forty days,
that all the thick liquor, or melaffes, may run from them :
after they have flood thus long to drain of themfelves, a
quantity of clay is diluted, with water, into a thin pafte ;
and this is poured on the top of every parcel of fugar in
t the veffels, fo as to cover it two or three inches deep.
This water, by degrees, all leaves the clay, and pene¬
trating into the mafs of fugar, runs through it, and car¬
ries off yet more of this foal thick liquid with it, into
the veffeis placed underneath to receive it.
When the clay is quite dry, it is taken off, and the
firft preparation of the fugar is now finifhed; they ftiake
it out of the veffels , and, cutting it into lump?, which
are of a dirty, browmfh, or greyilh colour, they put it
up in hoglheads, and other calks, under the name of grey
or brown fugar. The fugar, in this ftate, ought to be
dry, not undluous,. and to have qo tafte of burning. The
liquor which has run from the fugar in ftanding, is boded
to a confiftence, and fold under the name of mel^lVs. or
treacle ; this affords, by fermentation, a very clean and
good fpirit.
This coarfe fugar is afterwards refined to various de¬
grees of purity by new folutions, and is fold at different
prices, and under different names, according to the de¬
gree of purity it is brought to. Our fugar refiners firft
diffblve it in water, then clarify the folution by boiling
with whites of eggs and defpumation ; and after due eva¬
poration pour it into moulds ; where the fluid part being
drained off, and the fugar concreted, its furface is cover¬
ed with moift clay, as before. The fugar thus once re¬
fined, by repetition of the procefs becomes the double-
refined fugar of thclhops. The candy.fugar, or that in
cryftals, is prepared by boiling down folutions of fugar to
a certain pitch, and then removing them into a hot room,
with flicks placed acrofs the veffel for the fugar to Ihoot
upon : and thefe cryftals prove of a white or brown co¬
lour, according as the fugar ufed in the procefs was pure
or impure.
SUGILLATION, in medicine, an extravafation of blood
in the coats of the eye, which at firft appears of a red-
dilh colour, and afterwards Jivid or black. If the dif-
order is great, bleeding and purging are proper, as are
difcutients.
SUIT, in law, is ufed in different fenfes; as, i. For an
adion, whether perfonai or real. 2. Sijit of court, or
fuit-fervice, which is an attendance the tenant ow'es to
his lord’s court. 3. Suit-covenant, where aperfon has
covenanted to do fervice in the court of the lord. 4. Suit-
cuftom, w-hich is where one and his anceftors have owed
fuit time out of mind. 5. It is ufed for a petition to the
king, or any perfon of dignity; where a lord diftrains
his tenant lot fuit, and none is due ; in this cafe, the
party may have an attachment againft him to appear in
the king’s court. 6. Suit of the king’s peace, is an ac¬
tion brought againft a perfon for bieach of the king’s peace;
as in the cafe of treafons, felonies, or trefpaffis.
7 Y SULPHUR,
( 639 )
SUP ( 640
SULPHUR. See Chemistry, p. 72, 118.
SULTAN, a title of honour, giyen to the emperor of the
Turks. The wife of a fultan is called fultana, and the
favourite one hhafeki-fultana, i. e. the private'fultana.
SUM, fignihes the quantity that anfes from the addition,
of two pr more magnitudes, numbers, or quantities to¬
gether. See A.RITHMETICK.
SUMACH, in botany. See Rhus.
SUMATRA, an ifland in the Ealt-jndian ocean, fitnated
between. 930 and :04° E. long, and between 50 3o/ N.
lat. and 50 30'S. lat. extending from north-weit to louth-
eaft, nine hundred miles long, and from one hundred to
one hundred and fifty broad.
SUMM ARY, in matters of literature. See Abridge¬
ment
SUMMER, one of the feafons of the year, commencing in
tiieie northern regions on the day the fun :nter Cancer,
and ending when he quits Virgo. See Astronomy,
P 554
SUMMIT, the top or vertex of any body, or figure; as
of a triangle, cone, pyramid, <tic.
SUMMONS, in Scots Lw. See Law, Tit. xxx. 28.
SUN, in « t ooomy. See Astronomy, p 435.
Sun-flower, in botany. See Helianthus.
£UNDA-i sl ands, thofe fituated near the (traits of Sunda,
in the Indian ocean ; the chief of which are Borneo, Ja
va, Sumatra, <bc. See Borneo, drc.
SUNDA Y, or the Lord’s-day, a folemn feftival obferved
by ChAftianp on tlie firlt day of every week, in memory
of our Saviour’s refurredbon.
This is the principal and moft noted of the Chriftian
feilivals, and was obferved with great veneration in the
ancient church, from the time of the apodles, who them-
felves are often faid to have met on that day for divine
fervice. It is likewife called the Sabbath-day, as be:ng
fublticuted in the room of the Jewilh fabbath. See
Sabbath.
The ancients retained the name Sunday, or dies folis,
ih compliance with th&ordinary forms of fpeech, the fir(t
day of the week being fo called by the Romans, becaufe
it vas.dedicated to the worfhip of the fun.
SUNDERLAND a port-town of Durham, fituated on
the Germ n lea, at the mouth of the river Ware, ten
miles north-eaft of Durham city. .
SUNTGOW, a territory in the circle of the upper Rhine
in Germany, bounded by Alface on the north ; by the
river Rhine, which divides it from the Bnfgow, on the
ea(f; by S witzerland on the fouth; and by Franche-
Compte on the weft.
SUOVETAURILI A, an ancient Roman facrifice, fo call
ed becaufe it confided of a pig (ya/J, a (heep, or rather
ram \ovis), and a bull {taurus.) They were all males,
to denote the mafeuline courage of the Roman people.
I v ts likewife.called folitaunlia, becaufe the animals of-
f red up were al -'ays (folida) whole or uncut.
SUPERCARGO, a perlon employed by merchants to go
a voyage, and overfee their cargo, or lading, and difpofa
of it.'o the bed advantage.
SUPERCILIUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 294.
SUPEREROGATION, in.theology, what a man does be¬
yond his uiy, or more than he as commanded to do.
SUPERFETA ION, a fecond, or -Her conception, hap¬
pening, when the. mother, already pregnant, conceive? of
) SUP
a latter coition ; fo that (he bears at once two feetufes of
unequal age and bulk, and is delivered of them at dif¬
ferent times. We meet with inftances of fuperfeetations
in Hippocrates, Ariftotle, Du Laurens, &c. But they
are faid to be much more frequent in hares and fows.
N..furalilis hold, that female r«ts are frequently born
with young rats in their wombs; and we are told of ex¬
traordinary inftances of this kind in the female part of
the human fpecies, by Barthohne, Mentzehus, and in
the hntory ot the Royal Academy o( Sciences.
SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in geometry, a magnitude
conftdertd as having two dimenfions; or extended in
length and breadth, but without thicknefs or depth.
SUPERt’INE, in the manufadlories, a term ufed to ex-
prefs the tuperlative fi'nenefs of a ftuff; thus a cloth, ^
camblet. &C. are laid to be fuperfine, when made of the
fined wool, or when they are the fineft that can
be made.
SUPERINTENDAN F, in the French cuftoms, an officer
whoffias the prime management and dire&ion of the fi-
nan-er or revenues of the king.
SUPERIOR, fomeihing raifed above another, or that has
a right to command another.
Superior, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. x 3.
SUPERLATIVE, in grammar, one of the three degrees
of companion, being that inflexion of nouns-adjedtive
that ferves to augment and heighten their fignification,
and (hews the quality of the thing denoted to be in the
higheftdegree. S^e Grammar.
SUPERNUMERARY, iom thing over and above a fixed
number. In ItweraLof the offices are fupernumerary
clerks, to be read) on extraordinary occafions.
SUPERSEDEAS, in law, is a writ which lies in divers
cales, and in general fignifies a command to flay fome of
the ordinary proceedings in law, which, on good caufe
(hewn, ought not to proceed. __ .
SUPERSTIFION, extravagant devotion, or religion
wrong directed or condudted.,
SUPA RVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer.
it wasfomierjy, and ftill remains, a cuftom among fome
perfons, to appoint a fupervtior of a will, to fee that the
executors thereof do punctually obferve and perform the
fame.
SUPINATION, in anatomy, the adtion of a fupinator-
mufele, or the motion whereby it'turns the hand fo as
th-it the palm is lifted up towards heaven.
SUPINATOR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 198.
SUPPLEMENT, in matters of literature, an appendage
to a nook, to fupply what is wanting therein.
SUPPORTED, in heraldry, a term applied to the upper-
permoit quarters of a ffiield when divided into feveral
quarters, thefe feeming as it were fupported^r fuftaincd
by thofe below The chief is faid to be fupported when
it is of two colours, and«he upper colour takes up two
thirds of it. In this cafe it is fupported by the colour
underneath* v
SUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figures in an atchievement
placed by the fide of the ffiidd, and feeming to fupport
or hold up the fame. Supporters are chiefly figures of
beafL f figures of human creatures, for the like purpofe,
arc properlv called tenants
SUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone, or ball, • hich
is introducedi to the anus for opening the belly, Suppo-
fitones
S U 11 (6
fitories are ufually made of foap, fugar, alum, or a piece
of talfow-candle, about the length of a man’s thumb and
the breadth of a finger, though they may be made fmal-
' ler for children, and fometimes a little thicker for adults.^
SUPPRESSION, in law, the extinftion or annihilating of
an office, right, rent, or the like.
Suppression, in medicine, is generally ufcd for a reten¬
tion of urine or the menfes. See Medicine, p 160,162.
SUPPURATION, the fecond way wherein an inflamma¬
tion terminates, being a converfion of the;nfp flared blood
and the foft adjacent parts, as the veflels and fat, into
pus, or matter: which diforder, when it has not yet
found an opening, is generally called an abfcefs. See
Medicine md Surgery.
SUPPURA riVES, or suppurating medicines, fuch
as promot- fuppuration. See the preceding article.
SUPRACOSTALES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
215.
SUPRALAPSARY, in theology, a perfon who holds that
God, without any regard to the good or evil works of
nun, has refolved, by an eternal degree, to fave lome
and damn oihers. Thefe are alfo called antelapfaries,
arid are oppofed to fublapfaries and infralapfaries.
SU PR ASPINATUS, in anatomy. See An atomy, p. 196.
.SUPREMACY, the fupenority or fovereignty of the king.
SURAT, a city and port-town of Hither India, in the
province of Quzura.i, or Cambaya, fuuated on the river
S U R
|i ) S U R
Tapte, ten miles eaft of th^Indian fea : in E, long. 72^
20', N. lat. 210 30'.
SURCHARGE, the lame with overcharge, and whatever
is aboveAhat which is juft and right.
SURCOAT, a coat of arms to be worn over the body ar¬
mour.
-The, furcoat is properly a loofe thin taffaty coat, with
arms embrodered or painted on it, fuch as'is worn by
heralds : anciently alfo ufed by military men over their
armour, to diftinguiflitbemfelves by.
SURCULUS, in the anatomy of plants, a word ufed to
exprefs that part of the branching of the ribs of a leaf,
which is of a middle kind betwixt the great middle rib
and the fmalleft reticular ramifications.
SURD. SccAlgebra, p. 95.
SURETY, in law, generally fignifies the fame with baiL
See Bail.
SURFACE See Superficies.
SURFEIT, in medicine, a (icknefs proceeding from the
feniation of a load at the ftomach, ufually attended
with'eruptions, and fometimes with a feven See Me-..
DICINB.
SURGE, in the fea-language, the fame with wave. See
Wave.
Alfo when heaving at the capftan, if the cable royal
or meflenger flip a little, they call it farging.
E R Y.
C URGERY, the art of curing all manner of wounds,
„nd ouier diforders, where the application of the hand,
allifted by proper inftruments, is neceflary.
^Phlebotomy.
We begin with the operation of phlebotomy: becaufe it
is of ail th-: moft general, performed in moft parts of the
body, and by much the mnft frequent in ufe at this ps efent
day. By phlebotomy, or bleeding, we here intend the open¬
ing a vein, by a (harp-edged and pointed inftrument of ((eel,
for extradHng a proper quantity of blood, either for the
prefervation or recovery of a peifon’s health.
It is commonly enough kno wn, that the operation of bleed
ingin the arm is performed on the veins that lie on the in-
ihfernal part of the cubit. There are feveraj things worthy
the furgeon’s notice in this operation; fome of which regard
the things which are to be done preparatory to bleeding,
fome in the operation Itfeif, others immediately, afterlthe
performrnce of it. Preparatory to bleeding you (hould have
in readinefs, (i.) A linen filler, about an i ll in length, and
two fingers in breadth. (2.) Two fraall fquare holders.
(3.) Porringers or veflels ro receive the blood. (4 ) A.
fponge with warm water, (j.) Some vinegar, wine, or Hun¬
gary water, to raife the patient’s fpmts if he (hould be in¬
clinable to faint (6 ) Two afliftams, one to hold the por-
ringei, the other to reach you any thing that you,(hall want.
(7.) You mud place your patient upon a couch; or, if he
is " fearful of the operation, lav him upon a bed, left he
fliopii fall 10to-a s woon. Laftiy, the operator Humid be as
expert in bleeding with his left hand as with his right; For,
as you are readier at bleeding in the right arm with your
right hand, fo when you are to open the veins of the left
arm. you will find it necaflary to ufe your left hand.
Though the operation is to be performed at once, with
one pundture, yet many things are to be.obferved in order
to' render it (uccefful. Firft, it is neceflary for the fur-
geon to infpebt his patient’s< arm diligently, that he may fee
tne courfe 1 i the veins: he mult then take hold of the arm,
and exiend it towards his bread, tucking up the fleeve a-
bout a hand s breadth above the bend of the cubit, where
hCmud make his ligature, rolling the filleftwice round, and
fadenmg it with a knot. The veins being comprefled, and
the blood being flopped in its return, they will enlarge, and
lie fairer to the eye. When you have bound up the arm
in this manner, you let it go for a fmall time till the veins
grow turgid. You are then to lay hold of the arm again in
the fame manner as we diredfed before, and extend it to your
breaft, having an afliftant .ready with the veflel in his hand,
at a convenient diftanre for receiving the blood.
You are now to examine which vein lies faireft, and is
therefore moft proper to be opened. For you mult ob-
ferve, that in the arm there ufualiy appear three principal
veins. The firft is-called Fena Cephahca. and is found in
the external part of the arm The fecond is termed Ba/iUca,
and lies on the internal part of the arm : In the right arm
it is alfo called Hepatica-, in the left. Splenitha. The third,
which is obliquely fituated between the former two, is cal¬
led Medians. The median and bafilic veins, as they are
larger than the cephalic, difeharge a greater qc ntity of
blood, but are attended with more danger in the operation :.
Eorv
*>4* 5 U R
For a confiderable artery and the brachial nerve lie under
the bafilic vein, and the tendon of the biceps mufcle under
the median. But js they he fairer to the eye, and are there¬
fore -more frequently the fubjeds of the operations we are
treating of than the cephalic vein, it is fafer and more eli¬
gible for the lefs experienced furgeons to open the bafilic,
or at lead the median yein.
When you have determined which vein to open, you are
to perform the operation on that part which prefents itfelf
faired to you. But if the vein has frequently been opened,
and the part which appears larged and faired is full of cica¬
trices, ybu are not to open above, but below the cicatrices,
by which means the blood will difeharge itfelf more freely:
For the part above is general y draitened by the cicatrix.
Before you apply the lancet tothefkin, when the veins are
notrifen, it will be proper to rub the arm below the bandage,
which will drive the blood back towards the cubit, and ren¬
der the veins more turgid. Whildthlsis doing in the right
arm, the furgeon (hould take hold of the patient’s arm in
fuch a manner that he may lay his thumb upon the vein he
intends to open, to prevent the blood from flowing back,
and to keep the vein from rolling. You are now to fix your
eye upon that part of the vein which you intend to open,
and taking the lancet with your right hand, fo placed that
the thumb and fird finger may be fixed about the middle of
the blade; the other fingers ftiould red gently upon the pa¬
tient’s arm, to prevent your hand from flipping.
Your lancet is now to be pufhed lightly and carefully for¬
ward by your thumb and fore-finger, till it has penetrated
through the coats of the vein; and at that inflant to be rai-
fed a little upwards, in order to enlarge the orjfice of the
wound, which will give a freer paflage to the blood. The
mod common and convenient fizeof an orifice is about twice
the breadth of the back of an ordinary knife. You are to
keep even between the two extremes of raflinefs and timidity
in making the punfture. For as in one cafe you will only
divide the common integuments, and fo leave your work un
done ; fp in the other you will run the rifque of wounding
the artery, nerve, or tendon.
Your aperture being thus made, and the indrument drawn
indantly back, the blood will then ruflt forth from the ori
fice eitht r in a large.or fmall dream. In the mean time the
blood mud be permitted to flow as long as it (hall be judged
ufeful or r.eceflary; and if it dioulddop too foon, as it often
may from too great a ftri&ure of the bandage on the arm,
it mud be flackened a little, by which means thecomprefled
artery being fet at liberty, the blood will flow from the orifice
as at fird. If you find the orifice obftrudled by too great a
tenfion of the Ikin, or an intrufion of the membrana adipofa,
you ought in that cafe to return the bit of fat, by pre/ling
with the finger or a warm fponge, and to relax the Ikin by
bending the arm a little. Ladly, if the orifice be obdrufted
by thick, grumous, or congealed blood, that impediment may
be removed by wiping it with a fponge dipt in warm water.
But that the patient’s arm may not become painful or
languid, by holding it long extended, the furgeon diould
fuppoit it by the cubitus for a little while; and then give
him a dick, or other cylindric body, to turn round in his
hand, that by the contra&ions of the flexor and extenfor
mufcles of the fingers, the courfe of the blood maybe acce¬
lerated towards the cubitus: which will dill be further pro-
jsjptpd, if the patient urges a little voluntary cough.
G E R Y.
When there feems to be a fufficient quantity of blood
difeharged, thedigature mud then be immediately taken off.
from above the elbow^ and the Ikin about the orifice mud
next be gently droked or preffed together by the two fore¬
fingers of the left-hand; by which means the lips'rf the di¬
vided vein are more eafiiycomprelfed and clofed. But while
the furgeon is doing this wi;h his left hand, he takes the
fmalled of the two comprefles, and applies it upon-the inci-
fion with his right-hand: but fo as to let what little blood
msy remain betwixt the orifice and the vein, be difeharged,
before he impofes the comprdfs. Over the fird or fmall
comprefs he Humid impofe another that is a little larger,
preffing them both gently on the orifice with his left thumb,
till the bandage is laid acrofs.
Having applied your bandage, and drawn down the pa¬
tient’s fleeve over his arm; he diould be ordered not to ufe
it too early or violently, before the orifice is well clofed,
which might excite a frefli hsemorrhage, an inflammation,
fuppuration, or other bad accident. And if toe patient
(hould faint away foon after the operation, it may be then
convenient to wet his nodrils with Hungary water or vine¬
gar; aod to fpnnkle fome of the lad, or elfe cold water, in
his face; and, efpeeially in fummer-time, to let in the frefli
and cool air, by opening the windows, fee. Alfo, if any
wine or cordial water be at hand, you may give the languifti-
ing patient a fmall draught thereof.
Of Bleeding in the Foot.
Bleeding in the foot is an operation of very old Hand¬
ing: it having been an obfervation made by the mod an¬
cient phyficians, that phlebotomy in this part proved highly
ferviceable in molt diforders of the head and bread, and for
an obdruftion of the mendrual and hsemorrhoidal flux; up¬
on which difeharges greatly depended the healthy date of
both fexes. For thefe reafons they therefore denominated
thofe veins of the foot. Saphena and Cephatica : the lad of
which extends itfeif from the internal ancle to the great toe;
and the fird, from the external malleolus to the fnialler toes.
But why one of them ftiould be thought or denominated
more cephalic than the other, there is not the lead reafoo
to be offered; fince bleeding from either of them has alto¬
gether the very fame effeft. Therefore, the furgeon flioold
always open that which lies faired and mod confpicuous.
But if the veins upon the metdtarfus, or indep of the foot,
do not well appear, it may then be convenient to open one
of thofe at the ancle, or about the calf or ham of the leg.
Nor is the phlebotomid fo liable to injure any of the tendons
in thefe lad parts as he is upon the metatatfus.
For the more eafy and fuccefsful apertion of thefe veins,
the patient mud fird wafti both feet well for fome time in
hot watev ; that when the veins become fufficiemly turgid,
the furgeon may take his choice of that which prefents fair¬
ed either in the right or left foot, without paying any de¬
ference to the didindion of right or left in any of the fore-
mentioned diforders. Having fixed upon the particular foot
and vein, your ligature mud be applied about two fingers
breadth above the ancle ; and then the patient mud return
it into the warm water, while the furgeon takes out and pre¬
pares his indrument or lancet, Theh kneeling down on one
knee, the furgeon takes out the patient’s foot from the warm
water, and having wiped it dry with a napkin, places it upon
his other knee, or elfe upon a board laid over the vefTel of
S U R
hot water. He now fallens or fecures down the vein from
• flipping with his left hand. But if the veins do not appear
Well under the ancles, the ligature mull be removed higher,
about two fingers breadth above where you intend to make
the apertion of the vein which beR offers itfelf.
' The blood from the vein thus opened may be received
into a bafon; and if it does' not flow rreely from the orifice,
the foot (hould be returned into the warm water, which
will either prevent or diffolvej the congealing of the blood
that in this cafe often obRruds the aperture. When a fuf
ficient quantity of blood has been thus drawn, which may
be known partly from the time, and parly from the large-
nefs of the ftream, as alfa from the rednefs of the water,
and condition or Rr ngth of the patient; the orifice is then
to be clofed by the finger, and after drying the foot with a
napkin, to be fecured by compreffes arid bandages.
CyBLEEDjNG in the Veins of the Forehead, Temples,
Occiput
There are many phyficians and furgeons, who think that
bleeding by the veins of the forehead and temples is much
more ferviceable and expeditious in relieving all diforders
of the head, fuch as vftflent pains, vertigo^delirium, me¬
lancholy. and raving madnefs, ' fac. than the like difeharge
by veins more remote from the parts affefted; judging that
their vicinity renders them more capable of evacuating the
offending matter of the difeafe. Before proceeding to cut
the veins, an handkerchief Or neckcloth ought to be drawn
tight round the neck ; that, by comprefliog the jugular vein,
thofe branches of it may become more turgid and confpi-
cuous. The vein being opened, the patient rnuft hold
down his head, that the blood may not trickle from his
forehead into his eyes or mouth, when the ftream does not
fpin out with fufficient force. If the blood does not (lop of
itfel’fafter a due quantity is difeharg d, you muftcqr»prels
the orifice with your finger; and, after wiping the forehead
and faqe, apply a comprefs or two, and then your bandage.
Bleeding from the occipital veins, which communicate
with the lateral finufles of the dura mater, is both by tea-
fon and experience proved to be ferviceable in moft difor
ders of the brain, where that part is over barged with blood,
which may be this way diverted and evacuated.. The cele¬
brated anatomift Morgagni efpecially recommends it, with
fcarification and cupping in thofe parts, for all lethargic
diforders.
Of Bleeding^//? the Jugular Veins of the Neck.
It has been a very ancient pradice to bleed in the exter¬
nal jugular veins of the neck, for moft inflammatory dif¬
orders of the adjacent parts, for a quipfey, phrenzy, mad-
nefs, ophthalmia, apoplexy, inveterate head-aches, lethar¬
gy. and other diforders of the head. Nor are there want¬
ing many among our modern furgeons and phyficians to en¬
courage the fame pra&ice, and that even from the authori¬
ty of reafon and experience; fince the accumulated and
obftrufted blood and humours may be this way difebarged
from the parts affected, and their bad confequences prevent¬
ed. Nor is the operation at all dangerous; fince the jugu¬
lar veins run on each fide the neck from the head to the
clavicles, immediately under the fkin, and appearing gene¬
rally very large, they may be eafily.perceived and opened:
before which, you muft make a ftriffure upon the lower part
of the neck with a handkerchief, or the common ligature,
Vol. III. N» 9j. 2
G E R Y. 643
which muft be drawn tight by an affiftant or the patient, to
make the vein turgid and confpicuous.
When the jugular veins have been by thisnieans.rendered
turgid and confpicuous, either of them which appears
plaineft may be fecured by the finger for incifion, either in
the right or left fide of the neck indifferently ; when the
diforder lies in the whole head, or in the neck and fauces.
But when only one fide of the head, or one eye, is affected,
the vein ought to be opened on the difordered fide of the
neck. The requifite quantity of the blood being, taken, the
ligature is next removed, and the qnlice compr;flcd with
your finger, if the blood does not (top without while you
v/ipe clean the neck, and then apply your comprefs and cir¬
cular bandage. Thus the blood flops without any danger
of a frelh haemorrhage. Laltiy, it muft be acknowledged,
that the patient faints away as readily after bleeding in the
neck, as the jugular veins arefafely and eafily opened : but
no danger follows from thence.
Of .Bleeding in the Veins, called Ranulz, under the
Tongue.
It is very often found of no fmall fervice in a quihfey,
or other inflammatory diforder of the neck, to bleed in the
two fmall veins which run under the tip or end of the
tongue: efpecially if a larger vein has been opened before,
either in the neck, foot, or arm, whereby the tnfptffated and
ftagnated blood may be gradually evacuated. To bleed in
thefe veins, a ftri&ure being made upon the neck as before,
you then elevate the of the tongue with your left hand,
while, with the lancet in your right, you circumfpe&ly open
firft one, and then the other on each fide ; becaufe the a-
pertion of one only will hardly ever difeharge blood enough
to give any confiderable relief. When you judge a fufli-
cient quantity of blood has run out of ' he mouth into your
veflfel, remove, the ligature from the neck : upon which the
flux ufually flops of itfelf. But if it Ihould ftill continue,
let the patient take a little vinegar or Frontini/tc wine in
his mouth: or elfe you may apply a bit of vitriol or al-
lum, or a comprefs dipt in fome ftyptic liquor, till the he¬
morrhage ceafes; which canmever be dangerous even with¬
out fuch topics.
^/"Phlebotomy in the Penis.
Bleeding in the vena dorfalis penis ufually furpaflVs
the benefit of all remediss whatever in abating inflammatory
diforders of this member This large vein, which runs a-
long the back or upper fide of the penis, being generally
pretty much diftended, and confpicuous in an inflammation
of this part, may be incifed about the middle or back pure
of the penis; and kept bleeding till the member becomes
flaccid, and a fufficient quantity of blood be dilcharged pro¬
portionable to the urgency of the fpmptoms. This done,
you muftapply a comprefs, and the bandage proper for the
penis. But you muft carefully endeavour to avoid inju¬
ring the arteries or nerves which enter the penis.near this
vein ; as alfo not to make your bandage too ftrift ; for by
thefe means the tnflammation and fymptems may turn cut
worfe than before.
Of Wounds.
To conceive rightly of the nature and treatment of woundr,
under the variety of diforders that they are fubjedl to. it
will be proper firft to learn, what are the appearances in
7 Z the
644 S U R (
the progrefs of.healing a large wound, when it is made with
afliirp inftrunient, and the conftitution is pure.
In this circumftanee, the blood-veffels, immediately upon
their dtvifion, bleed freely, and continue bleeding till they
are either flopped by aft, or at length contrading and with¬
drawing .themfeives into the wound, their extremities are
fh.ut up by the coagulated, blood. The haemorrhage being
flopped, the next occurrence, in about twenty-four hours,
is a thin ferous difcharge; and, a' day or two after, an in-
creafeofit, though fomewhat thickened, and llinking. In
this hate it continues two or three days without any great
alteration, from which time the matter grows thicker and
lefs offenfive ; and when the bottom of the wound fills up
with little granulations of fiefh, it diminifhes jn its quan¬
tity, and continues doing fo till the wound is quite llcmned
The firll flags of healing, Or the difcharge of m atter, is
by 'urgeons-called digejUon : the fecond, or the filling up
with fidh, incarnation ; and the laft, or fkmning over, ci¬
catrization.
It is worth obferving, that the lofs of any particular part
of the body can only be repaired by the fluids of that dif-
tinft part • and as_ in abroken bone, the callus is generated
from the ends of the fracture, fo, in a wound, is the cica- .
trix from the circumference of the fkin only: Hence arifes
the neceffiry of keeping the furface even, either by preflune
or eating m dicines,, that the eminenceof the flefh may not
refill the fibres of the fkin in their tenden y to cover the
wound Tbi? eminence is compofed of little points or gra¬
nulations cMtd fungus, or proud flefh, and is frequently
tdeemed an evil, though in truth this fpecies of it be the
•conllaat attendant on healing wounds ; for when they are
fmooth, and have no difpofmon to fhoot out above their
lips, there is a flacknefs to heal, and a cure is very difficult
ly effected. Since then a fungus prevents heahng only by
its luxuriancy, and all wounds cicarrife from their circum¬
ference, there will be no occafion to dtilroy the whole
fungus every time it rifes, but only the edges of it near the
lips of the fkin; which may be done by gentle efcharoti s,
fuch as lint dipt in a mild folution of vitriol, or for the moft
part only by dry lint, and a tight bandage, which will re
duce it fufficiently to a level, *if applied before the fungus
have acquired too much growth. In large wounds, the ap
plication of corrofive medicines to the whole furface, is of
no ufe ; Secaufe the fungus will attain but to a certain
height, when left to itfelf, which it will be frequently ri¬
ling up to, though it be often wafted ; and as nil the ad¬
vantage.to be gath'sed from it, is only from the evennef's
of its margin, the purpofe will be as fully anfvered by keep¬
ing thtt under only, and an infinite deal of pain avoided
from the continual repelItion of efcharotics.
From what has been faid of the progrefsof a wound-made
by a fharp inftrument, where there is no indifpofition of bo
dy, we fee the cure is performed without any interruption,
but from the fungus ; fo that the bufinefs of forgery will
confift principally in a proper regard to that point, and in
applications that will the leaft interfere with the_ ordinary
courfe of nature, which in thefe cafes will‘be fuch as adt
the leaft upon the furface of the wound; and agreeably to
this we find, th 't dry lint only is generally the b:ft remedy
through the whole courfe of dreffing : at firil, it (lops the
blood with lefs injury than any ftyptick powders or waters;
and afterwards, by abfor-bing. the matter, which in the be-
i E R V.
ginning of fuppuration is thin and acrimonious, it becomes
in effect a dtgeftive : during incarnation it is the fofteft me¬
dium that can be applied between the roller and tender gra¬
nulations, and at the (ame time is an eafy comprefs upon
the Iprouting/a^a/
Over the dry lint, may be applied a pledgit of feme foft
ointment ipread upon tow, which muft be renewed every day,
and preferved in its fituation by a gentle bandage; th'ough
in all large wounds, the firft drefling, after that of the acci¬
dent or; operation, (hould not be applied in ids than three
days, when, the matter being formed, the lint feparaies
more eatily from the part ; in the removal of which, no
force {hould be ufed, but only fo much be taken away as is
loole and comes off without pain.
Of Inflammations and Abscesses.
As almoft ail abfeeffes are the oonfequencesmf inflamma¬
tions, and thefe produce a variety of events, as they are
differently complicated with other diforders, it will be pro¬
per firft to m-.ke, fome inquiry into their difpofition. In¬
flammations from all cau!es have three ways ot terminating;
either by difperfion, fuppuration, or gangrene.
But though every kmd of inflammation will fometimes
terminate in different ffiapes, yet a probable conjecture of
the event may be always gathered from the ftate of the
patient’s health. Thus inflammations happening in a flight
degree upon colds, and, without any foregoing indifpofuion,
will molt probably be dilperfed : thofe which follow clofe_
upon a fever, Or happen to a very gtofs habit of body, will
generally impofthumate: and thofe which fall upon very
old people, or dropficai conftitutions, will have a ftrong
tendency to gangrene.
It the. ftate of an inflammation be fuch, as to make the
difperfion ot it lafely practicable, that end will be bnft
brought about by evacuations, fuch as plentiful bleeding and
repeated purges .: the part itfelf muft be treated with fo-
mebtations twice a-day ; and if the fkin be very tenfe, k
m y be embrocated with a mixture of three fourths of oil
ot rofes, and one fourth of common vinegar, and afterwards
be covered with unguent for Jamb, or a foft ointment made
of vhi;e wax and fweetoil, fpreadupon a.fine rag, and roil¬
ed on gently If after four or five days, the iriflammaticn
begin to fubfibe, the purging-waters and manna may take
Tlace of other purges, ancf the embrocation of oil and vine¬
gar be now omitted, or foonep. if it has i-egun to excoriate.
The ointment of wax and oil may be continued to the laft.
During the cure a thin diet is abfolmeiy neceffary, and in
the height of the inflammation, the drinking of thin li¬
quors is of great fervice.
Here we have fiuppofed that the inflammation had fo great
a tendency to difeuffion, as, by the help of proper aflift. nce,
to terminate in that planner; but when it happens that the
difpofition of the tumour refi ts all dificutient means, we
muft then defiit from any farther evacuations, and aflift nature
in the bringing on a_fuppuration.
That matter will moil likely be farmed, we may judge
from the increafe of the'fymptomatic fever, and enlarge¬
ment of the tumour, with more pain and pulfation ; and if
a fmal! rigor come on, it is hardly to be doubted. Inflam¬
mations after a fever, and the fmall-pox, almoft always fup-
purate; but thefe prefently difeover tliek tendency," or at
leatt fliould be at firft gently treated, as though we expeCI-
ed an impoilhuraktion. It is a maxim laid down in fuv-
gery*
S U R
gery, that evacuations are pernicious in every circumftance
or a chfeafe, which is at iiit to end in iuppuratbn : But as
phyfictans do now acknowledge, that bleeding on certain
occalions in the fn',all-pox, is not only no impediment to the
n->;ituration, but even promotes it; fo' in she formation of
abfcelTes, when the veflels have been clogged, and the fup-
puranob has not kindly advanced, bleeding has forhetimes
tjuickened it accordingly; but, however, this practice is to be
followed with caution. Purges are, no doubt, improper
at this time ; yet if the prtient be coftive, henuft be aJM-
ed wdth' gentle clyilers every two or three days.
Or ail the applications invented to promote fuppuration,
there are none lo eafy as poultices; but as there are particular
tumours very flow of ruppur-atiom, and almoft void of pain
(fuch, formitance, are fome of the Icrophulous fwelli gs) it
will be lefs troublefome in thefe cafes to wear thegum-pla-
flers, which may be renewed every four or five days only.
Amongfl the fuppurative poultices, perhaps there is none
preferable to that made of bread and milk foftened with oil;
at leall the advantage of any other over it is not to be di-
ftingiiiflied in practice The abfcefs may be covered with the
poultice twice a-day, till it come to that ripenefs as to re¬
quire opening, which will be known by the tbrnnefs and
eminence of the Ikin in fome part of it, a fludfuation of the
mutter, and generally fpeaking, an abatement of the pain
previous to, thefe appearances.
The figns of a gangrene are thefe: the inflammation lofes
its rednefs, and becomes dulkiTh and livid; the tenfenefs of
the flein goes otf, and feels to the touch flabby or emphyfema-
tous; vefications filled with ichor of different colours fpread
all over it ; the tumour fubfides, and, from a dulkifh com
plexion, turns black; the pulfe quickens and finks, and pro
fufe fweats coming on, at laft grow cold, and the patient
dies.
To flop the progrefs of a mortification, the method of
treatment will be nearly the fame, from whatever caufe it
proceed^ except in that arifing from cold"; in which cafe,
we ought to be cautious not to apply warmth too fuddenly
to the parr, if it be true, that in the northern countries they
have daily convidtion of gangrenes produced by this means,
which might have been eafiiy p-evented by avoiding heat ;
nay, they carry their apprehenfion of the danger of hidden
warmth fo far as to cover the part with (now firft, winch
they fay feldom fails to-obviate any ill confequence.
The"practice of fcarifying gangrenes, bv feveral incifions,
r almofl univerf-d: and with reafon ; fince it not only lets
the parts free, and difehatges a perniemus ichor, but makes
way for whatever efficacy there may be in-ropical appiicatv
ons Thefe are different with different furgeons : but the
digeflives foh^ned with oil of turpentine are as good dref
fings as any for the fcarifications ; and upon them ad over
the part, maybe laid the theridca Londinenjis, which fliould
be always ufed in the beginning of a gangrene before the
neceflity of fcarifying arifes ; or what is equally good, if
not often preferable, a cataplafm made with lixivium and
bran, and applied warm, which will retain its hear better
than moft other topicals. Medicines a!ro given internally
are beneficial, and tbefe fhould confiit of the--cordiS! kind ;
but the bark is the fovereign remedy for this difbrder : af¬
ter the reparation of the efehar, the wound becomes a'com
mon ulcer, and muft be treated as fuch.
There are two ways of opening an abfeefs; either by in-
cilion, or cauflick ; but incifion is preferable in malt cafes.
G E R Y. <S4s"
In fmall abfeeffes, there is feldom a neceflity for greater
dilatation than a little orifice made with the point of a Ian-
cet ; and in large ones, where th is not a great quantity
of fltin difcoloured and become thin, an incifion to their ut-
moft extent will ufually anfwer the pufpoie ; or if there
be much thin difeoioured flein, a circular or oval piece of it
muft be cut away ; which operation, if done dexteroufly
with a knife, is much lefs painful than' by caufttck, and at
crite lays open a great fpace of the abfeefs, which may be
drefl’ed down to the bott< m, and the matter of it befreely dif-
charged ; whereas, after a cauftick, though we make incifi-
ons through the efehar, yet the matter will be under fome
confinement; and we cannot have the advantage of drelling
properly till the feparation of the flough, which often re¬
quires a confidefable time, fo that the cure muft be nepef-
lanly-delayed ; befides that the pain of burning continue
ing two or three hours, which a cauftick ufually requires in
doing its office, draws luch a fiudHon upon the fltin round
the efehar, as fometimes to indtfpofe it very much for heal¬
ing afterwards. In the ufe of cauflicks, it is but'too much
a practice, to lay a fmall one on the moft prominent part of
a large tumour, which not giving fufficient vent to the mat¬
ter, and perhaps the orifice foon after growing narrow, leads
on to the neceflity of employing tents ; which two circum-
ftances more frequently make fiftulas after an abfeefs, than
any malignity in the nature of the abfeefs itfelf The event
would more certainly be the fame after a fmall incifion; but
furgeons not depending fo much on fmajl openings by inct-
fion, as by cauftick, do, when they ufe the kmfe, general¬
ly dilate Efficiently : whereas, in the other way, a Irtle o-
pening in the moft depending part of the tumour.ufually fa-
tisfies them.
From this account of the method of opening abfeeffes, it
does not appear often neceflary to apply caufticks; yet they
have their advantages in fome refpecls, and are feldom fo
terrible to patients as the knife, though in faff they are fre¬
quently more painful to bear They are of moft ufe in cafes
where the Ikin is tjjin and inflamed : and we h ive reafon to •
think the malignity of the abfeefs is of that nature as to pre¬
vent a_qu;cknefs of incarning; in which circumftance, if am
incifioh only were made through the fltin, little finufes would
often form, and burrow underneath,-and the lips of it ly¬
ing luoofe and flabby, would become callous, and retard
the cure, though the malignity of the wound were Correc¬
ted: of this kind, are venerea! buboes, whichnotwithftand-
ing-they often do-well by mere incifion, yet when the fkin
is in the date we have fuppofed, the cauftick is always pre¬
ferable : but this method fliould be confined to venereal bu¬
boes ; for thofe which follow a fever,, or the fnuil-pox, for
the moft parr are curable by in-.ifion only. There ate many
fcrophulous tumou-s, where the reafoning is the fame as in
the venereal ; and even in great I weHings if the patient will
not futmir to cutting, and the furgeon is apprehenfive of
any danger in wounding,a large veffd,- which is often done
with the knife, yet as this inconvenience is avoided by cau¬
ftick, it-may on fuch an occafion fie made ufe of; however,
in fcrophulous fweihngs of the neck'and face, unlefs they
are very large, caufticks are not advifeable, fince in that
part of the body, with length-t>f time, they heal after in¬
cifion. Caufticks are of great fervice in deftroying ftubborm
fcrophulous indurations o': the-glands., alfo venereal indura¬
tions of ine glands of the groin, which will neither difeufs
nor fuppurate ; likewife in expofing carious bones, and
making.
.'646 S U R
making large iffues. The beft cauftick in ufe is a pafle made
with lime and lixivium capitals, which is to be prevented
from Ipreading, by cutting an orifice in a piece of flicking
plainer, nearly as big as you meaa to make the efchar ;
which being applied to the part, the camlick mud be laid
on the orifice, and preferved in its fituation by a few flips
of plaiiler laid round its edges, and a large piece over the
whole. When iflues are made, or bones expofed, the ef¬
char Ihould be cut out immediately, or the next day : for
if we wait the reparation, we mifcarry in our defign of ma¬
king a deep opening; fince floughs are flung off by the
fprouting new fiefh underneath, which fills up the cavity at
the fame time that it difcharges the efchar ; fo that we are
obliged afterwards to make the opening a fecond time with
painful efcharotick medicines. To make an iffue,. or lay a
bone bare, this cauflkk may lie on about four hours : to
deflroy a large gland, five or fix ; and to open abfceffes,
an hour and a half, two hours, or three hours, according
to the thicknefs of the fkin ; and what is very remarkable,
notwithflanding its ftrength and fudden efficacy, it frecjuent-
] v gives no pain where the fkin is not inflamed, as in making
sffues, and opening fome few abfceffes.
When an abfcefs is already burft, we are to be guided
by the probe where to dilate, obferving the fame rules with
regard to the degree of dilatation as in the other cafe, The
atfual method of dilating, is with the probe-fciflars; and in¬
deed, in all abfeeffes, the generality of furgeons ufe the
fciffars, after having firfl made a pundture with a lancet :
bat,as the knife operates much more quickly, and with lefs
violence to the parts than fciflars, which fquleze at the fame
time that they wound, it will be.fparing the patient a great
deal of pain to ufe the knife, where-ever if is pradHcable,
which is in almoft all cafes, except fome fiftula’s in ano,
where the fciflars are more convenient. The manner of
opening with a knife, is by Aiding it on a director, the
groove of which prevents its being mifguided. If the orifice
of the abfcefs be fo fmajl as not to admit the dircdtor, or
the blade of the fciflars, it mull be enlarged by a piece of
fponge-tent; which is made by dipping a dry bit of fponge
in melted wax, and immediately fqueezmg as much out of
it again as pofiible, between two pieces of tile or marble ;
the effedl of which is, that iheloofe fpunge being compref-
fed into a fmall compafs, if any of it be introduced into an
abfcefs, the heat of the part melts down the remaining Wax
that holds it together, and the fponge fucking up the rnoif-
ture of the ablcels, expands, and in expanding opens the
orifice wider, and by degrees, fo as to give very little pain.
The ufual method of dreffing an abfcefs, the firfl: time,
is with dry lint only, or if there be no flux of blood, with
foft digeflives fpread on lint. If there be no danger of the
upper part of the wound reuniting too foon, the doflils muft
be laid in loofe; but if the abfcefs be deep, and the wound
narrow, as is the cafe fometimes of abfcefles in ano, the
lint muft:"be crammed in pretty tightly, that w'e may have
afterwards the .advantage of dreffing down to the bottom
without the ufe of tents, which, by refifting the growth of
the little granulations of flefh, in procefs of time harden
them, and in that manner produce a fiftula : fo that, inftead
of being uled for the cure of an abfcefs, they never fhould
be employed but -where we mean to retard the healing of
the external wound, except in fome little narrow abfceffes,
where, if they be not crammed in too large, they become
gs doffiis, admitting of incarnation at the bottom ; but care
G E R Y.
fhould be taken, not to infinuate them much deeper thaa
the ffiin in this cafe, and that they fhould be repeated twice
a day, to give vent to the matter they confine. , But tents
do moll good in little deep abfceffes, -whence any extraneous
body is to be evacuated, fuch as ffnall fplir.ters of bone, &c.
' T he ufe of vulnerary iqjcdions into abfeefles has been
thought to bear fo near a refemblance to the ufe of tentsi
that they both fell into dffrepute almofl: at the fame time.
Over the doffils of lint may be laid a large pledgit of tow
fpread with bafilicon, which will lie fofter than a defenfa-
tive plaifl^r; for this, though defigned to defend the cir¬
cumference of wounds againfl inflammation or a fiu&ion of
huhtours, is often the very caufe of them ; fo that the dref-
fings of large wounds fhould never be kept on by thefe
plailiers, where-there is danger of fuch accidents. In this
manner, the dreffiogs may be continued, tiff the cavity is
incarned ; and then it may the cicatrifed with dry lint, or
fome of the cicatrifing ointments, obferving to keep the
fungus down, as directed before.
In the courfe of dreffing it will be proper to have regard
to the fituation of the abfeefs, and as much as poffibje to
m-ke the patient favour the difeharge by his ordinary po-
fture : and to this end alfo, as what is of greater importance
than the virtue of any ointment, the difeharge mult be af-
fifled by comprefs and bandage: the comprefs may be made
of rags or plaifter ; though the latter is fometimes prefera¬
ble, as it remains immoveable o*n the part it is applied to.
The frequency of dreffing will depend on the quantity of
difeharge : once in twenty-four hours ts ordinarily fufficient;
but fometimes twice, or perhaps three times, is neceffary.
£/"Ulcers.
When a wound or abfcefs degenerates into fobad a ftate
as to refill the methods of cure above laid down, and lofes
that completion which belongs to a healing wound, it is
called an ulcer; and as the name is generally borrowed
from the ill habit of the fore, it is a cuftom to apply it to
all fores that have any degree of malignity, though they be
immediately formed without any previous abfcefs or wound ;
fuch are the venereal ulcers of the tonlils, tec.
Ulcers are tiiftingnifhed by their iparticular .diforders,
though it feidom happens that the affetions are not compli¬
cated; and when we lay down rules for the management of
one fpecies of ulcer7 it is generally requifite to apply them
to almofl all others However, the charafters of mofl emi¬
nence are, the callous ulcer, thefinous ulcer, and the ulcer
with caries of the adjacent bone ; tho’ there be abundance
more known to furgeons, fuch as the putrid, the corrofive,
the varicous, tec. but as they have acquired their names
from fome particular affedfion, weftiallfpeak of thetreatment
of them undfer the general head of ukers.
It will be often in vain to purfue the heft means of cure by
topical application, unlefs we are affifled by internal reme¬
dies ; for as many ulcers are the effedfs of a particular in-
difpofition of body, it will be dimeuit to bring them into
order, while the cgufe of them remains with any violence ;
though they are fometimes in a great degree the difcha.rge
of the indifpofition itfelf, as in the plague, fmall-pox, tec.
B it we fee it generally neceffary in the pox, the feurvy,
obftrudtions' of the raenfes. dropfies, and many other di-
ftempers, to give internals of great efficacy ; and indeed,
these are hardly any conflitutions where ulcers are not af-
fifled by fome phyfica! regimen. Thofe that are cancerous
S U R G
and fcrophulous feem to gain the leaft advantage from phy-
fic; for if in their beginnings they have fometimes been very
much relieved, or cured, by falivation, or any other evacua¬
tion, they are a!fo often irritated and made worfe by them;
fo that there is nothing very certain in the effects of violent
medicines in thefe diftempers. Upon the whole, in both
thefe cafes, ,the milk-diet, and gentle purgifigs with manna,
and the waters, feem to be moll efficacious ; though brilk
methods may be ufed with'more fafetypnjhe evil than in the
cancer; and fometimes, particularly in young fubjedls, the.
decoftion of the woods is extremejy beneficial for ferophu-
Jcus ulcers: but it has lately been attefled by men of great
fliill and veracity, that fea-water is more powerful than any
other remedy hitherto known, both for fcrophulous ulcers,
and fcrophulous tumours. ^
When an ulcer becomes foul, and difeharges a nalty thin
ichor, the edges of it, in procefsof time, tuck in, and grow¬
ing Ikinned and hard, give it the name of a callous ulcer,
which, fo long as the edges continue in that Hate, mull ne-
ceffarily be prevented from healing: But we are not imme¬
diately to deftroy the lips of it, in expeflation of a hidden
cure; for while the malignity of the ulcer remains, which
was the occafion of the callofity, fo, long will the new lips
be fubjeft to a relapfe of the fame kind, however often the
external furface of them be deltroyed : fo that when we have
to deal with this circumhance, we are to endeavour to bring
the body of the ulcer into a difpofition to recover by other
methods. It fometimes happens to poor laborious people,
who have not been able to afford themfelves reft, that lying
a-bed will in affiort time give a diveffion to the humours of
the part, and the callous edges foftening, will without any
great affiftance ffioot out a cicatrix, when the ulcer is grown
clean and filled with good fleffi: the effeft of a falivation is
generally the fame ; and even an iffue does fometimes dif-
pofe a neighbouring ulcer to heal: but though callofities be
frequently foftened by thefe means, yet when the furface
of the ulcer begins fb yield thick matter, and little granula¬
tions of red fleffi ffioot up, it will be proper to quicken nature
by deftroying the edges of it, if they remain bard. The
manner of doing this, is by touching them a few days with
the lunar cauftick, or lapis inferna/is; and fome chufe to
cut them off with a knife: but this laft: method is very pain¬
ful, and not more efficacious; though when the lips do not
tuck down elofe to the ulcer, but-hang loofe over it, as in
feme venereal buboes, where the matter lies a great way under
the edges of the fkin, the eafieft method is cutting them off
with the feiffars.
To digeft the ulcer, or to procure gopd matter from it
when in a putrid ftate, there are an infinity of ointments
invented; but thi Bafdicon Flavum alone, or foftened down
fometimes with turpentines, and fometimes mixt up with
different proportions of red precipitate, feems to ferve the
purpofes of bringing an ulcer on to cicatrifation as well as ■
any of the others. When the ulcer is incarned, the cure
may be finiffied as in other wounds; or if it do not cicatrife
kindly, it may be waffied with Aq. Calcis, or Aq. Phag. or
dreffed with a pledgit dipt, in Tinft. Myhrra: and if exco¬
riations are fpread round the ulcer, they ryay be anointed
with Sperm. Get. ointment, or Unguent. Nutriium.
The Red Precipitate has of late years acquired the credit
it deferves for the cure of ulcers; but by falling into general
ufe, is very often unfidlfully applied: when mixed with the
Bajilicon, or, what is neater, a cerate of wax and oil, it is
Von. III. 96, 2
E R Y. 6^7
moft certainly a digeftiye, fir.ee it hardly ever fails to make
the ulcer yield a thick, matter in twenty-four hours, which
difeharged a thin one before the application of it.
If the ulcer ffiould be of fuch a nature ,as to produce a
fpongy fleffi, fprouting very high above the furface, it will
be neceflary to deftroy it by fome of the efcbaroticks, or tie
knife. This fungus differs very much from that belonging to
healing wounds, being more eminent and lax, and generally
in one mafs; whereas the other is in little diftimft protube¬
rances. It approaches often towards a cancerous complexion,
and when it riles upon fome glands does adlually degenerate
fometimes into a cancer. When thefe excrefcences have ari-
fen in venereal ulcers, efcharoticks fhould be applied. Thole
in ufe, are the Vitriol, the Lunar Caujiick, the Lapis Inf a -
nalis, and more generally the red Precipitate powder.
It is but feldom, that thefe inveterate fungufes appear on
an ulcer ; but it is very ufual for thofe of a milder kind to
rife, which may often be made to fufide with preffiite, and
the ufe of mild efcharoticks: however, if the afperft of the
fore be white and fmooth, as happens in ulcers accompanied
with a dropfy, and often in young women with obftruftions,
it will anl wer no purpofe to wafte the excrefcences, until the
copftitution is repaired, when moft probably they will fink
without any affiftance. In ulcers alfo, where the fubjacent
bone is carious, great quantities of loofe flabby fleffi will grow
up above the level of the Hein: but as the caries is the eaufe
of the diforder, it will be in vain to expe<ft a cure of the
excrefcence, until the rotten part of the bone be remo¬
ved ; and every attempt with efcharoticks will be only a
repetition of pain to the patient without any advantage.
When the excrefcence is canperous, and does not rife
from a large cancer, but only from the Ikin itfelf, it has
been ufual to recommend the a<ftual cautery; but it is better to
cut away quite underneath, and drefs afterwards with eafy
applications. As to the treatment of incurable cancerous ul¬
cerations, after much trial, furgeons have at laft difeovered,
that what gives the mdft eafe to the fore is the moft fuitable
application ; and therefore the ufe of efcharoticks is not to
be admitted on any pretence whatfoever; nor in thofe parts
of a cancer that are corroded into cavities, muft the precipi¬
tate be made ufe ef to procure digeftion, or promote the
feparation of the floughs. The heft way, therefore, is to
be guided by the patient what medicine to continue. Thofe
ufually preferibed are preparations from lead; but what we
have found moft beneficial, have been fometimes dry lint
alone when it does riot ftick to the cancer; at other times,
lint doffils fpread with BaJUicssn ox Cerat. de Lapid. Calam.
and oftener than either with a Cerate made of oil .and wax,
or the Sperm. Get. ointment; and over all, a pletlgit of tow
fpread with the fame. Embrocating the neighbouring Ikin
and edges of it with milk, is offervice; but the chief good
is to be acquired by diet, which fho.uld be altogether of milk
and things made of milk, though herbage may be admitted
alfo. - Iffues in the (boulders or thighs do alfo alleyiate the
fymptoms; and manna, with the purging waters, once, or
perhaps twice a-week, will ferve to keep the body cool.
When ulcers or abfeeffes are accompanied with inflamma¬
tion and pain, theyareto be afffted with fomentations made
of fome of the dry herbs, fuch as Roman wormwood, bay-
leaves, and rofemary ; and when they are very putrid and
corrofive. which circumftances give them the name of foul
phagsedenick ulcers, fame fpirits of wine fliould be added
to the fomentation, and the bandage be alfo dipt in brandy
S A or
(543 S U R
or fpirits of wine, obfervjmg in thefe cafes'where there is
mu Ji pain, always to apply gentle medicines till it be re¬
moved.
When the pain and inflammation are exceflive, bleeding
and other evacuations will often he ferviceable; and above ail
things, re(t and ahorizont.il polition . which lalt circumltanoe
is of (o great importance to the cure of ulcers of the legs,
that unlefs the^patient will conform to it llridHy, the file II
of the ltirgeon will often avail nothing; for as the indilpoli-
tion of diefe fores is in fome meafure owing to the gravita-
tion^bf the humours downwards, it will be much more be
neficial-to lie along than fit upright, though the leg be laid
©n,a chair; fince even in this pofture they will defeend with
more force, than if the body was reclined.
In ulcers of thelegs, accompanied with varices or dilata¬
tions of the veins, the method of treatment will depend upon
the other circumfUnces of the fore; for the varix can only
be afliited by the application of bandage, whi. h muff be con¬
tinued a confiderable time after the cure. The neatefl ban¬
dage is the llrait flocking, which is particularly ferviceable
in this c.fe; though alfo, if thelegs beoe dematous, or if, after
the healing of the ulcers, they fwell when the patient quits
his bed, it may be worn with fafety and advantage. There
are inflances of one vein only being varic-jus, which when it
happens, may be deflroyed by tying it above and below the
dilation, as in an aneurifm ; but this operation fhould only
be pra&ifed where the varix is large and painfi>l.
Ulcers of,many years (landing are very difficult of cure;
and in old people the cure is often dartgerpus, frequently
excitinganaflhma, adiarrhoea, orafever, which deflroys the
patient, unlefs the fore break out again-; fo that it is not alto¬
gether advifeable tq attempt the abfolute cure in fuch cafes,
but only the redudion of them into better order, and lefs
compafs, which, if they be not malignant, is generally done
with reft and proper care. The cure of thofein young people
maybe undertaken with more fafety ; but we often find it
tieceflary to raife a falivation toeffeflit, though, when com¬
pleted it, does not always laft; fo that the profpeft of cure
in ftubborn old ulcers, at anytime of life, is but indifferent.
In all thefe cafes, however, it is proper to purge once or twice
a-week. with calomel, if the patient can bear it, and to make
an iffue when the fore is almoft healed, in order to continue
a difearge the conftitution has been fo long habituated to,
and prevent its falling from the cicatrix, and burftiog out-
again in that place.
When an ulcer or abfeefs has any fioufes or channels o-
pening and difeharging themfelves into the fore, they are
called finous ulcers. Thefe finufes, if they continue^o drain
a great while, grow hard in the furface of their cavity, and
then are term’d fiftulae, and the ulcer a fiftulous ulcer ; al¬
fo, if matter be difehas ged from any cavity, as thofe of the
joints,abdomen, <bc. the openingis called a finous ulcer, or
a fiftula.
The treatment of thefe ulcers depends upon a variety of
circurnftances. If the matter of the finus be thick, ftridt
bandage and comprefs wifi fometimes bring the oppofite
fides of the finus to a re-union : if the finus grow turgid
in any part, and the (kin thinner, (hewing a difpofition to
break, the matter muff be made to pufh more againft that
pait. by plugging it up with a'tent; and then a counter-o¬
pening muff be made, which proves often fufficient for the
whole abfeefs, if it be not afterwards too much tented,
which locki up the matter and prevents the healing ; or
G E R Y.
too li'tle, which will have the fame effeft ; for diefling
quite fuperficialiy, does fometimes prove^ as mifchievous as
tents, and tor nearly.the fame reafon . fi^e (offering the
external wound to contrail into a narrow orifice before the
interna! one be incarned, does aimoft as ffldtuaily lock up
the matter as a tent: to preferve then a medium in thefe
cafes, a hollow tent of lead or (liver may be kept in the o-
rifice, which, at the fame time that it keeps it open, gives
vent to tne matter. I he abfeeffes where the counter open¬
ing are made mod frequently, are thofe of compound frac¬
tures, and thebreaft; but the latter do-oftner v. df without
dilatation than the former, though it mult be performed
in both, if practicable, the whole length- of the abfeefs
when after fome trial the matter does notJefTen in quantity,
and the fides of it grow thinner ; and if the finufes be fi¬
ftulous, there is no expeilation of cure without dilation.
"I here are alfo a great many fcrophulous abfeefies of the
neck, that fometimes communicate by finufes running under
large indurations; m which inftances, counter-openings are
advifeable, and generally anfwer without .the neceifity of diT
lating the whole leng'h; and indeed there are few a'bfcefles
in this diftemper, which fhould be opened beyond the thia-
nefs of the fk.n. When abfeefies of the joints difcharge
themfelves, there is no other method of treating the fiftula,
but by keeping it open with the cautions already laid down,
till the cartilages of the extremities of the bones being cor¬
roded, the tw.> bones fhoot into one another, and form an
anchylofis of the joint, which is the moll ufual cute of ul¬
cers in that part.
Gun-fhot wounds often become finuous ulcers, and then
are to be confidered in the fame light as thofe alieady dc.
feribed ; though furgeons have been always inclined to con¬
ceive there is fomethsng more myflerious in thefe wounds
than any others: but their terriblenefs is owing to the vio^
lent contufion and laceration of the parts, and often to the
admiflion of extraneous bodies into them, as the bullet,
fplinters, clothes, <bc. and were any other force to do
the fame thing, the effedh would be. exaiftly the fame
as when done by fire-arms. The treatment of thefe
wounds confifts in removing the extraneous body as foon
as pofiible; to which end the patient maft be put into the
fame pofture as when he received the wound : if it cannot
be extracted by. cutting upon it, which fhould always be
praftifed when the fitu-ation of the blood-vefitls, fee. does
not forbid, it muft be left to nature to work out, and the
wound drefied fuperficialiy; for we muft not expetft, that if
it be kept open with tents, the bullet, &c. will return that
way ; and there is hardly any cafe where tents are more
pernicious than here, becaufe of the violent tenfion and dif¬
pofition to gangrene which prefentiy enfue. To guard a-
gninft mortification in this, and all other violently contufcd
wounds, it will be proper to bleed the patient-immediately,
and foon after give a clyfter; the part fhould be drefled with
foft digeftives, and the comprefs and roller applied very
loofe, being fii ft dipt in brandy or fpirits of wine. Tiienext
time the wound is opened, if it be dangerous, the fpirituous
fomentation may be employed, and after that continued
till the danger js over. If a mortification comes On, the
applications for that diforder muft be ufed. In gun-fhot
wounds, it feldom happens that there is any effiifion of
blood, unlefs a large vefiel be torn; but the bulletin kes an
efehar, which ufually feparates in a few days, and is fol¬
lowed with a plentiful dilcharge; but when the wound s
corns
S U R G
come to this period, it is manageable by the rules already
laad down.
When an ulcer with ioofe rotten fklh difcharges more
than the (ize of it fhould y’eld. and the difc|ji)rge is oily
and (linking, in all probability the bone is carious ; which
may eafily be diflingi'sfhed by running the probe tiirough
the fl fh: and if fo, it is called a car ous ulcer. The cure
of thefe ulcers depends principally upon the removal of the
fotten part of th; bone, without which it Will be impofli
ble to heal, as we fee fometimes even in little fores of the
lower jaw. which taking their rife from a rotten tooth,'will
not admit of cure till the tooth be dawn. Thofe caries
which happen , from the matter of abf efles lying too long
Upon the bone, are mofl likely to recover : thofe of the pox
very often do well, becaufe that diftemper fixes ordinarily
upon the middle and outlide of the denfefl bones, which
admit of exfoliation; hut thofe produced by the evil,
where the whole extremities of fpongy parts of the bone are
affedled,! are exceedingly dangerous, though all enlarged
bones be not neceffaniy carious; and there are ulcers fome¬
times on the fkin that covers them, which do not commu¬
nicate with the bone, and confequently do weil without ex¬
foliation : nay, it fomMimes happens, though the cafe be
rare, that, in young fuhjedts particularly, the bones will be
carious to fucli a degree, as to admit a probe almoft thro’
the whole lubflance of them, and yet afterwards admit of a
cure, without any not^b!e'exfoliation.
The method of treating an ulcer with a caries, is by ap¬
plying a cauflick of the fize of the fcale of the bone that is
to be exfoliated, and after having laid it bate, to wait tdl
finh t me as-the carious part Can, without violence, be fe-
paratrxi, and then heal the wound. In order to qui ken the
exfoliation., there have been feveral applications devifed; but
that which has been mofl ufed in all ages, is the athual caytery,
with which furgeons burn the naked bone every day, or every
o^her day, to dry up, as they lay, the nroilture. and by that
means procure the feparation : buuas this pradice is never
of great (ervice, and always cruel and painful it is now
pretty much exploded Indeed, from confidering the appear¬
ance of a wound, when a fcale of bone is taken out ot it,
there is hardly any quellion to be made, but that burning
retards rather than battens the feparation ; for as every icaie
of a cadous bone is flung off by new flcfli generated between
it and the found bone, whatever vv&uld prevent ihe growth
of thefe granuiations, would alfo in a degree prevent the ex-
fo!i’.non; which muff certainly be the efftd of a red hot
iron applied fo clofe to it; though the circntnftances of
carious bories, and Their difpofiticn to ftp -rare, are fo dif¬
ferent from one anc ther, that" it is hardly to be g thered
from experience, whether they will footer exfoliate with
or without the aflilfance of fire , for fometimes, in bosh
methods, an exfoliation is nor procured in a twelve month,
and at other times,u happens in th-ee weeks or a month:
however, if it be only uncertain uhether.the actual caute¬
ry be beneficial or not, tbe'cruelty that attends the life of
it fhould entirely ban-fli it out ot pradice. it if often
likewife, in tliefe cafef, employed to keep down.the funguous
lips that Ipread upon the hone; but it is much more train'd
than theefcharotick medicines; though there will be no need
of either, if a regular comprefs he kept on the ore flings; or
at word, if a fiat piece o* the prepared fpoi ge, of the fize
of the ulcer, be rolled on with.a tight bardage, it wdliweii
on every fidg, and dilate the ulcer without any pain.
E R Y. 649
Some caries of the bones are fo very (hallow, that they,
crumble infenfibly away, and the wound fills up; but when
the bone will neither exfoliate nor admit of granulations, it
will bte proper to ferape it with a rugine, or perforate >t in
many points with a convenient inllrument down to the quick.
In the evil, the bones of the carpus and tar/us are often
affetted, but their fponginefs is the reafon that they are fel-
dom cured : fo that when thefe, or-indeed the extremities
of any of the bents, are canons through their fubllance, itis
advifeable to amputate ; ihough there are inflance's in the
evil, but more el'pecially in critical ablcefles, where after
long dieffmg down, the fplinters, and fometinies the whole
fubfiance of the fmall bones, have worked away, and a
healthy habit of body coming on, .the ulcer has healed; but
thele are lb rare, that no great dependence ts to be laid on
fuch an event. The dreflings of carious bones, it they are
(linking, may be doflils diptm the tindlure of myrrh; other-
wife thofe of dry lint are eafieli, and keep down the edges
of the ulcer better than any other gentle applications.
Burns are generally elleemcd a diltind kind ol ulcers, and
have been treated with a greater variety-of applications than
any other fpecies of (ore.
When burns are very (uperficial, not raifing fuddenly
any velication, fpirits ot wine are faid to be the quickeifc
relief; but whether they be more ferviceable than embroca¬
tions with linfeed oil, is uncertain, though they are uied very
much by fome perfons whole trade lubjcdls them often to this
misfortune, if the burn excoriates, it is eafitfl to roll the
part up gently with bandages dipt in (weetoil, or a mixture
of unguent flor famb,u. with the oil: when the excoria¬
tions are very tender, dropping warm mdk upon them eve¬
ry drefling is very comfortable ; or it th^ patient can bear
to have flannels wrung out of it, applied hot, it may be
(fill better : it the burn have formed eichars, they may be
drefled with bajiheon, though generally oil alone is eaiier ;
and in thele lores, whatever is the ealielf medicine will be
the belt digelltve, There is great eare ntceffaiy to keep
down the fungus of burns, and heal the wounds finooth : to
wh-ch end, the edges Ihould be drefled with lint dipt in t.qu.
vitriol, and dried aiterwards; or they may be touched with
the vitriol Hone, and the dreflings be-repeated twice a day.
Th.re is alfo a greater danger of contradlions from burns
after the cure, thanirom o;her wounds ; 10 obviate which,
embrocations of neats-foot oil, and bandage with pafle-
boards, to keep the part extended, areabloluteiy neceffary,,
where they can be applied.
Explanation of Plate CLVII. fig 1.
A. a director by w hich to.guide the knife in the openin'*
of ablcefles that are burfl o' themfelves, or iirft pundlured
with a lancet. This iftflrument fhould be made either of
Heel. (liver, or iron; but fo tempered, that it may be bent:
and accommodated to the direflion of the cavity. It is u-
lualiy made quite ffraight; but that form prevents the ope¬
rator from holding it firmly while he is cutting. The
manner of ufihg it is, by paffing the thumb through the
ring, and iuppOrting it with the fore-finger, while the fi raight-
edped knife is to" Aide along the groove with itSjedge up¬
wards, toward^, the extremity of the abfeefs.
B. Tiie flraight-edged knife, proper for opening abfetfles-
with the. afliilance of a difeflor; but which, in few other,
refp ’fSs, is preferable'to the round-edged knife.
C. A. 0 coked needle, with its convex and concave frdes-.
3 U R G
•fiiarp-: this is ufed only in the future of the tendon, and is
made thin* that but few of the fibres of fo flender a body
as a tendon may be injured in the paffing of it. This needle
is large enough for Hitching the iendo Achtllh.
D, The largeH crooked needle neceflary for the tying of
any veflels, and Ihould be ufed with a ligature of the fize
it is threaded .with in taking up the fpermatick veffels in ca-
ilration, or the femoral and humeral arteries in amputation.
This needle may alio be ufed in fewing up deep wounds.
E, A crooked needle and ligature of the mod ul^ful fize,
being not much too little for the larged vefTels,' nor a great
<ieal too big for the fmalled ; and therefore in the taking up
of the greated number of veffels in an amputation, is the
pi oper needle to be employed. This needle alfo is of a con¬
venient fize for fewing up mod. wounds.
F, A fmall crooked needle and ligature for taking up the
leffer arteries, fuch as thofe of thf? fcalp, and thofe of the
fkin that are wounded in opening ^feeffes.
Great cafe ihould be taken by the mhkers of tbefe needles,
to give them a due temper: for if they are too foft. the
force fometimes everted to carry them through the flefh,
will bend them; if they are too brittle, they fnap ; both
which accidents may happen to be terrible inconveniencies,
if the furgeon be not provided with a fufficient number of
them. It is of great importance alfo-to give them the form
of part of a circle, which makes them pafs much more rea¬
dily round any veffel, than if they were made partly of a
circle, *and partly of a draight line, and in taking up veffels
at the bottom of a deep wound, is abfolutely neceffary, ft
being impra£ticable to turn the needle with a draight handle,
and bring it round the veffel when in that fituation. The
convex furface of the needle is flat, and its two edges are
fliarp. Its coneave fide is compofed of two furfaces, rifing
from the edges of the needle, and meeting in a ridge or emi¬
nence, fo that the needle has three fides. The bed mate-
riajs for making ligatures, are the flaxen thread that flioe-
makers ufe ; which is diffidently drong when four, fix, or
eight of the threads are twided together and waxed ; and
is not fo apt to cut the veffels, as threads-that are more
finely fpun.
G, A draight needle, fuch as glovers ufe, with a three-
edged point, ufeful in the uninterrupted future, in the fu¬
ture of tendons, where the crooked one C, is not preferred,
and in fewing up dead bodies, and is rather more handy for
taking up the veffels of the fcalp.
Of Sutures.
When a wound is recent, and the parts of it are divi¬
ded by a (harp indrument, without any farther violence, and
in fuch a manner that they may be made to approach each
other, by being returned with the hands, they will, if held
in clofe contact for fame time, re-unite by inofculation,
and cement like one branch of a tree ingrafted on another.
To maintain them in this fituation, feveral forts of futures
have been invented, and formerly praftifed ; but the num¬
ber of them has of late been very much reduced. Thofe
now chiefly deferibed, are the interrupted, the glover’s, the
quilled, the twided, and the dry futures; but the inter¬
rupted and twided, are almod the only ufeful ones ; for the
quilled future is never preferable to the interrupted ; the
dry future is ridiculous in terms, fince it is only a piece of
plaiftef applied in many different ways to re-unite the lips
q£ a wound; and the glover’s, or uninterrupted ditch,
E R Y.
which is advifed in fuperlicial wounds, to prevent the de¬
formity of a fear, does rather, by the frequency of the
ditches, oecafion it, and is therefore to be rejedkd in fa¬
vour of a comprefs and dicking plaider ; the only indance
where it fhouM be ufed, is in a wound pf the intedine.
"Wounds are not fit -fubjedts for future, when there is ei¬
ther a contufion; laceration, icis of fubdance, great inflam¬
mation, difficulty of bringing the lips into appofition, or
feme extraneous body iujinuated into them; though feme-
times a lacerated wound may be affided with one or two
ditches. It has formetly been forbidden to few up wounds
of the head; bur this precaution is very little regarded by
the moderns.
If we ditch up a wound that has none of thefe obdacles,
we always employ the interrupted future, paffing the needle
two, three, or four times, in proportion to the length of
it, though there can fddom be more than three ditches re¬
quired.
The method of doing it is this : the wound being emp¬
tied of the grumous blood, and your affidant having brought
the lips of it together, that they may lie quite even ; you
carefully carry your needle from without, inwards to the
bottom, and fo on from within, outwards; ufing the cau¬
tion of making the pumdure far enough from the edge of
the wound, which will not only facilitate the paffing the
ligature, but will alfo prevent it from eating through the
fkin and flefh ; this didance may be three or four tenths of
an inch : as many more ditches as you fhall make, will be
only repetitions of the fame procefs. The threads being
all paffed, you begin tying them in the middle of the wound,
though, if the lips are held carefully together all the while,
as they ffiould be, it will be of no great confequence which
is done fird. The mod ufefal kind of knot in large wounds,
is a fingle one fird; over this, a little linen comprefs, on
which is to be made another fingle knot ; and then a" dip-
knot, which may be loofened upon any inflammation : but
in fmall wounds, there is no danger from the double knot
alone, without any comprefs to tie it upon ; and this is mod
generally pra&ifed. If a violept inflammation fhould fuc-
ceed, loofeniag the ligature only will nor fuffiee; it mud
be cut through and drawn away, and the wound be treated
afterwards without any future. When the wound is fmall,
the lefs it is didurbed by dreffing, the better; but in large
ones, there will fometimes be a confiderable difeharge, and
if the threads be not cautioufly carried through the bottom
of it, abfeeffes will frequently enfue from the matter being
pent up underneath, and not finding iffue. If no accident
happen, you mud, after the lips are firmly agglutinated,
take away the ligatures, and drefs the orifices which they
leave.
It mud be remembered, that during the cure, the future
mud be always aflided by the application of bandage, if pof-
fible, which is frequently of the greated importance; and
that fort of bandage with two heads, and a flit in the mid¬
dle, which'is by much the bed, will in mod cafes be found
prafticable.
The twided future being principally employed in the hare¬
lip, \w (hall referve its defeription for the fedlion on that
head.
Of the Suture ^Tendons.
Wounds of the tendons are not only known to heal a-
gain, but even to admit of fewing up like thofe^f the fleffiy
parts,
S U R (
parts, though the-y <jo not re-unito in fo fiiort a time. When
a tendon is partly divided,, it i$ generally attended with an
"txceffive pain, irifl.mmation, 'be. in conl'equence of the re¬
maining fibres being flretched and forced by the adtion of
rr.ufcle, which necdlanly will contract more when feme of
its refift^nce is taken away. To'obviate this mifchieT, it has
been hitherto an indilputable maxim in furgery, to cut the
tendon quite through, and immediately afterwards perform
the future. But this practice is not * ivifeabie ; fqr though
the'divifion of the tendon afford prefent eafe, yet the mere
flexion of the joint will have the fame effedt, if, for ex¬
ample, it be a wound of a flexor tendon : befidt s, in order
to few up the extremities of the tendon when divided, we
are obliged to put. the limb in fuch a fituarion, that they
may be brought into contadf, and even to fuffain it in that
poffure to the finifhing of the cure : if then, the pollute
will lay the tendon in this pofition, we can likewife keep it
fo without ufing the future, and are more fure of its not
flipping away, which fometimes happens from any cardefs
motion of the joint, when the flitches have almoft worn
through the lips of the wound ; on which account, it is by
all means advifeable, in this cafe, to forbear the future, and
only to favour the fituation of the extremities of the tendon,
by placing the limb properly.
But when the tendon is quite feparated, and the ends are
withdrawn from one another, having brought them together
with your fingers, you may few them with a flraight trian¬
gular pointed needle, palling it from without inwards, and
from within outwards in fmall tendons ; about three tenths
of an inch from their extremities, and in the tendo Achiliit
half an inch.
As the wound of the fkin will be nearly tranverfe, it flioul d
not be raifed to expofe more of the tendon, but rather few-
ed up with it, which will conduce to the flrength of the
future. The knot of the ligature is to be made as in other
wounds, and the dreffings are to be the fame : there is a
fort of thin crooked needle that cuts on its concave and con¬
vex fides, which is very handy in the future of large ten¬
dons, and to be preferred to the flraight one. During the
cure, the dreffings muft be fuperficial and the parts kept
fleady with pafleboard and bandage : the fmall tendons re¬
unite in three weeks, bat the tendo Aehillis requires fix at
leafl.
Of the Gastroraphy.
This word fignilies no more than fewing up any wound
of the belly; yet in common.'acceptation, it implies that the
wound of the bel^y is complicated with another of the in-
teftine. Now the fymptoms laid down for diltinguifhing
when the intefline is wounded, do not with any certainty
determine it to be wounded only in one place ; which want
of information makes it abfurd tVopen the abdomen in or¬
der to come at it: if fo, the operation of ({itching the bow¬
els can only take place where they fall out of the abdomen,
and we can fee where the wound is, or how many wounds
there are : if it happen^that the inteftines"fall out unwound¬
ed, the bofinefs of the furgeon is to return them immediate¬
ly, without waiting for fpirituous or emollient fomentations;
and in cafe they puff up Jo as to prevent their-redudfion by
the fame orifice, you may with a knife or probe-feifiars
fufliciently dilate it for that purpofe, or even prick them to
lefout the wind.
Upon the fuppofition of the intefline being wounded in
Vol. III. N°. 96. 2
1 E R' Y. 65 J
.fuch a manner as to require the Qperation, (for in fmall
pundtures it is not neceffary,) the method of doing it may
be this : Taking a flraight needle with a fmall thread, you
lay hold of the bowel with your left hand, and few up the
wound by the glover’s flitch, that is, by palling the needle
through the lips of the wound, from wiihin outwards all
the.way, fo as to leave a length of thread at both ends,
“(vhich are to hang out of the incifion of the abdomen; then
carefully making the interrupted future of the external
wound, you pull the bowel by the fmall threads into con¬
tact with the peritonseum, in or/fer to procure an adhefiou,
•and tie them upon a fmall boifler of linen. In about fix
days, it is faid the ligature of the inteftine will be loole e-
nouoh to be cut and drawn away, wiych muff be done with¬
out great force ; in the interim, the wound is to be reared
with fuperficia^ dreffings, and the patient to be kept very
ftill and low.
Of /^Bubonocele.
When the inteftine or omentum falls out of the abdomen
into any part, the tumour in general is known by the name
of hernia-, which is farther fpecifiedeitherfromthe difference
of fituation, or the nature of its contents. When the in¬
teftine or omentum falls through the navel, it Is called a
hernia umbilicalis, or exomphalos ; when through the rings
of the abdominal mufcles into the groin, hernia inguinails',
or if into the ferotum, yirtz/tf/rt : thefe two lafl, though the
firft only is properly fo called, are known by the name of
bubonocele. When they fall-under the ligarnentum Fallopii,
through the fame paffage that the iliac veilels creep into the
thigh, it is called hernia femoralis. The bubonocele is al!o
fometimes accompanied with a defeent of the bladder : how¬
ever, the cafe is very rare ; but when it occurs, it i^ known
by the patient’s inability to urine, till the hernia of the
bladder is reduced within the pelvis. With regard to the
contents chararterifing the fweliing, it is thus diitingu (lied :
if the inteftine only is fallen, it becomes an enterocele ; if
the omentum, [epiploon) bpiplocele ; and if both, entero-
epiplocele. There is, befides thefe, another kind of hernia
mentioned and deferibed by the modems, when the intef¬
tine or omentum is infinuated between the interfticesof the
mufcles, in different parts of the beliy : this hernia has
derived its name from the placfe affe&ed, and is called the
hernia ventralis ; and laftly, there have been a few in-
flances, where the inteftines or omentum have fallen thro’
the great foramen of the ifehium ituo the internal part of
the thigh, between and under the two anterior heads of the
triceps mufcle.
All the kinds of hernias of the inteftines and omentum,
are owing to a preternatural dilatation of the particular o-
rifices through which they pafs, and not to a laceration of
them.
The rupture of the groin, or ferotum, is the moft com¬
mon fpecies of hernia, and in young children is vere frequent;
but it rarely happens in infancy, that any rnifebiefs a rife
from it. For the moft part, the intefline returns of itfelf
into the cavity of the abdomen, whenever the perfon lies
down, at leafl a fmall degree of compreffion will make it.
To fecure the inteirihe when returned into its proper place,
there Are fteel truffes now fo artfully made, that by being
accommodated exactly to the part, they perform the office
of a bolder, without galling, or even fitting uneafy on the
patient. Thefe infliutnents are of fo great fervice, that
8 B were
6^1 S U II C
were people who are fubjcfl to ruptures always to wear them,
>very few would-die of this diriemper ; fihce it often appears,
upon inquiry, when we perform the operation for the bu-
bonoesle, that the.neceffity of the operation is owing to the
negieft of wearing a trufs.
In the application of a triads to thefe kinds of fwellings,
a great deal of judgment is fometimes neceifary, and for
want of it, we daily fee truffes put even on buboes, indura¬
ted tell cles, hydroceles, <bc.
If there is a rupture of the inteftine only, it is.eafily,
when returned into the abdomen, fupported by an inilru
reent ; but if of the omentum, notvvithiianding it .may be
returned, yet the reduction felaom brings relief, unlefs there
is only a fmall quantity of it ; for the omentum will lie un-
eaiy in a lump at the bottom of the belly, and, upon re¬
moval of the inftrument, dropdown again imediately; upon
which account, feeing the little danger and pain there is in
this kind of hernia, nothing need be uled but a bag truis,
to fufpeod the ferptum, and prevent poffibly by that means
theigereafe of the tumour. The difference qf thefe tumours
will be diftingui(hed' by the feel ; that of the omentum
feeling flaccid and rumpled, the other more even^ flatulent^
and fpringy.
Sometimes, in a rupture of both, the inteftine and omen
turn, the gut^may be teduced, but the omentum will itill
remain in the fcrotum ; and whdn thus ciicumiianced, »a
fled-trufs mu ft be ufed.
We have hitherto confidered the rupture as moveable ;
but it happens frequently, that the mtdhne. after it has
pafled the rings of the mufcles, is prefently inflamed, which
•enlarging the tumour, prevents the return of.it into the ab.
domen, and becoming every moment more and more Wrang¬
led, it foon tends to a mortification, unlets we dilate the
paffages through which it is fallen, with feme inftrument,
to make room for its return ; which dilatation is the opera¬
tion for the Bubonocele.
It rarely happens that patients fubmit to this incifion be¬
fore the gut is mortified, and it is too late to do fervice ;
pot but that , there are inftances of people furviving fmall
gangr.eocs, and even perfedlly recovering afterwards.
In mortifications of the bowels,- when fallen out of the
^-abdomen into the navel, it is not very uncommon for the
whole gangrened inteftine to fep'arate from the found one,
fo that the excrement muft neceftarily ever after be dil-
charged at that orifice : tlrere are iijtewife a few inftances,
where the rupture of the ferotum has mortified, and become
the anus, the patient doing well in every other refpeft, ,
Before the-performan.ee of the operation for the bubono¬
cele, w hich is only to be done in the extremity of danger,
the milder-methods'are.to be tried ; thefe are, fuch as will
conduce to foothe the inflammation. . .
Perhaps, except the plcurify, no diforder is more im¬
mediately relieved by plentiful bleeding than this. Clyfters
repeated, one after another, three or four times, if the firft
«>r Second are either regained too.long, or immediately re•
timed, prove very efficacious: thefe are ferviceable, not
only as they empty the great inteftines of their excrements
and flatulencies, which laft are very dangerous, but they
like' ife prove a comfortable fomentation, by palling thro’
the colon all abound the abdomen. The ferotum and groin
muft, during the flay of the clyfter, be bathed with warm
Hoops wrung out of a fomentation : and after the part has
bseu well fomented, you muft attempt to reduce the rap-.-
E R Y.
ture : fo/this purpofe, 1c - your patient be laid on his back,
fo that his buttocks may be confiderably above his head ;
The bowels will then retire towards the.diaphragm, and give
way to thofe which are to be puihed in. If, after endea¬
vouring two or three minutes, you do not find fuccefs,
you may ftill repeat the Trial.
If, notwithftanding thefe means, the patient continues in
very great torture, though not fo bad as to threaten an ira-
m.-diate mortification, we muff apply fome lomeiort of poul¬
tice to the ferotum ; fudi as equal parts of oil and vinegar
made imo a proper confidence with oat-meal : after fome
few hours, the fomentation is to be repeated, and the other
dire&ions put in pradfice.
After aH, fliould the pain and terrfenefs of the part con-,
tinue, and hiccoughs and vomitings’of the excrements fuc-
cecd, the operation muft take place; for if you wait until
a languid pulfe, cold fweats, fubfid'ng of the tumour, and
eniphyfematous feel come on, it will be molt likely too late,
as they are pretty fure fymptoms of a mortification.
-To conceive rightly of the occurrences in this operation,
it muft be remembered, that in every fpecies of rupture, a
portion of the psrilonautn generally falls dowij with what,
ever makes the hernia which, from the circumftance of con¬
taining immediately the contents of the tumour, is called the
fac of the hernia. Now, the portion of the peritonaeum,
which ufually yields to the impulfion of the defeending vif-
cera, is that which correfponds with the inmoft opening of
the abdominal mufcles, juft where the mem hr ana ccllularis
periionai begins to form the tunica vaginalis of the fperma-
tic cord ; fo that the fac with the vifeera infinuate them-
felvesAnto the tunica vaginalis of the fpermatic cord, and
lie upon the tunica vaginalis of the tefticle: neverthelefs,
.upon examination, the contents of the hernia are fometimes
in contact with the tefticla itfeif; that is to fay, within the
tunica vaginalis of the tefticle. For fome months during
geftation, the tejlcs of the foetus remain in the abdomen i
and when they deicend into xht tunica vaginalis, there is an
immediate communication betwixt the cavity of the abdo-
tnen, and the cavity of the tunica vaginalis, which, in
procefs of time, becomes obliterated by the coalitioiyft the
tunkk, with the cord; but if it happen, before the coali¬
tion beefftfled, that the inteftine or the fall into
the ferotum, they will heceffarily remain in contaifl with the
tefles . ...
From this defeription of the defeent of the vifeera, it is
evident that the herniary fac is contained within the tunica
vaginalis, and ought to give the idea of one bag incloling
another : .but in the operation, this diftimSion of coats does
not always appear ; for the herniary fac fometimes adheres
fo firmly to the tunica vaginalis, that together they make
one thick coat: this adhefion may poffibly refult from the
prefent inflammation of the parts, which has rendered the
operation neceftary.
The beft way of laying your patient will be on a table a-
bout three feet four inches high, letting his legs hang down;,
then properly fecuriag him, you begin your incifion above
the rings of the mufcles, beyond the extremity of the tu¬
mour, and bring it down about half the length of x\\tfero¬
tum, through themsmhrana adipoft, which will require very
little trouble to feparate from the tunica viginalis, and
confequeritly will expofe the rupture for the farther pro-
ceffes o! the operation. If a large vefTel is opened by thein-
cifion, it muft be taken up before you proceed lurther. ^
■\Vhea
i
S U R
When the tanka vaginalis is laid bare, yon muft cut
j carefully tl.roug'i it and the psritonaum, jn order*to avoid
pricking the inteftines.
The peritoneum being cut through, we arrive to its con¬
tents, the nature of which will determine the next pi ocefs:
1 • for if it is intelline only, it muO: direefiy be reduced , but
1 if there is any mortified omentum, it rault be cut off; in or
der to which it is advifed to make a ligature above the part
wounded,'to prevent an hsemorrhage; but it is quite need-
lei's, and in fome meafure pernicious, as it puckers up the
[i inteiline, and ettforders its fituation, if made dole to it.
When the omentum is removed, we next dilate the
wound ; to do which with fafety, an infinite number of in
llruments have been invented : but there is none we can ule
in this cafe with fo good management as a knife; and'the
finger in this operation is often a much better defence a-
garnft pricking the bowels, than a direitor. The knife
muft.be a little creoked and blunt at its extremity, like the
end of a probe. Some furgeons perhaps may not be. ftea.
dy enough tocut dexteroufly with a knife, and may there¬
fore perform the incifion with probe-fc:ftars, carefuliydntro-
ducing one blade between the inteftine and circumference
of the rings, and dilating upwards-, and a little obliquely
outwards. When the finger and knife only arc employed,
the manner of doing the operation will be by preffing the
gut down with the fore-finger, and carrying the knife be-
• tween it and the mufeies, fo as to dilate upwards about an
inch, which will be a wound generally large enough : but
if, upon examination, it fttall appear that the inteftine is
flrangulated within the abdomen, which may poilibiy happen
from a contra&ion of the peritoneum near the entrance in¬
to the fac s in that cafe, the incifion muft be continued
through the length of the contra&ed chafujel, or the con.
fequence will be fatal, norwithftand^ng the inteftine be re-
ftored into the ferotum : on this account the operator fhould
pafs his finger up the fac ioto the abdomen, after the reduc-
, tion of the gut, in order^to difeover whether it be fafely re¬
turned into its proper place. *
The opening being made, the inteftine is gradually to be
pufhed into the abdomen, and the wound to be ftitxhed up;
for this'purpofe, fome advifethe quilled, and others the in¬
terrupted future, to be pafted through the Ikin and mufcles;
but as there is not fo much danger of the bowels falling out
when a dreffing and bandage are applied, and the patient all
the while kept upon his back, but that it may be prevent¬
ed by one or two-flight flitches through the flen only, it
is by all means advifeable to follow this method, fince the
| ftridfure of a ligature in tbefe tendinous parts may be dan¬
gerous.
Hitherto, in the defeription of the bubonocele, we have
fuppofed the contents to be loofe, or feparata in tnt fac r
but it happens fometimes in an operation, that we find not
only an adhefion of the outfide of the peritoneum Xo the
tunica vaginalis, and fpermatic veflel, • but like, wife of fome
part of .the inteftines to its internal furface; and m this cafe
there isfo much’-confufign, that the operator is often obliged
to extirpate the tefticle, in order to difletft. away and difin-
tangle the gut; thougirsf it c n be done without-eaftration, it
ought: however,, .his accident happens rarely, except in
thofe tuptuits that have been a long time in kit ferotum
without returning: in which Cafe the difficulty andliazard
of the operation nre fo great, mat, unleft urged by the fymp-
toms of an inflamed inteftine, it ihouid not be undertaken.
G E R Y. 653
The drefling of the wound firft of all may be with dry
lint, and afterwards as direfted under the head of wounds.
-The operation of the bubonocele in women fo' nearly re-
fembles that performed bn men, that it requires,no particu¬
lar defeription': only in them the rupture is formed by toe
inteftine or omentum falling down through the p?(T^ge of
the ligamentum rotundum into the groin, or one of the la¬
bia 'pudendi; where caufing the fame lymptoms, as when
obftrutfted 'in the ferotum, \X is to be returned by the dilata¬
tion of that portage.
Of Epiplocele.
There have been a few iriftances where fo great a quan¬
tity of the omentum hasTallen into tfie ferotum, that, by
drawing 'the ftomaeh and bowels downwards, it has excited
vohiitings, inflammation, arid the fame train of fymptoms
as happen in a bubonocele-, in which cafe, the operation of
opening of the ferotum is neceiTary: the incifibn-mult be
made in the manner of that for the rupture of the inteftine,
and the fame rules obferved with regard to. the omentum
that are laid down in the laft fe&ion. It is necefla-. y alfp,
the rings of the mufcles ftibuld beVdilated;. or otherwife,
though you haive taken away fome of the mortified part of
the omentum, the reft that is out of its place, apd ftrsngled
in the perforation, will gangrene alio. The wound is to
be treated in the fame manner as that after the operation
of the bubonocele.
Of the Hernia Femoralis.
This fpecies of rupture is thfe fame in both fexes, and
formed by the falling of the omentum or inteftine, or. both
of vherri, iritbthedofide of the thigh, through the arch made
by the - 0/ pubis arid ligamentum F'atlopii, where the iliac
veflels and tendons of the p/bas and itiacus hiternus rnufcles
pafs from the abdomen. It is very neceflary furgeons
fliould be aware of the frequency of this diforder/which
creates the fame fyrnptoms as other ruptures, and rhuftfifft
of allbe treated by the fame methods: the mannerof ope¬
rating in the reduction is here too' fo exaflly the fame, with
the difterenceof dilating the ligament tnftead of the rings of
the mufeies, that it would be a mere repetition of the ope¬
ration for the bobonocete to give any defeription of it: only
it may be ohlerved, that:' the fperriUtic cbrd„'as it enters in¬
to the abdomen, lies nearly tranfverfe to the intirton, and
clofe in contadl with the ligament; fo that unlefs you make
the dilatation obliquely outwards, inftead of perpendicularly
upwards, you will probably divide thofe veflels.
Of the Exomp.halos. .
• This rupture is owing to a protrufr'en of the Jnteftine, or
'omentum, or bo.th of them, at the navel, arid rarely happens
to be the fubjedf of an operation : for though the cafe is
common, yet moft of them a'e gfadually formed from Very
fmail beginnings ; and if they do not return into the abdomen
upend ing down, in all probability th^y adhere without any
great inconvenience to the patient, dll fomfl time or other
an inflammation falls upon the ?bteftin.es, which foon brings-
on a mortification, and death ; unlefs, by grlat chance, the-
raortified part feparates4' from the fburrd prie, leaving Its ex¬
tremity to perform the office'of an anus : in,this emerger*
cy, however, it is advifeable'to atterrip.t the rfedudfion, if
called in at the beginning, though! the univerfal adhefion of,
thefa/iod- its contents' afl'a'gfeafobftacle to the fuccefs:
the
*54 s U R
the tnllaJVue'iaAvhlch it is jnoft iikeily to anflver, is, when
the rupture is owing to any (Irain, or furiden jerk, and is at-,
tended with diofe diiorders which follow upon the ftrasgu-
Jation of a gut.
In this cafe, having tried all other means in vain, the,
operation is abfolutely neceffary ; which may be thus per¬
formed : Make the incifion.fomewhat above the tumohr, on
the left fide of the navel, through the memhrana «dipofa\ and
then emptying the fac of its water, or moniiied omentum, di¬
late the ring with the/ame crooked knife, condc&edon your
finger, as in the operation for the bubonocele; after this,
return the imeUine? and omentum into the abdomen, and
drefs the wound without making any ligature but of the
fkin only.
Of the Hernia Ventrauis.
The hernia ventralls, whi. h fometimes appears between
the tedli mufcles, is very large* but that tumour which re¬
quires the operation is feldom bigger than a walnut, and
is a difeafe not fo common as to have been obferved by
manyi but there are cafes enough knownj to put adurgeon
upon inquiry after it. When the patient is fuddenly taken
with all the fymptoras of a rupture, without any appearance
of one in the navel, feiotum, rr thigh, the manner of dila¬
ting it will be the fame as that above diredted in the other
herniasafter the operation in this and all hernias where
the intedines have been reduced, it will be convenient to
wear a trufs, fince the cicatrix is not always firm enough
in any of them to prevent a relapfe,
ExeIanation of Fig. 2*. Plate CLVII.
y^, The round-edged knife, of a convenient fize for, al-
mofl ail operations where a knife is ufed; the make of it
will be better underflood by the figure than any other de-
feription; only it may be remarked, that the bundle is made
of a light wood, as indeed the handies of all inftrumects
(hould be, that thevrefiftance to the blades mjiy be better
fek by the furgeon,
B, A pair of prebe-feiflars, which require nothing very
particular in their form, but that the lower blade (hould be
made as fmall as pofiible, fo that it is ftrong, and has a good
cpgek becaufe, being chiefly ufed in fiftuias in ano, the intro¬
duction of a thick blade into the finus, which is generally
narrow, would be very gainful to the patient.
C, -The crooked knife with the point blunted, ufed in the
operation of the bubonocele.
Of the Rybroceue.
Th e hydrocele, called alfo hernia squofa, hydropt
feroti, and hydrops lefts, is a watery tumour of the fero-
tum; which, notwithflanding the multiplicity of diftinflions
-ufed by writers, is but of two kindsy the one when the wa¬
ter is contained in the tunica vaginalis, and the other
when in the memhrana cellularis feroti. This laft is al-
inoff alwayS‘complicated with an anafarca; which fpecies of
dropfy is an extravafation of water lodged in the cells of
the memhrana adipofa ; and when thus circumftanced, will
not be difficult to be diftinguiihed; fcefides that it is fuffici-
ently chara&erifed by the (hiniag and fioftnefs of the (kin,
■which gives way to the lead imprefiion, and remains pitted
for fome time. The penis is likewife fometimes eaormoufly
•enlarged, by the infinuation of the fluids into the membra'
G E R Y.
na cellularis', all which fymptoms are abfolutely wanting in
the-dropfy of the tunica vagtnahs.
In the dropfy of the memhrana xellularis feroti, the
punflure with the trocar is recommended by fome, and
little orifices made here and there with the point of a lan¬
cet by others ; or a fmall (kane of filk paged-by a needle
through thfj (kini and out at the diftance of two or
three inches, to be kept in the manner of a feton, till tiia^
waters, are quite drained ; but ti e two firft methods avail
very little, as they open but few cells ; and the lait cannot
bs fo efficacious in that refpeT as incifions, and will be much
more apt to become rtbublefotue. and even to gangrene.
Indeed it is not often proper to perform any operation at
all upon this part, fince the memhrana cellularis feroti,
being a continuation of ihzmembrana adipofa, ftanfi cat ions
made through the (kin in the fmall of the legs will effec¬
tually empty he ferotum: and this place ought rather to be
pitched upon than the other, as being more likely to anfWer
the purpofe by reafon of its dependency: however, it (bme-
tiraes happens, that the waters fall in fo great quantities in¬
to the ferotum, as, by difteading it, to occasion great pain,
and threaten a mortification: the prepuce of the penis alfo
becom -s very often exceifively dilated, and fo twilled, that
the patient cannot void his urine. In thefe two inflances,
an incifion of three inches long, (hould be made on each fide
of the .ferotum, quite through the (kin into the cells con¬
taining the water, and two or three of half an inch long, in any
part of the penis, with a lancet or knife: all which may be
done with great fafety, and fometimes with the fuccefs of
carrying off the difeafe of the whole body.
The dropfy of the tunica vaginalis is owing to a pre¬
ternatural dilcharge of that which is continually feparating
in a fmall quantity, on the internal furface of the tunick,
for the- moiftening or lubricating the tefticle, a'nd which
•collefting too fall accumulates and forms in time a fwel-
ling of great magnitude: this is what we take to be the o-
ther fpecies of hydrocele, and the only one befides.
The hydrocele of the tunica vaginalis is very eafily to
be diflinguifhed from the hydrocele of the memhrana cel-
luhris, by the preceding defcrlption of that fpecies of dropfy:
We fhali how explain how it differs from the other tumours
of the ferotum, viz. i\Ss bubonocele, epiptocele, and enlarged
tefticls. In the firft place, it is feldora or never attended
with pain in the beginning, and is very rarely to be imputed
to any accident, as the hernia’s of the omentum and inteftina
are. From the time it full makes its appearance, it very fel-
dom is known to appear or diminiflt; but generally continues
to increafe, though in fome much falter than in others ; in
one perfon ."growing to a very painful diftenfion in a few
months, whiift in another it (hall not be troublefome in
many years*, nay, (hall ccafe to fwell at a certain period,
and ever after continue in that (fate without any notable
difadvantage; though this laft cafe very rarely happens. In
proportion as it enlarges, it becomes more tenfe, and then is
faid to be tranfparent : indeed the trafparency is niade the
chief criterion of the diflemper, it being conirantly advifed
to held a candle on one (ids of the ferotum, which it is faid
will (hinc through the the other, if there he water. But this
experiment does not always anfwer, becaufe fometimes the
tunica vaginalis is very much thickneed, and fomenines the
water itfelf is not tfafpajent; fo that to judge pofitivtiy if
there be a fluid, we mult be guided by feeling a fluftoatipn;
S U R
and though We do not perhaps evidently perceive it, yet we
maybe perfuaded there is a fluid of fotne kind, if we are
once aflured that the difter.fion of the tunica vaginalis
rnakts the tumour; which is to be diftinguifhed in the fol¬
lowing manner.
If the the interline, or omentum, form the fweliing, they
will be foft an/ pliable, (unlefs inflamed;) uneven in their
furface, particularly the omentum; and both of them extend
tbemfelves up from the fcrotum quite into the very abdomen:
whereas, in the hydrocele, the tumour is tenfe and fniooth,
and ceafes before, or at its arrival to the rings of the abdo
minal mufcles ; becaufe the upper extremity of the tunica
vaginalis terminates at fome diitance frees the furface of
the belly.
Whea the teflicle is increafed in its fize, the tumour is
rounder; and if not attended with an enlargement of the
fpermatic vefiels, the cord may be eafilydiftingudhed between
the (welling and abdomen; but without this rule of diftinSion,
either the pain, or the very great hardnefs, will difeover it
to be a difeafe of the teflicle.
As to the cure of this ditlempe'r by external applications,
or interna! means, little is to be expedted; on which account,
it is generally advifeable to wait v ith patience until the tu-
mcqr becomes troublcfome, and then to tap it with a lancet
or trocar. Id opening with a lancet, it may poffibly happen,
that the orifice of the fkin flirdl flip away from that of the
tunick, and prevent the egre's of the water: to obviate
which inconvenience, you may introduce a probe, and by
that means fecure the exadt fnuation of .the wound ; but if
the coats are very much thickened, it will be advifcableto nfe
the trocar, rather than the lancet. It is fpokes ef as sneafy-
thing, to hold the tefticle with the left hand, while we make
the pundture with the right; but when tht'tunica vaginalis
is very tenfe, it cannot well be diftinguifhed: however, there
is no danger of wounding it, if you make the pundture in
the inferior part of the ferotum. During the evacuation, the
fcrotum mull be regularly preifed; and after the operation,
a little piece of dry lint and flicking plafter are fufficient.
This method of tapping is called the palliative cure; rot
but that it does now and then prove an abfolute one. To
prevent the relapfe of this difeafe, furgeons preferibe the
making alarge wound, either by incifion or cauftic, that up¬
on healing it afterwards, the firmoefs and cootradlicnof the
cicatrix may bind up the relaxed lymphatic veflels, and ob-
ftrudl the further preternatural effufion of their contents:
but this pradlice is generally attended with fo modi trou¬
ble, that, notwithftanding its fuccefs in the end, moft furge¬
ons prefer the palliative.
(^/'Castration.
This is one of the moft melancholy operations in the
pradtice of furgery, fince it feldom takes place but in difor-
ders into which the patient is very apt to relapfe, viz. thofc
of a fchirrhus, or cancer: for under moft of the fymptoais
deferibed as rendering itneceflary, it is abfolutely improper;
fuch as a hydrocele, abfeefs of the teftes, an increafing mor¬
tification, or what is fometimes underftood by a farcocele ;
of which laft it may not be amits to fay a word. In the utmofl
latitude of the meaning of this term, it is received as a fleftiy
fwelliog of the teflicle itfelf, called likewife hernia cavnofa-,
or in fc/rae eelargements, fuch as ia a clap, more frequent¬
ly hernia bumoralis ; but generally fpeaking, is confidered
as a fiefhy excrefcence formed on the body of the teftis, which,
Vol. Ill, NQ 96. 2
G E R Y. 655
becoming exceedingly hard and tumefied, for the mod part
is fuppofedto demand extirpation, either by cutting or burn¬
ing away the induration, or amputating the teflicle. But this
maxim too precipitately received, has very much mifguidtd
the pradlitioners of furgery.
It fometimes happens that the epidydymis is tumefied, in¬
dependent of the tefticle ; and feeling like a large adventi¬
tious excrefcence, anfwers very well to the ideamolt furgeoni
forrp of a farcocele: but notbeingaware of thediiferent nature
and texture of the epididymis, they have frequently eonfeund-
ed its diforders with thofe of the tefticie itfelf, and equally re¬
commended extirpation in the induration of one or the other.
But all indurations of,the glandular part of"the teflicle not
tendieg to inflammation and abfeefs, generally, if not always^
lead oc to feirrhus and cancers; whereas thofe of the epi¬
didymis feldom or never do. It is true, in fpite of internal
or external means, thefe laft often retain their hardnefs,
and fometimes fippurate, but however without much dan¬
ger in cither cafe.
Before caftration, it it laid down as a rule to inquire whe¬
ther the patient has any pain in his back, and in that cafe
to rejeft the operation, upon the reafonabie prefurajnion of
the fpermatic veflels being likewife difeafed: but we are not
to be too hafty in this determination ; for the mere weight
of the tumour ftretching the cord, will fometimes create tliis
complaint. To learn the caufe then of this pain in the back,
when the fpermatic cord is net thickened, let your patient
be kept in bed, and.fufpeud his fcrotum in a bag-trufs, which
will relieve him, if difordered by the weight only ; but if
the fpermatic cord is thickened or indurated, which difeafe,
when attended with a dilatation of the veflels of of the fcro¬
tum, is known by the Greek appellations circocele and va¬
ricocele, the cafe is defperate, and not to be undertaken.
But fuppofing no obftacle in the way to the operation,
the method of doing it may be this : Lay your patient on a
fquare table of about three feet four inches high, letting his
legs hang down, which, as well as the reft of his body, mult
be held firm by die affiftants. Then with a knife begin
your wound above the rings of the abdominal mufcles, that
you may have room afterwards to tie the veffeis,-fince for
want of this caution operators will neeefi'arily be embar-
rafied in making the ligature : then carrying it through the
msmhrana adipofa, it rauft.be continued downward, the
length of it being in proportion to the fize of the teflicle.
If it is very fmall, it may be difle&ed away without taking
any part of the ferotum- If the tefticle, for inflate, weighs
twenty ounces ; having made one incifion about five inches
long, a little circularly, begin a fecond in the fame point as
the firft, bringing it with an oppofite fweep to meet the c-
ther in the inferior part, in fuch a manner as to cut out the
ftiape of an oval whofe fmalleft diameter fliall be two inches:
after this, difledt away the body of the tumour, with the
piece of flein on it, from the fcrotum; firft taking up fiome
of the blood-veflels, if the bsmorrhage is dangerous. Then
pafs a ligature round the cord, pretty near the slid0nfen,
and if you have fpace between the ligature and tefticle, a
fecond about half an inch lower, to mate the .ftbppage of
blood ftill more ft cure. The ligatures may be tied with
what is called the /urge on's knot, where the thread is pa fi¬
fed through the ring twice. This done,.Cut off the tefticle
a little underneath the fecond ligature, and pafs a ncAiie
from the {kin at the lower part of the wound through the
fldn at the upper part, in fuch a manner as to envelope in
8 C feme
656 S U n G E K 7.
fame degree the found tafHck, which will greatly facilitate
and quicken the cure ; or if one ilitch will not anfwer the
purpofe, you may repeat it in fuch part of the wound where
tbelkin on each (idfi lies mod loofe.
In large tumours, it is advifeable to cut aw^y great part
of the (kin ; for belides that the haemorrhage will be much
iefi in this cafe, and the operation greatly (hortened, the
(3iin by the great didenfion haviog been rendered very thin,
will great part of it, if not taken- away, fphacelate, and the
red be more prone to degenerate into a cancerous ulcer.
Of ths Phymosis.
The phymofis figailies no more than fuch a draitnefs of
the prepuce, that the glans cannot be denuded; which if
it becomes troublefome, io as to prevent the egrefs of the'
urine. Or conceal under it chancres, or foul ulcers, quite
out of the reach of application, is to be cut open. It fome-
timeshappens, that children are born imperforate ; in which
cafe, a fmall punfture, drelTed afterwards with a tent, ef-
'fedba'cure. But this operation is chiefly pra<3ifed in vene*
real cafes, in order to.exp" e chancres either on the glans
of wi liinfide the prepuce itfelf: and here, if the prepuce is
not very callous and thick, a mere incifion will anfwer ;
which may be made either with the feifiars, or by flipping
a knife between the (kin and glans to the very extremity,
and cuiting it up : the lad method is more eafy than that
of the feifthrs; but it is fafer to make the wound on the (ide
of the prepnee than upon the Upper part, for fometimes the
great veffels on the dorfutn penis afford a terrible haemorrhage;
though the prepuce remains better (haped after an incifion
made in the upper part, and therefore is to be preferred by
thofe who underhand how to take up the veffels. In chil
dren it (ometimes happens that the prepace becomes very
much contracted ; and in that cafe, it is accidentally fub
ieff to (light inflammations, which, bring on fome fynapioms
of the (tone ; but the diforder is always removed by the cure
of the ph^mofis.
If the prepuce.be very large and indurated, the opening
alone will not fuffice; and it is more advifeable to take a
way the caliofity by circumcifion, which mu!S be performed
•with a knife ; and if the artery bleed much, it mud be taken
up with a fsnall needle and ligature..
Of the Paraph ymosis*
The paraphymofis is a difeafe of the penis, where the
prepuce is fallen back from the glans, and cannot be brought
forwards to cbver it. There are many whofe penis is na¬
turally thus formed, but without any inconvenience; fo that
Cnee the time of the Romans, .(fome of whom thought it
indecent to have the glass bare,) it has not been ufual to
perform any operation upon that account ; but we read the
feveral proceffes of it deferibed very particularly by Celfus,
who does not (peak of it as an uncommon thing. Mod of
the iridances of this didemper are owing to a venereal caufe;
but there are fome where the prepuce is naturally very
tight, whiclj take their rife from a fudden retraffion of it,
and immediate mlargement of the glans preventing its re¬
turn Sometimes it happens that the furgeon fucceeds in
the reduction immediately, by compreffing the extremity of
the-penis, at the time he is endeavouring to advance the
prepuce ; if he does not, let him keep it fufpended, and at¬
tempt again, after having fomented, and ufed fome emolli-
eat applications: but if,, from the contraction below the
corona glandis, there is fo great a driflure as to threaten a
gangrene, or even, if the penis is much inlarged by water
in the membrana reticularis, forming tumours called cry-
Jlallines, three or four fmall incifions mud be made with
the point of a lancet, into the driCture and cryjlallines, ac¬
cording to the direction of the penis; which in the fird cafe
will fet free the obdruCHoa, and in the other evacuate the
water : the manner of deeding afterwards mult be with fo¬
mentations, digedives, and thersaca Londinenjisover the
pledgits.
Of the Paracentesis.
This operation is an opening made into the abdomen, ia-
order to empty any quantity ol extravafated water, collec¬
ted in that fpecits ot d;opfy called the afeites; but as
there is much more difficulty in lea/ning when to per¬
form than how to perform it, and indeed in fome instances
requires the niced judgment, we (hall endeavour to Specify-
the didinClions which render: the undertaking more or lefs-
proper.
There are but two kinds of dropfy: the anafarca) called
alfo leucophlegmacy, when the extravafated water fwims i»
the cells of-the rnembrana adipofa ; and the afeites, when:
the water poffsffes the cavity of the abdomen In the iird
kind, the water is clear and limpid; but in the fecond, a
little groffer, very often gelatinous and corrupted, and
-fometimes even mixed with flefhy concretions.
The operation of tapping is (eldom the cure of the dif-
tenvper : but dropfics, which are the confequecce of a mere-
impoveriffiment of the blood, are iefs likely to return than
thofe which are owing to any previous diforder of the liver;
and it is not uncommon for dropfies that follow agues,
haemorrhages, and durrhoe is to do well ; whereas in fuch
as are complicated with a feirrhous liver, there is hardly an
example of a cure.
The water floating in the belly, is, by its flufluation, to
determine whether the operation be a-Jvifeable ; for if, by
laying one hand on any part of the abdomen, you cannot
feel an undulation from Hriking on an oppolite part with
the other, it is to be prefumed there will be fome obftacle
to the evacuation. It fometiraes happens, that a great
quantity, or a!mo(l all the water, is contained in little blad¬
ders, adhering to the liver and the furface of the perito-
nsc'tm, known by the name of hydatids; and the re(l of it in
different fized ones, from the degree of a hydatid, to the
fize of a globe holding half a pint or a p nt of water. This
is called the eneyfted dropfy, and from the fmallnefs of its
-cyds makes the operation ufflefs ; but is not difficult to ba
difiinguifiied, becaufe there is not a fluftuation of the water,
unlefs it is complicated with an extravafktion.
When the fluftuation is hardly perceptible, (except the
teguments of the abdomen are very much thickened by an
anafarca,) in all probability the fluid is gelatinous.
There is another kind of dropfy, which for the mod part-
forbids the operation, and is peculiar to women, being feat-
ed in the body of one or both ovaiies. There is no ex¬
ample of this fpecies but what may be known by the hard-
neis and irregularity _of the tumour of the abdomen, which
is nearly uniform in the other cafes.
When the ovary is dropfical, the water is generally de-
pofited in a great number of cells formed in the body of it;
which circumltance makes the fluffuation infenfible, and the
perforation ufdsfs : though foaietime& thcre are osly one or-
tw®
S U R G
twctlls; in xv’iich cafe, if the ovary is greatly magnified,
the undulation will be readily felt, and the operation be ad-
vifeable.
When the afcltes and anafarca are complicated, it is
feldom proper to perform the operation, fince the water may
be much more effeAuaily evacuated by fcanfications in the
legs than by tapping.
Upon the fuppofition nothing forbids the extraftion of the
■water, the manner of operating is this : Having placed the
patient in a chair of a convenient height, let' him join his
hands »fo as to prefs upon his ftomach ; then dipping the
trocar in oil, you ftab it fuddenly through the teguments,
and, withdrawing the perforator, leave the waters to empty
by the canula : r.'v.z abdomen being, when filled, in the cir-
cumftance of a bladder ddtended with a fluid, would make
it indifferent where to wound; but the apprehenfion of hurt¬
ing the liver, if it be much enlarged, has induced opera¬
tors rather to chafe the left fide, and generally in that part
which is about three inches obliquely below the navel: if
the navel pro*uberates, you may make a fmall punfture with
a ianedt through the fkm, and the Waters will be readily
voided by that orifice, without any danger of a hernia fuc-
ceeding : but it fhould be carefully attended to, whether
the protuberance is formed by the water or an exomphalos-,
in which latter cafe, the inteftine would be wounded, and not
without the greatefl danger. The furgeon neither in open¬
ing with the lancet, nor perforating with the trocar, need
fear injuring the inteftines, unlefs there is but little water in
the abdomen, fince they are too much confined by the me-
fentery to come within reach of danger from thefe intlru-
meats ; hut it fometimes happens, that when the water is
almoft all emptied, it is fuddenly flopped by the inteffineor
omentum prefling againfl the end of the canula ; in which
cafe you may pufh them away with a probe : during the e
vacuatton, your affiftants muff keep pfefling On each Itde of
the abdomen, with a force equal to that of the waters be¬
fore contained there ; for by negledting this rule, the patient
will be apt to fall into buntings, from the weight on the
great veffels of the abdomen being taken off and the fink
ing of the diaphragm fucceeding ; in confcquence of which,
more blood flowing into the inferior veffels than ufnal, leaves
the fuperior ones of a bidden too empty, and thus inter
rupts the regular progrefs of the circulation. To obviate
this inconvenience, the compreffion rouft not only be made
wbh.the hands during the operation, but be after wards con
tinned, by fvvathing the abdomen with a roller of flannel,
about eight yards long, and five inches broad, beginning at
the bottom of the belly, fo that the inteftines may be borne
np sgainft the diaphragm : you may change the roller every
day till the third or fourth day, by which time the feve
tal parts will have acquired their due robe. For the dref-
fing a piece of dry lint and plaifter fuffice ; but betw een
the fkin and roller it may be proper to lay a double flannel
a foot fquare, dipt in brandy or fpirits of wine.
This operation, though it does not often abfolutely cure,
yet it fometimes preferves life a great many years,, and even
* pleafant one, efpecially if the waters have been long col¬
lecting.
Explanation of Fig. 3. Plate CLVII. *
A, h. trocar of the moff convenient fize for emptying the
abdomen when the water is not gelatineug. It is here re-
E R Y. 65 7
prefented with the perforator in the canula, jiff as it'is
placed when we perform the operation.
B, The canula of a large trocar, recommended in cafes,
where the water is gelatinous.
C, The perforator of-the large trocar.
The handle of the trocar is generally made of wood, the'
canula of filver, and the perforator oFftee!. Great care
fhould be taken by the makers of this inftrument, that the
perforator fhould exa&ly fillup the cavity of the canula; for.
unlefs the extremity of the canula lies quite clofe and fmootb
on the perforator, the introduction of it into the abdomen
will be very painful. To make it flip in more eafiiy, the
edge of the extremity of the canula fhould be thin and (harp;,
and that the canula fhould be of fteel; for the filver one be¬
ing of too feft a metal, .becomes jagged or bruifed at its^ex*
tremity with very little ufe.
Of the Fistula in Ano.
The fijlula in ano is an abfeefs running upon or into
the intefinum rettum.
The piles, which are little tumours formed aboflt the
verge of the anus, immediately within the mernbrana in¬
terna of the reftum, do fometimes fuppurate, and become
the fore-runners of a large abfeefs ; alio external injuries
here, as in every other part of the body, may produce it ;
but from whatever caufe the abfeefs arife, the manner of o-
perating upon it will be according to the nature and direc¬
tion of its cavity.
If the furgeon'have the firfl: management of the abfeefs,
and there appear an external inflammation- upon one fide oE
the buttock only ; after having waited for the proper matu¬
rity, let him with a knife make an incifion the whole length*
of it ; and in all probability, even though the bladder be-
affeCfed, the largenefsof the wound, and the proper applica-'
tion of doffils lightly preffed in, will prevent the putrefaction
of the inteftine, and make the cavity fill up,like irapofthu-*
tnations of other pans.
If the ftnus be continued to the other buttock, almoft fur.
rounding the inteftine, the whole courfe of it muft be dila.<
ted in like manner; fince, in fuch fpungy cavities, a genera¬
tion of flefh cannot be procured but by large openings;
whence alfo, if the fkin is very thin, lying ioofe and flabby*
over the fntts>, it is abfolutely ireceffary to cut it quite a-
wsy, or the patient will be apt to fink under theTdifcbarge,'
which, in the circumftancehere deferibed,..is fometimes ex.
cefiive. By^ this method, which cannot be toq much re¬
commended, it is amazing how happy the event is likely to
be; wliCreas, from neglecting it, arid truftrng only to a nar¬
row opening, if the difeharge do not deftroy the patient, at
leaft the mgtter, by being confined, corrupts the gut, and
infinuating itfelf about it, forms many other channels, which
running in various directions often baffle an operator, and
fuve been the caufe of a fiftula being lo generally efteemed
very difficult of cure.
Here we have confidered the impofthumation as pofleffing
a great part of the buttock ; but it more frequently happens,
that the matter points with a fmall extent of inflammation
on the fkm, and the direction of the firms is even with tha*
gut : in this cafe; having made a punCtore, you may with a
probe learn if it has penetrated into the inteftine. by pafiimr
your finger up it, and feeling the probe Introduced through'
the wound into its cavity; though, for the meft part, it may
■6 $8 S U R C
be knows by a di^charg* of naatter from the anus. When
this is the date of the fidula, there is no hefitation to be
made ; but immediately putting one blade of the fciflars up
the gut, and the other up the wound, fnip the whole length
of it. This procefs is as advifeable when the inteftine is
not perforated, if the ftniu is narrow, and runs upon or
rery near it; forif the abfcefs be tented, which is the only
way of dreffing it while the external orifice is fmall, it will
almofl certainly grow callous; fo that the fureft means of
cure, will be opening the gut, that proper applications may
be laid to the bottom of the wound. However, it (hould be
well attended to, that fome7f«»y*tr pretty near the intelbne
neither run into nor upon it; in which cafe, thSy mult be o
pened, according to the courfe of their penetration. There
are abundance of inftances, where the intertine is fo much
ulcerated, as to give free iflue to the matter of the abfcefs
by the anus : but there are none where there is not, by the
thinnefs and difcolouration of the Ikin, or an induration to
be perceived through the Ikin, feme mark of its direction;
which, if difeovered, may be opened into with a lancet,
and .t’?en it becomes the fame cafe as if the nutter had faitly
pointed. **
If finufes into and about the gut are not complica¬
ted with an induration, and you can follow their courfe ; the
mere opening with feiffars, or a knife guided on a director,
will fometimes fuffice ; but it is generally fafer to cut the
piece offlefh furrounded by thefe incifions quite away, and,
when it is callous, abfolutely neceffary, or the callolities
mart be walled afterwards by efeharotick medicines, which
is a tedious and cruel method of cure.
When the firtula is of a long Handing, and we have choice
of time for opening it, a dofe of rhubarb the day before the
operation will he very convenient, as it not only will empty
the bowels, but alfo prove an artringent for a while, and
prevent themifehief of removing the drelTings to order to go
to (tool.
It fometimes happens, that the orifices are fo fmall, as not
to admit the entrance of the feirtars ; in which cafe, fponge
tents muft be employed for their dilatation.
In performing thefe operations on the anus, no inftru-
ments are fo handy as the knife and feiflars; aimed all
the others which have been invented to facilitate the work
are not only difHcult to manage, but more painful to the
patient: however, in thofe inilances where the fillula is
very narrow, and opens into the inteftines, juft within the
verge of the anus, the fyringotomy may be ufed with ad¬
vantage ; but where the opening into the gut is high, it
cannot be employed without giving great pain.
The worft fpecies of fiftuh is that communicating with the
and fonaetimes (through the proftate gland) with the
bladder itfelf. This generally takes it rife from a former
gonorrhoea, and appears externally firft in par into, and af¬
terwards incteafing more towards thz anus, and even fome-
. times into the groin, burlls out in various orifices, through
the ikin, which foon becomes callous and rotten ; and the
urine parting partly through thefe orifices, will often ex¬
cite as much pain, and of the fame kind, as a done in the
bladder.
This fpecies of fidula taking its rife from dridrtures of the
urethra, is only manageable by the bougie: for fo long as
the urethra is obftrufted, the cure of the fidula will be
imperfeft; but if the canal be opened by this application, it
i? amazing what obftinate indurations and foul ftmifes will
E R Y.
in cohfequence difappear; though there are forne fo callous
and rotten, as to demand the knife and rtcilful dreffings,
notwithdanding the urethra fhould be dilated by the ufe of
bougies.
Of r^ifPundlure of the Pjerineum.
This operation is performed, when the bladder is under
fuch a fuppreffion of urine, as cannot be relieved by any gen¬
tler methods, nor, by reafon of the ofeftruftion in its neck
or the urethra, will admit; of the introdnifHon of a catheter.
The manner of doing it, as deferibed by mod writers, is
by pufiiing a common trocar from the place where the ex¬
ternal wound in the old way of cutting is made, into the
cavity of the bladder, and fo procuring thepflue of the wa¬
ter through the canula ; but others, refining upon this prac¬
tice, have ordered an incifion to be carried on from the
fame part into the bladder, and then to infmuate the canu¬
la : but both the methods are to be rejefted, in favour of
an opening a little above the os pubis : fob befides that it
is not eafy to guide the indrument through the prodate
gland into the bladder, the neceiSty of continuing it, in a
part already very much inflamed and thickened, feldom fails
to do mifehief, and even to produce a mortification.
There is another method dill more eafy both to the pa¬
tient.and the operator ;'which *;onfids only in emptying tho
bladder with a common trocar, and Hopping the canula with
a little coik, which is afterwards to be taken out as often
as the patient has occafion to urine. The eantsla is to be
continued in the bladder, till fuch time as the perfon finds
he can void kis urine by the natural paflage.
In this operation the abdomen ought to be perforated a-
bout two inches above the' *s pubis ; and if the patient
be fat, the trocar {hould 'penetrate two inches, otherwife
an inch and a half will be fufficient.
Of the Stone.
Stony concretions are a difeafe incident to feveral parts
of the body ; but we dull treat only of thofe formed in the
kidneys and bladder.
Small Hones and gravel are frequently voided without
pain ; bit fometimes they colled and become very,large in
the kidneys ; in which cafe, a fit of the done in that partis
the cure, from the inflammation and pain occasioning con-
vulfive twitches, which at laft expel them. But in this dif¬
eafe the patient is very much relieved by feveral kinds
of remedies, fuch as the mucilaginous, the faponaceous,
<bc. fome of which lubricate, and others both lubricate
and dimalate. The fand, in parting through the ure¬
ters, is very much forwarded by. the force of the urine.
The uretets being very narrow as they run over the pfoas
mufcle, and alfo at their entrance into the bladder, make
the movement of the done very painful and difficult m thofe
parts ; but there is feldom fo much trouble after the firft
fit; for when once they have been dilated, they generally'
continue fo. For the fymptoms of a Hone in the bladder,
fee Medicine, p. 122.
Of Searching.
The patient being laid on a horizoptal table, with bis
thighs elevated and a little extended, pals the. found with
the concave part towards you, until it meets with fome re-
fiftaace in perinxo, a little above the anus; then turning it
without much force, purtait gently on into the bladder; and
S U R I
ifit meets with an obflru&ion at the neck, raife its extre¬
mity upwards, by inclining the handle of it towards you ;
or if it don't then flip in, withdraw it a quarter of an inch,
and introducing your fore finger into the reilttm, lift it up,
and it will feldom fail to enter : there is fome art in turning
the found in the proper place of the urethraf which fur-
geons not verfed in this operation cannot fo well execute ;
therefore they may pafs the inftrunrent with the concave fide
always towards the abdometi of the patient, obferving the
fame rule at the entrance into the bladder as in the other
method. The caufe of this obftacle, befides the rug# of the
urethra, and the refiftance of the verumontanum, is fome-
times a fmall projection of the orifice of the bladder, in the
urethra, like that of the os tine re in. the vagina, which oc-
cafions the end of the found to flip a little- beyond it.
Though, upon fearching, we are aflured of aftone in the
bladder, we are not, without further inquiry, to operate im¬
mediately; fince there are fometimes obilacles which for¬
bid the operation, either abfolutely, or-only for a certain
time ; among thefe, that of greateft eonfequence, is the
gravel or ftooe in the kidneys. The objections of lefs
weight, and which frequently are removed, are a fit of the
ftone, a cough, a heCtic, and being emaciated by long pain;
exceflive hot or cold weather are likewife hindrances: But
in extremity of danger, thefe laft confiderations may be
difregarded.
Difference of age makes an extreme difference of danger,
infants and young people almoft always recovering ; but fill
the operation is advifeable on thofe advanced in years, tho’
it is not attended with near the fame fuccefs. This ope¬
ration is performed foilr fevcral ways, all which we ftxall
deferibe.
Of /^Lesser Apparatus, or Cutting on Gripe.
The moft ancient wayofeutting for the (lone, is that de-
feribed by Celfut, and known by the name of cutting on
the gripe; though, fince the time of Johanner de Romanis,
it is alfo called cutting with the lejfer apparatus, to diflin-
guifh it from his new method, which, on account of the many
inflruments employed in it, is cMcdcutting with the great¬
er apparatus. The manner of doing the operation is this :
You firfl introduce the fore finger and middle finger of the
left hand, dipt in oil, up thu anus, and preffiag foftly with
your right hand above the er pubis, endeavour to bring the
flose towards the neck of the bladder; then making an in-
cifion, on the left fide of the perinxum, above the anus,
direftly upon the ftone, you turn it out through the wound,
either with your fingers or a fcoop.
This way of cutting wa^s attended with many difficulties,
for want of proper inftruments to direCt the incifion, and
extract the ftone, when it lay beyond the reach of the fin¬
gers, which in'a large bladder'was frequently the cafe.
The wound of the bladder in this oper^tiodfis made in the
fame place as is new praCtifed in the latersfrhethod ; but it
being impracticable on fome fubjeCts, and uncertain on all o-
thers, has made it uDiverfaily exploded.
Of the Greater Apparatus, or the Old way.
This method of cutting, invented'by Johannes de Roma¬
ni i, has at different times, and with different people, varied
confiderably in fome of its proceffes, and particularly with
regard to the ufe of certain inftrumerits. What we ftiall
Vox. III. N® 96. .2
j E R Y. 659
deferibe, will be the manner in which it is now praCtifed
with ail its improvements.
Having laid the patient on afquare horizontal table, three
feet four inches high, with a pillow under His heed, let h;s
legs and thighs be bert, and his heels made to approach his
buttocks, by tying his hands to the bottom of his feet, with
a couple of ftrong ligatures, about two yards Jong ; and to
fecurehim more effectually from ftruggling, pafs a double
ligature under one of his hams, and carry the four flmgs
round his neck to.the other ham ; then paffing the loop
underneath it, make a knot by threading one of the fingle
ends through the loop : After this, the thighs being widen¬
ed from each other, and firmly fupported by proper per-
fons, you introduce theftaff, havingfirft dipt it in oil, which
muft be held by your affiftant, a little leaning on the left
fide of the feam in perinea-, and beginning the external
wound juft below ihtfcrotum, (which muft be held out of
the way,) youcontinue it downwards, to within two fingers
breadih of the ; then leaving that direction, you flip
the knife forwards in the groove, pretty far into the bul¬
bous part of the urethra ; or, as there is fome danger of
wounding the rettum, in the continuation of the incifion,
you may turn the knife with the back.towards it, and make
this part of the iccifion from within outwards. Should a
very large veffel be cut, it will be adrifeable to tie it before
you proceed any farther in the operation. When the wound
is made, Aide the govget along the groove of the ftaff into
the bladder; and to do it with more fafety, whe«the beak
of it is received int the groove, it will be proper to take
the ftaff yourfelf in your hand : for if the affiftant fliould,
unwarily, either incline the handle of it too much towards
you, or not refift enough to the force of the gorget, it is
very apt to flip out of the groove, between the reciuvt and
the bladder ; which accident is not only inconvenient to the
operator for the prefent, but is attended for the moft patt-
with very bad confequences. The gorget being psffed, di¬
late the urethra and neck of the bladder with your fore-fin¬
ger, and introduce the forceps into the bladder, keeping
them fliut till you touch the flone, when you rnuft grafp it
with a moderate force, and extract it by pulling down¬
wards towards the rettum. Should you find a difficulty in
laying hold of the ftone, be careful to keep j-our forceps in
fuch a pofition, that they may open upwards and down¬
wards, (not laterally,) which will very much facilitate the
embracing of the ftone, in cafe it fliould happen to be thin
and flat.
Of theYiion Operation.
This method of cutting for the ftone was firft publiffied
in the year 15:61, by Pierre Franco. About the year
1719, it was firft done ia England by Mr Douglas, and af¬
ter him praCtifed by others. The manner of performing it,
with the improvements made fince Frasr-c’s operation, is this :
The patient being laid on a fquare table, with his legs hang,
ing over, and faftened to the fides of it by a ligature 'pair¬
ed above the knee; his head and body lifted up a little by
pillows, fo as to relax the abdominal mufcles: and bis hands
held fteady by fome affiftants : injeCt through a-catheter in¬
to the bladder as much barley-water as he can bear, which
in a man is often about eight ounces, and fometimes,
twelve. For the more eafily doing this, an ox’s ureter may
be tied to the extremity of the fyringe; and handle of the
8D catheter.
C6o SUll
catheter, which being pliable will prerent any painful mo¬
tion of the inlirumer.t in the bladder.
The bladder being filled, an affiftant, in order to prevent
the reflux of the water, muft grafp the penis the moment
the catheter is withdrawn, holding it on one fide, in fuch a
manner as not to ftretch the Hein of the abdomen; then
with a round edged knife make an incifion about four inch¬
es long, between the refti and pyramidal mufcles, through
the me nib r ana adipofa, as deep a? the bladder, bringing its
extremity almofl down tothc/>(?72/.r; afterihis, taking a crook¬
ed knife, contioue the incifion into the bladder, carrying it
a little under the os pubis, and immediately upon the wa¬
ter’s flowing out, introduce the fore-finger of your left hand,
which will cliredi the forceps to the fi: ne.
This method was at firlt received with great applaufe in
London*, but after fome trial was rejefted, for the following
inconveniences.
It fo.netimes happens that the bladder, notwithflartding
the injeftlon. Hill continues fo deep under the os pobis, that
the peritoneum being necefifanly wounded firll, the inte-
flines pula out immediately at the orifice, and the urine af
terwards empties into the abdomen', in which cafe, hardly
any recover. The injcftion itfelf is exceedingly painful;
and however llowlyNthe fltt'd be injected, it diltends the
bladder fo much more fuddently than the urine from the kid¬
neys does, and fo much falter than it can well bear, that it
not only is feldom dilated enough to make the operation ab
faluteiy fecure, but is fometimes even burlt, or at lealt its
tone deitroyed by the hally dilatation. What adds to the
danger here, is the poflibdity of meeting with a contradted
indurated bladder; which is a cireumllance fometimes attend¬
ing on the-ltone, and indeed fen exceedingly dangerous one
in all the other methods; but would he frightful in this, by
reafon not only of the necelfityof woundtngthe peritoneum,
but of the difficulty of coming at the Rone. If the done
be very fmall, it is hard to lay hold of it with the forceps,
and in a fat man the fingers are not long enough for hat
purpofe. If there are many little Rones, it will icarce hap¬
pen that more than one at a time can be extra&ed; and if
the Rone breaks, it not only is impracticable to take it all
away in the operation, but alfo, from the fupine pollure of
the patient, it will generally remain in the bladder ; where¬
as, in the other methods, for the moR part, it works itfelf
out with the urine. But even fuppofing that the operation
itfelf is profperous, the confequences generally are very
troublefome ; for the urine iffuing out at an orifice where
there is no defcent, fpreads itfelf upon the abdomen,
and makes v; ry painful excoriations ; though, what is Rill
worfe, it fometimes infinuates itself into the cells between
the bladder and abdominal mufcles, and, together with the
inflammation excitetLby the operation, brings on a fuppura-
tion there, which is always difficult to manage, and fre¬
quently mortal.
Of Lateral Operation.
This method was invented by an ecclefiaftic, who called
himfelf Frere Jaques. He came to Paris in the year 1697,
bringing with him an abundance of certificates of his dex¬
terity in opening ; and making his hiflory known to the
court, and magiflrates of the city, he got an order to cut
at the Hotel Dieu, and the Charlie, where he performed
this operation on about fifty perfons. His fuccefs did not
janfwer the promifes he had made.
G E R Y.
The principal defedf in his manner of cutting was the
want of a groove in his Raff: which made it difficult to car¬
ry the knife exactly into the bladder ; nor did he t ake any
care of his patients after the operation ; fo that for want of
proper dreflings, iome of the wounds proved fiRulous, and
other ill confequences enfued.
Chefelden, improving Frere Jacquer’s method, made ufe
of the following, which is now the practice of moll operators.
The patient being laid on a table, with his hands and
feet tied, and the Raff pafftd as in the old way, let your
afliflant bold it a little ilanting < n one fide, fo that thu di-
rcdtion of it may run exa6ly through the middle of the left
erettor penis and accelerator yrine mufcles; then make your,
incifion through the fkin and fat, very large, beginning on
one fide of the feam ki perineo, a little above the,place
wounded in the old way, and finiffiinga little below the anus,
between it and the tuberofity of the ilchium : this wound
muR be carried on deeper between the mufcles, until the
proRate be felt; when, fe^rcliing for the Raff, and fixing it
properly, if it-has flipt, you mufi turn the edge of the
knife upwards, and cut the whole length of that gland from
within outwards, at the fame time puthing down the re&unk
with a finger or two of the left hand; by which precautions
the gut will alway efcape wounding; after which, the ope¬
ration finifltes nearly in the fame manner as with the gr-ater
apparatus.
If, upon Introducing the forceps, you do not perceive the
Rone readily, you muR lift up their handle, and feel almoft
perpendicularly for it; fince for the moR part, when it is
hard to come at, it lies in one of the finufes fometimes form¬
ed on each fide of the neck of the bladder, which project
forward in fuch a manner, that if the Rone lie there, the
forceps pals beyond it the moment they are through the
wound; fo that it would be impofltble to lay hold of it, or
even to feel it, if not aware of this circumRance.
When the Rone breaks, iv is much fafer totake away the
fragments with the forceps, than to leave them bedilchar-
ged witu the urine; and if the pieces are very fmall, like
fand, a fcoop is the beRinRrument; though fome prefer the
injecting barley-water into the bladder, which fuddenly re¬
turning, brings away the broken particles of the (tone.
As there are hardly any inlffinces of more Rones than one,
when the Rone taken away is rough ; fo when it is fmooth
and -polifhed in any part ofSt, it is almoft a certain fign of
others behind ; on which account, an operator fhould be
careful, in that cafe, to examine not only with his fingers,
but fome convenient inRrument, for the remaining ones;
though indeed, in all cafes, it may be proper to examine
’the bladder after the extraction of a Rone ; becaufe it is
poflible there may be a fecond Rone, notwithRanding the
firfl be rough.
The great inconvenience of the lateral operation is the
haemorrhage which fometimes enfues in men; for in childrea
the danger of it is not worth mentioning.
If in the operation any very large veffel of the external
wound fliould be divided, it is advifeable to tie it before the
extraction of the Rone ; but the neceffity of doing this, does
not occur once in twenty times.
There is but one objection more of any confequence,
which is the danger of wounding the reCtum ; and this
is a very troublefome accident: But if the operator obferves
the rule laid down with regard to that article, it might al¬
ways be avoided.
Id
S U R G E R Y.
In this method the remarkable parts wounded by the
knife are, the mufculus tranfverfalis penis, levator ani,
and projhite gland : In the old way, the urethra only is
wounded, about two inches on this fide the prodate, and
the infiruments are forced through the reft of the paffage,
which is compofed of the bulbous part of the urethra, the
membranous part of the urethra, the neck of the bladder,
and prodate gland. This channel isib very narrow, that,
till it be torn to pieces, the management of the forceps is
exceedingly difficult; and it happens frequently, that from
the render texture of the membranous parts, the forceps are
unwarily pufhed through it between the os pubis and bladder;
befidss that in introducing the gorget upon the daff, it is
apt to flip downwards between the reftum and bladder,
both which inconveoiencies are avoided in the lateral opera¬
tion. It is true, the wound made in the lateral method
will not admit of the extraction of a large done without la¬
ceration as well as in the old way : but in theone cafe, the la¬
ceration is fmatl, and made after a preparation for it by an
incifion; and in the other, all the parts are torn without
any previous opening, and which are fo very tight, that the
pjsn of the diflenfion mud neceflarily be exceflive. How¬
ever, in both thefe operations, the furgeon mud not grafp
the done with violence ; and evetv in extracting, mud, with
both hands to the branches of his forceps, refiit their {hut¬
ting fo tight, as the comprefiion from the lips of fuch a
narrow wound would otherwife make them. The extrac¬
tion of very large ftones is much more impracticable with
the greater apparatus than by tiiis method, becaufe of the
fmallnefs of the angle of the bones in that part where the
wound is made ; fo that indeed k is neceflary in almod all
extractions ta pull the done downward towards the reCtum,
which cannot be done without great violence to the mem¬
branous parts, and even the reparation of one from another;
whence follow abfcefles and doughs about the wound, which
is a circum'lance not,known in the lateral operation. Ec-
chymofes followed by fuppuration and gangrene, fometimes
fpread themfelves upon the fcrotum ; and in Ihort, ail the
inconveniences and ill fymptoms which attend upon the la¬
teral operation, except the haemorrhage, are in a more vi¬
olent degree incident to the old way.
An incontinence of urine is not common after the lateral
operation, and a fiflula feldom or never the eonfeqnenceof it.
The manner of treating the patient after the operation,
is pretty nearly this : If it happens that the veflels of the
prodate bleed, dry lint, or lint dipped in fame dyptick wa¬
ter, fuch as aqua vitrioli, mud be applied to the part, and
held there with a confiderable degree of preflure for a few
hours ; or a filver canula of three or four inches long, co¬
vered with fine rag, may be introduced into the bladder, and
left there two or three days, which feldorn fails to flop the
hsemorrhage. The patient may alfo take an opiate. If the
wound does not bleed, a little dry linr, or a pledgit of di-
geftive laid gently in it, is bed. The place where the pa¬
tient lies, (hould be moderately tool, as heat not only dif-
pofes the veflels to bleed afrefh, but generally makes him
low and faint. If, foon after the operation, he complains
of a ficknefs at the domach, or even a pain in that part of
the abdomen near the bladder, it is not always a fign of a
dangerous inflammation, but frequently goes off in half an
hour : to affid, however, in its removal, a fomentation put
into an hog’s bladder, and applied pretty warm to the part
in pain, will be of great ferviee : if the pain increafes, af¬
6Sl
ter two or three hours, the confequence is mudi to be fear¬
ed ; and in this cafe, bleeding, and emollient clydws by
way of fomentation to the bowels, are immediately ne¬
ceflary.
The firfl good fymptom after the operation is th'b urine
coining freely away, as we then know the lips of the blad¬
der and prodate gland are not much inflamed. If the pa¬
tient fhouid become languid, and continue without any ap¬
petite, blifters prove beneficial; which may be applied with
great fafety, and little pain, as there is feldom or never
any drangury. About the third or fourth day a dool mud
be procured by a clyder; for it feldom comes paturally the
fird time, and this method mud be continued as every man’s
difcretion fhall guide him. As foon as the patient comes to
an appetite, he fhouid be indulged in eating light food ; with
this caution, that he do not eat too much at a time.
If, during the cure, the buttocks (hould be excoriated by
the urine,, let them be anointed with nutritum : the dref-
fing from fird to lad is feldotn any other than a foft digef-
tive, or dry lint.
Of tbs Stone in the Urethra.
If a fmall done be lodged in the urethra near the glans,
it may often be pufhed out with the fingers, or picked away
with fome iodrument ; but if it flops in any other part of
the channel, it may be cut upon without any inconvenience.
The bed way of doing it, is to pull the prepuce over the
gians, as far as you can ; and then making an incifion the
length of the done, through the teguments, it may be turn¬
ed out with a little hook or the point of a probe : The
wound of the fkin flipping back afterwards, to its proper
fituation, and from the orifice of the urethra, prevents the
iffue of the urine through that orifice, and very often heals
in twenty-four hours. This is a much lefs painful method
of extraAing dones from tjie urethra, than by any indru-
ments that have hitherto been devifed.
Of the extraftion of the Stone in Women.
The exrraftion of the done in women, will eafily be un*
derdood, lim-e the whole operation confids in placing them
in the fame manner as men, and, without m iking any wound,
introducing into the bladder a draight diredlor, cpon that
a gorget, and afterwards the forceps to take hold of the.
done ; all which may be done without difficulty, by rea-
fon of the fbprtnels of the u ethra. If the done proves very
large, and in extraAing draws the bladder forwards, it is
advifeabie to make an incifion through the neck of it, upon
the done; which not only will facilitate the extraAion, but:
alio be lefs dangerous than a laceration which will necef-
f arily follow Thedreflings are fomentations and em’ollient
ointments, which fhouid be applied two or three times a-
day, and the patient in other refpeAs be treated like men,
who have undergone the operation for the done.
' Explanation of Fig 4.'Plate CL VIE
A, A found ufed in fearch ng for the done.'
The fize teprefented here is but a little too large for the
younged children, and may be ufed upon boys till they are
thirteen or fourteen years of age ; a, larger fhouid be em¬
ployed between that age and aduitnefs, when one of about
ten inches, in a right-line from the handle to the extremity,
is proper. This (hould be made of deel, and its extremity-
be round and injooth..
66z S TJ 11
B, A flaff lit for tlie operation on boys from eight to
fourteen years of age. The ItafF for a man mull: be of the
fize of tlie found already defcribed.
C, A (faff fomething too big for the fmalleft children,
but nny be ufed upon boys from about four years of age to
eight.
The ftaff has a groove on its convex fide, which firlt
ferves as a diredtion where to cut, and afterwards receiving
the beak of the gorget, gaides it readily to the bladder.
Care Ihould be taken, in making the groove, that the edges
of it be fmoothed down, fo that they cannot wound in puf¬
fing through theurethra. The extremity Ihould alfo be o-
pen; otherwife it will be fometimes difficult to withdraw the
llafF, when the gorget is introduced, and preffes againllthe
end of it.
Thefe inflruments areufually made with a greater bending
than here reprefented; but this fhape is more like to that of
the urethra, and rather more advantageous for making the
incilion.
D, the yoke, an inftrument to be worn by men with an
incontinence of urine. It is made with iron, but for ufe
rnuft be covered with velvet. It moves upon a joint at one
end, and is fdtened at the other by catches at different di¬
fiances placed on a fpring. It mutt be accommodated to
the fize of the penis, and be taken off whenever the patient
finds an inclination to make water. This inftrument is ex¬
ceedingly ufeful, becaufeit always anfwers the purpofe, and
icldom galls the part after a few days wearing.
Explanation of Fig. y. Plate CLVII.
,4, A fmall catheter made of filver. This inftrument is
hollow, and ferves to draw off the urine when under a fup-
prellion. It is alfo ufed in the high operation to fill the blad¬
der with water. Near its extremity, are two orifices, through
which the water paffes into its cavity. Care ffiould be taken
that the edges of thefe orifices are quite fmooth.
B, The knife ufed in cutting for the ftone: it is the fame
already defcribed; but it is not improper to repeat the figure
with the alteration of a quantity of tow twifted round it,
which makes it eafier to hold, when we perform the lateral
operation, and turn the edge upwards to wound the proftatc
gland.
C, A femalecatheter, differing from the'male catheter, it
being almoft ftraight; and fomething larger.
Z>, A filver-wire to pafs into either catheter, for the re¬
moving any grumous blood or matter that clogs them up.
Explanation of Fig. 6. Plate CLVII.
A, The gorget ufed upon men in the lateral operation.
B, The gorget ufed upon children under five years of age
in the lateral operation.
A gorget between the fizes of thefe two will be fit for
boys from five years of age to fifteen or fixteen.
Thefe inftruments are hollow for the paffage of the for-
.ceps into the bladder; and their handies lie fianting, that
they may the more readily be carrried .through the wound of
the proftate, which is made obliquely on the left-fide of it.
The beak at the extremity of the gorget mull be fmaller
than the groove of the ftaff which is cut upon, becaufe it is
to be receive.! in the groove. Care ftiould be taken, that
the edges of the_gorget near the beak are not (harp, leaft, in-
$ead of dilating the wound, as it ought, it Ihould only cut
G E R Y.
on each fide when introduced; in which cafe, it would be
difficult to carry the forceps into the bladder.
C, A gonget, with its handle exadtly in the middle; this
fhaped inftrument is ufed in the old way. All the gorgets
ftiould be made of fteel.
Explanation of Fig. 7. Plate CLVII.
The forceps for extrafting the ftone. Thefe are re¬
prefented a little open, that the teeth may be better feen
within-fide.
This inftrument rauft be of different fizes for different
ages and Hones, from the length of four inches to one of
near a foot long; hut the forceps of about eight inches long
will be found-moil generally' ufeful. The number neceffary
to be furnilbed with, will be four or five.
Great care ffiould be taken by the makers of this inftru¬
ment, that it move eafily upon the rivet; that the extremity
of the chops do not meet when they are ffiat; and particularly
that the teeth be not too large, left, in entering deep into
the ftone, they ffiould break it. It is of confequence alio that
the teeth do not reach farther towards the joint than here
reprefented, becaufe a fmall ftone, when received into that
part, being held fall there, would dilate the forceps excef-
fively. and make the extra&ion difficult; on which account,
the infide of the blades near the joint ffiould be fmooth, that
the ftone may flip towards the teeth.
B, A direftor made of fteel, ufed for the direction of the
gorget, in the extradhon of the ftone from women.
C, A fcoop to take away the ftone when it is broken into
fmall pieces like fand. This inftrument is made of fteel.
Of the Empyema. -
The operation for the empyema generally implies an arti¬
ficial opening made into the cavity of the thorax, by which
we evacuate any fluid that lies there exrravafated, and is be¬
come dangerous by its weight and quantity. The fluids de¬
fcribed as neceffary to be voided by this operation, are blood,
matter, and water.
When blood is the fluid, fuppofed to require evacuation
by this method, it is always extravafated through fome wound
of the veffels of the lungs or thorax, and being difeharged
in great quantities on the diaphragm, is faid to opprefs re-
fpiration, till let out by fome convenient opening made in the
moft depending part of that cavity, which is the only kind
of perforation into the thorax diftinguiffied by the name of
the operation for the empyema : But though this opening is
univerfally recommended in the cafe here ftated, yet we meet
with few or no examples where it has been pradifed for a
mere extravafation of blood.
To empty the thorax, in a rupture of any veffels which
open into it, bleeding is very neceffary; which not only flops
the haemorrhage, by abating the force of the circulation ;
but hkewife, by unloading the vefl’els of their contents,
makes them more fit to receive the extravafated fluid by ab-
forption: gentle evacuations and pedorals are alfo very fer-
viceable, and a low diet is abfolutely neceffary.
The fecond circumftance in which this operation takes
place, is a rupture of matter from the pleura inediajlimtm
or lungs into the cavity of the thorax, where accumulating
it at length proves fatal for want of a difeharge. It is true,
that the cafe occurs but very feldom, where the operation
is neceffary; becaufe, in mpft abfeeffes of the thorax, the
S U R
matter is ufually'fpit up as faft as it is generated; and.in the
diflldtion of fuch who have died of this fpecies of confump-
tion, we rarefy find much extravafated pus in the cavity,
though a great portion of the lungs be ddhoyed. However,
there are a few e samples which require the operation : and
thefe may be diftinguifhed by the following fymptoms. The
patient is obliged to lie upon the dileaitd fide, or, in cafe
there is matter in both cavities of the thorax, on his back;
becaufe the mediaJUnum can feldom fupport the weight of
the incumbent fluid, without fuffering great pain ; but this
rule is not certain, it fometimes happening that the patient
can lie with eafe on that fide where there is no fluid. An¬
other fymptom of extravafated matter, is an evident un-'
dulation of it, fo that in eertain motions it may be heard to
quafh. For the mod part too, upon careful inquiry, an
tedemay or at leaft a thickening of fome portion of the inter-
coltal mufcles, will be difeovered. And lalfly, if there be
much fluid, it will be attended with a preternatural expan-
fion of that fide of the chefl where it lies. When there-
• fore thefe fign-. appear after a previous pleuritic or pulmona¬
ry diforder, and the cafe has been attended with the fymp
toms of a fuppuration, it is moft probably owing to a collec¬
tion of .matter; though the patient will alfo labour under a
continual low fever, and a particular anxiety from the load
of fluid.
The laft fort of fluid faid to require iffue from this opera¬
tion is water, which however very feldom colieds in fuch
manner as to become the proper fubjed of the operation :
for if the dropfy of the thorax be complicated with an anafar-
ca, or even a/cites, it is certainly improper; and indeed it
hardly ever takes place, but where the dillemper is Angle,
and takes its rife from the fame fore of diforders in the lympha
tics of the pleura, as the hydrocele does from thofe of the
tunica vaginalis The fymptoms of this dropfyare, a fmail
cough witheut fpitting, a little flow fever from the diflur-
bance of refpiration; fometimes too the water, by a fudden
jerk, may be heard to quafla; and. generally fpeaking, itsweight
upon the diaphragm and medtajlinurn are fo troublefome as
to oblige the patient to (loop forward, and to turn upon the
affeded fide when he lies down; for the fame reafon, when
there is water in both cavities of the thorax, he is forced to
lie on his back.
The manner of operating, whether it be for the difeharge
of matter or water, is to pitch upon the molt depending part
of the thorax, which fome have fuppofed to be between the
eighth and ninth rib, and others between the ninth and tenth,
at fuch a diftance from the vertebra that the depth of the
flelh may not bean impediment to the perforation. This di¬
ftance is determined to be about a hand’s breadth: and here,
with a knife, feiflars, or trocar, we are ordered to make
the perforation; but in doing it there are a great many diffi¬
culties. In fat perfons, it is not eafy to count the ribs, and
the wound will be very deep, and troublefome to make ; it
is hardly poffible to efcape wounding the intercoftal artery,
which runs in this place between the ribs. Bpt if the only
advantage propofed by the fituation of the^wound be de¬
rived from its dependency, thegpurpofe of difeharging the
fluid will be as well anfwered by an opening between the
fixth and feventh rib, half way from the fternum towards
the fpine; which, by laying ourfelves down, becomes in effedl
as depending an orifice, as the other in fitting up; and by an
opening made in this manner we avoid all the inconvenien-
eies in the other method: For in this part of the thorax
Vol. III. N°. 96. 2
G E R Y. 663
there is very little depth of mufcles; the artery lies conceal¬
ed under the rib ; and the'diaphragm is at great diftance.
The opening is beft made with a knife, and ffiouid be about
an inch long through the fkin, and half an inch tlncugh .the
fubjacent mufcles; though,-to make the incifion with ie:s rifle
of wounding the lungs, it may be advifeable to dilate u with
the blunt-pointed knife (as is pradtifed in the operation for
the bubonocele) after having made a fmail piinefture with a
common knife. The treatment of the wound will be accord¬
ing to the nature of the difeharge. If, after a few days, there
appears no drain, you may let the orifice heal up; but if it
continues, it may be kept open with a fhbrt filver canula,
until luch time as an alteration in that circumftance will give
us leave to cicatrize with fafety.
Of EncyfledTywioxs'ks.
These tumours borrow their names from a cyft. or bag,
in which they are contained ; and are farther dtftinguiflied
by the nature of their contents: If the matter forming them
refembles milk-curds, the tumour is called atheroma-, if it
be like honey, meliceris ; and if compofed of fat, or a
fuety fubftance, Jleatoma. The two firft are not readily di-
ftinguiflied from one another, but their d;flference frpni the
Jleatoma is eafily learnt by their foftnefs and fiudhiation.
Thefe tumours appear in every part of the body, and in pla¬
ces where there are no glands.
The fteatoma is never painful until by its weight it grows
troublefome, nor is it a mark of general indifpofirion of body;
fo that the extirpation feldoms fails of fuccefs. The fize of
fome of them is very large, frequently -weighing five or fix
pounds, and there have been inftances of their weighing above
forty.
When X-he. Jleatoma is irregular in its furface, with emi-
nencies and depreflions, it is fuety; whereas the fat one has
for the moft.part a uniform fmooth outfide. The operation
for the Jleatoma will be underftood by the defeription of
that for the fchirrhus.
The atheroma is much more common than the melicens; at
leaft, if all eneyfted tumours with matter not curdled, may,
inxompliance with cuftom, be called fo : Thefe are more
frequent, and grow larger than thofe where the matter is
curdled, being often attendant on fcrophulous indifpofitions,
which makes them more difficult of cure.
The cyfts of thefe tumours, with the fitin covering them,
after a certain period of growth, refilling any further enlarge¬
ment, do frequentlyinflame and break; but,this opening is not
fo advantageous for the cure as extirpation by the knife, which
Ihould be done in the infancy of the fwc-lling. When the
tumours are no bigger than a fmall golden pippen, they may
be difle&ed away from under the fkin, by making aftraight
incifion only through it ; but if they exceed this bulk, an A
oval piece of Ikin muft be cut through firft, to make room
for the management of the knife and taking away the tumour;
in which cafe, it will be advifeable to take off the upper por¬
tion of the cyft with the Ikin; and then, by the help of a
hook, to dified away as much of the remainder-of it as can
be conveniently, which is a lefs painful and more fecure me¬
thod than deftroying it afterwards with cfcharoticks. This
rule is to be obferved, When the cyft runs fo deep amongft
the interftices of the mufcles, as to make it impoffible to re¬
move the whole of it, where, if we cut off a great quantity,
the reft qftfally comes away in floughs and matter.
The ganglion of the tendon is an encyft'ed tumour of the.
8 E mdiceris
664 S U R G
melicerls kind, but its fluid is generally like the white of an
egg; when it is ftnall, it fonietimes difperfes of itfelf; ptef-
fare and fudden blows do alfo remove it; but for the mod
part it continues, unlefs it be extirpated. It is no uncom¬
mon cafe to meet with this fpecies of ganglion, running un¬
der the ligamentum empale, and extending itfelf both up the
wrift and down to the palm of the hand. The cure of this
diforder cannot be effeded but by an incifion through its
whole length and dividing the ligamentnm carpale.
The drdling in thefe cafes does not at all differ from the
general methods of treating wounds.
Oj the Amputation of the Cancered and Scirrhous
Breast.
The fuccefs of this operation is exceedingly precarious,
from the great difpofition there is in the confutation, after
an amputation, to form a new cancer in the wound, or fome
other part of the body. When a feirrhus has admitted
of a long delay before the operation, the patient feems ter
have a better profpetft of cure without danger of a relapfe,
than when it has increafed very faft, and with acute pain.
The feirrhus may be diftinguifhed, by its want of in¬
flammation in the fldn, its fmoothnefs and flipperinefs deep
in the bread, and generallyby its pricking pain, which as
it is more or lefs, increafes the danger accordingly; though
there arc fome few with little or none in the beginning : as
the tumour degenerates into a cancer, which is the word
degree of feirrhus, it becomes unequal and livid, and the
veflels growing varicous, at lad ulcerates.
In extirpating the feirrhus, if it be ftmll, a longitudi
nal inciflon will dilate fufliciently for the operation; but if
too large to be diffetded out in that manner, an oval piece
of flein mud be cut through fird, the fize of which is to be
proportioned to that of the tumour; for example, if the
fwelling is five inches long, and three broad, the oval piece
of fldn cut away mud be nearly of the fame length, and
about an inch and a half in breadth In taking off the
whole bread, the fldn may be very much preferved, by
making the wound of it a great deal lefs than the bafis of
the bread, which mud be carefully cleared away from the
pe&oral mufcle. This is not difficult to do; becaufe all thefc
feirrhufes being enlarged glands, are encompafled with their
proper 'membranes, which make them quite didinit from
the neighbouring parrs, and eafily feparable ; at lead this
is the cafe when the tumour is moveable ; for fom. times
it adheres to the fubjacent mufcle, and that mufeie to the
ribs ; in which i ircumdance, the operation is impracticable.
When it is attended with knob in the arm pit, no fervice
can be done by amputation, unlefs the knots be taken a-
wav. for there is no fort of depen lenre to lie laid on
their fubddiag, by the difeharge of the wound of the bread.
The bleeding of the large arteries is to be ftopped by
pafling the needle twice through the fleffi, almod round
every vedel, and tying upon it which will neceffiuily in
elude it in the ligature. In order to diferver the orifices
of the veflels, the wound mud be cleaned with a fpunge wrung
out of warm water.
The feirrhous tumours which appear about the lower
jaw, are, generally fpcaking, fcrophulous diforders, that dif-
tinguifh themfelves almod by the circumdance of fixing on
the falivary glands. Thsfe are very dubborn of cure, but
not fo bad as the.feirrhus. fince they frequently fuppurate,
and heal afterwards : if they impodhumate again after heal-
E k Y.
ing, it is for want of a good bottom, which may fome-
times be procured by dedroying their bad furface with a
caudick. Befides thefe, there is another fpecies of Icir-
rhus in the neck, that fudeeeds better after extirpation
than either of the former kind; this is an enlargement of
the lymphatick glands, which run clofe up by the jugular
vein, and is didmguiffiable from the cancers of this part, by
its moveableuefs, want of pain, the laxnefs of the fldn
covering it, the fmall degree of prefiure it makes on the ar-
fophagus and trachea, and ladly the good |iabit of bo¬
dy, as it feldom aflfetds the conditution, which cancers
here do very early, after their fird appearance. This
tumour, from its fituation, requires great exaftnefs in
the cutting off: they fometimes extend up to the chin to¬
wards the mouth, andoccaiion a dtvsfion of the falivary dudl
in operating, which proves very troublefome to heal ; but,
when all other methods have failed, may be cured by a per¬
foration into the mouth, through that part of the cheek
where it is wounded, which by a tent or fmall feton maybe
made fidulous ; then, by properly dreffingupon the outiide,
the oozing of t e faliva that way will be prevented, and
the external orifice healed without difficulty.
The treatment of all thefe wounds may be with dry lint
Srd, and afterwards as in common wounds.
Ofthe Operation of the T repan.
The operation of the trepan, is the making one or more
orifices through the fcull, to admit an indrumant for rai-
fiig any pieces of bone that by violence are beaten inwards
upon the brain, or to give iflue to blood or matter lodged
in any part within the cranium.
Fradlures of the fltull are at all times very dangerous,
not in conlequence of the injury done to the cranium it-
lelf, but as the brain becomes affedted either from the pref-
fureof the fradtured bone, or that of theextravafated blood
and matter. If then the fymptoms excited by a frac¬
ture do fometimes fellow from a mere extravafation of
blood, as is the cafe when the cranium is not beaten in¬
wards, it mud likewife happen that a rupture of the vcflels
of this part, without a fradbure, will alfo occafion the fame
diforders: For this reafon, the aperation may take place
where the fcull is pot much offended, but only the veffels of
the dura mater, the pia mater, or the brain.
When the cranium is beaten inward, w-ithout any frac-
t -re, it is called a depreffion; when very much broken, a
fradture ; or if broken and beat in alfo, a fradbure with de¬
preffion ; if it is only cracked without depreffion, though
properly a fradbure, it is called a fiffure ; if none of thefe
diforders appear, where there is a fufpicion of them, the
fymptoms are imputed to a concuffion of the brain. Thefe
are the four didindbions in ufe, and which fully comprehend
all the others.
The depreffion of the cranium without a fradlure caa
but feldom occur, and then it happens to children vvhofe
bones are more pliable and feft than tbrofe of adults
In blows of the cranium, requiring the ufe of the tre¬
pan, the marks of a fradture are generally very evident,
fince the fcaip is offen lacerated much, as to expofe :t to
outfight : But if the wound of the fcaip be fo Imall, as only
to admit a probe, we mud judge then by the feel of the
furface of the bone, ufing the caution of not miftaking a fu-
. turefor a fradbure.
If there be no wound of the fcaip, you mud prefs about
the
S U R
the head with your fingers, till the patient complains of
fome particular part, whico in all likelihood is the place af-
fefted, and, if the fcalp there befeparated from the cranium%
is aimed infallibly fo. The fymptoms of a fra&ure,
are, a bleeding at the ears and nofe, a lofs of fenfe, vomit¬
ings, drowfinefs, delirium, incontinence of urine and excre¬
ment- but what is mod to be depended upon, is adepreiTion
of the bone, or a roughnefs on its outfide ; for all the other
complaints not only happen toconcuffions, which do well with¬
out the application of a trepan, but likewife there are fradtures
not attended with any of them, or at lead in a dight degree;
fo that thefe fymptoms alone, without examination of the
part afFe&ed, are but an uncertain rule to go,by.
In concuflions without a frafture, that produce the fymp-
toras here laid down, and do well afterwards, the veflels of
the brain and membranes are only inflamed and djiated ; er
if they arc ruptured, they abforb the extravafated blood a-
gain ; on which account, nature {hould be affided by plen¬
tiful bleedings, clyders, and other evacuations, and fo in
all fradlures where the patient is not trepanned immediately:
however, although people with violent concuflions do fome-
times recover, it is fo very ftldom, that there can be no
pretence, when they happen, for neglecting the trepan, but
not being able to learn in what part the concuflion is.
Writers difpute very much about the pollibility of the
eentra fiffure, or a fiflure occafioned on the part of the head
oppofite to that on v/hich the blow is given, or where the
inner table is fraftured while the outer one remains entire ;
but there are hidories of cafes, which, if fairly dated, make
it unquedionable ; and this is mod certain, that if the com¬
plaint be at a didance from where the blow was received,
there can be no danger in fealping, and applying the trepan
to that part where thepatnis.
When we are affured of a frafture or depreffion, it is al¬
ways advifeable to trepan asfoon as poflible, in order to pre¬
vent the fpreading of the abfeefs, which feldom fails to
follow upon the rupture of the vedeis of the brain and
membranes, and for the mod part in a few days.
The manner of treating a frafture of the cranium, will
be according to the nature of the fradure itfelf, and the in¬
jury of the fcalp. If the wound of the head be torn into an¬
gles, perhaps cutting'off the lacerated flaps will make room
for the faw ; if the bone be broken into fereral pieces, the
pieces maybe taken away with the forceps; or if iome of
the fkull be alfo depreffed, the removal of the pieces, wij),
without perforating, make way for the elevator to raife the
depreffed part ; but if the fradture be not complicated
with a wound of the fca.lp, or the wound be too fmail to ad;
m't of the operation, which feldom fails to be the cafe,
then the fradlure mud be laid bare, by taking away a large
piece of the fcalp.
Before the application of the trepan, it i<; to be remem¬
bered there are certain places on the fcull where it cannot
be ufed with fo much fafety as on others.; the whole length
of the fagittal future, down to the nofe, is always mention¬
ed as one where the perforation is dangerous, becaufe of the
fpine of the os frontis, and the courfe of the fuperior lon¬
gitudinal under this part, which it is funpofed would
be neceffarily wounded by the faw and in coBfequence de-
ftroy the patient by the hsemorrhage; but though a perforar
tion may, contrary to the general opinion, be made over
theJinus without offending it, and, even if it was wounded,
the effufiqn of blood would not in ail probability be mortal;
G E R Y. <<<55
yet at bed it would be very troublefome ; and fince we are
not draitened in that part of the cranium for room, it is ad-
vifeabie to forbear operating in this place. The bonyJinufiF
-of the os frontis forbid the ufe of the trepan near the or¬
bits of the eyes; therefore, if it fiiould be depreffed near
tbofe cavities, the furgeon mud be careful fo perfoiate ei¬
ther above, or on one fide of the fradlure ; for fawing be¬
low it will only lead into the Jinus, and aofwer no purpofe
in the defign either of giving a difeharge to the matter from
the brain, or an opportunity to elevate the depreflion ; nay,
perhaps leave an incurable fidula, if the patient efcapes with
life.
The os occipitis being very uneven, both in its internal
and exter nal furface, makes trepanning there a!mod imprac¬
ticable; befides, the great fiuules run about fo much of it,
as hardly to afford fpace to perforate without danger of
wounding them ; but then it is fo defended from injuries by
its fituation and diength, that fractures do not happen to it
fo often as to the other bones of the cranium ; and when
they do, for the mod part they become io foon mortal,
by affeiding the cerebellum which it fudains, that the Ope¬
ration is feldom required in this cale. Indeed the upper
angle of this bone lies above the cerebellum, and, when frac¬
tured or depreffed, is not attended with fo immediate dan¬
ger ; but when this happens, the courfe of the longitudinal
finus down the middle of it, and the neighbourhood of the
lateral finufes beneath it, make it advifeable to trepan at the
lower part of the os parietale, or at lead upon or jud below
the lambdoidal future, fo that the perforation of the os occi*
pitis can hardly ever be proper.
Though wounds in the cerebellum are always mortal, yet
great portions of the cerebrum have been carried off, or
dedroved, without any notable inconvenience.
The places then unfit to admit the faw, are the three de*
feribed ; that is, the iagittal fuiure ; that part of the ss
J'rantis near the orbits of the eyes ; and the os occipitis.
But when a fraidure hap'pens in any other part above the-
ear, there is no objection to the operation. When there is
only a imall fiffufe without any deprellion or motion in the
bone, the trepan may be applied on the fiffuie itfdf, which
will more readily give vent to the blood or matter under¬
neath, than if made at a didance. If the liffure be large,
and the bone weakened or depreffed, the trepan mud be
applied on one fide of it, but fo as to nuke it a part of the
circumference of the fa wed piece ; if the frafhire run up¬
wards, it will be eligible always to perforate near its bot¬
tom, becaufe the dependency of the orifice will give better
iffue to the matter, though the ill-grounded apprehenfion
of the brain falling out there has made many eminent fur-
geons contradift this rule in their praidi e. If, by making
one orifice, you cannot raife all the depreffed part, you mutt
make a fecond and a third, and continue doing fo, .till you
have reduced the whole cranium even : there is frequently
occafion to repeat it twice or thrice ; and it h- s been done
twelve times, nay oftener, with fuccefs ; which fhews the
little danger there is, either in fawing the fkull, or expo-
fing the dura mater and brain, when the preffure is taken
off. Indeed the mifehief of laying the brain bare is fo fmail,
compared with a concuffion of it, or an abfeefs from pent-up
matter, that thofe fra&ures *f the fkull. where the bone is
broken into fplinrers the whole extent of it, and can be taken
away, much more readily do well, than a fimple fiffure on¬
ly, where the abfeefs cannot difeharge itfelf freely ; for
666 S U II G
\vhich reafon, thor*%?i the depreffed fradure may be ra!fed
by the means of one orifice, yet, if it is of a confiderable
length, it will be almoft absolutely neceffary to make one
or two more openings, for the convenience of difcharge ;
fince, for want of this, we fee abfcefles increafe daily in their
'quantity of matter, and at the end of a few weeks carry
off the patient.
In concuflions of the brain without a fradture of the cra¬
nium, if the trepan be applied, and vaft difcharges ^nfue,
it will be alfo convenient to make more perforations into the
abfcefs and the neighbourhood of the abfcefs, the fituati* n
of which will be eafily guefifed by the direction of the it ream
of matter. And here it is to be obferved, that abiceffes
which ehfue frpm a concuffion are generally more extenfive
and dangerons than thofe which accompany a fradhire with
deprdlion : for in a ffadhire, the yielding of the bone de-
ftroys, in a great degree, the force of the ftriking body,
and prevents any violent commotion of the brain ; fo that
what the brain fuffers refults chiefly from the p^effure of
the incumbent bone, and the laceration of the veflels, near
the fraffure : whereas, when the cranium refills the /hock,
all, or great part of the cerebrum fuftains the cdncuffioh,
and is often impoftumated or inflamed almoft in its whole
dimenfion.
The manner of trepanning is this : Having fixed your pa¬
tient’s head Heady, either on the bolder of a bed, or by
placing him in a low chair; with the pin of your faw, mark
the center of the piece of bone to be taken out; then with
the perforating trepan, make an orifice deep enough to re
ceive the pin, which being fixed in it will prevent the faw
from flipping ; and thus you are to'eontinue fawmg, till the
impi-effion made will prelerve the Aendinefs without the pin,
'when it is to be taken away, for fear of its wouudin? the
brain before the faw has entered through the cranium,
which it would do at iaft, bgcaufe of its projetSiun. In
working through the bone, the teeth of the faw will begin
to clog, by that time you arrive to the diploe; wherefore a
brufli muft be ready to clean it every now and then, and with
a pointed probe you muft clear away the duft in the cin le
of the trepanned bone, obferving, if it be deeper on one fine
than the other, tb lean afterwards on that fide where the
impreffion is leaft, that the whole thicknefs may be /awed
through at the fame time. To do all this with lefs inter¬
ruption, it will be proper to have two faws of exadly the
fame diameter, that an afliftant may be bru/hing one while
you operate with the other. We are advifed to faw bold¬
ly till we cone to the diplos, which, it is faid, will always
diftinguilh itfelf by the bloodinefs. But, however, this is not
a certain mark to go by : for though, where there is a diploe,
it will manifeft itfdf by its bloodinefs, yet fometimes the
fcnll is fo very thin as not to admit of any; in which cafe,
if an operator ftiould pu(h on his inftrument in expectation
of meeting with this fubftance, he would unwarily wound
the brain. This is not very often the cafe; but, however,
often enough to put a man on his guard, and make him in¬
quire whether the bone be loofe after a little fa wing, which is
the only rule we go by when we have pafled through the diploe,
and may as well be attended to before coming at it, with¬
out any confiderahle lofs of time. When it is quite fawed
through, and lies loofe, it may betaken away with the for¬
ceps contrived for that ufe ; and if the lower edges of the
orifice, next to the dura mater, are fplintered, they may
be /craped fmooth with a lenticular.
E R Y.
Thefe are the chief proce/Tes of the operation of the
trepan. The only thing remaining to be done, is, with an e-
levator introduced at the orifice, to raile the depreilion, or
broken_fplmters, if they cannot otherwifc be laid hold.of
and to draw out the grumous blood, or any other extra¬
neous body. If the dura mater be not wounded or torn, an
incifion muft be made through it, to give way to the blood
or matter, which almo(l certainly lie underneath it, if / the
fymptoms have been bad, and cone has been discharged
from between the cranium and dura mater : Though it
has been lately obferved that an abfcefs will fometimes be
formed in the fubftance of the brain ; and therefore, if the
punChire of the dura mater does not .procure an evacua¬
tion of the matter, and the fymptoms of a fuppuration are
/till urgent, it will be advifeable to make a /mall incifion
With a lancet into the brain itfelf..
We have ufed the word trepan all along, for the fake of
being better underftood ; but the inftrument here recomr
mended is a trephine; the advantages of which, as alfo that
of a cylindrical faw, or o >e nearly cylindrical, are defcri-
bed in the explanation of the copper-plate.
With regard to the dreffings of thefe wounds, it is very
certain, that as the greateft part of the evil proceeds from
the quantity and prefl’ureof the matter, whatever approaches
towards the nature of a tent, and increafes its quantity and
preffure by locking it up, muft be pernicious. Therefore the
ufe of ali fyndons whatever (hould be excluded. The hafty ap¬
plication too offpriits of wine, which is focommonly advifed,
cannot be proper ;.a$ they are not onlyunfit for inflammations
in general, but alio crifp up the veflels of the dura mater and
brain, and, (topping the fuppuration, fometimesproduee a gan¬
grene. Since then a clo/e application is inconvenient, and,
whatever good there may be in topical medicines, it cannot for
the molt part >>e communicated tothe abfceis, by reafonofits
extent beyond the or.iice, the belt remedy will be drylintonly,
wh'ch muft be laid on loofeiy to give vent to the matter,
and be repeated twice a day till the difeharge is leflened,
when once in twenty-four hours will be fufficient to the fi-
ni/hing of the cure, which will be fometnmg retarded by
the exfoliations that fometimes follow this operation. I he
patient afterwards may wear a plate of tiu upon the fear, to
defend it from blows or any accidental injury.
Explanation of Fig. i. Plate CLVIII.
A, The perforator, commonly called the perforating tre¬
pan. With this inftrument, an orifice is u/ually made for
the reception of the pin, on the centre of the piece of
bone that is to be taken away, in the operation of trepan¬
ning-, though if the pin be very /harp, and projeft but little
beyond the teeth of the faw, as in that marked with the
letter B, the perforator would be oeedlefs ; but as the point
of the pin prefently grows blunt with ufe, and in that cafe
it is difficult to fix the law, it is advifeable to have this in-
ftrumenr in rcadinefs. It is alfo handy for boring into the
fubftance of the bones, in order to promote a granulation of
fle/h on their furfaces. When it is made ufe of, it mult be
received and faftened in the handle C.
B The crown, or faw of the trepan, with the pin ap¬
pearing juft beyond the extremities of the teeth. The /hape
of this faw is cylindrical.
C, The handle of the foregoing inftrument, called the
trephine; which is much preferable to the trepan, (an in¬
ftrument like 3 wimble ufed by joiners,) becaufe of the
great
S U R G
great cofcrenience of holding it, and leaning on one fide or
other of the faw, as we find it neceffary: The trepan how¬
ever, though allowed to be unhandy, is the inltfument moft
tafed by iurgeons in other parts of Europe, upon the luppofi-
tion of its working quicker than the trephine.
The trephine here rtprefented is of fuch a fhape as to
Htake it a convenient elevator, for which purpofe the ex¬
tremities of it are made rough'.
D, A key to take out the pin E, when the faw has
made an impreffion deep enough to be worked without the
help of it.
Explanation of Fig. 2. Plate CLVIII.
A, A convenient forceps to take out the circular piece
of bone, when it does not (lick to the faw : the contrivance
by which they readily lay hold of it, is to make the extre
mities that are to grafp it, with an arch of the fame circle
as the fitw is made. Upon one of the handles, there is ad¬
ded a little elevator, to lift up any fmall fplimer of bone.
B, A lenticular: the fore-part of its blade is fharp, in or¬
der to ferape the lower edge of the orifice of the cranium,
in cafe any fplinters fhould remain after the operation ; and
the button at its extremity receives the dull, that it may not
fall on the brain ; but there is feldom any o.ccafion for this
inftrument.
C, A rugine or rafpatory, for feraping bones in order to
promote granulations of flefh. The handles of thefe two
laff inftruments are wood, whereas every part of the others
fliould be made of fteel.
Of the Cataract .
The cataradf, called by the Latins fuffvfo, is a difeafe
of the cryffalline humour, rendering the whole body of it
opaker fo that the rays of light, which, in the natural ftate
ofits tranfparency. were tranfmitted to ihe tunica retina,
become now totally intercepted, and produce no effedt.
This is pretty nearly the account delivered down to us by
Hippocrates and the ancient Greeks, who likewife knew it
by the name of glaucoma.
Anatomiffs have frequently diffedfed the eyes of perfons
under this diforder after their death, and have found it to
be always an opacity of the crydalline humour, agreeably
to the definition of a glaucoma: fo that by confequence
we mu^ underffand the words cataratt and glaucoma as
fynonymous terms.
The general criterion of the fitnefs of cataradfs for the 0-
peration, is taken from their colour ; the pearl coloured, and
thofe of the colour of burnifhed iron, are efleemed proper
to endure the needle; the white are fuppofed milky, the
green and yellow horny and incurable.
The depreffion of a cataradf of any colour would be the
cure, if that alone was the diffemper of the eye : but it ge¬
nerally happens, that the yellow cataradfs adhere to the
/rtf fo firmly as to become immoveable1; befides, when
they follow in confequence of a blow, which is often the
cafe, either the cells of the vitreous humour are fo much
difturbed and broken, or the retina afFedted, that a degree
of blindnefs will remain, though the cataradf be depreffed.
To judge whether the cataradf adheres to the iris, if
you cahnot at once dilfinguilh it by your fight, fhut the pa¬
tient’s eye, and rub the lids a little ; then fuddenly opening
it, you will perceive the '.pupil contradf, if the cryltallin'e
humour does not prevent the adtion by its adhefion ; And
Vox,. Ill, N® 96. 2
E R Y. 6^
when this is the cafe in any kind of cataradt, the operation
can hardly be advifed.
Another confideration of the greateft moment, before
undertaking the cure, is to be affuned c)f the right ffafe of
the tunica retina\ which is very readily learnt, where there
is no adhefion of the cataradf, from the light falling be¬
tween the iris and cryftalline humour, which if the eye is
not fenfible of, it is a certain indication of another malady,
and abfolutely forbids'the operation. Generally this ca¬
taradf takes its rife from head-achs, convulfions, and nervous
diforders.
When none of thefe objedfions forbid the operation, it
may be thus done : Having placed your patient in a con¬
venient light, and in a chair fuitable to the height of that
you yourfelf fit in, let a pillow or two be placed behind his
back, in fuch a manner, that the body bending forward, tits
head may approach near to you ; then inclining the head a
little backward upon the bread of your affiftant, and cover¬
ing the other eye fo as to prevent its rolling, let the affiff-
ant lift up the fuperior eye-lid, and yourfelf deprefs a little
the inferior one: This done, ftrike the needle through the
tunica conjunctiva, fompthing lefs than one tenth of an inch
from the cornea, even with the middle of the pupil, into
the pofterior chamber, and gently endeavour to deprefs the
cataradf with the flat furface of it. If, after it is diflodged,
it rifes again, though not with niuch elafticity, it mult a-
gain and again be pulhed down. If it is membranous ; af¬
ter the, difeharge of the fluid, the pellicle mud be more
broke and deprefled: if it is uniformly fluid, or exceedingly
elaftick, we mull not continue to endanger a terrible in¬
flammation, by a vain attempt to fucceed. If a cataradt of
the right eye is to be couched, and the furgeon cannot ufe
his left hand fo dexteroufly as his righj, he may place him-
felf behind the patient, and'ufe his right hand.
We have not recommended the cculi, becaufe,
upon the difeharge of the aqueous humour through the punc¬
ture, the eye, being fomewhat emptied, more readily admits
of thedepreflion of the cryftalline humour, than when prefled
upon by the inftrument.
As to the method of treating the fucceeding inflamma¬
tion, bleeding and other gentle evacuations are found ab¬
folutely neceffary.
Of Cutting the Iris.
There are two cafes where this operation may he of
fome fervice ; one when the cataradt is from its adhefion
immoveable ; and the other, when the pupil of the eye is
totally clofed up by a diforder of the mufcular fibres of the
iris, which gradually contradting the orifice, at laft leaves
the membrane quite imperforate. This laft diftemper has
hitherto been deemed incurable. The adhefion of the ca¬
taradt has been confidered'as a fpecies of blindnefs not to
be relieved: but Wiv Cbtfelden h&s invented a method of
making an artificial pupil, by flitting the iris, which may
relieve in both the inftances here dated.
In doing this operation, the patient rnuft be placed as for
couching, and the eye kept open and fixed by the fpecuTtim
oculi, which is abfolutely neceflary here ; then introducing
the knife in the fame part of the conjun'ftiva you wound in
couching, infinuate it with its blade held horizontally, and
the back of it towards you, between tholigamentum ciliare
and circumference of the iris, into the anterior chamber of
the eye: and after it is advanced to the farther fide of it;’
8 P .make
668 S U R
make yaur inclfian quite.through the membrane ; and if the
operation fucceeds, it will upon wounding fly open, and
appear a large oriiice, though not fo wide as it becomes af¬
terwards.
The place to be opened in the iris, will be according to
the nature of the difeafe : if the membrane itfelf be only
affe&ed with a contraction, the middle part of it, which
is the natural fl mat ion of the pupil, mull be cut; but if
there be a cataraCt, the incifion mull be made above or below
the cjtaradt, though it is more eligible to do it above.
The contracted iris, from a paralytic diforder, is fo of¬
ten complicated with an affection of the retina, that the
fuccefs is very precarious in this cafe. This operation has
anfwered bed in adhefions of the cryftalline humour, though
but very feldom even tbe're.
Explanation of Fig. 3. Plate CLVIII,
A, The couching needle, the broad part of which to¬
wards the point is flat on one fide ; But on the other is a
little convex, to give it more fubdance and ftrength.
The handle of this inftrument is whiteuvory, inlaid with
a dreak of black in that part of it lying even with the con¬
vex furface of the blade: The meaning of which is, that by
holding the handle with the dreak upwards, we may be
guided to deprefs the membrane of a milky cataraCt with the
flat lurface, though the fubdance of the cataraCt (wimming
in the eye obfcures the needle, and prevents its being direct¬
ed in a proper polition by the fight.
B, A fpeculujfi oculiy which is made to open or (hut by
an iron button Hiding along a‘flit in the handle. This in
llrument is compoled of one piece of fled, in fuch a manner
that it would fly open by its dadicity, if the two branches
of the handle were not confined by the button. ' The circle
of it flioul'd be covered with velvet, to make it lie fofcer
on the eye-lids.
C, The knife for cutting the iris, the blade of which
has two edges, refembling a lancet, which are more advan-
tageous than one only, in cuttingthe cornea for the extrac¬
tion of the cataraCl.
Fistula Lachrymalis.
The ftftula lachrymalis is generally underdood to be
fuch a diforder of the canals leading from the eye to the
nofe, as obdruCls the natural progrefsof the tears, and makes
them trickle down the cheek : but this is only the firfl and
niilded dage of the difeafe. In the next, there is a mucus
refembling matter, and- afterwards matter itfelf difcharged
with the icars from the pnntta. lachrvmalia, and'fometimes
from an orifice broken through the fkin between the nofe
and angle of the eye. The lad and word degree of it is,
when the matier of the abfcefs, by its long continuance,
has not only corroded the neighbouring foft parts, but alfo
affeCted the fubjacent bone.
Monfieur Annell, a French furgeon, recommends in the
recent fiflula, to pafs.a, fmall probe through one of the
punfla lachrymalia into the faccus and nofe, in order to
break the concretions which were fuppofed to make the ob-
ftruCtion, and with a fmall-pipe and fyringe to throw an in-
jeCtion through the other, in order to wafli them away.
The manner of operating in thofe cafes where perforation
is not required, is this : Suppofing the abfcefs not broken,
chufe a time when it is mod turgid with matter ; and to
his etiJ, you, may flvut the patient’s eye the day before.
G E R Y.
and lay little flips of plaifler upon one another serofs the
lids, from about the puntta lacbrymalia to the internal
angle; which comprefling their channels, and preventing the
flux of the matter that way, will heap it up in the.bag, and
indicate more ceftaibly the place to be cut. If the abfcefs
is already open, the’orifice and probe will inform you where
to enlarge : then placing the patient in a feat of convenient
height for the management of your hand; with a fmall in-
cifion-knife dilate from the upper part of the bag, down to
the edge of the orbit, without any regard to the tendon of
the orbicularis mufcle, or fear of wounding the blood-vef- ■
fels ; though if you lee the vefltls, it is proper to fhun them.
The length of this incifion, will be near four tenths of an
inch. It lias been advifed, in opening the bag, to introduce
a fmall probe through one of ihepunfta into its cavity, to
prevent wounding the pofterior part of it. But this excefs
of care may be more troublefome than ufeful ; fince, in fo
large a veffel, a very fmall fhare of dexterity is fufficient-to
avoid the miltake. In making this incifion, care mud be
had, not to cut too near the joining of the eye-lids, hecaufe
- of the deformity of the fucceeding fear ; though the blear
eye or uneven, contra&ion of the fliin in that part, after the
operation, is generally owing to the ufe of the cautery, and
not to the wound of the tendon of the orbicularis mufcle ;
for this lad is neceffaniy from its fituation always cut
through, but without any inconvenience, becaufe of the firm
cicatrix afterwards that fixes it ftrongly to the bone.
When the bag is open, it is to be filled with dry lint,
which the next day may be removed, and exchanged for a
doffil dipt in a foft digeflive medicine : this mud be repeat¬
ed every day once or twice, according to the quantity of
the difeharge ;• now and then, when the matter is not good,
uling the precipitate medicine, and from time to time a
fponge tent, to prevent the too fudden reunion of the up¬
per part of the abfcefs. When the dtfeharge begins to
leffen, it will be proper to pafs a fmall probe, a fmall bou¬
gie, or lllver wire, through the nafal du& into the nofe e-
very time it is drefl, in order to dilate it a little, and make
wjy for the tears and matter which by their drain will con¬
tinue to keep it open. This method mail be followed till
the difeharge is nearly over ( a hich will be in a few weeks;)
and then drefling fuperficially with dry lint, or any drying
application, the wound will feldori" fail of healing. After
the cure, in order to prevent a relapfe, it will be proper,
for a few weeks, to wear the coroprelling inflrument repre-
fented in the copperplate.
When the bone is bare, and the fiflula requires perfora¬
tion, the perforator is not to be carried down the duttus ad
nafum, for fear of boriag into the Jinus maxillaris ; but
more internally towards the nofe, whicn will bleed freely,
if properly wounded The wound afterwards fhoultl be
drefled with dofiils, in the manner above deferibed, and the
probe or filver wire be every day paffed through the duftus
ad nafum, led, after the cure of the abfcefs, it fhould dill
remain obdruded ; and if, upon trial, the du<St fliould be fo
filled up as not to admit the wire, it will be right to keep
open the perforation into the nofe with a fmall tent, till
the difeharge is almofl quite ceafed.
Explana r 1 oN.of Fig. 4. Plate CLVIII.
A, The eye, with the fkin of the eye-lids demoded, in
order to fhe w the orbicularis mufcle : the white llreak run-
ing from the inner angle of the eye toward the nofe is the
tendoa
S U R
tendon of the orbicularis mufcle. At a little diftance from
the internal angle, on the edge of the eye-Iids may be
obferved two black fpots, which are the orifices of- the la¬
chrymal channels, and called xhtpuntta lacnrymalia.
B, The exa& dimeniion of the lachrymal- channels and
bag ; the pricked line reprefents the edge of the orbit.
C, A (mail inciiion-kmfe, more handy than a larger for
opening the bag
D, The perforator to deftroy the os unguis, if ever it
fhonld happen to be nectffary.
E, An iron inftrument made thin and pliable, to fet even
on the forehead, and for ufe covered with velvet : the holes
at the three extremities receive two pieces of ribband, by
which it is faftened on the forehead : the button at the end
of the fcrew is to be placed on the faccus lachrymalis, and
the ferev/ to be twifted till the button makes a cotifiderable
preffure on the bag : the button fhould be covered with vel¬
vet, and a little comprefs of plainer be laid on the bag be¬
fore it is'applied, to prevent the Ikin from being galled by
the prelfure. The little branch of iron which receives the
fetew mult be foft enough to admit of bending, otherwife
it will ,be difficult to place the button exaftly on the bag.
This inltrument is for the left eye only; ii ffiould be worn
night and day in the beginning of a filtula, and alter a liltula
has been healed by incilicn; but as the fuccels depends upon
the exaft fituation of the button upon the bag, it ffiould be
carefully looked after.
Cy Bronchotomy.
The operation of bronchotomy is an incifion made in the
afpera artcria, to make way for the a r into the lungs,
when refpiration is obftru&ed by any tumour compreifing
the larynxj or fome other diforder of the glottis And ajpsra
artsria, without any apparent tumour .
The manner of doing it, is by making a longitudinal in¬
cifion through the Ik n, three quarters of an incii long, op-
pofite to the third and fourth ring of the trachea, if you
have the choice of the place ; and when ycu cannot make
it fo high, the rule will be to wound a little below the
tumou-r : it is always advifed to pinch up the fkm for this
procefs, which however may be left 11 the diferetion of the
furgton. When the ffiin is cut throv<.u, you mull: make a
fmail tranfverfe incifion into the wind-pipe, and immediately
introduce a filver crooked canula near half an inch long,
with a couple of little rings at the top of it, through which
a ribband may be palled round the neck, to keep it fixed in
the wound.
The method of drefling will be eafily underftood; fince,
after the patient can breathe by the natural paflage, if you
withdraw the hollow tent, the wound will become a fimple
one, and, notwithllanding its penetration through a carti¬
lage into a large cavity, require a luperficial application
only.
Of the-Extirpation of /^Tonsils.
These glands fometimes grow fo large and feirrhpus as
to become incurable, and even to threaten fufFocatiop if not
extirpated. The manner of doing this operation formerly,
was by cutting them off: but the altnoft con ft ant confequence
of this wound was a violent bleeding, and fometimes too
a mortal one ; on which account it is rejected in favour of
the ligature, which is not only void of danger, but alfo fel-
dem fails of cure.
G E R Y. ^
If the bafis of the tonfil is fmaller than the upper part,
you may pals the ligature by tying it to the end of a probe,
bent into the foim of an arch, and fet into a handle; which
being carried beyond the. gland, and round it, is to be
brought back again : this done, you may eafily tie it by the
means of an inftrument of Mr. contrivance, which
holds one end of the ftfing on the fide of the tonfil next the
throat, while you make the knot by pulling the other with
the right hand quite out of the mouth, as will be eafily un-
derftood by the draught in the copper-plate. Shouid.it
happen that the tonlils are conical, fo that the ligature will
neceffarily flip over its extremity when we attempt- to tie;
in this cafe, he has recommended an inftrument like a crook¬
ed needle, fet in a handle, with an eye near the point,
threaded with a ligature, which is to be thruft through the
bottom of the gland, and being laid hold of with a hook,
the inftrument is to be withdrawn ; then pulling the double
ligature forwards, it mult be divided, and one part be tied
above, and the other'below the tumour : the knots are to
be always double, and the ligature to be cut off pretty near
them.
If after four or five days' they flip, or feem to have mor¬
tified the tonfil only in part, you muft repeat the whole o-
peration ; and if it fail a fecond time, you muft even repeat
it again.
This kind of extirpation is more praftifed in large piles,
that are efteemed incurable. When the piles are withinfide
of the intefline, you muft place your patient over a fomen¬
tation in a clofeftool, and have a crooked needle with a
double ligature ready to pafs through them, when by drain¬
ing they are puffied out or the anus (for fometimes the in-
teftine will return fuddenly,) and tie above and below as in
the inftance of the tonfil. Sometimes the piles are of that
fliape as to admit a fingle ligature to be tied round them
without the help of a needle, which is lefs painful. If there
are feveral,-.you muft only tie one or two at a time; for the
pain of the ligature is exceffive, and would be intolerable
if many were tied at once : however, every five or fix days.,
the operation may be repeated till all are extirpated, and
the parts muft be kept fupple by fome emollient ointments.
When the piles are fmali, they may fafely and with much
lefs pain be cut off.
uvula is fubjeiff to fb great a degree of relaxation
fometimes, that it almoft choaks the patient ; then-eadielt
cure is 'Cutting off all but half an insh of it, which may be
done at one fnip with a pair of feiflars (particularly curved
for that purpole,) laying hold of it with a forceps, left it
ffiould flip away.
Explanation of Fig. 5 Plate CLVIII.
A, The bent probe fixed in a handle, with the ligature
made of the lame thread as the ligatures for tying the blood-
veffels.
B, The iron inftrument for tying the tonfils.
- This inftrument is alfo of great fervice in extirpating, by
ligature, a fpecies of feirrhus that fometimes grows from the
neck or cavity of the uterus.
C, The needle with the eye towards the point, for paf-
fing the ligature through the tonfil, when the bafis is larger
than the extremity.
D, A canula made of filver to be ufed in the empyema.'
E, A canula to be ufed in hnonchotomy.
To keep the caaulas in their place, fiaall ribbands may
be.
€73 S U R G
be pafTed through the rings of them, and carried round the
body and neck'; or they may be held by a ligature run
.through, and faftehed to a hole cut in a piece of fticking
plainer, which, is to be laid on each fide of them.
PoLTfUS.
Th e polypus of the nofe, is laid to be an excrefence of
flelh. fpreadmg its branches amongft the lavunee of the os
etbmoidss, and through the whole cavity of one or both
nollrils. It happens very often to both .fides of the noleat
once; and in that cafe is very troublefome. almotf fuffoca-
ting the patient, at lealt making refpiration very difficult.
'The intent of the operation is the removal of this ob-
ftacle.
Polypi arife from the membrane fpread npon the lamina
fpongiofa, pretty nearly in the'fame manner as the hydatids
of the abdiment in one kind of dropfy, do from the furface
of the liver ; or as ganglions from the tendons, borrowing
their coats from a prqduftioh of its fibres and veflels : If
they appear foft, and of the colour of the ferum of the
blood, in ail likelihood .they are formed of fuch a fort of
water contained in cytis, which, upon breaking the membrane,
leaves fo little hold for the ih/frument, that hut a fmall part
of it can be extracted afterwards. This polypus is to be
left to harden, before the operation be undertaken, which
in procefs of time it generally will do. In the next degree
of confidence, they retain pretty neatly the fame colour,
and, are often paitly watery, and partly of a vifcid texture,
which though not tenac ous enough to admit of drawing them
out by the roots, may at fever 1 attempts be taken away by
bit?. The next degree of confidence, is that which is nei¬
ther fo foft as to be fquezeed to pieces, nor fo hard and
brittle as to crumble, or adhere to the membrane with that
force as not to admit of reparation : this is the mod favour¬
able one. The la'I, is hard and fcirrhous, adhering fo
tight as to tear rather than feparate in the extraflion, and
fometimes even tends to degenerate into a cancer : This
polypijs is very difficult of cure.
The polypus fometimes dilates to that degree,,as not only
to extend beyond the palaii, and hang over the cefopha-
gus and trachea; but alfo fpreading into the ftnus maxilla-
ris, fo exadtly fills up every interftice of the nofe, as to ob-
ftrudt the lower orifice of the duftus ad nafum, and prevent
thedefcent of the tears, which heceflarily mud return thro’
the punfta lachrymalia ; and fometimes they grow fo en-
ormoufly large, as even to alter the ffiape of the bones of
the face.
When the polypus appears in the throat, it is always ad-
vifeable to contrail it that way ; it being found, by expe¬
rience, more ready to loofen when pulled in that direition,
than by the nofe. To this end, it would be right, before
undertaking the operation, to let your patient lie fupine two
or three hours, which will bring it dill farther down; for
the body of the polypus does not univerfally adhere, and will
;by its weight ftretch out the fibres by which it is connec¬
ted to the nofe ; nay, there are inftances, where by a little
eifort, fuch as hacking, they have dropt quite off.
The method of extracting it is by a pair of forceps,
with a flit at their extremities for the better hold, wh>ch
miud be introduced into the noflril about an inch and a
Jialf, to make more fure of it towards the roots ; then
twiding them a little frors one fide to the other, you mud
-eontinue in that aition, while you pull very gradually the
E R Y.
body of the polypus. If it break, you mud repeat the ex¬
traction "as long as any remains, unlefs it is attended with a
violent haemorrhage, which is an accident, that fometimes
follows upon the operation, and feldom fails when the ex-
creicence is fcirrhous: However, the iurgeon is not to be
alarmed at the appearance of an immoderate effufion the
moment after the feparation; for, generally fpeaking, the
vcdels collapfe very foon again ; but if they do not, dry
lint, or lint dipt in fome dyptick. will readily flop it.
After the extirpation, it has been ufual, in order to prevent
a relapfe, to drd’s with efcharotick powders, and even tv
burn with the aCtaal cautery ; but neicher the one or the
other can be of great fervice in#this cafe, and both are pain¬
ful and dangerous. .If ever the ufe of corrofive medicines is
advifeable, it ffiould be for deflroying the remainder of a
polypus which cannot all be taken away; and then the ef-
charoticks may be better conveyed to the part by a long
tent, than a feton paffed through the nofe and mouth, which
is difficult to do without hurting the patient, and very nafly
to bear.
Of the Hare Lip.
This difeafe is a fiffure in the upper lip, with want of
fubftance, and is a natural dereCt, the patient being always
born with it, at lead that fpecies of hare-lip which requires
the following operation. The cure is to be performed by
the twifled future. There are many lips, where the lofs
of fubflance is fo great, that the edges of the fiflure cannot
be brought together, or at bed where they can but juft
touch, in which cafe it need not be advifed to forbear the
attempt: it is likewife forbidden in infants, and with reafoa
if they fuck ; hut otherwife it may be undertaken with
great fafety, and even with more probability of fuccefs
than in others that are older.
It is not uncommon for the roof of the mouth to be fif-
fured likewife ; but this is no objection to the operation, if
the flrin of the lip is loofe enotigh to admit of re union : and
it may be remarked, that the fiffure of the palate, in length
•of years,.clofes furprifingly in fome cafes.
The manner of doing it is this. You firfl: with a knife
feparate the lip from the upper jaw,, by dividing the fra-
mulum between it and the gums;.and if the dentes inciforii
project, as is ufual in infants, they mud be cut our with the
fame knife ; then with a thin pair of flraight feiffars take
off the callous edges of the 'fiffure the whole length of it,
obferving the rule of making the new wound in flraight
lines, becaufe the fides of it can never be made to correfpond
without this caution For indance, if the hare lip had the
fliape a, Plate CLVIII. fig. 5 the incifion of the edges mull
be continued in draight lines till they meet in the manner
reprefented by £, ibid. The two lips of the wound being
brought exaCtly together, pafs a couple of pins, one pretty
near the top, and the other as near the bottom, through the
middle of both edges of it, and fecure them in that fitua-
tion by twiding a piece of waxed thread crofs and round
the pins feven or eight times ; you mud then cut off the
points, and lay a fmall bolder of plaifler. underneath them,
to prevent their fcmching: but when the lower part only
of the hare lip can be breught into contaCt, it will not he
proper to ufe more than one pin.
The pins are made three fourths of their lengths of filver,
and the other part towards the point of fled; the filver pin
is not quite fo offenfivc to a wound as a brafs or Iteel one;
but
S U R
but a fteel point is neceffary for their eafier penetration,
■which indeed makes therri'pafs fo readily, tha't there is no
need of any inftrument to affift in pufliing them through.
The practice of bolftering the cheeks forward does little or
no fervice to the wound, and is very unsafy to the patient.
The manner of dreffing will be to remove the applications
■which are quite fuperficial, as often only as is neeeffary for
cleanlinefs. The method is to defift the three firft days, and
afterwards to do it every day, or every other day: It is not
at all requifiteto drefs between the jaw and lip where the
frteriulum was wounded, there being no danger that an in¬
convenient adhefion fhould enfue. In about eight or nine
days the parts are ufually united, and in children much
fooner, when you muft gently cut the threads, and draw
out the pins, applying upon-the orifices a piece of plaifter
and dry lint. It will be proper, in order to withdraw the
pins more eafily, to daub the ligatures and pins with warm
water, and alfo moiften them with fweet oil, two or three
days-before you remove them, which will wafli off the coa¬
gulated blood, that would otherwife fallen them fo hard to
the ligature as to make the extraction painful.
Of the Wry Neck.
The operation of cutting the wry neck is very uncom¬
mon, and is never to be praCtifed but when thediforder is
owing to a contraction of the majloideus mufcle only ; as
it can anfwer no purpofe to fet that mafcle free by dividing
it, (which is all that is to be done,) if the others in the
neck are in the fame Hate ; and moreefpecially if it has been
of long Handing from infancy; becaufe the growth of the
vertebra will have been determined in that direction, and
make it impoflible to fet the head upright.
When the cafe is fair, the operation is this. Having
kid your patient on a table, make a tranfverfe incifionthro’
the Ikin and fat, fomething broader than the mufcle, and
not above half an inch from the clavicle; then palling the
probed razor with care underneath the mufcle, draw it out
and cut the mufcle. The great veflels of the neck lie under¬
neath ; but wheivwe are aware of their fituation, the dan¬
ger of wounding them may be avoided. After the incifion
is made, the wofind is to be crammed with dry lint, and
always drelfed fo as to prevent the extremities of the mufcle
from re-uniting ; to which end they are to be feparated
from each other as much as poffible by the affillaBce of a
fupporting bandage for the head, during the whole time of
the cure, which will generally be about a month.
Explanation of Fig 6. Plate CLVIII.
A, Theinllrumant called the probe razor to cut the maf-
toideus mufcle in the wryneck, and is fharponly about half
its length at that end where the blade is broad.
B, The two pins with the twilled future, ufed in the
hare-lip.
C, The polypus forceps, with one of the rings open for
the reception of the thumb, which would be cramped in
pulling the forceps with much force, if it were received in
the fame fort of ring as in the other handle.
Of the Aneurism.
Th i s is a difeafe of the arteries, in which, either by a
preternatural weaknefs of any part of them, they become
exccifively dilated ; or by a wound through their coats,
the blood is extravafated amongll the adjacent cavities. The
Yol. Ill, N° 97,
j E R Y. 671
firll fpecies of aneurifm is incident to every part of the bo¬
dy, but does not often happen, except to the curvature of
the aorta, which is fubjedt to this diford.er from the ex¬
traordinary impulfe of the blood on that part: from the
curvature, it runs upwards along the carotids or fubclavians,
generally increafing, till by its great dillenlion it is ruptured,
and the patient dies.
There are feveral feillories given of aneurifms of the
curvature of the aorta; in fome of which, the vefi’el has
been fo exceilively dilated, as to polfefs a great fpace of
the upper part of the thorax; and the moll-curious cir-
cumllance to be gathered from them is, that the fpot of the
velfel which is weakell, and where the difeafe begins, ge¬
nerally gives way in fuch a manner to the force of the
blood continually pulhing it outwards, as to form a large
pouch or cyll, with coats nearly as thick as thofe of the
artery itfelf. However, the thicknefs of the coats of thefe
cylls will lall but to a certain period ; for when the velfeis
of the coats can no longer conform to the ektenfion, the
circulation grows languid, the cyfl becomes thinner at its a-
pex, and foon after burlts.
The fymptoms of \h\$ aneuriftn, area flrong puliation a-
gainft the Jlernum and ribs; every fyfole of the heart ; and,
when it extends above the fernum, a tumour with pulfa-
tion. Upon difledlion, the ribs, mA clavicle, wz
fometimes found carious, from the obftrutSion of the vef-
fels of the periofeum, which are puffed by the tumour.
What we have fpoken of hitherto, has been only the-
aneurifm of the thorax from an internal diforder; aneu¬
rifm sof xht extremities, are for the mod part owing to
wounds, though when they happen of themfelves, they dif¬
fer very little from the defcription given of that in the tho¬
rax. The furfhev fymptoms of them are,(befides pulfation)
the tumour’s being without difcolouration of the fkin ; its
fubfiding when preffedby thehand, and immediately return¬
ing when the hand is taken away; though, if it be upon the
point of burfling, the fkin will grow inflamed, and the coa- '
gulated blood in the cyll will fometimes make the pulfation
much lefs perceptible.
This fpecies of aneurifm may fometimes be fuported a
great number of years, if we refill its dilatation by proper
bandage ; but if we do not, there is danger of its burlting,
and, if it be pretty krge, of rotting the adjacent bones.
A found artery wounded through part of its external coat
would in all probability produce nearly the fame appear¬
ances as where the whole coat is weakened from an internal
rndirpofition ; and this moft likely, is the cafe after bleeding
in the arm, when it has not been immediately perceived
that the artery was pricked, and the tumour has begun to
form fome days after the punAure ; though the common ap¬
pearance of an aneurifm from the wound of a lancet, is a
difcharge of blood firll through the orifice of the Hein, and
upon being Hopt from bleeding outwardly, an inlinuation of
it among all the mufcles as far as it can fpread, in theflioul.
der and arm : here, the arm grows livid from the ecchymo-
fs} and the blood coagulating to the confillence of fldh,
prevents any fenfible pulfation. The cyll which arifes near
the orifice of the artery is formed by the cellular capfula en¬
veloping the veflels of that part, and a portion of the apo-
neurofts of the biceps mufcle, which admitting of fome ex¬
travafated blood underneath it, become exceffively thickened
and expanded. Thefe membranes mull make the cyfl,
otherwife we could not, upon opening the tumour in the o_
8 G jpe ration.
672 SUllt
peration, difcover fo readily the punfture ; or if the coats
of the artery made it, we could not feparate it didindlly
from the veffcl, which would be always dilated above and
below the cyd, as we f e in other aneurijms.
There are fome few indances of fmall anturifms and
punflures of the artery fronr bleeding, doing well by b m-
daoe , but they almod all require the operation at laft,
which is to be performed nearly ia the fame manner in
every part; and fuppoling-it in the bend of the arm, is to.
be done after the following method.
Having applied the tourniquet near the (boulder, and laid
the aim in a convenient fituation, make an incifion on the
ipfide of the biceps mufcle, above and below the elbow a
cOfsiiderable length, which, being in the courfe of the arte
ry, will difcover it as foon as you have taken away the
coagulated blood, which mud be ail removed with the fin-
ge*s. the wound being dilated fufficiently for that purpofe.
If the orifice does not readily appear, let the tourniquet be
loofened, and the effulion of blood will dire£t you to it;
then carefully carrying a crooked needle with a ligature un¬
der it, tie theveffel jud above the orifice; and paffing the
needle again, make a fecond ligature below it, to prevent
the return of the blood, and leave the intermediate piece of
the veffel vo dough away without dividing it. To avoid
wounding or tying the nerve in making the ligature, the
artery may be cleared away from it fird, and held up with
a hook ; but fhould the nerve be tied with the artery, no
great inconvenience would enfue from it. After t,he opera
tion, the arm mud be laid eafy, on a pillow in bed, and
the wound be treated in the common method, keeping it in
thd pofture a fortnight or three weeks, efpecially if it
fhould fweH much, and not diged kindly.
In doing this operation, it will be proper to have the
amputating indruments ready, led it fhould be impracticable
to tie the artery; and"even after having tied it, the arm
mud be carefully watched ; and in cafe of a mortification, it
may be taken off.
Of Amputation.
A'fpreading mortification has been always efleemed fo
principal a caufe for amputation, that it is a fafhion with
writers to treat of the nature of a gangrene previous to
the defeription of this operation. However, this operation
is fpoken of as frequently unfuccefsful; and in length of
time, its want of fuccefs has been fo unquedionably con-
firmed by repeated experiments, that fome of the mod Emi¬
nent pradtitioners make that very circumdance an exception
to the operation, which fo few years fince was tf>C great
inducement; and the maxim is, never to extirpate till the
mortification is abfolutely dopped, and even advanced in
its feparation.
Gangrenes maybe produced two ways ; either by indif-
pofuion of body, or by accident in a healthful date : for as
the life of a part' depends upon the circulation of its fluids,
whatever dial! make the circulation epafe, will inevitably oc-
cafion a gangrene. Thus a mere comprefs preventing the
courfe of the blood, as effedlually ciufes a mortification as
any indifpofition in the fluids or vfffels.
It frequently happens in old agp, that the arteries of the
lower extremities offify; which cleftroying their eladicity,
mud in confeqiience produce a gangrene in the toes fird,
and afterwards in the limb nearly as higb-as where the ofli-
J E R Y.
fication terminates; fo that in mortifications arifing from
this caule, we at once fee why amputation, during their in-
creafe, is of fb little fervice, unlefs performed above the
-ofTification ; but we have no way to judge-where the ofli-
fication ends, but by the inference we make from the gan¬
grene’s flopping: Hence we may le.-.rn the propriety of our
modern practice in this cafe.
It by any accident the limb has been injured to that vio¬
lent degree as to begin to mortify, it will be.no more fit to
operate here till it flops, than in the other indance ; becaufe
all parts that are mortified have had the dtfpofition to be¬
come fo, before the eflfeft is produced : and cutting off a
limb, halfian inch above th: abfolute dead fkin, is general¬
ly leaving a part behind, with the feeds of a mortincation
in it ; fo, unlefs we can be fure the veflels are not af¬
fected i a the . place or amputation, which will be hard to
know but from the confequence, the operation will be ufe-
lefs. .
Sometimes the fluids of the body are fo vitiated, as to
lofe their proper nutritious, qualities: ajid the limb becomes
gangrened, not from any alteration in its vefiels, but chief¬
ly from its fituation, which being at a great didance from
the heart, will be more prone to feel the ill effects of a bad
blood than any other part, as the circulation is more lan¬
guid in the extremities ; and it feems not very improbable,
that in fome difpofitkms of the blood, a mortification may
alfo be a kind of critical difeharge. When therefore a gan¬
grene arifing from either of thele caufes, is running on, am¬
putation above it will for the mod part be ufelefs, fince
it is only removing one degree of the effects o*f tbe bad
juices, and leaving them in the fame date to produce the
1 ke mifehief in other parts. Thus we fee, after amputations
on this account, the gangrene fometimes fall on ti e bowels,
or the other extremities: from which obfervation we may
conclude it not fafe to amputate, till the fluids are altered-
and this alteration will prefently difcover itfelf by the flop,
ping of the mortification.
Gunfhot wounds, compound fraClures, and all fudden
accidents requiring amputation, are attended with the
beft fuccefs if immediately performed. Diforders of the
joints, ulcers of long Handing, and all fcrophulous tu¬
mours, do fometimes return on other parts after the opera¬
tion. When a leg is to be amputated, the manner of doing
it is this.
Lay your patient on a table two feet .fix inches high,
which is much better th in a low feat, both for fecuring
him fleady, and giving yoarfelf the advantage of operating
without ftooping, which is not only painful, but inconveni¬
ent in the other fituation. While one of the afliflan s holds
the leg, you mufl roll a flip of fine rag half an'incL broad,
three or four times round it, about four or five inches be¬
low the inferior extremity of the pa)ella : This being pinned
on, is to ferve as a guide for the knife, which without it:
perhaps would not be directed fo dexteroufly : The manner
of rolling has always been perpendicular to the length of
the leg; but having fometimes obferved, that though the
amputation at firfl be even, yet afterwards the gaflrocne-
mius mufcle contradfing, draws back the inferior part of
the flump more flrongly than the other mufcles can do the
reft of it; in order to preferve the regularity of the ci¬
catrix, allow for this ekeefs of contradficn. and make the
circular incifion in fuch a manner that the part of the
wound
S U R
wound which is on the calf of the leg is a little farther
from the ham than that on the fnin is from the middle of
the patella.
In the mean time, one of your affiftants mull carry a
ftrong ligature round the thigh, about three or four inches
above xhtpatella, which palling through a couple of fiits in
a fquare piece of leather, he mull: twill with a tourniquet,
till the artery is fufficiently compreffed, to prevent any
great effulion of blood ; and to do it more effectually, be
may lay a bolfter of tow or linen under the ligature, upon
that part where the artery creeps. It will alfo be a little
more eafy to the patient, to carry, a comprefs o£ linen three
or four times double, round the thigh,' on that part where
the ligature is applied, in order to prevent it from cutting
the flan.
The- courfe of the blood being (looped, you mud begin
your incifion juft below the linen roller, on the under part
of the limb, bringing your knife towards you, which atone
fweep may cut more than the femicircle ; then beginning
your fecond wound oh the upper part, it mull be continued
from the one extremity to the other of the firft wound , ma¬
king them but one line. Thefe incifions mull be made
quite through the membrana adiptfa, as far as the mufcles;
then taking off the linen roller, and an affiftant drawing
back the flan 4s far as it will go, you make your wound
from the edges of it when drawn back, through the flefh
to the bohe, in the fame manner as you did through the
fkin Before you faw the bones, you mull cut the ligament
between them, with the point of your knife; and the afliil-
ant who holds the leg while it is fawing, muft ofeferve not
to lift it upwards, which would clog the inftrument; and at
the fame time, not to let it drop, left the weight of the
limb fhould fraClure the bone, before it is quitefawed thro’.
In amputating below the knee, it is of advantage to Hand
On the infide of the leg ; becaufe the tibia and fibula lie in
3 pofition to be fawed at the lame time, if the inftrument
be applied externally : whereas, if we lay it on the infide
<>f the leg, the tibia will be divided firft, and the fibula id-.
terwards which not onlv lengthens the operation, but is
alfo apt to fplinter xht fibula when it is almoft fawed t)iro’,
unlefs the affiftant be very careful in fupporting it.
When, the leg is taken off, the next regard is to be bad
to the Hopping the blood; which muft be effectually done
, before the patient is put to bed, or there will be great dan¬
ger of bleeding again, when the fever is excited, and the
veffels of the (lump dilated, both which happen a very little
-while after the operation. There is no method for this
rpurpofe fo fecure, as taking up the extremities of the veffels
with a needle, and ligature in the following manner. As
fooa as the amputation is performed, the afli.tant muft bofen
the tourniquet for a moment, upon which the orifices of
the arteries will appear by the iffue of the blood. The o*
perator having then fixed his eye upon one of the lasgeft
veffels, pafles a crooked needle through the fkfh, a little
more than a quarter of an inch above the orifice, and about
the fame depth, in fuch a direClion as to make nearly one
third of a circle round the veffd : then withdrawing the
needle, he a fecond time p.affes it into the flefn and out a-
gain, in the fame manner and about/the brne diftance below
the orifice of the veflll. By this means, the thread will al
moft encompafs the vdlel, and when it is tied (which fhould
be done by the furgeon’s knot) will neceffarily inclofe it -
V’jthin the ftriClpre, All the confjderable arteries are to be.
G E R Y. £73
taken up in the fame manner ; that is, the tourniquet is to
be loofentd in order to difcover the yell'd, and then the
needle is to be paffed round. This is a much better way
than ufing the artery forqeps, where the veffels are'apt to
flip away out of the ligature : and as to ftyptick applications,
their want of fafety is fo well known, that the ufe of them,
in haemorrhages from large veffels, is almoft univenfaily re*
jeCted ; thohgh it is thought by bveral lurgeons who have
experienced the vinue of agaric, that it will be found to be
a more powerful aflringem than any hitherto difeovered.
It fometimes happens in a large flump, that ten or more
veflels require tying 5 which done, you muft apply bofe dry
lint to the wound ; or in cafe the fmall vefl'ds bleed plenti¬
fully, you may throw a handful of flour amohgft the lint,
which will contribute to the more effectual topping up their
orifices. Before you lay on the pledgit, you nuifl bind the
flump, and begin to roil front the lower part of the thigh
down to the extreipity of the flump The ufe of this roller
is to keep the fltin forwards, which, notwithftanding the
fteps already taken to prevent its falling back, would in
iome meafure do fo, unlefs fuftained in this manner. The
dreffing may be fecured by the crofs cloth and gentle band¬
age ; and the method of treating the wound may be learnt
from what has been faid with refpeft to recent inched
wounds.
In amputating the thigh, the firft incifion is to be made
a little more than two inches above the middle of the pa'
tella. After the operation, a roller fhould he carried round
the body, and down the thigh, to fupport the fkin and flefh,:
this is alfo the moft proper bandage, as abiceffes will fome¬
times form in the upper part of the thigh, which cannot
difeharge themfelves fo conveniently with any other, it being
alrnoft impracticable to roll above the abfeefs, unlefs we be¬
gin from the bod_yi .
The amputation of the arm or cubit differs fo little from
the foregoing operations, that it will be but a repetition to
deferibe it. However, it muft be laid down as a rule, to
preferve as much of the limb as poffible, and, in all ampu¬
tations of the upper limbs, to place your patient in a
chair.
The amputation of the fingers and toes is better perform¬
ed in their articulation, than by any of the other methods:
for this pur role, a flraight knife muft be ufed, and the, in¬
cifion of the fkin be made not exaClly upon the joint, but a
little towards the extremity of the fingers, that more of it
may be preferved for the eafi^r healing afterwards : it will
alfo facilitate the feparation in the joint, when you cut the
finger from the metacarpal to make two fmall longi¬
tudinal mcifions on: each (ide of it firft. In thefe amputations,
there is generally a veffel or two that.requite tying, and
which often prove troublefome when the ligature is o-
mitted.
It may happen that the bones of the toe?,.and part only
of ihe imtatarfal bones, are carious; in which cafe, the leg.
need not be cut off, but only fo much of the foot as is dif-
ordered : a fmall fpring-faw is better to divide with here,
than a large one. When this operation is performed, the.
heel and remainder of the foot will be of great fervice, and
the wound heal up fafely. •
Explanation of Fig. 7 Plate CLVIII.
A. The figure of the amputating knife. The-length of
the blade and handle Ihould be about thirteen inches.
By,
674 S U II G
i?. The figure of fhe faw ufed in amputating the limbs.
The length of the handle and faw Ihould be about feventeen
inches.
Of LUXATIONS.
A Bone is faid to be luxated or diflocatedj when it is
moved out of its place or articulation, fo as to impede its
proper motion and ofhce.
Luxation <»/' the Nose.
It fometinies happed, that the bones of the nofe
are feparated from each other, or diftorted out of their na¬
tural places, by feme violent blow or fall. When fuch an
accident happens, it is feveral ways difeovered : as, (i.)-
By the fight, when we behold the deformed polition of the
nofe; or, (2.) By feeling; orlaftly, (3.) By the ear, when
perceive with what difficulty the patient draws his breath
through his noftrils.
When this cafe happens, the patient is to be fpeedily
placed in a high chair, that an affidant may ftand behind
and hold his head firm, in a proper podure : the furgeon is
then to introduce with one hand, a thick probe, a goofe-
quill, or Tittle dick ffiaped for the purpofe, up the noftril
internally, by which means the depreffed parts of the nofe
may be thru.ft into their places : in the mean time he applies
his other hand externally, to guide and direA the parts
which are moved from within : this being done, there is
fcarce any thing elfe required but to let a bit of flicking
plaifter lie upon the nofe at the fame time.
Of a Dislocation of-ihe Lower Jaw.
The lower jaw is indeed feldom luxated, becaufeitis
held fo firm by flrong ligaments and mufcles, by whofe
affiftance it is retained in two finufes in the bafis of the cra¬
nium : but when it is by accident forced out from thence,
it may chance to be on one fide only, or elfe on both, it
being then thrufl dire&ly forwards : and this happens moft
frequently from opening the mouth too wide in yawning ;
though it has fometimes been occafioned by a violent blow
or fall. If it be luxated on both fides, the chin will incline
downward, and the jaw will be thruft very forward : but
if only on one fide, the . chin will be inclined toward the
oppofite fide ; the elapfed little head of the jaw not being
capable of diflocation but foreward and inward ; for the
proceflcs of the bones of the cranium prevent the jaw from
being diflocated backwards.
The lower jaw is chiefly krtown to be luxated on one fide,
when the chin is diftorted on the oppofite fide : for that part
to which the chin inclines, is the found ; but that from
whence it recedes, is the luxated one : the mouth in this
cafe gapes wider than ufual, fo that the patient cannot ffiut
it, nor eat with his teath ; the lower range of teeth being
proje&ed beyond, and on one fide the upper : but when the
jaw is luxated on both fides, then the mouth not only gapes
wide and open, but the chin alfo hangs down, and is thrown
directly forwards ; fo that the patient cannot ffiut his mouth,
fpeak diftindtly, or even fwallow any thing without much
difficulty.
When the jaw is cut only on one fide, and the cafe re¬
cent, the cure is ufually not fo very difficult ; but when
both heads are diflocated, and not prefently reflored to their
places, it always occafions the worft of fymptoms, as pains.
E R Y.
inflammations,-convulfions, .fevers, vomitings, and at length
death itfelf.
When this kind of luxation happens, the patient is to be
diredtly feated on a low ftool, fo that an afliflant may hold
his head firm back againft his breaft. Then the furgeon is
to thruft his two thumbs as far back into the patient’s mouth
as he well can ; but they are firft wrapped round in a hand¬
kerchief, to prevent them from flipping or being hurt; and
his other fingers are to be applied to the jaw externally :
when he has got firm hold of the jaw, it is to be ftrongly
prefled, firft downwards, then backwards, and laftly up¬
wards, but fo as that they may be all done in one inftant ;
by which means the elapfed heads of the jaw may be very
eafily ffioved into their former cavities.
If the jaw be out on one fide only, evgry thing muft be
done in the fame manner : but the luxatea fide of the jaw
muft be forced more ftrongly downward and backward than
the found one.
Of Luxations of the Head and Spine.
The luxations which happen in the fpine and vertebrae
of the back are generally imperfeft ones. For it appears
from an accurate confideration of the ftrufture and articula¬
tion of thefe bones, that none of the vertebra can be entire ¬
ly difplaced without being fraflured, and alfo comprefling
or wounding the fpinal marrow, which muft produce danger
of inftant death. Even the imperfeA luxations of thefe
bones are very dangerous : which happen either between
the two fuperior vertebra of the neck and the head, or elfe
between the reft of the vertebra, when they are forced from
each other.
Such as have a luxation between the head and upper ver¬
tebra, feldom efcape being carried off by a fpeedy and hid¬
den death : for in this cafe the tender medulla which joins
immediately with the brain, and is lodged in the fpine, the
brain itfelf, and the nerves which arife beneath the occiputt
are .too much diftended, cotnpreffed, or lacerated ; the two
condyloide proceffes of the occiput ufually flip out of their
glenoide finus’s in the firft vertebra of the neck, when a
perfon falls headlong from a high place, from off a ladder,
from on horfeback, or when he receives a violent blow up¬
on his neck : they dying very fuddenly in this cafe, are
vulgarly faid to have broke their neck, though there is ge¬
nerally no more than a luxation: yet it fometimes happens
that x\\t vertebra of the peck are really fradtured. If life
ffiould remain after fuch a luxation, which very rarely hap¬
pens, the patient’s head is commonly diftorted with his chin
clofe down to his breaft, fo that he can neither fwallow any
thing, nor fpeak, nor even move any part that is below his
neck: therefore, if fpeedy affiftance be not had, death en-
fues, from the compreflure or hurt of the medulla.
But to repulfe this unwelcome meffenger, the patient is
to be immediately laid flat upon the ground or floor : then
the furgeon kneeling down with his knees againft the pati¬
ent’s ffioulders, is to bring them together fo as to contain
the patient’s neck between them : this done, he quickly
lays hold of the patient’s head with both bis hands,1 and
ftrongly pulling or extending it, he gently moves it from
one fide to the other ; till he finds, by a noife, the natural
pofture of the neck, and the remiflion of the fymptoms,
that the dillocation is properly reduced : by this method
the furgeon retains the patient firm between his knees, and
per-
S U R
performs the extenfion and reduction between his hands.
It will be proper, in order to prevent a tumor, and re-
flore the Wretched ligaments of the neck to their former vi¬
gour, to bathe it with aq. Hungar. fp. vin. eamph-. or fome
other ftrengthening fpint applied wari», as allb compreffes
dipped in the fame : the patient fhould bleed, and reft
gently for fome days, till the neck be found fufficiently
ftrong and well.
With refpetft to the reft of the vertebra of the back, they
are leldom moved quite out of their places, onlefs they are
fra&ured, they being retained, for the greateft part, by
adhering to the adjacent ligaments and mulcles : therefore
the luxations which happen among them are ufually imper-
feift; no more being difplaced than their two upper or lower
proceffts, and they often but on one fide ; and this happens
fometimes to one of the fpinal vertebra, and fometimes to
more. But it is here to be briefly obferved, that it is ufual
to include among the number of luxated vertebra, that
which is found and fiira, but intercepted by others which
are not fo : thus whenever the upper vertebta of the loins
from the laft of the back, and lowermoft vertebra of the
loins next the os facruvi, are luxated, we con moniy fay and
reckon there are five vertebra out of their places ; when,
ftrhflly fpeaking, only the two outermoft or the uppermoft
and lowermoft of thofe vertebra are difturbed, the three
middle ones retaining their natural fituation and connexion.
The figns common to luxations in the fpina dorfi are
chiefly the following : the back itfelf is found to be crooked
or unequal, after the external violence has been inflided ;
the patient can neither ftand nor walk, ard his whole body
feems to be paralytic ; the parts which are beneath the lux¬
ated vertebra are nearly without all fenfe and motion ; the
excrements and urine cannot be dilcharged, or eife they are
fometimes emitted involuntarily ; the lower extieimties grow
dead by degrees ; and, at length, death itfelf follows : but
thefe fymptoms vary in proportion to the degree of violence
in the luxation.
Luxations of the fpinal vertebra are very difficult to re¬
duce. The following feems to be the moft fuitable method
of reducing luxations of the vertebra : when the apopbyfes
of the vertebra are diflocated on both fides, the patient is
to be laid leaning upon his belly over a calk, drum, or fome
other gibbous body ; then two affiftants are ftiongly to prefs
down both the ends of the luxated fpine, on each fide ; by
which means the bones of the fpme will be fet free from
each other, lifted.or pufhed up in the form of an arch, and
fo gradually extended. This done, the furgeon preffes down
the luxated vertebra, and at the fame time nimbly pufhesr
the fuperior part of the body upwards : and by this means
the luxated vertebra are fometimes commodioufly reduced
into their right places ; but, if fuccefs fhould not attend
the fill! time, the method fhould be repeated two or three
times more.
It feems proper, after the vertebrate reduced, lb bathe
the fpine with fp. vin or to lay on comprefles dipped in
fp. rin camph. Afterwards the patient is to be laid in a
foft and even bed ; bleeding, and bathing the weak parts
with ftrengthening fpirits, are to be uled as there may be
occafion.
^/'Luxations of the Os Coc cvx, and Ribs.
The os coccyx may be thiuft inwards by a v blent fall or-
blow, and it is often pufhed outwards in hard birth. W.ben
Von. Ill, N5 97. 2
G E R Y. 675
this happens, it is ufually attended with violent pain and
inflammation about the lower part of the fpine, abfeeffes
form in the inteflimini reflum, and'the faces are conftipa-
ted or fupprefTed. To difeover the luxation of this bone the
more readily, we have recourfe to the ufe of our hands and
eyes, as well as to the knowledge of the forementioned
fymptoms : nor is the replacing this bone very difficult, if
attempted by a careful and expert furgeon ; for if it be
thruft outwards, it muft be depreffed into its right place by
the thumb, after which may be applied compreffis dipped
in warm wine, or its fpirit, made broad above, and narrow
below, to fill up thepofterior firms of the nates ; and thefe
may be held on by the T bandage ; but that part of this
bandage which comes between the thighs fhould be flit, and
placed lo that the patient may go to ffool without undoing
the bandage, and to prevent the bone from being by that
meins difplaced again.
When the os happens to be luxated inwards, the
firft finger is to be introduced into the anus. After it has
had its nail cut and been dipped in oil, it muft be thruft as
far as poflible, that it may the more readily drive out the
deprefled bone ; the other fingers being applied externally,
are to condudl the bone into its right pofture : when this
has been done, it will be proper for the patient to reft feme
time upon the bed ; and when he fits up, it fhould be in a
chair with a hole in its bottom, left the affeded part fliouid
be other wife compreffed or difturbed.
The ribs are indeed fometimes, though but feldom, dif¬
located ; for upon the afiault of fome external violence, it
is not uncommon for them to be difplaced either upwards,
downwards, inwards, or outwards. They cannot be eafily
luxated outwards, becaufe prevented by the vertebral pro-
cefles, and refilled by very thick and ftrong mufcles : but
when they are drove into the cavity of the thorax, they not
only lacerate the pleura, but do generally great injury to
the contained parts ; in^onfequence whereof arife moft fharp
pains, inflammations, difficulty of breathing, cough, ulcers,
immobility, and many other dangerous fymptoms of the like
nature.
When the rib is diflocated either upwards or downwards,
in order to replace it conveniently, the patient is to be laid
on his belly upon a table, and the furgeon muft ftrive to re¬
duce the luxated rib into its right place with his hands; or,
the arm of the difordered fide may be fufpended over a gate
or ladder, and while the ribs are thus ftretched up from each
other, the heads of fuch as are luxated may be puffied into
their former feat.
But thofe luxations wherein the heads of the ribs are
forced into the thorax, are generally found to be much the
moil difficult to reduce ; fince neither the hand, nor any o-
ther inftrument, can be applied internally to direct the luxa¬
ted heads of the ribs: in this;cafe it feems proper to lay
tb£ pat lent on his belly over fome gibbous or cylindric hody,
and to move the fore part of the rib inwards towards the
back, ftiaking it fometimes; for thus generally the head of
the luxated ribsflips into its former place : but if this me¬
thod of cure will avail nothing, and th; deplorable condition
of the patient requires fpeedy help, we have no remedy
left but incifion, and endeavouring to replace the luxated
head of the rib with the fingt-s, plyers, or little hooks. In
the mean time, where the fymptoms are not very urgent,
and the heads of the ribs but little difplnced, it is advifeabld
neither to cut the flefh, nor violently force the ribs; be.
8 H caufe
676. $ U R -G
caufe there are feveral inflances where the luxated ribs have
retained their diflocated Nations without,any liurt: but a-
bove all, care fault be taken to lay on a cqmprefs dipped in
warm Sp. Vin: or $p. Fin. Camph.
The clavicles may be dilloeated either from the top of
the Jiernaw, or procejfus acromion of the fcapula, by fame
external violence, as a fall, blow, the lilting fome great
weight, or the like.
<?/'« Luxation Humerus.
The humerus, from the length and laxity of its liga¬
ments, the largenefs of its motion and the fttallownefs of
the cavity in the fcapula, into which it is articulated, is
thereby rendered of dll bones the molt fubjeft to be luxated.
The head of this bone may often be diflo ated under the
arm-pit, fometimes forwards, foraetimes backwards,- and
even below flit fpacula ; but feldom perpendicularly down¬
wards, and never diredly upwards ursiefs the acromion and
coracoide procefles of the fcapula fhould chance to be frac¬
tured at the fame time : Sefides, as long as the ftrong
dcltoide and bicipital mufcles of the humerus remain entire,
they greatly refill and keep down the humerus from b£ing
luxated upwards.
Wnen the hu?nerus is luxated downwards, (i.) There
fuddenly appears a cavity, and upon preffing with the fin¬
gers you will perceive a Jinus but under the arm there
mull be a tumour, becaufe the head of the bone is thrull
there. (2.) The procejfus acromion will feem to Hick out
further than ufual, becaufe of the adjacent finus, (3.) The
The luxated arm will be longer than the other, and it can¬
not be lifted up towards tke head without violent pain, and
fometimes it cannot be lifted up at all, or ,even extended.
But when the humerus is luxated forwards as well as down¬
wards, there will be obferved the fame finus under the
procejfus acromion as before, and a tumour will appear
from the head of the humerus proje&ing towards the bread,
under ihtaxilla : the arm itfelf alfo cannot be moved with¬
out exciting the mod acute pain. Ladly, When the hu¬
merus is luxated backwards, the cubitus is thrown for¬
wards towards the preecordia, and the head of the bone
makes a protuberance in the Ihoulder; the arm itfelf cannot
be bent nor extended, nor even pulled outwards from the
bread, without opcafioning the mod violent pains: but no
luxation of this limb is attended with fuch dangerous
fymptoms, as when it is diflocated forwards or inwards; be-
caule the luxated head of the humerus cannot avoid inju
ring the large arteries and nerves of the arm ; in confequenee
of which, various fymptoms wiil a)nfs.
Asdxm therefore as the luxation is difcovered in the
humerus, the fafefl way will be to feat the patient on the
floor, or on a lowdool. Two drong aflillants areto be placed
on each fide the patient: one of which fhould fecure his bo¬
dy, and, if poflible, the fcapula too, that it may not give
way to the extenfion ; while the other lays firm hold of the
luxated arm with both his hands, a little above the cubitus,
gradually and drongly extending-it. But before that ex¬
tenfion be made, the furgeon himfelf fhould have a large
napkin, of a fufficient length, tied at the ends, and hung
about his neck fo that the knot may be behindbut the
other part of the napkin mud hang over his bread : then
the patient’s arm mud be put through the napkin up to the
fhoulder, and the furgeon at the fame time lays hold ofthe
, head of the humerus with both his hands: this done, he
E H Y.
orders the affidant to extend the limb fufficiently, and in
the mean time he himfelf'elevates the head of the patient’s
humerus by the napkin about h;s neck, diredfing it with
his hands, till it dip into its former cavity in the fcapula,
■ Of n Luxation ^ Cubitus.
The cubitus, confiding of two bones, -the «/«« and the
radius, is articalated by ginglymus. The connection of
thefe bones is fnch, that the ulna or cubitus, as being the
larged bone, and feated in the inferior part of the arm,
does of itfelf perform the whole fleftion‘and extenfion .of
the arm; yet it cannot perform that motion without carry¬
ing the radius along wjth it ; fo that the ra.tius always
follows the ulna in fleClion and extenfion: but, on the other
hand, the radius may be turned along with the hand both
inward and outward, without at all moving or bending the
ulna ; as when the pronation and fupination of*the hand is
made thereby. Both thefe bones of the cubitus are fo arti¬
culated with the lower head of the os humeri, that large
protuberances are received into deep cavities or grooves,
and the whole invefied anu iadened with exceeding fliong
ligaments; fo that notwithdanding the cubitus may be lux¬
ated in all four directions, outward, inward, forward, and
backward, yet it is but feldom that it differs a perfect or
entire diflocation, uolefs the upper part of the ulna, called
olecranon, be broken, or the ligaments of the cubitus much
weakened, by fome very great external violence.
If the cubitus be luxated backward, which is the mod
frequent of all others, then the arm becomes crooked and
fhorter, and it cannot be extended. In the inward part of
the bend of the arm, the head of the humerus may be ob¬
ferved to dick out; in the back part of the fame, the head
of the ulna or olecranon will be protuberant, and between
both bones will appear a fnus or cavity. But it very fel¬
dom happens that ihz cubitus is luxated forward, from the
largenefs of the olecranon : unlefs that be fraCtured at the
fame time. But if this fhould happen, the head of the hu~
merus will dick out behind, and that of the caW/ao before;
and there will be a cavity more or lefs in proportion to the
degree of the luxation. When the cubitus is luxated ex¬
ternally, the protuberance appears on the outfide of the
cubitus -, and the contrary when luxated inwards. Tocon-
clude, unlefs the ligaments and mufcles of the cubitus are
quite broken in two, it is fo far from being capable of fuf-
fering a perfeCt diflocation, that no more can happen to it
than a fubluxation, i. e. it can but recede but a very little
way out of its right place: but whatever of this kind hap¬
pens, the cafe may be very eafily underdood, by feeling
and infpeCting the part, if there be no tumor; but if the
joint be much fwelled, it is very difficult to be difcovered.
Be the luxation, however, more or lefs, the patient mud
be fpeedily placed in a chair; and both parts of the limb,
the humerus and the cubitus, mud be extended in oppafite
directions by two dout'aflidants, till the mtifcles-are found
pre'ty tight, with a free fpace between the bones : then the
luxated bone mud be replaced with the furgeon’s bare hands,
or together with bandages; and that the pnoceffes may fall
into their ftnufes, the cubitus mud be afterwards fuddenly
bent. But if the tendons and ligaments are fo violently
drained, that they can fcarc? perform their office; it will
not be improper to anoint them well with emollient oils,
ointments, or the fat of animals, or to apply emollient fo¬
mentations and gataplafms.
SUll
As foon ss the reduction has been by thefe means effect¬
ed, the articulation mu'.l: be bound up with a proper ban¬
dage, and the arm is to be afterwards fufpended in a nap¬
kin or fling about the heck : but care mud be taken, that
the bandage be not fuffered to be on too long, nor the arm
to be kept all the time dill, without fome gentle motion.
On Luxations of the Hand, Carpus, Metaca'rpus,
and Fingers.
Notwithstanding the hand is very accurately con¬
nected to the two preceding bones, and particularly to the
radius, by means of the carpus and (trong ligaments, yet
it fortietimes differs luxation in all four directions ; but it is
generally not fo eafy to be luxated on either fide, as for¬
ward or backward, becaufe of ihe two proceff s of the ra
dius and ulna, which guard it on each fide. The hand is
faid to be luxated forwards or inwards, when it recedes
from the mufcles which bend the fingers; to be luxated
backward, when it departs from the mufcles ^yhich extend
the fingers : much alio in the fame manner, the hand is
judged to be luxated outward, when the carpus makes a
tumor near the thumb, and a cavity near the little finger;
to be luxated inward, when the contrary happens.
It feems to be the fafert way immediately to reduce what
is displaced ; and that this may fucceed the better, two
things are to be chiefly regarded: (i.) That the luxated
band be fufficientiy extended by two afliftants, one of which
is to lay hold of the Hand, and the other of the humerus,
pulling in oppofite directions: (2.) That the part of the ex¬
tended hand, where the is, be placed on a table, or
fome other flat body, that whatever ihcks up may be de-
preffed: by which method the hand, in whatever part lux¬
ated, may be very readily reduced into its natural feat.
It alfo fometimes happens, that^one or two of the eight
little bones of the carpus are luxated and diftorted from
their natural feat by forae external violence. When this
happens, there will be perceived a tumor in one part, and a
cavity in another, which may be alfo felt by the fingers ;
befides,- violent pains will be felt by the patient. For the
reft, as this kind of luxation is very eafily difcovered, part¬
ly by the fight, and partly alfo by feeling -, fo, when it is
recent, it is almoft as readily cured, letting the hand be ex¬
tended in the manner we before propofed, and the difloca-
ted bone be afterwards forced into its place.
The four fmail bones, which are found in the metacar¬
pus or palm of the hand, may be fometimes luxated from
the carpus Wetf, to which their upper parts are Connected j
which ufually happens from fome externa! violence. The
two bones which are feated in the middle between the two
other external ones, cannot be diftocated to either fide ; as
the two external ones which fuftain the firft and little fin¬
gers cannot be luxated inwardly, but are more eafily driven
outward: though each of them may be luxated on the fore
or back part of the hand. But which ever of thefe happens,
the particular difordet may be difcovered and examined by
feeling and infpeChng, and the cure may be carried on in
altogether the fame method which we direded before.
Laftly, The bones of the fingers, to which we join thofe
of the thumbs, are liable to luxation at each of their arti¬
culations, and that in feveral directions. But thefe acci¬
dents, if recent, are both very eafy to difcover and cure :
for the ligaments being not very robuft, the fat and muf¬
cles thin, and the fmjes of the articulations lhallow, ren-
G E R Y. 677
der the extenfion very eafy, and the reduction of them into
their former places may be done very readily. While one
hand of tfie furgeon extends the finger, he drives With his
other to replace the bones in their natural feat.
Of a Luxation of the Thigh.
Very rare is it that the head of the thigh-bone is dif-
placed oat of its acetabulum; though formerly it was fup-
pofed to be pretty frequent, phyficians taking a fraCfure
thereof for a luxation, the reafon whereof may be taken
from the articulation itfelf: (1.) How very deep is the fi-y
nus, called by the ancients finus and by the moderns
acetabulum, into which the head of the thigh-bone is re¬
ceived. (2.) With what a broad concave cartilage is al¬
moft the whole head of that bone covered. (3.) How
ftrong are the ligaments with which it is faftened. (4.)
How greatly it is defended with exceeding ftout and thick
mufcles. (5.) But how very brittle is the neck of this bone
beyond any other part thereof: from all which it appears',
that the neck.muft be far more frequently and eafily broke,
efpecially in adults, than its head diflecated: and though
fomething of this kind may fometimes happen, fo as to make
the head of the thigh-bone Hip out of its acetabulum; yet
that generally proceeds more from internal than external
caufes : for we find it has been obferved by very flcilfu! phy¬
ficians, that the ligaments of the thigh-bone, though very
ftrong, may be by various caufes, and particularly by a flux
of humours, fo relaxed and weakened, as to let the head
of that bone flip fpontaneoufly out of its acetabulurn ; fo
that it fhould feem no great wonder if the thigh ftiould be
fometimes luxated even while the patient lies in bed, with¬
out any external violence, fo that when they rife, one leg
appears longer or lliorter than the other, and feems as if it
were unhinged.
But this cafe doe? not happen fo eafy in robuft adults,
as in fuch as are more young and tender.
Whenever the faid head of the thigh-bone is thruft out,
it is almoft always wholly difplaced, fo as to make a perfect
luxation. The exaCt roondnefs of this head, with the great
force of the circumjacent mufcles, and the narroWnefs of
the fides of the acetabulum, will not admit the bone to be
diflocated a little way only ; for as foon as the head of this
bone is thruft up to the edge of the acetabulum, it mult
unavoidably either turn quite out, or elfe fall back again
into its right place.
The thigh is uiually luxated four ways ; upward, down¬
ward, backward, and forward but it is moft frequently
diftocated downwards and inwards, towards the \irgt fora¬
men in the cs~pubis .- for befides that,the cartilaginous de¬
fence on the lower part of the acetabulum is not fo high as
the reft, the ligamentum rotundum is found to give way
more eafily in that part than anjr other: and laftly, the ad¬
jacent mufcles are found to be weakeft in their rtfiftance on
this part, being infufficient to keep the head of thi? bone
from flipping out; and then there is a certain eminence in
\h\s edge of xho acetabulum, which keeps the head of the
os-femoris from falling back again into its right place : but
if the head of this bone be dilplaced outwards, it generally
flips upwards at the fame time ; it being fcarce poflible but
the very ftrong mufeies of the thigh muft then draw the
bone upwards, and then there is no eminence there, in the
edge of the acetabulum, to refift the head of the bone in
that paffage; but fhould it at any time be luxated by an ex¬
ternal
678 S U R
ternal force, there mtsfl: certainly be a rupture of the round
ligament.
When the thigh is diflocated forwards and downwards,
■which is what ufually happens, the leg hangs ftraddling out-
■ward, and,is longer than the other; alfo the knee and foot
turn outwards ; the head of the bone itfelf will be felt near
the lower part of the inguen and os pubis: fotnetimes there
is a fuppreilion of urine in this cafe ; when fome nerve,
which communicates with the bladder, is violently compref-
fed ; in the buttock may be perceived a cavity, from the
trochanter major and the rell of the bone being difplaced ;
and if the thigh-bone be not timely replaced into its aceta¬
bulum, the whole limb withers Ihortly afterwards ; and this
is the reafon why the patient can bear little or no ftrefs up¬
on that limb, but muft always incline and throw the weight
of his body tipon the other.
But if the thigh-bone be difplaced backward, it is ufually
drawn upward alfo at the fame time: hence there will be
perceived a cavity behind the inguen •, but upon the haunch
or buttock, a tumour; becaufe the head and trochanter oi
this bone will be thruft there. The tumour in the haunch
being thrufl: upwards, the reft of the limb will become fttorter
than the other, and the foot will feem to turn inwards ; the
heel will not touch the ground, and fo the perfon will feem
to ftand upon his toes ; and laftly, the luxated limb may be
bent with more eafe than extended.
We do not without reafon judge the thigh to be luxated,
(i.) When we find the ligaments of the bone have been re¬
laxed by fome preceding congeftion of humours, and when
no external violence has been exerted upon it, efpecially in
young patients. (2.) When neither the fymptoms, pain,
tumour, or inflammation follow: and laftly, (3.) When
the whole limb may be bent and turned about at the aceta-
bulmti without any cruftnng of the bones, which is other-
wife common in fractures. The contrary of thefe figns are
■ftrong indications that a fradture is prefent ; more particu¬
larly if the foot in grown perfons be (hotter, from the in¬
jury of any external violence, and you hear a grating of the
bones in moving the limb.
The luxated bone is always to be replaced in a method
agreeable to the nature and diredtion of the diflocation.
When it is difplaced forwards and downwards, the patient is
to be laid flat upon his back on a table; then a linen napkin
or ftrong fling is to be made fafl over the groin about the
partaffedted, fo that one end of the fling may come over the
belly, and the other over the nates and back, to be both tied
together in a knot upon the fpine of the os ilium, and after¬
wards faftened to a hook fixed in fome poll, or held firm
By fo/ne aflifhnts: rather the firft, if we ufe the polyfpafton
or pulley, to retain the patient’s body firm from giving way
in the extenfion; in like manner, at the bottom of the thigh,
w little above the knee, there muft be alfo faftened another
napkin, or fling, with a comprefs between it and the thigh.
Both the flings being drawn tight, the thigh is to be extend
ed, not vehemently, but only fo much as is fufficient to draw
the bone out of its finus, that it may be replaced into its
acetabulum by the furgeon’s hands; one hand is to prefs the
head of the thigh-bone outward, while the other conduifts
the knee inwards : or, the redudtion may be made by nap-
kips, faftened round the extremities of the thigh like flings,
much as in a luxation of the humerus: which will be more
likely to fucceed if the k$ee be at the fame time preffed in-
G E R Y.
wards by the hands. When the fore-recited means are not
fufficient to make the extenfion, it will be neceflary to make
ufe of the polyfpaflon or pulley. As Toon as the thigh is
found'to be fufficiently extended, the furgeon muft take par¬
ticular care to reflore the luxated head of the thigh-bone
with his hands from the os pubis into its former feat.
Whenever the thigh is luxated backward, the patient is
to be placed flat on a table, with his face downward ; and
the thigh is to be extended in dire&ly the fame manrfer. but
a little more ftrongly than we juft now propofed; and the re-
du&ion is to be effedied afterwards by the furgeon’s hands, an
afliftant in the mean time extending the limb, and turning it
inwards; by this means the head of the thigh-bone gene¬
rally flips very readly again into its acetabulum.
Cy* Luxation of the Patella aw^Knee, cr Tibia
and F1 bula.
The patella is ufually luxated moftly on the internal or
external fide of,the joint; but whenever the knee isperredt-
ly luxated, the patella can fcarce avoid being difplaced at
the fame time, becaufe of its ftrong connedtion to the thigh
and tibia.
The redudtion of a luxated patella is ufually no very great
difficulty, if the patient be laid flat on his back upon a table
or bed, or if he be laid in that pofture upon an even floor,
fo as that the leg may be pulled out ftrait by an affiftant:
for then the furgeon may firmly grafp the patella with his
fingers, and afterwards prefs it ftrongly into its right place;
which may be alfo effected if the patient (lands upright :
when this is done, there remains nothing but carefully to
bind up the difordered part, and to let the patient reft
quietly for fome days, fometimes gently bending and extend¬
ing his leg to prevent it from growing ftiff, till the pains
are gone off, and the limb has recovered its former ftrength.
A luxation of the knee is properly fo, when the tibia
recedes from under the femur. The leg is fometimes lux¬
ated from the bafis of the thigh-bone, either on the out or
infide, or backwards ; (eldom or never forwards, nnlefs it
be forced and driven very violently that way ; becaufe for¬
wards, the patella is bound againft the articulation, by the
very ftrong tendons of the mufcles which extend the leg ;
nor is it eafy for the bones of the leg to be wholly difplaced
from that of the thigh, fo as to make a perfect luxation ; by
reafon of the great ftrength of the ligaments, and the two
ftnufes which receive the head of the thigh-bone.
As this kind of luxation is very eafy to difcover from the
thin covering of the joint, with the tumors and cavities
which follow ; fo, when it is difcovered, it is as difficult
to make a perfeft cure thereof, without letting the bones
join together ; or leaving fome ftiffnefs in the knee ; which
firft accident is ufually called an anchylojh.
When the knee is but (lightly luxated, the patient is to
be feated on a bed, bench, or table, and one alliftant bolds
the thigh firm above the knee, and the other extends the
leg ; but the furgeon in the mean time replaces the bones by
his bauds and flings if neceffary, or puffies it by ’.he ap¬
plication of his knee into its natural place.
Sometimes the fibula is feparared by fome external vio¬
lence from the thigh-bone, and is then diftorted either up¬
ward or downward: and this generally happens, when the
foot has been luxated outward ; therefore, when this is the
cafe, there is need of extenfion. The bone is to be firft
reftorcd
Plate CLVm
S U R
reftored to its natural place, and then properly bound up.
Of a Luxation of the Foot and Ancle.
The ancle may be fometimes luxated either in jumping,
running, or walking; and that in all four directions, inward,
outward, backward, and forward. "Which of thefe ways it
happens to be luxated, may be difcovered by the particular
poilure of the joint.
The ancle is more or lefs difficult to reduce in pro¬
portion to the violence of the caufe by which it is luxa¬
ted But the molt ready way ofreducing a luxation of the
ancle is to place the patient upon a bed, leat, or table, let¬
ting the leg and foot be extended in oppofite directions by
two affiftants, while the furgeon drives to reduce the ancle
with his hands and fingers. When the foot is by this
means once replaced, it is proper to bind it up carefully, af¬
ter it has been well bathed with oxycrate and fall, advifing
the patient to keep to his bed a good whille, till the difor-
der and its fymptoms quite leave him.
s u s
SURIANA, in botany, a genus of the decandria pentagy.
nia clafs. The calix confifis of fix leaves,' and the co¬
rolla of five petals ; and there are five roundiffi feeds.
There is but one fpecies, a native of America.
URINAM, the capital of the Dutch fettlements in
Guiana, in South America: W. tong. 56°, and N. lat.
6° 30'.
SURMOUNTED, in heraldry, is when one figure is laid
over another As the pile furmounted of a chevron in
Plate CXLVII. fig. 17.
SURREPTITIOUS. See Subrei-titious,
SURRY, a county of England, bounded by the river
Thames, which feparates it from Middlefex, on the
north ; by Kent, on the cart ; by Suffex, on the fouth ;
and by Berklhire, on the weft ; being thirty-four miles
long, and twenty-one broad.
SURROGATE, in law, denotes a perfon that is fubfti-
tuted, or appointed in the room of another
SURSOLID, in arithmedck and algebra, the fifth power,
or fourth multiplication of any number or quantity con-
fidced as a root. See Arithmet 1 ck. and Algebra.
SURVEYING, the art or aCt of meafuring land ; that is,
of taking the dimenfions of any trad of ground, laying
down the fame in a map or draught, and finding the
content or area thereof. See Geometry, p. 699.
SURVEYOR, a perfon who hath the overfight and care
of confiderable works, lands, or the like.
Surveyor likewife denotes a gauger; as alfo a perfon
who furveys lands, and makes maps of them.
SURVIVOR, in law, fignifies the longeft liver of joint-
ten <nts, or of any two perfons jointly interefted in a
thing.
SUS, in zbology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the
order of belluae They have four converging fore-teeth
in the upper jaw, and fix prominent ones in the under
jaw ; there are two fhort dog-teeth in the upper jaw, and
one longer and jutting out in the under jaw; the fnout
is truncated, prominent, and mpveable. There are five
fpecies. The fus fcrofa, or common fow, is a native of
the fouthern parts of Europe. It feeds coarfely, digs
up roots, ebc. from the ground with its fnout. It is a
Vol. III. N* 97. 2
G E R Y. 879
Sometimes it happens, that only the os calcis or calcaneum
is luxated by fome external force, and that either towards
the internal or external fide of the foot. Whichever way
it happens, when there is pain and inequality of the mem¬
ber, that is, when it has a cavity in one part, and a tumour
in another, there is ftrongreafon to fuppofe a luxation : and
as foon as it is difcovered, the fame method of cure is re¬
quired with that before recited, keeping the limb quiet for
fome time afterwards.
Laftly, if any other bone in the foot, the tarfus or me.
tatarfus, fhould happen to be luxated by fome confiderable
external violence, the ligaments with the adjacent nerves
and tendons are generally fo affedted as to excite not only
moft acute pains, but violent inflammations and convulfions;
and even death itfelf has been obferved to be the confe-
quence, unlefs the bones were fpeedily replaced: it is there¬
fore the fafeft way to reduce the luxations in thefe bones
of the foot, by the method we before propofed for thofe of
the hands, and that with the greateft expedition.
SWA
fat, fleepy, ftupid, dirty animal, wallowing conftantly its
the mire. The fow brings forth a great number of young
at a litter, and is therefore confidered as a profitable ani¬
mal. The fleftt, however, is not reckoned to be of the
moft wholefome kind.
SUSDAL, a city of the province of Mofcow, in Ruffia,
one hundred miles north-eaft of Mofcow.
SUSPENSION, or eySusPENSioN, in mechanics,
are thofe points in the axis or beam of a balance, wherein
the weights are applied, or from which they are fufpended.
See Mechanics.
Suspension of Arms, in war, a Ihort truce agreed on by
both armies, in order to bury the dead, wait for frelh
inftrudhons, or the like.
Suspension, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxxii. 4.
SUSSEX, a county of England, bounded by Surrey and
.Kent on the north, by another part of Kent on the eaft,
by the Englilh channel on the fouth, and by Hamplbire
on the weft: being fixty-five miles long, and twenty-
nine broad.
SUTHERL AND, a (hire of Scotland, bounded by Caith-
nefs on the north, by the German fea on the eaft, by
Rofslhire on the fouth, and by the Caledonian ocean on
the weft and north, weft.
SUTTON GOLEFIELD, a market-town twenty miles
north-weft of Warwick.
SUTURE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 153.
Suture, in furgery, amethod of uniting the lips of wounds.
See Surgery, p. 650.
SWABBER, an inferior officer on board fhips of war,
whofe employment it is to fee that the decks are kept neat
and clean.
SWABIA, a circle of the German empire, bounded by
Franconia and the palatinate of the Rhine on the nofth,
by Bavaria on the eaft, by Switzerland and Tyrol on the
fouth, and by the river Rhine, which feparatps it from
Alfatia, on the weft ; being one hundred and thirty miles
long, and one hundred and ten broad.
SWALE, a river of Yorkfhire, which rifing on the con¬
fines of Weftmorland, runs fouth-eaft through Yorkffiire,
and falls into the Oufe.
8 I
SWAL-
S W I ( 880
SWALLOW,, in ornithology. See Hirundo.
Swallow- Wort, in botany. See Asclepias.
SWAN, in ornithology. See Anas.
SWEAT, a fenlible moifture ilTuingout of the pores of the
fkiris of animals. See Perspiration.
SWEDEN, one of thetnbft northerly kingdoms of Europe,
bounded by Norwegian Lapland on the north, by Ruffia
on the ealt, by the Baltic fea on the fouth, and by Nor¬
way on the weft ; being upwards of eight hundred miles
from north tofoutb, and five hundred from eaft. to,weft.
SWEEP, in the fea-language, is that part of the mould of
a (hip, where (he begins to compafs in at the rung-heads:
alfo, when thfe hawfer is dragged along the bottom of the
fea, to recover any thing that is funk, they call this ac¬
tion fweeping for it.
SWEET, in the wine-trade, denotes any vegetable juice,
whether obtained by means of fugar, raifins, or other
foreign or doraeftic fruit, which is added to wines, with
a defign to improve them.
SWERIN, a town of lower Saxony, in Germany, capital
of the duchy of Mecklenburg, and fituated on the lake of
Swerin : in E. long. 11® 3c/, and N. lat. 54°.
SWERTIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The corolla is rotated, and there are nectariferous
pores at the bafes of the different lacinise of the corolla ;
the capfule has one cell, and two valves. There are
five fpecies, only one of them, viz. the perennis, or
mar(h gentian, a native of Britain.
SWIMMING, the art or act of fuftaining the body in wa¬
ter, and of moving therein ; in which aftion the air-blad¬
der and fins of fifties, bear a confiderable part.
Though a great deal depends on the motion of the
mufcles of the feveral parts of the body, in the fwimming
of the fifti ; yet the tail, and thofe mufcles which move
the lower part of the body to which it is affixed, are
the great inftruments by which their fwift motions in the
water are performed. The moving the tail, and that
part of the body to which it adheres, backward and for
ward, or fideways any one way, throws the whole body
of the fifti ftrongly the contrary way ; and even in fwim-
ming ftraight forward, the motion and direction are both
greatly afliffed by the vibrations of this part, as may be
experienced in the motion of a boat, which, when im¬
pelled forward, may be firmly guided by means of an oar
held out at its ftern, and moved in the water as occafion
direas. The dorfal mufcles, and thofe of the lower part
of the body between the anus and tail, are the principal
that are ufed in the motion of this part, and thefe are
'therefore the mod ufeful to the fifti in fwimming. The
mufcles of the belly feem to have their principal ufe in
the cootraeftjng the belly and the air-bladder. They have
been fuppofed of ufe to move the belly-fins; but there
are too many of them for fuch a purpofe, and thefe fins
have each its peculiar mufcle fully fufficient to the bufinefs.
The ufe of the tail in fwimming is eafily feen, by cutting
it off, and committing the fifti to the water without it,
in which cafe it is a moft helplefs creature.
By the help of the tail they alfo turn about, by ftri-
king ftrongly with it on one fide, and keeping it bent, fo
as to aft hke the rudder of a (hip. The fins, efpecialiy
the peftoral ones, ferve to keep the fifli upright, as alfo to
afeend and defeend.
Brutes fwim naturally ; but men attain this art by prac-
) S Y M
tice and induftry. It confifts principally in ftrikieg alter¬
nately with the hands and feet; which, like oars, row a
perfon forward : he muft keep his body a little'oblique,
that he may the more eafily ereft his head, and keep lib
mouth above water.
SWINE, in zoology. See Sus.
SWINGLING, the beating of flax or hemp. See Flax.
SWITZ, the capital of one of the cantons of Switzerland,
to which it gives name, fituated on the caft fide of the
lake Lucern, fixteen miles fouth-eaft of the city of Lu-
cern: E. long. 8Q 3o\ and N. lat. 470.
SWITZERLAND, or Swisserland, called Helvetia by
the Romans, is furrounded by the territories of Germany,
France, and Italy, being about two hundred and fixteen
miles long, and upwards of one hundred miles broad.
SWORD, an offenfive weapon, worn at the fide, and fer-
ving either to cut or ftab : its parts are the handle, guard,
and blade ; to which may be added the bow, fcabbard,
pummel, crc.
Sword-fish. SeeXirniAS.
SYCAMORE-tree, in botany. See Acer,
SYCOPHANT, an appellation given by the ancient Athe¬
nians to thofe who informed of the exportation of figs,
contrary to law; and hence it is (fill ufed in general for
all informers, parafites, flatterers, cheats, &c.
SYLLABLE, ia grammar, a part of a word, confiding of
one or more letters, pronounced together.
SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, denotes a table of
contents, , or an index of the chief heads of a book or dif-
coutfe.
SYLLOGISM, in logic, an argument or term of reafon-
ing, confiding of three propofitions; thetwofirftof which
are called preraifles, andthelaft the conclufion. See Lo¬
gic, p 991.
SYMBOL, a fign or reprefentatioa of fomething moral, by
the figures or properties of natural things.
Hence fymbols are of various kinds, as hieroglyphics,
types, senigmas, parables, fables, &c.
Among Chriftians, the term fymbol denotes the Apo-
ftlcs creed.
SYMMETRY, the juft proportion of the feveral parts of
any thing, fo as to compofe a beautiful whole.
SYMPATHETIC, fomething that afts, oris afted on, by
fympathy: thus we fay, fympathetic difeafes, inks, pow¬
ders, tic.
SYMPATHY, in medicine, denotes an indifpofition befal¬
ling one part of the body, through the deleft or diforder
of another; whether it be from the affluence of fome hu¬
mour, or vapour fent from elfewhere; or from the want
of the influence of fome matter neceftary to its aftion.
SYMPHONY, in mufick, properly denotes a confonanceor
concert of feveral founds agreeable to the ear, whether
vocal or inftrumental, called alfo harmony.
SYMPHYSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 148.
SYMPHYTUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The limbus of the corolla is tubular and
fomewhat ventricofe, the fauces being clofed with (ubula-
ted radii. There are three fpecies, only one of them, viz.
the officinale, or comfrey, a native of Britain. The root
of the comfrey is a fine mucilage.
SYMPOSIARCH, in antiquity, the direftor, or manager
of an entertainment. This office was fometimes perform¬
ed by the perfon at whole charge the entertainment was
provided, j
S Y N ( 881 )
provided ; fometimes by another named by him ; and at
other times, efpecially in entertainments provided at the
common expence, he was defted by lot, or by the fuf-
frages of the guefts,
SYMPTOM, in medicine, any appearance in a difeafe,
which ferves to indicate or point out its caufe, approach,
duration, event, foe.
SYMPTOMATICAL, in medicine, is a term often ufed
to denote the difference, between the primary and fecon-
dary caufes in difeafes : thus a fever from pain is faid-to
be fymptomatical, becaufe it rjfes from pain only.
SYNTHESIS, contradtion, in grammar, a figure whereby
two lyliables are united in one ; as vevtetis for vehement.
SYNAGOGUE, a particular affembly of Jews met toper*
form the offices of their religion. Alfo the place wherein
they meet.
SYNALOEPHA, in grammar, a contraction of fyllables,
performed principally by fuppreffing fome vowel or diph¬
thong at the end of a word, on account of another vowel
or diphthong at the beginning of the next. As iW ego,
for Me ego. See.
SYNARTHROSIS, in anatomy. See Anatom y, p. 148.
SYNCHONDROSIS* in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 148.
SYNCHRONISM, denotes the happening of feveral things
in the fame time.
SYNCOPATION, in mufick, denotes a ftriking or beat¬
ing of time, whereby the distinction of the feveral times
or parts of the meafure is interrupted.'
SYNCOPE, fainting, in medicine, a deep and fudden
fwooning, wherein the patient continues without any fen-
fible heat, motion, fenfe, or refpiration, and is feized
with a cold fweat over the whole body, and all the parts
turn pale and cold as if dead. See Medicine, p. 157.
Syncope, m grammar, an elifion or retrenchment of a let¬
ter or iyliable out of the middle of a word, as caldus for
calidus.
SYNDIC; in government and commerce, an officer in di¬
vers countries intruded with the affairs of a city, or other
community, who calls meetings, makes reprefentations
and fdlicitations to the miniftry, magiftracy, foe. accord¬
ing to the exigency of the cafe.
SYNDROME, a word introduced into medicine by the
empirics, who mean by it a concourfe of fymptoms.
SYNECDOCHE, in rhetoric, a kind of trope, frequent
among orators and poets. There are three kinds of fy-
necdoches. By the firft, a part is taken Tot The whole;
as the point for the fword, the roof for the houfe, the
fails for the fhip, foe. By the fecond, the whole is ufed
for a part. By the third, the matter whereof the thing
is made is ufed for the thing itfelf; as Heel for fwotd,
filver for money, foe. To which may be added another
kind, when the fpecies is ufed for the genus, or the ge¬
nus for the fpecies.
Synecdoche, in Greek and Latin grammar, is when the
ablative of a part or an adjunft of a fentence is changed
into the accufative.
SYNECPHONESIS, in grammar, a coalition whereby two
fyllables are pronounced as one.
SYNGENESIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
SYNNEUROSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p, 148.
SYNOCHUS, or Synocha, in medicine, a c n mual fe¬
ver, without any remiffion. See Medicine, p 79.
SYNOD, in altrenomy, a conjun&ion, or concourfe of two
SYR
or more flats, or planets, in the fame optical place of the
heavens.
Synod, fignifies alfo a meeting, or affembly of ecclefiafli-
, cal perfons, concerning matters of religion.
SYNODALS, were pecuniary rents, commonly of two
fhiliirgs, paid to the bifhop, or archdeacon, at the time
of their Eafter vifitatien, by every parifh prieft.
SYNODICAL, fomething belonging to a fynod : thus fy-
nodical.epiftles are circular letters written by the fynods
to the abient prelates and churches, or even.thofe. gene¬
ral ones directed to all the faithful, to inform theni of
what had paffed in the fynod.
SYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feaft celebrated at
Athens, in memory of Thefeus’s having united all the
petty communities of Attica into one Angle commonwealth,
the feat whereof was Athens, where all the affemblies
were to be held. This feafl was dedicated to Minerva;
and, according to the fcholiafl of Thucydides, it v/as held
in the month Metagitnion.
SYNONYMOUS, is applied to a word or term that has the
fame import or fignification with another.
SYNOVIA, in medicine, a term ufed by Pavcelfus, and
his fchool, for the Butricious juice proper and peculiar
to each part ; thus they talk of the fynovia of the joints,'
of the brain, foe.
SYNTAX, in grammar, the proper conftrudUon, or due
difpofition of the words of a language, into fentences, or
phrafes. See Grammar.
SYNTEXIS, in medicine, an attenuation, or colliquation
of the folids of the body, fuch as frequently happens in
atrophies, inflammations of the bowels.
SYNTHETIC, or Synthetical is, -according to Dr.
Shaw, a term given to that part of Tiemiftry, which, af¬
ter the analytical chemiflry has taken bodies to pieces,
or reduced them to their principles, can, from thefe fe-
parated principles, either recoinpoutjd the fame body a-
gain, or, from the mixtures of the principles of one or
more bodies in various manners, form a large fet of new
productions, which wo .Id have been unknown to the world
but for this art: fuch productions are brandy, foap, glafs,.
and the like.
SYNUSIASTS, a feCt of heretics, who maintained, that
there was but one nature and one fingle lubltance in Je-
fus Chrift.
SYRACUSE, a city and port-town of Sicily, in the pro¬
vince of Val de Noto, fituated on a fine bay of the Me¬
diterranean fea, on the eaft coatt of the ifland : in E.
long I5<bj/, N lat. 370 25'.
SYRIA, a part of Afiatic Turky, bounded by Natolia and
Turcomania, on the north; by Diarbec or Mefopotamia
on the eaft ; by Arabia and Paleltine on the fouth ; and
by the Levant-fea on the weft. Tfie Turks divide Syria
into three beglerbeglies, or vice-royalties, viz. thofe of
Aleppo, Tripoli, and Damafcus, or Scham, the feats of
the refpe&ive viceroys.-
nSYRINGA, in botany, a genus of the diandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla conlifts of four fegraents, and the
capfule has two cells. There are two fpecies, both na¬
tives of Perfia.
SYRINGE, a well known inftrument, ferving to imbibe or
fuck in a quantity of fluid, and to fquirt or expel the.
fame with violence.
A fyringe is only a fingle pump, and the water afeends s
SYS ( S
in it on die fame principle as in the common fucking
pump. . See Hydrostatics, p. 808.
SYRUP, in pharmacy, a faturated folution of fugar, made
in vegetable decoftions, or infufions.
SYSSARCOSIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 148.
SYSTEM, in general, denotes an aflemblage or chain of
principles and conclufions, or the whole of anydodtrine,
the feveral parts whereof are bound together and follow
or d pend on each other ; in which fenfe we fay, afyttem
of philofphy, a fyftem of divinity, &e.
82 ) S Y Z
SYSTOLE, in anatomy, the contradlion of the 'heart,
whereby the blood is drawn out of its ventricles into the
arteries ; the oppofite date to which is called the diaftole,
or dilatation.of the heart.
SYSTYLE, in archite&u-e, that manner of placing columns
where the fpace between the two fufts conlift of tvftb dia¬
meters, or four modules.
SYZYGY, in agronomy, a term equally ufed for the con-
jundlion and oppofition of a planet with the fun. See
Astronomy.
T
TAB
TABAGO, one of the Caribbee iflands in the American
ocean, one hundred and twenty miles fouth of Bar-
badoes: W. long. 590, N. lat. 11° 30'.
TABARCA, an ifland on the coal! of Barbary, in Africa,
fifty miles weft of Tunis : E. Jong. 8°, N. lat. 36° 30'.
TABASCO, the capital of a province of the fame name,
fituated on the bay of Canapeachy, at the mouth of the
river tabafco, one hundred and fixty miles fouth-weft
of Campeachy : W. long. 950. N. lat. 180.
TABBY, in commerce, a kind of rich filk which has un
dergone the operation of tabbying. See the next article.
TABBYING, the palling a filk or ftuff under a calender,
the rolls of which are made of iron or copper, varioufly
engraven, which bearing unequally on the ftulf renders the
furface thereof unequal, fo as to refled the rays of light,
differently, making the reprefentation of waves thereon.
TABELLA, tablet, in pharmacy, is much the fame
with troches and lozenges, being a folid preparation for¬
med into a little cake, or mafs, of different figures, in¬
tended to diffolve flowly, and generally made agreeable to
the palate.
TABELLIO, in the Roman law, an officer or fcrivener,
much the fame with our notaries public, who are often
called tabelliones in our ancient law-books.
TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of building,
in the form of a tent, fet up, by exprefs command of
God, for the performance of religious worffiip, facrifices,
(&c. during the journeying of the Ifraelites ii^the wilder-
nefs ; and, after their fettlement in the land of Canaan,
made ufe of for the fame purpofe till the building of the
temple of Jerufalem. It was divided into two parts,
the one covered, and properly called the tabernacle;
and the other open, called the court. The curtains
which covered the tabernacle were made of linen, of fe¬
veral colours, embroidered. There were ten curtains,
twenty-eight cubits long and four in breadth. Five cur¬
tains faftened together made up two coverings, which
covered all the tabernacle. Over thefe there were two
other coverings ; the one of goat-hair, and the .other of
fheep Ikins. The holy of holies was parted from the
reft of the tabernacle by a curtain made fall to four pi!
Jars, Handing ten cubits from the end. The length of
TAB
the whole tabernacle was thirty-two cubits, that is, a-
bout fifty feet; and the breadth twelve cubits, or nine¬
teen feet. The court was a fpot of ground one hundred
cubits long, and fifty in breadth, inclofed by twenty co¬
lumns, each twenty cubits high and ten in breadth, co¬
vered with filver, and Handing on copper bafes, five cu¬
bits diftant from one another ; between which, there were
curtains drawn, and faftened with hooks. At the eaft
end was an entrance, twenty cubits wide, covered with
a curtain hanging loofe.
Feaji of Tabernacles, a folenan feftival of the Hebrews,
obferved after harveft, on the fifteenth day of the month
Tifri, inftituted to commemorate the goodnefs of God,
who protedfed the Ifraelites in the wildernefs, and made
them dwell in booths, when they canae out of Egypt.
On the firft day of the feaft, they began to eredt booths
of the boughs of trees, and in thefe they were obliged
to continue feven days. The booths were placed in the
open air, and were not to be covered with cloths, nor
made too clofe by the thicknefs of the boughs ; but fo
loofe that the fun and the liars might be feen, and the
rain defeend through them
TABERNiEMON FANA, in botany, a genus of the pen-
tandria monogynia clafs. It his two horizontal follicles ;
and the feeds are pulpous. There arc three fpecies, all
natives of America.
TABES, or Consumption. See Medicine, p. 103.
TABLATURE, in mufick, is, in general, when, to ex¬
prefs the founds or notes of a compofition, we ofe the
letters of the alphabet, or any other charadlers not uled
in the modern mufick.
Z.tf'uu 6f the twelve Tables, were the firft fet of laws of
the Romans, thus called, either by reafon the Romans
then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tablets covered
with wax; or rather, beeaufe they were engraven on
tables, or plates of copper, to be expofed in the moll
noted part of the public forum. After the expulfion of
the kings, as the Romans were then without any fixed or
certain lyllem of law, at leal! had none ample enough to
take in the various cafes that might fall between particu¬
lar perfons, it Was refolved to adopt the bell and wifeft
laws of the Greeks. One Hermodoi us was iirft appointed
to
TAD ( 883 ) T A L
to tranflate them, and the decemviri afterwards com¬
piled and reduced them into ten tables. After a world
of care and application, they were at length enafted and
confirmed by the fenate and an aflembly of the people,
in the year of Rome 303. The following year they
found fomething wanting therein, which they fupplied
from the laws of the former kings of Rome, and from
certain cuftoms which long ufe had authorifed : all thefe
being engraven on two other tables, made the laws of the
twelve tables, fo famous in the Roman jurifprudence, the
fource and foundation of the civil or Roman law.
Tables of the law, in Jewifh antiquity, two tables on
which were written the decalogue, or ten commandments,
given by God to Mofes on Mount Sinai. See Deca¬
logue.
Table, in mathematics, a fyflem of numbers calculated to
be ready at hand for the expediting allronomical, geome¬
trical, and other operations.
JJlronomical Tables, are computations of the motions,
places, and other phsenomena of the planets.
TABORITES, a branch or fe& of the ancient Huffites.
- They carried the point of reformation farther than Hufs
had done, rejefted purgatory, auricular confeffion, the
un&ion of baptifm, tranfubflantiation, <bc. They re¬
duced the feven facraments of the Romanifts to four, viz.
baptifm, the eucharift, marriage, and ordination.
TABRISTAN, a province of Perfia, fituated on the north¬
ern (hore of the Cafpian fea, having the province of Aftra-
bat on the ead, and'Gilan on the weft ; being part of
the ancient Hyrcania.
TACAMAHACA, in pharmacy, a folid refin, improperly
called a gum, in the Htops : it is of a fragrant and pecu¬
liar fmell, and is of two kinds ; the one called the ftiell-
tacamahaca, which is the fineft ; the other, which is an
inferior kind, being termed rough-tacamahaca, or taca-
mahaca in grains.
.Some greatly commend taeamahaca in diforders of the
breaft and lungs ; but, at prefent it is very rarely ufed
internally. Externally, however, it is in repute for foft-
ening tumours, and mitigating pain and aches.
TACK, in a fhip, a great rope having a wale-knot at one
end, which is feized or fattened into the clew of the fail ;
fo is reefed firft though the cheffe-trees, and then is
brought through a hole in the fhip’s fide. Its ufe is to
carry forward the clew of the fail, and to make it ftand
clofe by a wind : and whenever the fails are thus trim¬
med, the main-tack, the fore-tack, and mizen-tack, are
brought clofe by the board, and haled as much forward
on as they can be.
Tack, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xiii. 8, tec.
Tack-about, in the fea-language, is to turn the fhip a-
bout, or bring her head about, fo as to lie the contrary
way.
TACKLE, among fea-men, denotes all the ropes or cor¬
dage of a fhip, ufed in managing the fails, he.
TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of difpofiog
forces to the heft advantage in order of battle, and of
performing the feveral military motions and evolutions.
TADCASTER, a market-town of Yorkfhire, ten miles
ftniih weft of York
T\DORNA, in ornithology. See Anas.
TADPOLE, a young frog, before it has difengaged-itfelf
Vol. III. No 97. 3
from the membranes that envelope it in its firft ftage of
life. See Rana,
TiENIA, in zoology, a genus of infefts, belonging to the
order of vermes zoophyta; the body of which is of an
oblong form, and compofed of evident joints or articula¬
tions, in the manner of the links of a chain, with a mouth
and vifeera in each joint; fo that the joints, which are
exceedingly numerous, are in fome meafure fo many
diftinit animals, and can live independent of each other.
There are four fpecies ; the folium, or tape-worm, is
found in the bowels of men, and filhes, and frequently
extends to many yards in length. See Medicine, p.
160.
Taenia, in archite&ure, a member of the Doric capital, re-
fembling a fquare fillet, or reglet: it ferves inltead of a
cymatium.
TAFFETY, in commerce, a fine fmooth filken fluff, re¬
markably gloffy.
TAGETES, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia polyga-
mia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is naked ; the pap¬
pus has five ftraight awns ; the calix confifts of one tu-
bulous leaf with five teeth ; and there-are five perfiflent
flofcules in the radius. The fpecies are three, all natives
of America.
TAGUS, the largeft river of Spain ; which, taking its rife
on the confines of Arragon, runs fouth-weft through the
provinces of New Caftile and Eftremadura ; and palling
by the cities of Aranjuez, Toledo, and Alcantara, and
then croffing Portugal, forms the harbour of Lilbon, at
which city it is about three miles over ; and about eight
or ten miles below this, it falls into the Atlantic ocean.
TAJACU, in zoology, a fpecies of hog. See Sus.
TAIL, the train of a beaft, bird, or filli ; which, in land
animals, ferves to drive away fleer, he. and in birds and
filhes, to direft their courfe, and allilt them in afeending
or defeending in the air or water.
TAILZIE, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxvii. 8, he.
TAINE, a port-town of Rofs-lhire, in Scotland, fituated
on the fouth-fide of the frith of Sutherland, feven miles
north of Cromarty : W. long. 30 38', N. lat. 58°.
TALC, in natural hillory, a large clafs of foflil bodies,
compofed of broad, flat, and fmooth laminae or plates,
kid evenly and regularly on one another ; eafily fiflile,
according to the fite of thefe plates, but not all fo in any
other direction ; flexile, and elaftic ; bright, Ihining, and
tranfparent ; not giving fire with lied, nor fermenting
with acid menftrua, and fuftaining the force of a violent
fire without calcining.
TALENT, money of account among the ancients.
Among the Jews, a talent in weight was equal to 60
roaneh, or 113 It>. 10 oz. 1 dwt. 104 gr.
TALIO, lex talionis, a fpecies of punilhinent in the Mofaic
law, whereby an evil is returned fimilar to that commrt-
ed againft us by another ; hence that expreffion, eye for
eye, tooth for tooth.
TALISMANS, magical figures cut or engraved with, fu-
perftitious obfervations on the charaAerifms and configu¬
rations of the heavens, to which fome aftrologers have
attributed wonderful virtues, particularly hat of calling
down ceieftial influences. The talilmans of Samothrace,
fo famous of old, were pieces of iron, formed into certain
images, and fet in rings ; thefe were efteemed prtferva-
3 K lives
T A M
lives agaioft all kinds of evils. There were likewife ta-
lifmans taken from vegetables, and others from minerals.
TALLOW, in commerce, the fat of certain animals, melt¬
ed down and clarified, fo as to be fit for making candles,
. . &c.
Tallow-tree, a remarkable tree growing in great plenty
in China ; fo called, from its producing a fobftance like
tallow, which ferves for the fame purpofe : it is about
the height of a cherry-tree, its leaves in form of a heart,
of a deep Ihining red colour, and its bark very fmoath.
Its fruit is inclofed in a kind of pod, or cover, like a chef-
nut, and confills of three round white grains, of fhe fize
and form of a fmallnut, each having us peculiar capfula,
and within a little ftone. This iton? is encompaffed by
a white pulp which has all the properties of true tallow,
both as ta confidence, colour, and even fmeli ; and ac¬
cordingly the chinefe make their candles of it ; which
would doubtlefs be as good as thofe in Europe, if they
knew how to purify their vegetable, as well as we do our
animal, tallow.
TALLY, a piece of wood cut in two parts, whereon ac¬
counts were anciently kept, by means, of notches ; one
part of the tally being kept by the debtor, and the other
by the creditor.
TALMUD, among the Jews, a collection of the doctrines
of their religion and morality. It is the carpus juris, or
body of the laws and cuftoms of the jews, who dteem
it equal to the feriptures tbemfelves.
TALPA, in zoology,, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to
the order of ferae. There are fix fore-teeth in the upper-
jaw, and eight in the under-jaw; they have one large
dog-tooth, and four fmaller ones. There are two fpecies,
viz. the caudata, or common mole, with a ail, and five
to'es on the feet ; it is a native of Europe, feeds upon
worms, and, by raifing the earth, infefts gardens and
cultivated grounds. This animal has a penis much long¬
er, in proportion to the fize ef its body, than any other
creature. The fur is exceedingly fmooth and fine.
Though generally believed to be blind, it has a couple of
fmall eyes moftly hid with hair. 2. The afcatica has
no tail, and but three toes on its feet. It is a native of
Siberia.
TAMANDAU, in zoology. See Myrmecophaga.
TAMARINDUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria mo-
nogynia clafs. Thecalix confifts of fourfegments, and the
corolla pf three petals; the neftarium confids of two fhort
bridles under the filaments; and the pod is pulpy. There
is but one fpecies, a native of iEgypt, Arabia, <&c.
The pod is made up of a double rind, or membrane,
between which is a pulpy matter ; which taken in the
quantity of two or three drams, or an ounce or more,
proves gently laxative or purgative; and at the fame time,
T A N N
TAN
by its acidity, quenches third, and allays immoderate
heat.
TAMARIX, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigynia
clafs. The calix confids of five fegments, and the co¬
rolla of five petals : the capfule has one ceif, and three
valves; and the feeds are pappous. There are two fpe¬
cies, none of them natives of Britain.
The bark and leaves of the tamarix-tree are moderately
adringent.
TAMBAC, a mixture of gold and copper, which the peo¬
ple of Siam hold more beautiful, and fet a greater value
on, than gold itfelf.
TAMUS, in botany, a genus of the dioecia hexandria clafs.
The calix of both male and female confids of fix feg-
ments ; neither of them have any corolla ; the dylus is
trifid ; and the berry has three cells, containing two feeds.
There are two fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
TAMWORTH, a borough of Stafforddrire, fituated twenty
miles fouth-ead of Stafford. It fends two members to
parliament.
TAN, the bark of the oak, chopped and ground in a tan¬
ning-mill into a coarfe powder, to be ufed in the tanning
of leather. See Tanning.
TANACETUM, inbotanyj, a genus of the fyngenefia poiy-
gamia sequalis clafs. The receptacle is naked ;-and the
calix is hemifpherical and imbricated. There are eight
fpecies, only one of them, viz. the vulgare, or common
tanfy, a native of Britain.
Tanzy, confidersd as a medicine, is a moderately
warm bitter, and is much extfilled by feme in hyderic
complaints, efpecially if proceeding from a deficiency or
fuppreffion of the uterine purgations : its feeds and leaves
have been in confiderable edeem as anthelmintics ; and
are faid to be good in colics and flatulencies.
TANGENT of an arch is a right-line drawn perpendicu¬
larly from the end of a diameter, palling to one extremity
of the arch, and terminated by a right-line drawn from
the centre through the other end of the arch, and called
the fecant See Geometry.
TANGIER, a port-town of Africa, in the empire of Mo¬
rocco and kingdom of Fez, fituated at the' entrance of
the draits of Gibraltar, in W. long. 70, N. lat. 350 40-
It was the capital of the ancient Mauritania Tingitana,
and was once in the poffeflion of the Englifo.
TANGUT, a province of Ghinefian Tartary, fituated
north-wed of the great wall which divides Tartary from
China.
TANJOUR, a city of the hither India, capital of a pro¬
vince of the fame name, fituated E. long. 790, N, lat.
nQ 30'.
TANNER, one who dreffes hides, <be. by tanning them.
See the next article.
I N G.
( 884 )
TANNJNG is the art of preparing raw hides or fleins
for the hand of the currier; or for immediate ufe,
without any further operation.
The fird part of this definition includes all leather ufed
for the upper part of dices, eoathes,. coach-harnefs, fadlcr-
leather, (be. and the lad, the manufaftuiexff bin or backs,
<bc.
We fnall fird give a general account of. the procefs of
mane-
T A N
manufaifluring leather comprehended under the firft part of
the definition ; and then explain feparately the particular
operations comprehended under the general procefs.
When the hide or fkin is received raw from the hand of
the butcher, it is thrown into a water-dub or other piece of
water, to clcanfe it from the blood and gore ; after which,
the horns and tail are cut off: then it is put into the lime,
and wrought there according to the diredHons given below;
from thence it is wrought into the bait, and cleanfed there
from the lime, <bc. It is next transferred to the ooze; and
when properly filled, according to thediredlions on that head,
it is conveyed do the tann-pit, where it is tanned ; which
finilhes the procefs.
Before we proceed, it will be neceffary to give a fhort
view of the nature and ftrudture of leather, which will con¬
tribute to explain the reafon of the different operations it
pafl’es through.
All hides or Ikins, when received'from the hand of the
but her, are a bundle of conne&ed tubes, fomewhat re
fembling a honey-comb fixed on a bafis ; on the flelh-fide,
of an extreme clofe-texture ; but all open on the hairor gr^in
fide. Thefe tubes contain a fatty or mucilaginous kind of
matter ; which, if allowed to remain in a fluid ftate, would
corrupt the leather, arid, if dried in the hide, would not on¬
ly occafion a crifp or hardnefs in the leather, and be e^fily
foftened by moifture ; but would alfo, in the courfe of tan
ing, in a great meafure oppofe every fubftance that can be
applied to confolidate and preferve the hide from corruption.
To extraft this matter ; to fwell and expand the pores as
much as they can bear, without a difunion of parts, in or¬
der to increafe the thicknefs, and the more eafily to re-fill
or introduce a matter lefs fubjeft to changes from drought
and moilture'; to preferve the fibres that compofe the lea¬
ther from putrefafllon ; and to confolidate the whole into
one durable mafs ; are the ends propofed by the feveral o-
perattons of tanning.
cy L I M I N G .
The extraAion of the matter contained in the pores be¬
ing the firlt aim of the tanner, the firft ftep is to open and
expand the fibres, that the matter may be the more"eafily e-
jefted, in order to give room for the fubfequent reception of
the tan. This is done by common flacked lime infufed in
water, and is made up in a pit built with ftone, of a length
fufficient to contain a mid'ing hide, but feldom fo broad as to
allow it to lie at its full breadth. The hides are generally
treated in the lime in the following manner. They are
thrown into a lime-dub, of a weak or flack confiftence at
firft ; where they are drawn out and thrown in twice or
thrice every day, for a few days. They are then conveyed
to a lime of a ftronger quality, and drawn as before, though
perhaps not fo often ; once in a day, or once in two days
when they are further advanced, may fuffice. After they
have lain there for ten or fourteen days, the ftrength of the
lime may be increafed, or they may be carried to one of a
ftronger nature, where they are drawn and returned as be¬
fore till they be completely limed.
As the haftening and retarding the operation in particular
cafes may be neceffary ; and as it is material for the quality
of the leather, that the lime fhodd make an equal impref-
fion upon the hide ; or rather, if poffible, that the weaker
parts fhould be faved, and the ftronger more expofed ; the
following obfervation may be of ufe. In moft yards there
are from 20 to 40 hides or upwards wrought in a lime at a
time. When thefe hides are all thrown in, they muft ne-
ceffarily be made to lie fpread out upon one another, as
clofe as poflible, to take up little room. By this means thofe
that are near the bottom of the pit will be fqueezed fn
clofeiy together by the preffure of the fuperior hides, that
the water, the medium by which the lime is communicated
to them, will be almoft entirely excluded from <|<fting upon
the body of the hide, while the bellies and other outer
fkirts will be expofed to its full force. For this realon, it
is neceflary to change their pofition often, that the different
parts of the hides may have nearly the fame opportunity of
being impregnated with the lime: and in this view, fince
drawing in the limes is neceffary, it is alfo evident, that no
prejudice can accrue to the leather from the frequent repeti¬
tion of it, but may be greatly hurt if it is negle&ed. The
often drawing of leather muft not only bring on the opera¬
tion more equally, but muft at the fame time quicken the
effedt of the lime, as the expofure of the hide to the air
and lime by turns will give it an opportunity of adting with
greater force. Befides, the workman has it in his power,
every time the dub is drawn, either to add new ftrength
to it (if neceflary) by giving more lime, or to make it ex¬
ert the ftrength it already poffeffes by ftirring or ra'ifing the
lime from the bottom. Thus the workman has it greatly in
his power to accelerate or retard the operation as he hull
think proper. Small leather ought to be drawn oftener
than large, as it is not fo able to refift the ftrength of the
lime. During very hot weather the lime will operate more
quickly than in cold: therefore the workman ought to pay
a itridt attention to the ftate of his limes at that time, and
drayv oftener. The rays of the fun, if allowed to adt any
time on the leather when it is in the draught, will greatly
hurt it.
From the above hints, the workman will be enabled to
form fome judgment how to vary his work according to the
different circumftances that may occur. And here it would
feem requifite, that fome diredtions fhould be given for
knowing when the leather is fufficiently limed. But it is
impoffrble to convey ideas in an intelligible manner by words,
which can only be acquired by pradtice and frequent obfer-
vatron. tDnly we may obferv.e in general, as the hide be¬
comes limed, it leaves the original raw fiefliy appearance, has
more of the appearance of being boiled, and becomes more
plump and fpungy. But all thefe appearances are the more
vifible in proportion as the leather is over-done ; and there¬
fore it would be extremely dangerous for a perfon without
experience to truft to the above marks. However, though
the time taken to perform this operation may be much va¬
ried ; yet the ordinary time for a middling hide is from 4 to
6 weeks, and fo in proportion for larger and fmaller leather.
Of Baiting, and other work before Oozing.
The hide is nowftript of its hair, and all the flimy fatty
fluff feparated from the leather that is found adhering to the
flelh-fide; the firft of which operations is called hairing,
and the laft flelhing. After which, as it is the workman’s
aim to difcharge the matter contained in the pores of the
leather, as alfo the particles of lime that may have infinu-
ated themfelves during the liming ; and as the lime will be
found to have communicated a degree of elafticity to the
fibres, and a tenacious quality to the matter ; it is necef¬
fary to unbrace and relax the fibres, and bring- the matter
to:<
nm tan
to be ejefted into a greater date of fluidity before we attempt
to repel it. An infufion of hen or pigeon dung and water,
(which is called a bait,) has been found to be the moft ef¬
fectual thing for anfwering the above end. Into this infu¬
fion the hides are thrown proraifcuoufly, _where they are
drawn in the fame manner as directed in the article of li¬
ming ; and in proportion to the draughts given, the ftrength
of the leather, trim of the bait, ire. the workman will
find his point gained from 4 to 8 days: he will find the
leather reduced to a foft mellow confidence without £ny
corruption or decay of parts, the matter more fluid and lefs
tenacious, and eafily feparable from the hide upon work¬
ing it on the beam with the tanners knife: but as once
working cannot purify the hide, the workman mud fcak
it in water, and work it on the beam, alternately^ fuch a
number of times as his judgment fhall direCt, in order to
purge it thoroughly; and as it was obferved before, that
ail the pores of the leather were open on the grain-fide,
mod of -the workfliould be applied on that fide. As a pu¬
trefaction or corruption of the parts, or an extention of the
fibres beyond their proper tone, can never be remedied
when once begun, the over-doing or undue management ei¬
ther in baiting or liming, mud be equally fatal. To obtain
the ends propofed by thefe two operations, and at the fame
time to guard againd their bad effeCts, require more expe¬
rience and knowledge in the nature of leather than any 0-
ther operation it has afterwards to go through.
Of Oozing.
The hide, when ready for the ooze, ought to be nothing
but a bundle of empty tubes void of all fluid matter ; that
is, compofed of nothing but what is called the folids of the
hide, without any decay or corruption.
It is now the tanner’s bafinefs to fill thefe tubes or pores
with a more durable matter, in order to fupport the fabrick
of the leather ; which is the end of oozing. A number of
different fubdances have been tried for this purpofe ; but
none are equal to oak-bark. This bark, after it is thoroughly
dried, is pounded, or rather bruifed with a mill or other
inilrument; the powder is fifted out for the purpofe of ma¬
king up oozes, which is only am infufion of this powder in
common water; an old or exhauded ooze (if not begun to
corrupt) may be renewed by adding more bark, according
to the drength of the ooze required. This liquor is depo-
iited in a number of handlers or duders, (as they are called,)
as occafion requires, and the hides are thrown promifeuoufly
into it, where they mud be drawn and returned much in
the fame manner as directed in the article of liming, and
carried from a weaker to a dronger ooze as the leather (hall
require, till they arc found to be fufficiently filled. It will
be found, that the finer particles of the bark will infinoate
themfelves into the pores of the leather, and lodge there ;
and at fame time the adringent quality will drengthen and
brace the fibres, and bring them again to their proper tond,
after their relaxed date in the bait, which will make the
leather appear ts fwell, and feel plump and foft. Here a-
gain no rule can direCi an unexperienced perfon to know
when a hide is properly oozed ; and indeed fome kinds of
leather require a greater and fome a leffer degree of it, ac¬
cording to the purpofe for which it is intended ; but in ge
neral, there is lefs danger in oozing plentifully than in being
[paring of it, as if always adds to the weight and beauty of
the leather. A middling hide may be oozed in three weeks,
N I N G.
and fooner or later In proportion to the dreegth of the oozes
the number of draughts, and heat of the weather.
Of Lopping, ornuhat is more properly called Tanning.
This part of the operation is defigned to preferve the
fibres from corruption, and at the fame time to confolidate
the whole into one compaCt body ; or, in fome fenfe, it
may be called Hgnifying the hide, (if the term may be al¬
lowed.) This mud evidently be the work of time, as the
nature of the fibres mud be in a great meafure changed,
and the new-imbibed matter incorporated and confolidated
with them. In order to perform this, the hides are fpread
out at their full breadth and length in a vat, and a dratum
of beat bark thrown betwixt each bf them. This vat hplds
at fird as much liquor as will jud cover the hides ; and in
this fituation they are allowed to lie till the drength of the
bark is thought to be exhauded, which is commonly from
four to fix weeks; and the operation is repeated till the
hides are fufficiently tanned, and which is generally from
two to four times, according to the drength of the leather.
The bark fhould be rounder beat, and more given to the
lop, for large hides than fmall ones ; and confequemly larger
leather diould lie longer in the lop.
Of Currying.
The leather, when only tanned, is not fufficlently foft
and pliable to anfwer a number of purpofes. The currier’s
province is to reduce the leather to the proper thicknefs,
pliablenefs, and colour, requifite for the different ufes to
which it is applied : and though there is a material diffe¬
rence in the method of manufa&uring the feveral kinds, and
a good deal of dexterity required ; yet what could be here
faid of them would be of little ufe to thofe who are unac¬
quainted with the bufinefs. We.fhall therefore reduce all
we are to fay on this fubjeft to a general detail of the J>ro-
cefs.
The leather, after it has driped fome time from the tan-
pit, is fhaven on an upright beam with a knife whofe edge
is turned on the one fide, and with which the currier can
take down the leather in the fame manner as a wright can
take a fhaving from a piece of wood with his plane. Af¬
ter the currier has thus levelled the hide or fkin to his pur¬
pofe, (which is always done on the flelh-fide,) he fpreads
it out on a (lone or table made for the purpofe, and there
fcours it on the grain-fide from all the ioofe tan, and other
fluff that may hurt the beauty of the grain. He then puts
on a certain quantity of oil on both grain and flelh fide, for
the purpofe of foftening the fibres, and at the fame time
making them tough, and hangs it up to dry. When it is
fufficiently dry, there is a thin (having again taken off the
flelh.fide, in order to clean or brighten it up; and then it
is rubbed backward and forward upon a table by the currier
with a nicked or furrowed board, keeping the leather al¬
ways doubled at the place where he rubs, till it be made foft
and pliable to his intention. This laft part of the opera¬
tion is properly called Currying, and it is from this that
the bufinefs gets its came. As to'the colour, the leather
is fair or dark in proportion to the quantity of oil laid on,
if the tanning has been properly performed, and the.currier
do not negleA fome material part of his duty. Curriers
feidom dye any colour but black, which is done with cop¬
peras and a very little iogwood.
TANTALUS’s
TAR ( 887
TANTALUS’s cop. See Hydrostatics, p. 808.
TANZY, in botany. See Tanacetum.
TAPE-worm. See^TiENiA.
TAPESTRY, a curious kind of manufadhire, ferving to
adorn a chamber or other apartment, by covering or li¬
ning the walls thereof. It is a kind of woven hangings of
wool and filk, frequently raifed and enriched with gold
and filver, reprefenting figures of men, animals, land-
Ikips, hiftories, <bc.
TAPPING, in general, the aft of piercing an hole in a vef-
fel, and applying a tube or canula in the aperture, for the
commodious drawing ofif the liquors contained therein.
Tapping, in forgery. SeeSuRGERY, p.655.
TAR, a thick, black, unftuous fubllance, obtained from
old'pines and fir-trees, by burning them with a clofe fmo-
thering heat: much ufed in coating and caulking Ibips, <bc.
See rhe article Pitch.
Water impregnated with the more foluble parts of tar,
proves, in confequence of this hot pungent oil, warm
and (rimulating: it fenfibly raifes the pulfe, and quickens
the circulation. By thefe qualities, in < old, languid,
phlegmatic habits, it ftrengthens the folids, attenuates
vifcid juices, opens obftruftions of the minuter veffels,
and promotes perfpiration and the fluid fecretions in ge¬
neral ; whilft in hot bilious temperaments, it difpofes to
inflammation, and aggravates the complaints which it has
been employed to remove.
TARACON, a city of Spain, in the province of Arragon,
fituated'on the confines of Old Caftile : W. long. 20 6',
and N. lat. 410 jy7.
TARAGON, a city and port-town of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Catalonia, fituated on the Mediterranean fea :
in E. long. i° 15', and N. lat. 41° 67.
TARANTO, a port-town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, fituated on the gulph of Otranto, forty-five miles
weft of that city, being the fee of an archbilhop.
TARANTULA, in zoology. See Aranea.
TARE, is an allowance for the outfide package, that con¬
tains fuch goods as cannot be unpacked without detriment;
or for the papers, threads, bands, that inclofe or-
bind any goods imported loofe ; or, though imported in
calks, thefts, <bc.yzt cannot be unpacked and weighed nett.
TARENTAIS duchy, the fouth divifion of Savoy, ha¬
ving Piedmont on the fouth-e-aft, and Savoy Proper on
the notth-weft: lubjeft to the king of Sardinia.
TARGET, a kind of Ihield or weapon of defence made ufe
of by the an dents.
TARGUM, a name whereby the Jews call the Chaldee
paraphrafes, or expofitions of the Old Teftament in the
Chaldee language. See Bible.
TARIF, a table ot catalogue, containing the names of dif¬
ferent forts of merchandize, with the duties to be paid,
as fettled by authority, amongtl trading nations.
TARPEIAN, in Roman antiquity, an appellation given to
a fteep rock in Rome-, whence, by the law of the twelve
tables, thofe guilty of certain crimes were precipitated.
TARSUS in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 185.
Tarsus, now Teraflb, once the capital of Cilicia, in theLef-
Ter Alia, now a province of Afiatic Turky, is fituated on the
north fide of the Levant fea: E. long. 35°, N. lat. 37°.
TARTAR See Chemistry, p. 98, 165.
TARTARY a vait country in the northern parts of Alia,
bounded by Siberia on the north and vyeft:: this is called
Vol. III. N°. 97. 3
) T A S
Great-Tartary. The Tartars who lie fouth of Mofcovy
and Siberia, are thofe_ of Aftracan, Cireaflia, and Dagi-
ftan, fituated north-weft: of the Calpian fea ; the Calmuc
Tartars, who lie between Siberia and the Cafpian-iea;
the Ufbec Tartars and Moguls who lie north of Perfia
and India; and, laftly, thole of Tibet, who lie north-
weft of China.
TASSEL, a fort of pendant ornament at the corners of a
cufhion, or the like.
In building, taflels denote thofe pieces of board that
lie under the epds of the mantlet.rees.
TASTE, in phyliftogy, a peculiar fenfation excited by
means of the organs of tafte, viz. the papilke on-the tongue.
See Anatomy, p 304.
IntellettualTaste The external fenfe, withwhich nature
has furnilhed us, and by which wediltingu lh and relilh the
various kinds of nourilhment that are adapted to health and
plealure, has in all languages given occafion to the metapho¬
rical word tafte. by which we exprefs our perception of
beauty, deformity, ordefeft, <n the feveral arts. Tafie
then, in general, is a quick difcernment, a ludden per¬
ception, which, hke the feniation of the palate, antici¬
pates refleftion ; like the palate, it relilhes what is good
with an exquilre and voluptuous fenfibility, and rejefts
the contrary with loathing and difguft ; like the palate
alfo, it is often donbtful, and, as it were, bewilder,ed,
not knowing whether it (hould relilh or rejeft certain ob-
jefts, and frequently requires the influence of habit to
give it a fixed and uniform determination.
To have a tafte, fuppofes fomethtng more than merely
to perceive and to difcern with accuracy the beauty of
any work or objeft. This beauty mult be felt, as well
as perceived\ the mind muft be touched and affefted by
it in a lively and fenfible manner. This feeling however,
in order to conftitute true tafle mull not be a vague and
confufed fenfation ; but mhft be attended with a diftinft
view, a quick and comprehenfive difcernment of the va¬
rious qualities, in their (everal relations and conneftions,
which enter into the compofition of the objeft we con¬
template. And in this we fee another ftriking refemblance
between the intellectual tafte and the fenfual one : for as
a nice palate perceives immediately the m xture o! differ¬
ent wines, fo the man of tafte will quickly difcern the
motley mixture of different ftyles in the lame production;
ani, let the beauties and defefts be ever fo clofely blend¬
ed in an objtft, will always be capable of diftinguilhing
the former from the latter.
As the corruption of the fenfual tafle dilcovers itfeff
by a relilh for only thofe delicate and high-feafoned.difttes,
in which'all the refinements of art have been employed
to extite a forced fenfation of pleafure ; fo the depravity
of the intellett'ual iafle manifeiis itfelf by an attachment
to far-fetched and ftudied ornaments, and by a want of
relilh for thofe beauties which areunaffefted and natural.
The corruption of the fenfua! tafte, which makes us de¬
light in fuch aliments as -are difgufting to thofe whole
organs are in a good Rate, is in reality a kind of difeafe;
nor is that depravity of the intelleftuai tafte which makes
many prefer the burlefque tofthe fublime, and the labour¬
ed ftiffnefs of art jo the beautiful fimplicity of nature,
lefs a difeafe in-our mentalframe.
The intellectual tafie is much more formed by educa¬
tion and culture, than t/.e fenfual one; for though the
8 L letter
T A S f 888 T A
latter may be brought, by habit, to relifh what at firft
excited loathing and difguft ; yet it does not feem to have
been the intention of nature, that the generality of man-
kin i Ihoald acquire by cnllom and experience thofe
fenfations and perceptions which are neceflary to their
prefervation. It is othcrwife with the intellectual tajle :
its formation requires time, inflru&ion, and experience. A
young man unin'tru&ed in the arts of mufick and painting,
let his natural fenfibility be ever fo quick and lively, will
not immediately diftinguifh, in a grand concert of mufick,
the various parts whole connedtion and relation conftitute
the effence and charm of the compofition ; nor will he per¬
ceive in a pifture the gradations of light and (hade, that
harmony of colours, that corredtnefs of defign, which charac-
terife a finifiicd piece ; but in procefs of time, and alfo by
degrees," he learns both to hear and to fee in a more perfect
manner. The fame uninftrudted perfon will find a variety
of emotions arilie in his mind the firfl time he is prefent at
the reprefentation of a fine tragedy : but he will neither
perceive the dexterity of the author in maintaining the uni¬
ties; nor that exquilite art by "which the drama is fo ma¬
naged, that no perfon enters upon the fcene nor quits it
without an evident reafon; nor yet that Hill more nice and
difficult art of making the various fubordinate interefts ter¬
minate and centre in one, which abforbs them all. It is
only by the force of habit and refleflion, that he will dif-
tinguifii tbefe feveral objedts of tajle, and feel delightful
fenfations from circuHiftancei of which formerly he had little-
or no idea.
Elegant and able artifis may communicate their feelings
and their difcernment to others, and thus excite tajle in a
nation, which, without thenr, had never known its re¬
fined pleafures. By frequently contemplating the works of
great and eminent mailers in the various arts, the powers
of nature arife into talle; and we imbibe, as it were, the
fpirit of thefe ilLuflrious men, to as to come at lengths to
look at a gallery of paintings with the eyes of a Le Brun,
a Pouffin, or a Le Sueur; nay, we even read works of learn¬
ing and genius with a portion of that fpirit that appears in
their compofition.
If, in the firft periods of the culture of the arts and fcien-
ces, it hasfometimes happened, that a whole nation have been
unanimous in the praife of authors full of defedts,, and whom
fucceeding ages have beheld with indifference, and even with
contempt; the reafon is, that thefe authors had natural
beauties which were perceived by all, while That juft dif-
csrnment that was neceffary to diftingutfh their numerous
defers, and which is lefs"the gift of nature, than the re-
fult of f;me, habit, and reftedfiort, was as yet acquired by
none. Thus Lucilius, who had been in the higheft repu¬
tation among the Romans, funk into oblivion when Horace
arofe ; and Regoier was univerfally admired by the French,
until Boiieau appeared ; and if there are feveral ancient au¬
thors, who have maintained their credit, notwithllanding
the abfurditiss that are to be found in every page of their
writings, it mull he the authors of thofe nations, among
whom no judicious and coned! writer has apptaredftp open
their eyes., like Horace amo.^j the Romans, and Boileau a-
mong the French.
It is a common faying, that there is no-difpating about
taiies : and if by the tefie here be underftopd the palate,
which loaths certain aliments Rd reiilaes others, the maxim
is juft j becaufe it is needlefs to d'fpute about what cannot
be corredled, or to attempt reforming the conftitution and
mech^nifm of organs merely corporeal. But the maxim is-
falfe and pernicious, when applied to '.hm intell-dual tajle
which has for its objedts the arts and fciences. As thefe
objedli hare real charms, fo there is in rpality a good tafte
which perceives.them, and a bad one which perceives them
not,; and there are certain methods by which we may of¬
ten corredt thole mental defedts which produce a depraved
tajle. But it muft be granted, at the fame time, that there
are certain phlegmatick fpirits, which nothing can 'enflume ;
and alfo. certain diftorted inieiledts, which it is impolfible to
redtify : with (uch therefore, it is in vain to dilpute about
taftes, becaufe they have none at all.
In many things tafte feems to be of an arbitrary nature, and
without any fixed or uniform dirediion, fuch as in the choice
of drefs and equipage, and in every thing that does not come
within the circle of the finer arts. In this low fphere it
Ihould be diftinguilhed by the name of fancy ; for it is fan*~
cy, rather than tajle, that prodases fuch an endlefs variety
of new and contradidlory modes.
The tails of a nation may degenerate and become extreme¬
ly depraved ; and it almoft always happens, that the period
of its perfedlion is the forerunner of its decline. Artifts,
through the apprehenfion of being regarded as mere imita¬
tors, (hike out into new and uncommon paths, and turn'
afide from the beautiful fimplrcity of nature, which their
predeceffors invariably kept in view. In thefe efforts there
is a certain degree of merit, which arifes from induftry and:
emulation, and calls a veil over the defeifts which accompa¬
ny their productions. The-public, fond of novelty, applauds
their invention ; bat this applaufe is foon fucceeded by fa-
tiety and difguft. A new fet of artiils Hart up, invent new
methods to pleafe a capricious tafte, and depart (till further
from nature than thofe who firll ventured from its paths in¬
to the wilds of fancy. Thus the tafte of a people degene¬
rates into the groffeft corruption. Overwhelmed with new
inventions, which lucceed and efface each other with incre¬
dible rapidity, they fcarcely know where they are, and caff
back their eager and anxious defires towards the period
when true tajle re'gned under the empire of nature. But.
they implore its return in vein; that happy period cannot
be recalled; it depofits, however, in the cullody of certain
choice fpirits, the fublime pleafures of true tajle, which they
cherifh and enjoy in their little circle, remote from the pro¬
fane eye of rhe depraved and capricious multitude.
There are vaft countries, whet;e tajle has not yet been-
able to penetrate. ' Such are thofe uncultivated waftes,
where civil fociety has never been brought to any degree of
perfection, where there is little intercturfe between the
fexes, and where all reprefentatioas of living creatures in
painting and fculpture are feverely prohibited'by the laws of.
religion. Nothing renders the mind fo narrow, and fo lit¬
tle, if we may ufe that expreifion, as the want of focial iu-
tercourfe ; this confines its faculties, blunts the edge of ge¬
nius, damps every noble paifion, and leaves in a ftate of
iangour and inactivity <rery principle that could contHhute
to the formation of true tajle. Befides, where feveral of
the finer arts are wanting, the reft muft neceffartly ianguifli
and decay, fince they are infeparably connected together,
and mutually fupport each other. Tins is one tealon, why
the Afiatics have never excelled in any of the arts ; and
hence alfo it is that true tajle has been confined to cerfai v
countries in Europe.
TATA,
TAW ( 889 ) T A W
TATA, or Sin da, the capital of a province of the fame
name in the Hither India, in Afia, fituated at the mouth
of the Indus: E. long. 68°, N. 250 40'.
TAT-TOO, a beat of a drum at night, to advertife the
foldiers to retreat or repair to their quarters in their gar-
rifon, or to their tents in a camp.
TAU, or Taw, in heraldry, an ordinary in figure of a T,
fuppofed to reprefent St. Andrew’s crofs, or a crofs po-
tence, the top part cut off. SeeCaoss.
TAVASTUS, the capital of the province of Tavaftia, in
the territory of Finland in Sweden, fituated eighty-four
miles north-ead of Abo: E. long. 240, N. lat. 6i° id.
TAUGHT, or Tav’t, in the fea-language, fignifies the
fame as ftiff, or faft: thns, to fet taught the Ihrouds or
It ays, is to make them more tight and ftiff.
TAVISTOCK, a borough of Devonlhire, thirty.two miles
weft of Exeter.
It fends two members to parliament, and gives the
title of marquis to the noble family of Rufiels dukes of
Bedford.
TAUNTON, a borough of Somerfetfhire, twenty miles
miles fouth-weft of Wells. It fends two members to
parliament.
TAURlS, or Tabris, a city of Perfia, four hundred
miles north of Ifpahan: E. long. 46° 3c/, N. lat. 38°
20'.
TAURUS, the bull, in zoology. See Bos.
Tauuus, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 847>
TAUTOLOGY, a needlefs repetition of the fame thing in
different words.
TAWING, the art of dreffing (kins in white, fo as to be
fit for divers manufa&ures, particularly gloves, <be.
All ficins may be tawed : but thofe chiefly ufed for this
purpofe are lamb, (heep, kid, and goat fleins.
The method of tawing is this: Having cleared the
ficins of wool or hair, by means of lime, they are laid in
a large vat of wood or ftone, fet on the ground full of
water, in which' quick-lime has been flaked ; wherein
they are allowed to lie a month or fix weeks, according
as the weather is mote or lei's hot, or as the ficins are
required to be more or lefs foft and pliant.
While,they are in the vat, the water and lime is changed
twice, and the ficins are'taken out and put in again every
day ; and when they are taken cut for the laft time, they
are laid all night to foak in a running water, to get out
the greateft part cf the lime ; and in the morning are laid
together by fixes one.upon another, upon the wooden h g
(arc! are feraped flour!y one after another, to get the flefh
off from the ftefhy fide, with a cutting two-handled in-
ftrument called a knrfe ; and then they cut off the legs,
(if they are not cut offbefore ) and other fuperfluous parts
about the extremes. Then they are laid in a vat or pit
with a little tvater, where they are fulled with wooden
peflles, for the fpace of a quarter of an hour; and then
the vat is filled up with water, and they are rinfed in it.
In the next place, they are thrown on a clean, pave¬
ment to drain, and afterwards call into a frelh pit of wa¬
ter, out of which they rinfe .them well, and are laid a-
gain on the wooden leg, fix at a time, with the hair-fide
oatermofl ; over which they rub a kind of whetftone very
- briflcly, to foften and fit them to receive four or five more
preparations, given them on the leg, both on the flefh-
fide artd the hair-fide, with the knife, after the manner
above mentioned.
After this they are put into a pit of water and wheaten-
bran, and flirred about in it with wooden poles, till the
bran is perceived to flick to them, and then they are.left:
as they rife of themfelves to the top of the water by a
kind of fermentation, they are plunged down again to the
bottom ; and at the fame time fire is fet to the liquor^
which takes as eafily as if it were brandy, but goes out
the moment the ficins are all covered.
They repeat this operation as often as the ficins rife a-
bove the water ; and when they have done riling they
take them out, lay them on the wooden leg, the flefhv
fide outwards, and pafs the knife over them to ferape off
the bran.
Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the
ficins in a large bafket, and load them with huge Hones to
promote their draining : and when they have drained fuf-
ficieutly, they give them their feeding, which is performed
after the manner following:
For one hundred of large" fheep-fhins, and for fmailer
in proportion, they take eight pounds of alum, and three
of fea-falt, and melt the whole with water in a veflel 0-
vef the fire, pouring the diffolution out, while yet luke¬
warm, into a kind of trough, in which is twenty pounds
of the finefl wheat flower, with the yelks of eight dozen
eggs; of all which is formed a kind of parte, a little
thicker than children’s pap; which, when done, is put
into another veffel, to be ufed in the following manner.
They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough in
which the parte was prepared, mixing two fpoonfuls of
the parte with it; to do which t/.ey uSe a wooden fpoon,
which contains juft as much as is required for a dozen of
fltins; and when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of
the Heins are plunged into it; but they take care that the
water be not too hot, which would fpoil the parte and
burn the ficins.
After they have lain fome time in the trough, they
take them out, one after another, with the hand, and
flretch them out; this they do twice ; and after they have
given them all their parte, they put them into tubs, and
there full them afreili with wooden peflles.
Theft they put them into a vat, where they are fuffered
to lie for five or fix days,, or more; then they take them
out in fair weather, and hang them out to dry on cords
or racks : and the quicker they are dried the better; for
if they be too long a drying, the fait and alum within
them are apt to make them rife in a grain, which is an
effenml fault in this kind of dreffing.
When the ficins are dry, they are made up into bun¬
dles, and juft dipt in fair water, and taken out and drain¬
ed ; and being thrown into an empty tub, and after ha¬
ving lain fome time are taken out and trampled under foot.
Then they draw them over a flat iron-inflrument, the
top of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom
fixed into a wooden block, to ftretch and open them ; and
having been opened, they are hung in the air upon cords •
to dry; and being dry, they are opened a fecond time, .
by parting them again over the fame inftrument.
In the laft place they ate laid on a table, pulled out,
and laid fmooth, and are then fit for fale.
MX, a tribute rated iupon every town, which formerly
TEA ( 890 ) TEL
was wont to be paid annually into the King’s-exchequer,
but now not without confent of parliament; it differs from a
fubfidy in this, that it is always certain, as fet downin the ex¬
chequer-book, and in general levied of every town, and not
particularly of every man, <bc. The ancient way of levy¬
ing taxes was by tenths and fifteenths, afterwards by fub-
fidies and royal aids, and at length by a pound rate; the
former of thefe were all upon the perfon and perfonal e-
ftate, but the lad upon lands and rents.
TAXUS, in botany, a genus of the dioecia monodelphia
clafs. The calix of both male and female confifts of three
leaves ; neither of them hare any corolla ; the ftamina
are numerous ; the antherae are rotated, and divided into
eight fegmems ; the female has no llylus ; and the berry
contains one feed. There are two fpecies, only one of
them, viz. the baccata, or yew-tree, a native of Britain.
TAY, a river of Scotland, rifing from the loch or lake
of-Tay, in Braidalbin, and running eaft through Athol:
it afterwards turns fouth-eaft, and dividing the counties
- of Perth and Angus from Strathern and Fife, falls into
the f ith of Tay.
TAYVEN. a city of China, in Afia, in the province of
Xanfi, two hundred and forty miles fouth-weft of Pekin :
E. long. 1080, N. lat. 38° 30'.
TEA, orTnEA, in botany, agenusof the polyandria mo-
nogynia clafs of plants. The corolla confids of nine pe¬
tals, and the calix of five leaves; and the berry is tri-
coccous There are two fpecies, both natives of China.
This fhrub grows to five or fix feet high, and is very
ramofe : the leaves are about an inch long, near half an
inch broad, ferrated, and terminating in a point. The
traders in tea diftinguith a vaft many kinds of it, as they
differ in colour, flavour, and the fize ot the leaf. To
enumerate the feveral fubdiftimffions were endlefs ; the
general divifton is into three kinds, the ordinary green-
tea, the finer green, and thebohea; to one or other of
which all the other kinds may be referred. The com¬
mon green tea has fomewhat fmall and crumpled leaves,
much convoluted, and clofely folded together in the dry¬
ing. Its colour is a dulky green, its tafte fub-afiringent,
and its fmell agreeable. It gives the water a ftrong yel
lowilh green colour. The fine green has larger leaves,
lefs rumpled and convoluted in the drying, and more
lax in their folds; it is of a paler colourt approaching to
the blue-green, of an extremely pleafant fmell. and has a
me re aftringent, yet more agreeable tafte than the for¬
mer. -It gives a pale-green colour to water. To this
kind are to be referred all the higher priced green teas,
the hyfon, imperial, tic. The bohea cocfifts of much
fmaller leaves than either of the other, and thofe more
crumpled and clofely folded than in either. It is of a
darker colour than the other, often blackifli; and is of
the fmell and ufte of the others, but with a mixed fweet-
nefs and aftringency. The green teas have all fomewhat
of the violet flavour ;-the bohea has naturally fomewhat
of the rofe-fmell. The.leaves when gathered are dried
with great caution, partly by the help of heat, partly
by the air, and when thoroughly prepared will keep a
long time frefh and good Every parcel, when dried,
. though gathered prbmifcuoufly, is feparated, according
<to the largetiefs and fmallnefs of the leaves, into three
or four diff.-rent kinds, eich of which is of a different
-price, and has its different name. The bohea tea is ga¬
thered before the leaves are perfe&Iy opened, and is
made to undergo a greater degree of heat in the curing,
to which its colour and peculiar flavour is in a'greac mea-
fure owing.
Tea, moderately and properly taken, adts as a gentle
aftringent and corroborative.
TEAL, in ornithology. S?e Anas.
TEARS, a lymph or aqueous humour, which is lubtile,
limpid, and a little faltifli: it is leparated from the arte¬
rial blood by the lachrymal glands, and fmall glan-
dulous grains on the infide of the eye-lids. See Ana¬
tomy. p. 294
TEBETH. the tenth month of the Jewifti ecclefiaftical
year, and fourth of the civil. It anfwers to our month
of December.
TECKLENBURG, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, capital of a county of the fame name, thir¬
teen miles fouth-weft of Ofnabrug, (ubjedl to its own
count : E. long. 7® 20', N. lat. 520 21'.
TECHNICAL, expreffes fomewhat relating to arts or
fciences : in this fenfe, we fay technical terms.
TE deum, the name of a celebrated hymn, ufed in the
Chriftian church, and fo called becaufe it begins with
thefe words, Te Deum hudamus \ “ We praife thee, O
God.” It is fung in the Rom ih church, with great pomp
and folemnity, upon the gaming of a vidtory, or other
happy event.
TEES, a river which rifeson the confines of Cumberland;
and running eaftward divides the county of Durham
from Yorkftiire, and falls into the German fea below
Stockton.
TEFLIS, the capital of PerfiaaGeorgiain Afia. fituated on
the river Kur, or Cyrus, three hundred miles north of
Tauris, and as many fouth of Aftracan : E. long. 47®
so', N. lat. 43°.
TEGAPATAN, a port-town of the hither India, in Afia,
near Cape Comorin, eighty miles fouth of Cochin, and
a hundred and fixty north-weft of Columbo in Ceylon: E.
long. 76°, N. lat. 8°
TEGUMENT, any thing that furrounds or covers ano¬
ther.
TEHAMA, one of the divifions of Arabia Felix in Afia,
firuared on the Red-fea, between the provinces of Mecca
and Hadramut. '
TEINTS and Semi-teints, in painting, denotes the fe¬
veral colours ufed in a pidfure, confidered as more or lefs
high, bright, deep, thin, or weakened, and diminilhed,
' . (sc. to give the proper relievo, foftnefs, or diftauce, (sc.
of the'feveral objedfs
TEISSE, or Teys, a river of Hungary, which rifes in the
Carpathian mountains; and running from eaft to weft,
paffes from Tokay; then turning fourh, paffes by Zol-
nock and Segedin; and having joined the river Merifh,
falls into the Danube, oppofite to Salankamen.
TELAMON, a name given to thofe figures or half figures
of men fo commonly ufed, inftead of columns or pilalfers,
to fupport any member in architedture, as a balcony, or
the hke
TELEPHIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria tri-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves ; and the
corolla of five petals, inferred into the receptacle; and the
capfule has one cell and three valves. The fpecies are
. two, none of them natives of Britain.
TELE-
T E -N ( 8or ) TEN
TELESCOPE. See Optics, p.421.
TELESIN, a province of the kingdom of Algiers, in A-
fnca, fituated on the confines of the empire of Mo-
’ rocco.
TELLER, an officer of the exchequer, in ancient records
called tallier. There are four of thefe officers, whofe
duty is to receive all fums due to the king, and to give
the clerk of the pells a bill to charge him therewith.
They likewife pay all money due from the king, by war¬
rant from the auditor of the receipt; and make weekly
and yearly books, both of their receipts and payments,
which they deliver to the lord treafurer.
TELLICHERRY, a port-town on the Malabar coafl, in
the Hither India, thirty miles north of Callicut: E. Ion.
750 N. lat. 120.
TEMESWAER; the capital city of the Bannat of Temef-
waer, lately annexed to Hungary, fixty miles north-eaft
of Belgrade : E. long. 22°, N. lat. 450 55'.
TEMPERAMENT, among phyficians, denotes the fame
with conftitution ; or a certain habitude of the humours
of the human body, whereby it may be denominated hot,
. cold, moiftj'dry, bilious, fanguine, phlegmatic, mdaneho.
lie,
TEMPLARS, a religious order inftituted at Jerufalem,
abouth the year 1118. Some religious gentlemen put
themfelves under the government of the patriarch of Je¬
rufalem, renounced property, made the vow of celibacy
and obedience, and lived like canons regular. King
Baldwin affigned'tlietn an apartment in his palace. They
had likewife lands given them by the king, the patriarch,
and the nobility, for their maintenance. At firft there
were but nine of this order, and the two principal perfons
were Hugo de Paganis, and Geoffrey of St Omers. A-
bout nine years after their inftitution, a rule was drawn
up for them, and a white habit affigned them, by pope
Honorius II. About twenty years afterwards, in the
popedom of Eugenius III. they had red crofles fewed
upon their cloaks, as a mark of dirtindion ; andinaffioh
time they were increafed to about three hundred, in their
convent at Jerufalem. They took the name of Knights
Templars, becaufe their firft houfe flood near the tem¬
ple dedicated to our Saviour at Jerufalem. This order,
after having performed many great exploits againft the
infidels, became rich and powerful all over Europe; but
the knights,, abufing their wealth and credit, fell into
great diforders and irregularities. Many crimes and e-
normities being alledged againft them, they were profe-
coted in France, Italy, and Spain ; and at laft, the pope,
by his bull of the 22dof May 1312, given in the coun¬
cil of Vienna, pronounced the extindion of the order of
Templars, and united their eftates to the order of St John
of Jerufalem.
TEMPLE, a general name for places of public worfhip,
whether pagan, Chriftian. or otherwife. But the word,
in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed to denote'the places, or edi¬
fices, in which the pagans offered facrifice to their falfe
gods.
TEMPORAL, a term generally ufed for fecular, as a dif-
tindtion from ecclefiaftical. Thus we fay temporal lords,
and fpiritual or ecclefiaftical lords.
TEMPORUM ossa. See Anatomy, p. 155
TENAILLE, in fortification. See Fortification, p.
619
Vol. III. N* 97.
TENANT, one that holds lands or tenements of feme
lord, or,landlord, by rent, fealty, SeeTACK .
TENBURY, a market-town of Worcefteiffiire, fifteen
miles north-weft of Worcefter.
TENBY, a port-town of Pembrokeffiire, fitoated on Briftol
channel: W, long. 40 45', N. lat. fi°. 40'.
TENCH, in ichthyology. SeeCrPRiNUS.
TENDER, afmall (hip, in thelerviceof men of war, for car¬
rying ofmen, provifions,orany thing elfe that is neceffary.
TENDONS, are white, frrm, and tenacious parts, conti¬
nuous to tne mufcles, and ufually forming their extremi¬
ties. See Anatomy, Part II
TENEBRAA an office in the Romiffi church, performed
on Weclnefday, Thurday, and Friday, in Paffion-week,
at which time neither flowers nor images are allowed to be
fet upon the altars, but theymuft be covered with purple.
TENEBRIO, agenus of infedts belonging to the order of
coleoptera. The iaft joint of the antennae is roundilh ;
the breaft is fomewhat convex, and marginated; and the
elytra are hard. There are 33 fpecies, principally dif-
tingniffied by their colour.
TENEDOS, one of the fmalleft iftands of the Archipelago,
fituated near the coaft of leffer Afia, weft of the ruins
of Troy, E. Jong. 27°; N. lat. 390 30'.
TENEMENT, properly fignifies a houfe ; but in a larger
fenfe it is takes for any houfe, land, rent, or other thing,
which a perfon holds of another.
TENERIF, one of the largtft of the Canary iftands, fitu¬
ated in the Atlantic Ocean : W. long. 170, N. lat. 28.
being about 130 miles in circumference. It is a fruitful
ifland, abounding in corn, wine, and oil; though pretty
much incumbered with mountains, of which the moti
remarkable is that called the Pico of Tenerif, being One.
of the higheft mountains in the world, in the form of a
fugar-loaf, the white top whereof may be feen at fea up¬
wards of one hundred miles.
TENES, a province of the kingdom of Algiers, in Africa.
TENESMUS, in medicine, a name given, by medical wri¬
ters, to a complaint which is a continual defire of going
toftool, but without any (tool being ready to be voided-
This is ufually attended with feme tumour, fometimes
with a very confiderable one, in the part. This is pro¬
perly no primary difeafe, but merely a fymptomatic one,
and differs-in degree according to the difeafe on which
it is an attendant.
TENOR, or Tenou r, the purport or content of a writing
or inftrument in law, &c. .
Attion of proving the Tenor, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xxx. 22.
Tenor, in mufick, the firft mean, or middle part, or that
which is the ordinary pitch of the voice, when neither
raifed to a treble, nor lowered to a bafs.
TENSE, in grammar, an infledion of verbs, whereby they
are made to lignify,. or diftinguilh the circumftance of
time, in what they affirm. See Grammar.
TENT, in furgery, a roil of lint worked into the ftiape of
a nail, with a broad flat head,
TENTER, a machine ufed in the cloth.manufadlure, to
ftretch out the pieces of cloth, ftuff, fee. or only to
make them even, and fet them fquare.
It is usually about four feet :,nd a naif high, and for
length exceeds that of the longeft piece of cloth. It
confifts of feveral pieces of wood, .placed like thole which
8 M form
3
TER ( 89:
form the barriers of a manege; fo that the lower crofs
piece of wood may be raifed or lowered, as is found re-
qnifite, to be fixed at any height,, by means of pins.
Along the crofs-pieces, both the upper and under one are
hooked nails, called tenter-hooks, driyea in frera fpace
to fpace,
TENTHREDQ, a genus of infecls belonging to the order
of hymenoptera. The mouth is furnifbed with jaws,
but has noprobofcis ; the wings are plain and tumid; the
fling confi(is of two ferrated laniinse, and the fcutellum
of two grains placed at a diftance. There are 55 fpe.
cies, principally difiinguifhed by their colour, and the fi¬
gure of the antenna:.
TENURE, in law, fignifies the manner whereby lands or
tenements are held, or the fervice that the tenant owes
to his lord. It likewife denotesthe eftate in the land. In
England, tenures were anciently divided into the follow¬
ing efcuage; that is, land held by. the fervice of thefhield,
and thereby the tenant was, at his otvn expence, obliged
to follow his lord into the wars. Knight’s fervice and
chivalry; when lands were held of the king, or mefne-
lord, to perform fervice in war. Burgage tenure ; land
held oflhe lord of the burrow, at a certain tem. Vil-
lenage, otherwife termed bafe-tenure; whereby the te¬
nant was bound to do all inferior fervices, commanded-by
the lord.' Grand ferjeanty; lands held by honorary
fervices at the king?s coponation. Petit ferjeanty; lands
held of the king, to contribute yearly forae ftnall thing
towards his. wars. Frankalmoine; that tenure by which
lands were held by ecckfiaftics, in free and perpetual alms.
Socage tenure ; where lands are held by tenants,, to plow
their lord’s lands, and, perform every, office of hufban-
dry, at their own expence. But all. thefe ancient tenures
and fervices are in general taken away, and reduced
into cotnmon and free focage. The ufual tenures atpre-
fent are, fee firaple; which is an abfolute tenure oflands
to a man and his heirs for ever. Fee tail ; a limited
fee, to a perfon and theheirs of his body begotten. Cur*
tefy tenure ; where & man having married a woman fei-
fed in fee, &c. has iffiie born alive by her, in which
cafe, after her death, the hulband is tenant by the cur-
tefy of England. Tenure in dower; is where a widow
holds, for her life, a third part of her hufband’s land,
•whereof he was feifed in fee at any time during thecover-
ture. There is alfb a tenure for life, or years, when
lands are held for thofe terms on referved rents. Copy-
holy tenure, is a holding for lives, or in fee, at the will
of the lord, according to the cuflom of the manor. For
the feveral kinds of tenure or holding in Scotland, fee
Law, Tit. xi. .
TEPID, a term ufed by writers on miaeral waters,
to exprefs fuch of them as have a lefs fenfible cold than
common water.
TERCE, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xvi. 24.
TERCERA, one of the largeft of the Azores or weftern
iflands, fituated in the Atlantic ocean : W. long. 28°,
and N. lat. 390.
TEREBINTHUS, in botany. SeePisrAciA.
TERES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 195.
TERGOWISCO, the capital of Wallachia, in European
Turky, eighty miles fouth-eafl of Hermanftat inTranfil-
vama: E. long, 26° 30', N. lat, 450 35'.
) T E S
TERM, in general, fignifies much the fame with boundary
or limit.
Tsrm, inlaw, is generally taken, for a limitation of time or
eftate : as a leafe for term of life, or years.
Term, in grammar, denotes fome word or exp rein on of a
language.
Term />j the arts, or Term of art, is a word which, be-
fldes the literal and popular meaning which it has, or may
have, in common language, bears a further and peculiar
meaning in fome art or fcience.
TERMINALIA, in antiquity,, feafts celebrated by the
Romans, in honour of the god Terminus.
TERMINATION, in grammar, the ending of a word, or
, laft fyllable thereof.
TERNATE, the moft northerly of the Molucca or Clove-
ifiands, in the polfelfion of the Dutch.
TERRA. See Geography, and Astronomy.
Terra firma, in geography, is fometimes ufed for a con¬
tinent, in contradiftin&ion to iilands.
Terra del f.ogo, anifland ofSouth-Amenca, from which:
it is feparated by the ftreights of Magellan.
Terra; filius, son of the earth, &.Undent of the
univerfity of Oxford,- formerly appointed, in public adb,
to make jelling and fatyrical fpeeches againft the mem*
hers thereof, to tax them with any growing corruptions,--
<jc..
TERRACE, a walk-or bank of earth, raifed in-a garden
or court, to a due elevation, for a profpe&.
TERRAQUEOUS, in geography, an appellation given to
our globe, becaufe confifting of land and water.
TERRELLA, an appellation given to a loadftone, when
turned into a fpherical figure, and is placed fb, that its
poles and equator, <klc. correfpond to the poles and equa¬
tor of the world; as being a juft reprefentation of the
great magnetical globe which v/e inhabit.
TERRESTRIAL, fomething partaking of the nature of
earth, or belonging to the globe of the earth : thus we
fay, the tefreftrial globe, <bc.
TERRIER, a book, or roll, wherein the feveral lands, ei¬
ther of a private perfoaj or of a town, college, churchy
&c. are deferibed. It Ihould contain the number of acr- ^,
and the fite, boundaries, tenants names, of each pi -»
or parcel.
TeRrier is alfo ufed for a fraall hound. See Canis.
TERRITORY, in geography, denotes an extent or com*
pafs of land, within the bounds, or belonging to the-,
jurifdiiftion, of any Hate, city, or other fubdivifion of a
country.
TERROUEN, a town of Artois,in the French Netherlands,
fituated on the river Lis, fix miles fouth of St Omers.
TERTIAN, inmedicine. See Medicine, p. 61.
TERTIATE a great gun, in gunnery, is to examine the
thicknefs of the. metal at the muzzle, whereby to judge
of the ftrength of the piece, and whether it be fufficiently
fortified. This is ufualiy done with a pair of caiiber-
compaffes; and if the piece be homehOred, the diameter
lefs by the height, divided by 2, is the thicknefs at any
place.
TERVEL, a city of Arragon, in Spain, fituated on the-
river Guadalavira, feventy-five miles fouth of Sarragoffa:
W. long, i® 20, N. lat. 40° 35'.
TESSELATED pavements, thofe of rich Mofaic work,
ma da
T E 3 ( 893 ) X E T
made of curious fquare marbles, bricks, or tiles, called
teffelse, from their refembling dice.
TESSIN, a river of Italy, which, taking its rife in the
Alps, runs through the country of the Grifons and the
Jake Maggior; and then, turning fouth-eaft through the
Milanefe, pafles by Pavia, and falls into the Po, a little
below that city.
TEST, a veflel of the nature of the coppel, ufed for large
quantities of metals at once.
Test-liquor, a liquor ufed by dealers in brandies, to
prove whether they be genuine, or mixed with home-fpi-
rits. This liquor is nothing but a gceen or white vitriol,
diflblved in fair water; for a few drops of it being let
fall into a giafs of old French brandy, will turn the whole
to a purple, or fine violet colour-; and by the flrength or
palenefs of this colour, the dealers judge the brandy to be
genuine or mixed, in different proportions, with home-
fpirits.
Test-act, a flatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2. which requires
all officers, both civil and military, to take the oaths and
teft, viz. the facrament, according to the rites and ce¬
remonies of the church of England; for the negleft where¬
of, a perfon executing any office mentioned in that ftatute,
forfeits the fum of 500I. recoverable by aflion of debt.
TESTACEOUS, in natural hiflory, an epithet given to
animals covered with a ffiell, as tortoifes, cyders, pearl-
fiffi,
TESTAMENT. See Law, Tit. xxviii. 2.
TESTATOR, the perfon who makes his will and teftament.
TESTES, in anatomy. SccAnatomy, p.270.
TESTIMONY. See Evidence.
TESTUDO, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order
of amphibia reptilia. It has four legs and a tail, and
the body is covered with a flrong ffiell. There are 15
fpecies, principally diflinguiffied by peculiarities in their
feet. The midas, or common turtle, is found at the Af-
cenfion ifle, and many other fouthern iflands. The ffiell
of this animal is fo ftrong, that feveral men may Hand up¬
on it without injury.' It lays membranaceous eggs in
round holes which it digs in the fand. The turtle is laid
to continue feveral. weeks in the afts of .copulation. It
grows to a vail fize, fome having been found to weigh
480 pounds.
The Americans find fo good account in catching turtle,
that they have made themfelves very expert at it: they
watch them from their neds on ffiore, in moon-light
nights and, before they reach the fea, turn them on
their backs, and leave them till morning ; when they are
fure to find them, fince they are utterly unable to reco¬
ver their former podure : at other times they hunt them
in boatr, with a peculiar kind of fpear, ftriking them
with it through the ffiell; and as there is a cord fadened
to the fpear, they are taken much in the fame manner as
the whales.
Testudo, in antiquity, was particularly ufed among the
poets, &c. for the ancient lyre; by reafon it was origi¬
nally made by its inventor Mercury, of the black or hol¬
low ffiell of the teftado aquatica, or fea-tortoife, which
he accidentally found on the banks of the river Nile.
Testudo, in the military art of the ancients, was a kind
of cover or fereen which the foldiers, e.^r. a whole com¬
pany, made themfelves of their bucklers, by holding them
„ ss-p over their, heads, and Handing. clofe to each other.
This expedient ferved to ffielter them from darts, donesv
thrown upon them, efperiaJJy thofe thrown from a-
bove, when they went to the affault.
Testudo was alfo a kind of large wooden tower, which
moved on feveral wheels, and was covered with bullocks'
hides flead, ferving to flicker the foldiers when they ap¬
proached the wails to mine them, or to batter them with
rams.
It was called teftudo, from the (Irength of its roof,
which covered the workmen as the ffiell does the tortoife.
TETANUS, in medicine, a convulfive motion that makes
any part rigid or inflexible.
TETHYS, a genus of infedis belonging to the order of
vermes mollufca. The body is oblong, flefKy, and with¬
out feet ; the mouth confifls of a cylindrical ptobofeis
under the duplicature of a lip ; and there are two fora¬
mina at the left fide of the neck. The fpecies are two,
both inhabitants of the ocean.
TETICACO, a great lake of Peru, more than two hun¬
dred miles in circumference: the towns fituated on this
lake are efteemed the moft delightful in all South America.-
TETRACERA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria te-
tragynia clafs. The calix confifts of fix leaves ; and there
are four capfules. There is but one fpecies, a native of
America.
TETRACHORD, in the ancient mufick, a concord confid¬
ing of four degrees or intervals, and four terms or founds j
called alfo by the ancients diatefl’aron, and by us a fourth.
TETRADECARHOMBIS, in natural hillory, the name
of a genus of foffils, of the clafs of the felenitae, expref-
fing a rhomboidal body, confiding of fourteen planes.
The characters of this genus are, that the bodies of it
are exadtiy of the fame form with the common felenitae;
but that each of the end-planes is divided into two; and
there are, by this means, eight of thefe planes, indead of
four.
TETRADIAPASON, a mufical chord, otherwife called
a quadruple diapafon, or eighth.
TETRADYNAMIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 635.
TETRAEDRON, in geometry, one of the five regular or
platonic bodies or folids, comprehended under four equi¬
lateral and equal triangles.
TETRAGON, in geometry, a general name for any four-
fided figure, as a fquare, parallelogram, rhombus, or Ira--
pezium.
TETRAGONIA, in botany, a genus oftheiedfandria pen-
tagynia clafs. The calix chnfids of four fegments ; it
has no corolla; and the drupa has four fides, and four cells.
There are two fpecies, both natives of ^Ethiopia.
TETRAGONOTHECA, in botany, a genus of the fyn-
genefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is pa¬
leaceous ; it has no pappus ; and the calix confids of one
leaf,-divided into four plain fegments. There is but one
fpecies, a native of Virginia.
TETRAGRAMMATON, a denomination given by the
Greeks to~the Hebrew name of God, Jehovah, becaufe
confiding of four letters.
TETRANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 637.
TETRAQ, in ornithelogy, a genus of birds, of the order
of gallinae, didinguiffied by having the part of the fore¬
head near the eyes naked and papillofe. There are 20 •
fpecies, didinguiffied principally by their colour, their
haying! rough or naked feet, circ.
TETRA.
T E U ( 894 ) T H E
TETRAPETALOUS, in botany, an epithet given to
flowers that -confift oC four Angle petals or leaves.
TETRAPHARMACUM, fignifies any remedy confiding
of four ingredients.
TETRAPTERA, a name given to infefts which have four
wings.
TETRAPTOTE, in grammar, a name given to fuch de-
fefHve nouns as have only four cafes ; fuch arc vicit, pe-
cudis, fordis, &c. as being deprived of the nominative
and vocative Angular.
TETRAPYRAMIDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
genus of fpars, influenced in fneir fliape by an admixture
of particles of tin, and found in form of broad-bottomed
pyramids of four fides.
TETRARCH, a ,prince who holds and governs a fourth
part of a kingdom. Such originally Was the import of
the title-tetrarcli; but it was afterwards applied to any
petty king or fovereign.
TETRASTYLE.'in the ancient architedlure, a building,
and particularly a temple, with four columns in its front.
TETUAN, a town of the empire of Morocco, fituated a-
bout eight miles from the bay of that name, juft within
the flraits of Gibraltar: W. long. 6° 35', N. lat. 350 40'.
TEUC.RIUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gym-
nofpermia clafs. The upper lip of the corolla is bipartite.
There are 3 1 fpecies, four of them natives of Britain, viz.
the fcordium, or water germander, the leaves of which
are faid to be deobflxuent, diuretic, and fudorific ; the
chamedrys, or germander, the leaves, tops, and feeds of
which are faid to be fudorific, diuretic, ; the chamae-
pitys, or ground pine, the leaves of which are recommend¬
ed as aperient and vulnerary; and the fcorodonia, or
wood-fage.
TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the Teutons, anan-
c-ent people of Germany, inhabiting chiefly along the coafts
of the German ocean : thus, the Teutonic language is
the ancient language of Germany, which is rafiked among
the mother tongues. The Teutonic is now called the
German or Dutch*
Teutonic order, a military order of knights, eftablifh-
ed towards the clofe of the twelfth century, and thus cal¬
led as confiding ebiefly of Germans or-Teutons. The
origin, dsc. of the Teutonic order, is laid to be this. The
Chriflians, under Guy of Lufignan, laying fiege to Acre,
or Aeon, a city of Syria, on the borders of the Holy
Land, fome Germans of Bremen and Lubec, touched
with compaflron for the fick and wounded of'the army,
who wanted common neceflaries, fet on foot a kind of
hofpital under a tent, which" they made of a ftiip’s fail,
and here betook themfelves to a charitable attendance on
them.. This darted a thought of edablifhing a third mi¬
litary order, in imitation of the templars and hofpitalers.
The delign was approved of by the patriarch of Jerufa-
lem, the archbifhops and bilhops of the neighbouring
places, the king of Jerufalem, the maders of the temple
and holpital, and the German lords and prelates then in
the Holy Land, and pope Calixtus III. confirmed it by
his bull, and the ne Order was called the order of the
Teutonic knights of the houfe of St. Mary at Jerufalem.
The pope granted them all the privileges of the Templars
and Hofpitalers of St. John, excepting that they Were to
be fibjedt to the patriarchsamd other prelates, and that
they fhould pay tithe.of wh<tt they poflefled.
TEWKSBURY, a borough-town of Gloceflerlhire, fitua¬
ted on the river Severn, ten miles north of Gloceder,
It fends two members to parliament.
TEXEL, an ifland of Hollarfti'iituated at the entrance of
the Zuyder-fea, parted from the continent of Holland by a
narrow channel, through which modfliips bound to Am-
derdam pafs.
TEXT, a relative term, contradidinguiflied to glofs or
commentary, and figuifying an original difcoarle exclu-
five of any note or interpretation.
TEXTURE, properly denotes the arrangement and cohe-
fion of feveral fler.der bodies or threads interwoven or en¬
tangled among each other, as in the webs of fpiders, or
in cloths, duffs, &c.
THALAMI nervorum opticorum. See Anatomy-, p,
286.
THALIA, in botany, a genus of themonandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla confids of five waved petals ; and the
drupa has a double-celled nucleus. There is but one fpe¬
cies, a native of America.
THALICTRUM, in .botany, a genus of the polyandria
polygynia clafs. The corolla confids of five petals ; it has
no corolla ; and the feeds are naked. There are ^{pe¬
des, three of them natives of Britain, viz. the flavum, or
meadow-rue; the minus, or leffer meadow-rue ; and the
alpinum, or mountain meadow-rue.
THAMES, a great navigable river of England, compofed
chiefly of the river Ifis and Thame ; of which the Ills is
much the larged, and runs the longed courfe, rifing on
the confines of Glocsderfhire. At Lechlade it becomes
navigable, from whence continues its courfe north-ead
to oxford, where it receives the Charwell; from Oxford
it runs fouth-ead to Abington, and fo to Dorchefter,
where it receives the Thame, and continues its courfe
fouth-ead to Wtodfor, and thence runs ead to London,
and continues the fame courfe to the fea, receiving the
river Medway near the mouth of it. The Thame is but
a fmall fiver, which rifing near Tring in Hertfordfiiire,
croffes the county of Bucks, and falls into the Ifis at
Dorcheder.
THANE, or Thain, a name of an ancient dignity among
the Englifh and Scots, or Anglo-Saxons. Skene makes
thane to be a dignity equal to the fon of an earl. Cam¬
den will have it, that thanes' were only dignified by the
offices they bore. There were two kinds or orders of
thanes; the king’s thanes, and the ordinary thanes. The
fird were thole who attended the king in his courts, and
who held laijds immediately of the king. The ordinary
thanes, or the thani minores, were the lords of the ma¬
nors, who had particular juriidi&ion within their limits,
and over their own tenants; thefe changed their names tor
that of barons, and hence their courts are called courts-
fearon to this day.'
THANET, a little ifland of ead Kent, formed by the
branches of the Stour and the fea.
THAPSIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
ciafs. The fruit is oblong, and furrounded with a mem¬
brane. There are four fpecies, none of them natives of
Britain.
THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former fluid date,
by the warmth of the air, &c. See Freezing.
THE -\ in botany See Tea.
THEATINES, a religious order in the Romilh church,
called
THE ( 895
called from their principal founder John Peter Carafra,
then bifhop of Theate, or Chiete, in the kingdom of
.Naples, and afterwards pope, under the name of Paul
IV. The names of the other founders were Gaetan,
poniface, and Configlieri. Thefe four pious men, defi¬
ring to reform the ecclefiaftical ftate, laid the foundation
of an order of regular clerks at Rome, in the year 1524.
Pope Clement VII. approved theinilitute, and permitted
the brethren to make the three religious vows, to eledf a
fbperior every three years, and to draw up ftatutes for
the regulation of the order. They firlt endeavoured, by
their example, 'to revive among the clergy the poverty of
the apoftlcs and firft difciples of our Saviour, and were
the iirfl: who affumed the title of regular clerks.
THEATRE, a public edifice for the exhibiting of fcenic
fpeftacles, or (hews, to the people ; comprehending not
only the eminence on which the adlors appear, and the
aflion palfes, but alfo the whole area of the place common
to the adors and fpedators.
THEBAID, a celebrated heroic'poem of Statius, the fub-
jed whereof is the civil war of Thebes, between the two
brothers Eteocles and Polynices ; or, Thebes taken by
Thefeus. x
THEBESj the name of an ancient city in upper Egypt,
now in ruins ; as alfo an ancient city of Achaia, now a
province of European Tutky.
THEFT. See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 28.
THEISM. See Deism.
THELEGONUM, in botany, a genus of the monoecia
polyandria clafs. The calixboth of male and female con-
fills of two fegments ; neither of them have any corolla;
the (lamina are 12; and. the female has one flylus, and a
coriaceous cajjfule, with one cell and one feed. There
is but one fpecies, a native of Italy.
THEME, denotes the fubjed of an exercife, for young
(Indents to write or compofe on.
THENAR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 200.
THEOBROMA, the chocolate-nut-tree, in botany,
a genus of thepolyadelphia pentandria elafs. The corolla
confifts of five petals ; the nedarium is bell-(haped ; and
the fruit is a woody cortex, of an unequal furface, with
five ridges. There are two fpecies, both natives of A-
merica.
THEOCRACY, in matters of government, a (late govern¬
ed by the immediate diredion of God alone : fuch was
the ancient government of the Jews, before the time of
Saul.
THEODOLITE, a mathematical inftrument much ufed in
furveying. See Geometry, p.701.
THEOGONY, that branch of the heathen theology, which
taught the gen^Iogy of their gods.
THEOLOGY. See Religion.
THEOPHRASTA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monafgynia clafs. The corolla is bell-lhaped, with obtufe
fegments ; and the capfule has one round large cell, and
one feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of A-
merifl’.
THEOREM, a fpeculative propofition, demonftrating the
properties of any fubjed.
"THEORETIC, fomething relating to theory, or that ter¬
minates in fpeculation. See Theory.
THEORY, in general, denotes any dodrine which termi-
Vol, III. Np 98. 3
) T H I
nates in fpeculation alone, without confidering the prac¬
tical ufes and application thereof.
THERAPEUTiE, a term spplied to thofe who are wholly
employed in the fervice of religion. This general term
has been applied to particular feds of men, concerning
whom there have been great difputes among the learned.
THERAPEUTICS, that part of medicine which acquaints
us with the rules that are to be obferved, and the medi¬
cines to be employed in the cure of difeafes.
THERAPHIM, certain images, or fuperftitious figures,
mentioned in feripture. Some Jewifli writers tell us,
the theraphim were effigies of human heads, placed in
niches, and confulted as oracles. Others fay, they were
talifmans, or figures of metal, call: and engraved under
certain afpeds of the planets ; to which they aferibed ex¬
traordinary effeds.
THERIACA Andromachi, a compound medicine, made
in the form of an eleduary.
THERMfE, artificial hot baths, much ufed by the Ro¬
mans.
THERMOMETER, an inftrument for meafuring the in-
creafe and decreafe of the heat and cold of the air, by
means of the elaftic and expanfive power of bodies of the
fluid fort. See Pneumatics, p. 486.
THESEA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the Atheni¬
ans, in honour of Thefeus, confiding of fports and games,
with mirth and banquets : fuch as were poor, and unable
to contribute to them, were entertained at the public ex¬
pence.
THESIS, a general pofition which a perfon advances, and
offers to maintain. In colleges it is frequent to have pla¬
cards, containing a nuraber of them, in theology, in me¬
dicine, in philofophy, in law, &ir,
THESIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of one leaf, into which
the ftamina are inferted ; there is but one feed. The
fpecies are feven, only one of them, viz. the iinophyllon,
or baftard toad-flax, a native of Britain.
THESSALY, how called Janna, a province of European
Turkey, bounded by Macedonia, on the north ; by the
Archipelago, on the eaft ; by Achaia, or Livadia, on
the fouth ; and by Epirus, on the weft.
THETFORD, the county-town of Norfolk, fituated
twenty-five miles fomh-weft of Norwich. It fends two
members to parliament.
THEURGY, a name given to that part of magic called
white magic, or the white art. Thofe who have written
of magic have divided it into three kinds : the firft is
theurgy, as operating by divine means : the fecond, na¬
tural magic, performed by the powers of nature : and
the third, necromancy, which they imagined proceeded
from invoking daemons,
THIBET, one of the moft powerful of the Tartar king¬
dom?, having China on the eaft, and India on the well.
THIGH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 182, 203.
THIMBLE, an inftrument made of brafs, diver, iron, &c.
put on the finger to thruft a needle through any cloth,
fiik, <bc. ufed by all feam.ftreffes, taylors,
THINKING, a general name for any a<5t or operation of
the mind. See Logick, and Metaphysics.
THIRLAGE. See Law, Tit. xvi. 12.
THIRSK, a borough-town in the north-riding of York-
8 N (hire,
T H O ( 806 ) T H O
(hire, fituated on the river Swale, fixteen miles north-
weft of York. It lends two members to parliament.
THIRST, an uneafy fenfation, arifing from a defidency in
the faliva to moiften the inward parts of the mouth ;
hence arifes a ftrong defire for drink : it is a fymptom ge¬
nerally attending feverifh diforders.
THISTLE, in botany. See Carduus.
Ordtr of the Thistle, or of St Andrew, a military or¬
der of knighthood in Scotland, the rife and inftitution
whereof is varioufly related by different authors. Lefley,
bifhop of Rofs, reports, that the night before the battle
between Athelftan king of Northumberland, and Hungus
king of the Pi&s, a bright crofs, in form of that where¬
on St Andrew (the tutelar faint of Scotland) fuffered
martyrdom, appeared to Hungus ; who having gained the
viftory, ever after bore the figure of that crofs on his
banners. Others aflert, that Achaius king of Scotland
iirft inftituted this order, after having made the famous
league offenfive and defenfive with Charlemagne king of
France. But although the thiftle had been acknowledg¬
ed as the fymbol of the kingdom of Scotland from the
reign of Achaius, yet fome refer the beginning of this
order to Charles VII. of France, Others place the
foundation of it as low as the year 1500.
The chief and principal enfign is a gold collar compo-
fed of thiftles and fprigs of rue interlinked with amulets of
gold, having pendent thereunto the image of St Andrew
v/ith his crofs, and the motto, NfiMa me impune la--
cesset.
The ordinary or common enfign worn by the knights,
is a ftar of four filver points, and over them a green cir¬
cle, bordered and lettered with gold, containing the faid
motto, and in the centre is a thiftle proper ; all which
is embroidered on their left breaft, and worn with the
collar, with a green ribband over the left fhoulder, and
brought under the right arm ; pendent thereto is the i-
mage of St Andrew, with his crofs, in a purple robe,
within an oval of gold enamelled pert, with the former
motto : but fometimes they wear, encircled in the fame
manner, a thiftle crowned.
About the time of the reformation, this order was
dropped, till James II. of England refumed it, by crea-
ting eight knights : however, the revolution unfettled it
again, and it lay negledted till queen Anne, in 1703, re-
ftored it to the primitive defign, of twelve knights of St
Andrew.
THLASPI, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia filicu-
lofa clafs. The pod is emarginated, heart-ftiaped, con¬
taining many feeds. There are ten fpecies, fix of them
natives of Britain, viz. the campeftre, or mithridate ;
the arvenfe, or treacle-muftard ; the perfoliatum, or
perfoliate treacle-muftard ; the furtum, or perennial
miihridate muftard ; the montanum, or mountain mith-
ridate-muftard; and the bnrfa paftoris, or (hepherd’s
purfe.
THOM.FANS-, Tho mists, or Chriftians of St Thomas,
a people of the Eaft-Indies, who, according to the tra¬
dition, received the Gofpel from St’Thomas. Upon the
arrival of the Portuguefe at Calicut, in their firft voyage
to the Indies, they met with ancient Chriftians, who pre¬
tended to be defeended from thofe converted by St Thomas.
The Thomseans being informed of a new people arrived a-
mong them, who bore a particular veneration for the
crofs, fent embaffadors to them, to make an alliance with
them, and to follicit their afliftance againit the Gentile-
princes, by whom they were greatly opprelfed. A mix¬
ture of opinions, with a total interruption of pallors,
fometimes for feveral years together, occafioned that
horrible chaos their religion was in at the arrival of the
Portuguefe ; for a fpecimen whereof we fhall add their
manner of celebrating the eucharift: Over their altar was
a kind of gallery; and while the prieft was faying the be¬
ginning of the office below, a cake of flour of rice was
frying in oil, or butter, above ; when enough, the cake
was let down in a balket upon the altar, where the prieft
confecrated it : as to the other fpecies, for wine they
ufed a kind of brandy or arrack, varioufly prepared in
that country. Nor was their ordination much more re¬
gular ; the archdeacon, who was fometimes more re*
Ipeded than the biffiop himfdf, frequently ordained
priefts: their other abufes were infinite. The Portuguefe,
for thefe two lafl centuries, have laboured the reforma¬
tion of this church, and have employed both the eccle-
(iaftic and fecular power therein : for this end they have
called the Thomsean bilhops to the council at Goa, have
inftrufted, charged them, <bc. and even fent them for
inftru&ion to Portugal and Rome ; but finding that they
were (fill apt to relapfe at their return, and that no good
was like to be done with them, they refolved to exclude
them once for all, and to appoint an European bilhop in
their room. Thefe proceedings have rendered the Por¬
tuguefe infinitely odious to the Thomseans.
St THOMAS, a city of the hither India, on the coaft of
Coromandel, three miles fouth of Fort St George ; fub-
jedt to the Portuguefe.
St Thomas is alfo an ifland in the Atlantic ocean, fituated
under the equator, in 8° E. long.
St Thomas is alfo a town of Guiana, in South America^
fituated on the river Oronoko ; fubjedt to Spain.
St. Thomas’s day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
obferved on Dec. 21. in commemoration of St Thomas
the apoftle.
St Thomas of Canterbury’s day, a feftival of the Romilh
church, obferved on Dec. 29. in memory of Thomas
Becket archbifhop of Canterbury, who was murdered,
or, as the Romanilts fay, martyred, in the reign of king
Henry II.
THOMISM, the dodlrine of St Thomas Aquinas, and his
followers the Thomifts, chiefly with regard to predeftina-
tion and grace. There is fome doubt what the true ge¬
nuine thomifm is, but there are authors who diftinguifli
the thomifm of St Thomas from that of the dominicans.
Others again make thomifm no other than a kind of jan-
fenifin difguifed : but janfenifm, it is known, has been
condemned by the popes, which pure thomifm never was:
in effedt, the writings of Alvarez and Lemos, who were
appointed by their order to lay down and defend, before
the holy fee, the dogmata of their fchooi, have fince been
reputed the rule of pure thomifra.
THOMISTS, a fedt of fchool-divines, who maintain tho¬
mifm. See the preceding article,
THORACIC duct. See Anatomy, p. 282.
THORAX, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 277-
THORN, a city of Poland, in the provioce of regal Pruflia,.
fituated on the river Viftula: E. long. 19°, and N. iat.
52° 4q'-
THORN-
T H R C 807 ) TIE
THORNBACK, in ichthyology. SeeRAiA.
THORNBURY, a market-town of Glocefterfture, fituated
twenty miles fouth-weft of Glocefter.
THORNhiY-isLAND, an ifland made by the branches
of the Thames formerly, where Wellminfter-abbey now
(lands.
Tho rne y-i sland is alfo an ifland fituated in a bay of the
Eaft channel, between Chichefter and Portfmoufh.
THOUGHT, a general name for all the ideas confequent
on the operations of the mind, and even for the opera¬
tions themlelves.
THOULON, or Toulon, a port-town of Provence, in
France, fituated on a bay of the Mediterranean fea : E.
E. long. 6°, and N. lat. 430 y'.
THOULOSE, orTouLOSE, a city of France, capital of
the city of Languedoc, fituated on the river Garonne :
E. long, if 5', and N. lat. 430 40'.
THRACE, a province of European Turky, fituated on the
north fide of the Propontis.
THRASHING, or Threshing, in agriculture, the art
of beating tho corn out of the ears.
There are two ways of feparating corn from the ear ;
the firft by beating it with a flail, which is properly what
is called thrartring. The other method, ftill pradifed in
ieveral countries, is to make mules, or horfes, trample
oh it, backwards and forwards • this is properly what the
ancients called tritura and trituratio. The Hebrews ufed
oxen therein, and fometimes yoked four together for this
purpofe. Another way among the ancients was with a
kind of fledge, made of boards joined together, and
loaden with ftones or iron, upon which a man was mount¬
ed, and the whole drawn over the corn by horfes : this
inflrument was called traha, or tribula.
THRAVE of corny twenty-four (heaves, or four fhocks
of fix (heaves to the (hock; though, in fame countries,
they only reckon twelve (hocks to the thrave.
THRICHECHUS,' in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the order of bruta. There are no fore-teeth
in either jaw ; the dog-teeth in the upper jaw are folita-
ry; the lips are doubled ; and in place of the rwo hind
legs, they have a broad flefhy tail or fin. There are two
fpecies, viz. 1. The rofmarinus, morfe, fea-horfe, or
wall-rofe, has the dog-teeth of the upper-jaw protruded
out of the mouth. This animal is found in the ocean,
within the polar circle. It grunts like a hog, and is a-
bout the fize of a bull. 2 The monatus, or fea-cow,
has the dog teeth not protruded. It is found in the
American and Indian ocean, principally at the mouths of
rivers. It feeds upon fea-weeds, and is about twelve feet
Jong. The females have, between the pedtoral fins, two
large, round, and fair brefis ; and both fexes have the
parts of generation, and the navel, perfedfly refembling
thofe of the human fpecies : there is no doubt but all
the fables concerning mermaids, mermen, and fyrens,
took their rife from an imperfect view of this animal.
THRIPS, a genus of infefts belonging to the order of he-
miptera. The beak is obfcure; the feelers are of an e-
qual length with the bread ; the body is linear; and it
has four (Irak wings lying crofs-ways upon the back.
There are five fpecies, diftinguiflied by their colour.
THROAT, the anterior part of an animal,' between the
head and the (boulders, wherein is the gullet.
THRONE, a royal feat, or chair of (late, enriched with
ornaments of architecture and fculpture, raifed on one or
more fteps, and covered with a kind of canopy. Such
are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings and
other fovereigns.
THROWSTER, one who prepares raw fiik for the weaver,
by cleanfing and twifting it,
THRUSH, in ornithology. See Turous.
THULE, of the ancients, fuppofed to be the iflands of
Orcades.
THUMB, in anatomy, one of the parts or extremities of
the hand. See Anatomy, p. 181.
THUMMIM. See Urim.
THUNDER, a noife in the regions of the air, excited by
fudden flalhes of lightning. See Electricity, p.
480, 484.
THURINGIA landgraviate, one of the divifions of the
circle of Upper Saxony, in Germany, having the duchy
of Magdeburg on the north, and Franconia on the fouth.
THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftian week, but the
fixth day of that of the Jews.
THURSO, a port-town of Caithnefs, in Scotland, fituated
on the Caledonian ocean, fifteen miles fouth-weft of
Dungfbyhead.
THUYA, in botany, a genus of the moncecia monadelphia
clafs. The calix of the male is an amentum, that of the
female a ftrobilus; neither of them have any corolla ;
there is one piftillum, and one nut (urrounded with an
emarginated wing. The fpecies are three, all natives of
warm countries.
THYMUS, in botany, a genus of the didynamia gymno-
fpermia clafs. The calix is bilabiated, and the faux is
fhut up with hairs. There are eight fpecies, two of them
natives of Britain, viz. the ferpillum, or common thyme ;
and the acinos, or wild bafil.
Thymus, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 278.
THY'ROARYTAiNOIDESj in anatomy. See Anato¬
my, p. 301.
THYROIDE cartilage. See Anatomy, p. 300.
THYRSUS, in antiquity, the fceptre which the poets put
into the hand of Bacchus. And wherewith they fur-
nifhed the menades in their bacchanalia.
TIARA, an ornament or habit wherewith the ancient Per-
fians covered their head ; and which the Armenians, and
kings of Pontus, ftill wear on medals; thefe laft, becaufe
• deicended from the Perfians,
Tiara is alfo the name of the pope’s triple crown..
TIBER, a great river of Italy, which runs through the
pope’s territories, palling by Perugia and Orvietto ; and
having vifited Rome, falls into the Tufcan fea at Oftia,
fifteen miles below that city.
TIBIA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 183,
TIBIALIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 209.
TIDES. See Astronomy, p. 473.
Tide-waiters, or Tidesmen, are inferior officers be¬
longing to the cuftom-houfe, whofe employment it is to
watch or attend upon (hips, until the cuftoms be paid .
they get this name from their going 00 board (hips, on
their arrival in the mouth of the Thames or other port3
and fo come up with the tide.
TIEND, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xvii. i, <bc.
TIERCE, orTEiRCE, a meafure of liquid things, as wine,
oil, <bc. containing the third part of a pipe, or forty-two
gallons,
TIERCED,
TIN ( 898 ) T Q B
TfERCED, in heraldry, denotes th-e (hidd to be divided
by any part of the partition-lines, as party, coupy, tran-
chy, or tailiy, into three equal parts of different colours
or metals. '
’.TIGER, in zoology. SeeFenis.
TIGRIS, a large river of Turley in Alla, which, riling in
the mountains of Armenia, runs fouthward, dividing Diar-
beck or Mefopotamia, from Curdellan or the ancient Af-
fyria; and having paffed by Badgat, joins the Euphrates
in Eyraca Arabic, or th? ancient Chaldea.
TILBURY, a fortrefs in the county of Effex, fituated on
the river Thames, oppofite to Gravefend, twenty miles
eait of London,
; TILIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria monogynia
clafs. Tlie corolla confdis of five petals, and the calix
of five fegments ; the .berry is dry, and round, with five
cells, and five valves. There are two fpecies, only one
of them, viz. the Europcea, or lime-tree, a native of
Britain.
TILLACA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria tetragynia
clafs. The calix confifts of three fegments, and the co¬
rolla of three equal petals ; and there are three capfules
containing three feeds. The fpecies are two, none of
them natives of Britain.
TILLANDSIA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria roo-
nogynia clafs. The ealix confifts of three perfiftent feg¬
ments ; the corolla is bell-fhaped, with three fegments ;
the capful? has one cell, containing a fingle pappous feed.
There are nine fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
TILLER of a /hip, a (trong piece of wood fattened in the
h?ad of the rudder, and in fraall fhips and boats called
the helm.
TILLAGE. See Agriculture, p. 54.
TIMAR, a tradi or portion of land, which the grand feg-
nior grants to a perfon on condition of ferving him in a.
war on horfe-btek. Hence, thofe who enjoy fuch lands
are called timariots.
TIMBER, includes all kinds of felled and feafoned woods.
TIME, a fuccellion of phaenomena in the univerfe; ora
mode of duration marked by certain periods or meafures,
chiefly by the morio-n and revolution of the fun. See
Astronomy, p. 489.
Time, in muiick, is an affedtibn of found, whereby we de¬
nominate it long or (hort, with regard to its continuance
in the fame degree of time. See Mu sick.
TIMOR, and iiland in the Indian ocean, fituated between
1220 and 126° of eaft long, and between 8° and io°
fouth lat.
it is in poffelfion of the Dutch, and faid to have gold
mines.
TIN. See Chemistry, p. 83. 105, 135.
TINCTURE, in pharmacy and. chemiftry, a feparation ef
the finer and more volatile parts of a mixed body, made by
means of a proper roenftruum diffolfing and retaining the
fame.
Tincture, in heraldry, the hue or colour of any thing in
coat armour, under which denomination may be alfo in¬
cluded the two metals, or and argent,-becaufe they are
•often reprefented by yellow and white.
TINE. There are two rivers of this name ; the one called
North-Tin®, which rifes- on the borders of Scotland ;
and the other South-Tine, which rifes on the confines
of Cumberland ; the one running fputh-eaft, and the other
north-eaft: they unite their waters at Hexham, and con¬
tinuing to run eaft, divide the counties of Durham and
Northumberland, palling by Newcattle, and falling into
the German fea at Tinmouth.
TINMOUTH, a port-town of Llorthumberland, fituated
on the German fea, at the mouth of the river Tine, feven
miles eaft of Newcaftle.
TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with melted
tin, or with tin reduced to a very fine leaf. Looking-
glaffes are foliated, or tinned, with thin plates of beaten
tin, the whole bignefs of the glafs, applied or fattened
thereto by means of quickfilver.. See Foliating.
TINNITUS aurium. See Medicine, p. 156.
TINUS, in botany, a genus of the enneandria monogynia
clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and the co¬
rolla of fire petals ; the berry has three cells, containing
one feed. There is but one fpecies, a native of Jamaica.
TIPPERARY, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Munfter, lying between King’s-county on the north, and
Waterford on the fouth.
TIPSTAFF, an officer who attends the judges with a kind
of ftaff tipt with filver, and takes into his charge all pri-
foners who are committed or turned over at a judge’s
chambers.
TIRE, in the fea-language, is a row of cannon placed along
a Ihip’s fide, either above upon deck, or below, diftin-
guilhed by the epithet: of upper and lower tires.
TIROL, a country of Germany, ii) the circle of Auftria,
about one hundred and twenty miles long, and fixty broad,
fubjedt to the houfe of Auftria: it is bounded by Swabia
and Bavaria on the north.
TITANS, in the heathen mythology, the offspring of Ti¬
tan, the elder brother of Saturn ; upon whom, and his
fon Jupiter, they made war, in order to recover the fove-
reignty of which Titan had been deprived. The poets
reprefent them as a race of giants, fprungfrom the earth,
and invading heaven ; and tell us, that Jupiter overcame
them with thunder, and drove them down to the very
bottom of hell.
TITHES. See Tiend.
TITLE, an appellation of dignity or quality, given to
princes, and other perfons of diftintftion.
TITMOUSE, in ornithology. See Parus.
TITUBATION, akindof libration, or fliaking, which the
ancient aftronomers attributed to the cryftalline heavens,
in order to account for certain irregularities which they
obfervedin the motions of the planets,
TITULAR, denotes a perfon invefted with a title, in vir¬
tue of which he holds an office or benefice, whether he
perform the fun&ions thereof or not.
TINERTQN, aborough of Devonfhire, fituated on the ri¬
ver Ex, thirteen miles north of Exeter, It fends two
members to parliament.
T1V10T, or Cheviot-mountains, are high hills on the
borders of England and Scotland.
TMESIS, in grammar, a figure whereby a compound word
is feparated into two paits, aud one or more words pla¬
ced between them: thus, fox qu etc unqnte, Virgil fays,
vie cunqun vacant terra, &c. *
TOAD, in zoology. Ses Ran a.
Toad flax, in botany. See Antirrhinum-.
TOBACCO, m botany. See Nicotiana.
TOBAGO, a fmall iftand in the bay of Pamma, in
South-
TOM ( Sop ) TOP
South-America, fituated W. long 8i20, N. lat. 8°.
Tobago, is alfo the name of one of the Caribbee iflands.
TOBOLSKI, the capital of Siberia, fituated at the con-
lluence of the rivers Tobal and Iris: E. long. 63°, N.
lat. 57° 30'*
TOCAT, the capital of Araafia, in Afia: E. long. 37°,
and N. lat. 41° 3c/.
TOCKAY, a city of Hungary, feventy miles north-eaft
of Buda, the wines of which are efteemed the beft in
^Europe.
TOES. See Anatomy, p. 188.
TOGA, in Roman antiquity, a wide woolen gown, or
mantle; which, feems to have been of a femi-circular iorm,
without flaeves ; differing both in richnefs and largenefs,
according to the circumfiances of the wearer, and ufed
only upon occafion of appearing in public.
Every body knows that the toga was the diftinguifhing
mark of a Roman : hence, the jus togae, or privilege of
the toga, was the fame with the privilege of a Roman ci¬
tizen, i. e. the right of wearing a Roman habit, and of
taking, as they explain it, (ire and water through the
Roman empire.
TOILS, fnares or nets ufed bjr hunters for catching wild
b^afts, as deer,
TOILET, a fine cloth of linen, filk, or tapeftry, fpread o-
ver the table in a oed-chamber or drefling room, to un
drefs and drefs upon.
TQISE, a French meafure containing fix of their feet, or
a fathom.
TOLEDO, a city of New Caftile, in Spain ; the archbi-
(hop of which is primate of Spain, <bc. and poffeffes the
largeft revenue of apy archbifhop of Europe : it is fitua¬
ted in W. long. 40 i2\ and N. lat. 39° 45'.
TOLEN, the capital of an iflandof the fame name in the
province of Zealand, in the united Netherlands, fituated
four miles north-wed of Bergenopzoom.
TOLERATION, in matters of religion, is either civil or
ecclefiadical. Civil toleration, is an immunity and fafety
granted by the date to every fedt that does not maintain
dodtrines inconfident with the public peace ; and eccle¬
fiadical toleration, is the allowance which the church
grants to its members to differ in certain opinions not
reputed fundamentals.
TOLLENON, among the Romans, a warlike machine,
. formed in this manner: One beam was fixed very deep in
the earth, and on the top of it another more than twice as
long, and moveable upon a centre ; on one end of this
crofs-beam were placed a covering of hurdles or planks,
within which a few foldiers were put, and by pulling down
the other end with ropes, thefe were raifed above the
walls of a befieged town.
TOLU, a port-town of Terra Firma, fituaied on a bay of
the North-Sea, an hundred miles fouth-wed of Cartha-
. gena.
TOLUIFERA, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix is bell-dialed, and has fivefeg-
ments ; the Corolla has five petals, the lowed being longed,
and fomewhat cordated ; it has no dylus. There is but
One fpecies, a native of America.
TOMB, includes both the grave or fepulchre wherein a de¬
funct is interred, and the monument ere&ed to preferye
-his memory.
Vol. III. N° 98,
TOME, in matters of literature, denotes a bound book, or
writing that jud makes a volume.
TOMENTUM, among botanifts, the downy matter which
grows on the leaves of fome plants.
TONE, or Tune, in mufick, a property of found, where¬
by it comes under the relation of gi ave and acute ;. or it
is the degree of elevation a found has, from the degree
of fwiftnefs of The vibrations of the part of fonorous bo¬
dies. See Musick
TONGUE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 304,
TONQUIN, a kingdom of the fur her India, bounded by
the provinces of Yunam and Canton, in China, on the
north ; by Cochin China, on the fouth ; and by the king¬
dom of Laos, on the wed ; lying between iox° and 108®
E. long, and between 170 and 26° N. lat. Its capital
is Keccio, or Cachao.
TONSILS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 303.
TONSURE, in ecclefiadical.hidory, a particular manner
of (having or clipping the hair of ecclefiaftics or monks.
The ancient tonlure of the clergy was nothing more
than polling the head, and cutting the hair to a moderate
degree, for the fake of decency and gravity: and the
- lame obfervation is true, with refpeCl to the tonfure of
the ancient monks But the Romanids have carried the
affairof tonfure much farther ; the candidate for it kneel¬
ing before the bidiop, who cuts the hair in five different
parts of the head, viz. before, behind, on each fide,
and on the crown.
TOOL, among mechanics, denotes in general any finall in-
drument, u(ed as well fpr making other more complex
indrumems and machines, as in mod operations in the
mechanic arts..
TOOTH, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 164.
Tooth ach. See Medicine, p 120.
TOPARCHY, a little date orfeigoiory, confiiting only of
a few cities or towns : or a petty .country, governed and
poffeffed by a toparcb or lord.
TOPAZ, in natural hidory, a gem called by the ancients
chryfolite, as being of a gold-colour.
The topaz, when perfeft and free from blemifhes, is a very
beautiful and valuable getn; it is, however, very rare in this
date. It is of the number of thofe gems which are found
only in the round or pebble form, there never having been
yet feen a true and genuine topaz of a columnar figure,
though the far greater part of what our jewellers call
fuch, are in that form. The greatcd part of the true to¬
pazes are no larger than grains of a coarfe feed; among
thefe thereare, however, fome met of the fize of a pea,
and fome much larger, though thofe are very rare. It
is of a roundifh or oblong figure in its native or rough
. date, and is ufually flatted on one fide, andds generally of
a bright and naturally poliflied furfece, tolerably tranfpa-
rent. They are ever of a fine yellow colour ; but they
have this, like the other gems, in feveral different degrees:
the fined of all are of a true and perfeft gold colour; but
there are fome much deeper, and others extremely pale,
fo as to appear fcarce tinged. The oriental topaz is equal
to the ruby in haidnefs, and is fecond only to the dia¬
mond in lultre.
TOPHUS, in medicine, denotes a chalky or deny concre¬
tion in any part of the body, as the bladder, kidney, &rc.
bat efpecially in the joints.
8 O
3
TOPICAL
TOR ( 900 ) T O U
TOPICAL medicines, arethe fame with external ones,
or thofe applied outwardly to fome difeafed and painful
part: fuch are plafters, cataplafim, unguents,
TOPOGRAPHY, a defcription or draught of fome parti¬
cular place, or fmall track of land; as that of a city or
town, manor or tenement, field, garden, houfe, caftle,
or the like; fuch as furveyors fet out in their plots, or
make draughts of, for the information and fatisfa&ion of
the proprietors.
TORBAY, a fine bay in the Englilh channel, a little ea(t
of Dartmouth.
TORCELLA, a port town of Catalonia, in Spain, fitua-
ted at the mouth of the river Ter, in E. long. 20 so',
and N. lat. 420.
TORCH, a luminary ufed in feveral church-ceremonies,
funerals, and more ufually called flambeau.
Torch-thistle, in botany: SeeCACTtis.
TORDYLIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria di-
gynia clafs. The radii of the corolla are all hermaphro¬
dites ; the fruit is roundifli, with a crenated edge; and
the involucra are long, and undivided. There are feven
fpecies, only two of them natives of Britain, viz. the
latifolium, or purple-flowered great baftard parfley ; and
the nodofum, or knotted parfley.
TORUS, is architecture, a large round moulding, ufed in
the bafes of columns.
TORIES, in the hiflory of England, a faCtion or party, op-
pofed to the whigs. See Whigs.
Thetories are great flicklers for the prerogative of the
crown, as the whigs are for the liberties and privileges
of the people; though, in truth, the principles of the
moderate people of both parties do not greatly differ.
TORMENTILLA, in botany, a genus of the icofandria
polygynia clafs. The calix confifls of eight fegments,
and the corolla of four petals; the feeds are roundifli,
raked,, and fixed to a fmall dry receptacle. There are
two fpecies, both natives of Britain, viz. the ereCia, or
tormentil; and the replans, or creeping tormentil.
Tormentil-root has an auftere ftyptic tafle, accompa¬
nied with an aromatic flavour : it is one of the moft agree¬
able and efficacious vegetable aflringems.
TORNADO, afudden and vehement guft of wind from all
points of the compafs, frequent on the coafi pf Guinea.
TORNE, the capital of Torne Lapmark, a province of
-Sweden, fituated at the mouth of the river Tome, at the
bottom of the Bdthnic gulph, upon a little illand made by
the river, four hundred miles north of Stockholm : E.
long. 22° 45', N.lat. 65° 45'.
TORPEDO, in ichthyology. See Raja.
TORQUE, in heraldry, denotes a round roll of cloth,
twifted and fluffed .• fuch is the bandage, frequently feen
in armories, about the heads of moors, 6^.
TORREFACTION, in chemiflry, isthe malting or fcorch-
ing of a body by the fire, in order to difeharge a part ei¬
ther unneceffary or hurtful in another operation ; as ful-
phur is thus difsharged from an ore, before the metal can
be obtained to advantage.
TORRENT, denotes a temporary ft-ream of water, falling
fuddenly from mountains, whereon there have been great
rains, or an extraordinary thaw of fnow.
TORRICELLIAN experiment, a famous experiment
made by Toricelli, a difciple of the great Galileo, which
has been already explained in the Treadle of Pn'euma.
tics, p. 48j.
TORRINGTON, a market-town of Devonshire, fituated
on the river Towbridge, twenty fix-miles north-well of
Exeter.
TORTOISE, in zoology. See Testddo.
TORTURE, a grievous pain infliCted on a criminal, or
perfon accufed, to make him confefs" the truth.
TOTNESS, a borough-town-of Devonlhire, twenty-three
miles fouth-wefl of Exeter. It fends two members to
parliament.
TOUCAN, in ichthyology. SeeRAMPHASTOS.
Toucan, in aftronomy, p. 487.
TOUCH-needle, amongaffayers, refiners, little bars
of gold, diver, and copper, combined together in all the
different proportions and degrees of mixture ; the ufe of
which is to difeover the degree of purity of any piece of
gold or filver, by comparing the mark it leaves on the
touch ftone with thofe of the bars.
The metals ufually tried by the toueh-ftone, are gold,
filver, and copper, either pure, or mixed with one ano¬
ther in different degrees aaid proportions, by fufion. In
order to find out the purity or quantity of bafer metal in
thefe various admixtures, when they are to be examined
they are compared with thefe needles, which are mixed
in a known proportion, and prepared for this ufe. The
metals of thefe needles, both pure and mixed, are all
made into laminse or plates, one twelfth ofan inch broad,
and of a fourth part of their breadth in thicknefs, and an
inch and half long ; thefe being thus prepared, you are to
engrave on each a mark indicating its purity, or the nature
and quantity of the admixture in it.
The black rough marbles, the bafaltes, or the fofter
kinds of black pebbles, are the mofl: proper for touch-
ftones.
Now the method of ufing the needles and flone is this:
the piece of metal to be tried, ought firfl: to be wiped
well with a clean towel, or piece of foft leather, that you
may the better fee its true colour; for from this alone
an experienced perfon will, in fome degree, judge before¬
hand what the principal metal is, and how and with what
debafed.
Then chufe a convenient, not over large, part of the fur-
face of the metal, and rub it feveral times very hardly
and ftrongly againft the touch-ftone, that in cafe a de¬
ceitful coat or cruft Ihould have been laid upon it, it may
be worn off by tbatfriAion : this, however, is more rea¬
dily done by a grind-ftone, or fmall file. Then wipe
a flat and very clean part of the touch-ftone, and rub a-
gainft it, over and over, the juft mentioned part of the
furface of the piece of metal, till you have, on the flat
furface of the ftone, a thin metallic cruft, an inch long,
and about an eighth of an inch broad: this done, look
out the needle that feems moft like to the metal under
trial, wipe the lower part of this needle very clean, aad
then rub it againfl: the touch-ftone, as you did the metal,
by the fide of the other line, and in a direction parallel to it.
When this is done, if you find no difference between
the colours of the two marks, made by your needle and
the metal under trial, you may with great probability
pronounce that metal and your needle to be of the fame
alloy, which is immediately known by the mark engraved
T 11 A ( 901 ) T R A
- on your needle. But if you find a difference between
the colour of the mark^ifen by the metal, and that by
, the needle you have tried, choofe out another needle,
either of a darker or lighter colour than the former, as
the difference of the tinge on the touch-done direfts ;
and by one or more trials of this kind you will be able
to determine which of your needles the metal anfwers,
and thence what alloy it is of, by the mark of the needle ;
or elfe you will find that the alloy is extraordinary, and
not to be determined by the comparifon of your needles.
TOURINE, a town of the bifhopric of Liege, thirteen
miles north-ead of Namur.
TOURNEY, a city of Flanders-, in the Audrian Nether¬
lands, fituated on the rirer Scheld, thirteen miles eaft of
Lifle : E. long 30 30', and N. lat. 50° 37'.
TOURNEFORTIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The berry has two cells containing
two feeds, perforated with two holes at the apex. There
arc eight fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
TOURNEQUET, in furgety, an inftrument made of
rollers, corapreffes, ferews, for compreffing any
wounded part, foastb dop haemorrhages. See Surgery,
TOWER, a tall building, confiding of feveral dories, u-
fually of a round form, though fometimes fquare or poly¬
gonal.
Towers are built for fortreffes, prifons, <bc. as the
Tower of London, the Tower of theBadile, foe.
TOWN, a place inhabited by aconfiderabie number of peo¬
ple, being of a middie lize between a city and village.
TOXICODENDRON, in botany. See Rhus.
TOZZIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angiofper-
mia clafs. The calix has fire teeth ; and the capfule is
round, with one ceil, containing a fingle feed. There is
but one fpecies, a native of Switzerland.
TRACHEA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 3Q0.
TRACHELIUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla is funnel-lhaped ; the llig-
mais globular ; and the capfule has three cells. There
is but oae fpecies, a native of Italy.
TRACHINU3, in.ichthyology, a genus belonging to the
order of Juguiaris. The head is fmail, fmooth, and com-
prefled ; therfe'are fix rays in the membrane ot the gills;
the plates of the opercuia are ferrated; and the anns is
near the^bread. There is but one fpecies, v/z. the draco,
a native of the northern ocean. ,
TRACT, in geography, an ex’tnt of ground, or a portion
of the earth’s furface.
Tract, in matters of literature, denotes a fmali treatife,
or written difeourfe upon any fubjeft.
TRADE. See Commerce.
Trade-winds. See Pneumatics, p, 495.
TRADESCANTIA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria
monogynia clafs. The calix confills of three leaves, and
the corolla of thre petals; the filaments are villous; and
the capfule has three cells. There are three fpecies, all
natives of warm countries.
TRADITION, among eeclefiadical writers, denotes cer¬
tain regulations regarding the rites, ceremonies, &c. of
religion, which(we fuppole to have been handed down from
the days of the apodles to the prelent time.
Tradition, in Scots law. See Law, Tit vni. 10,
TRAFFIC. See Commerce.
TRAGACANTH, in botany. See Astragalus.
Gum-tragacanth is the produce of this (hrub, which
grows to about four feet high, and has a firm and robud
, dem, with numerous breaches, The gum is brought to¬
ns in long and fiepder pieces, of a flatted figure, more or
or lefs; and thefe not drait, or rarely fo ; but commonly
twided and contorted various ways, fo as to refemble
worms.
Tragacanth has the fame virtues wiih gum-arabic, but
, in a greater degree. It greatly infpiffates and obtunds the
acrimony of the humours, and is therefore found of vad
fervice in inveterate coughs, and other diforders of the
bread.
TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, reprefenting fome fignal
adlion performed by illudriousperfons, and which has fre¬
quently a fatal iffue, or end. See Composition.
TRAGI-COMEDY, a dramatic piece partaking of the na¬
ture both of tragedy and comedy; the event whereof is
not bloody or unhappy, and wherein is admitted a mix¬
ture of Ids ferious charadters.
TRAGIA, in botany, a genus of the moncecia tetrandria
clafs. The cabx of the male confids of three fegments,
that of the female of five; neither of them have any co¬
rolla ; the dylus is trifid ; and the capfule has three cells,
with folitary feeds. There are five fpecies, none of th^m.
natives of Britain.
TRAGOPOGON, in botany, a genus of the fyngepefia
polygamia asqualis clafs. The .receptacle is naked ; the
calix is fiinple, and confids of many leaves; and the pap¬
pus is feathered. There are eleven fpecies, two of them
natives of Britain, viz. the pratenfe, or yellow goat’s-
beard ; and the ponifoliuiUj or purple goat’s-beard.
TRAGUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 295.
TRAJAN column, a famous hidorical column eredted in
Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. It is of the
Tufcan order, though fomething irregular ; its height is
eight diameters, and its pededial Corinthian : it was built
in a large fquare there, called Forum Romanuin. Its
bafe confids of twelve dones, of an enormous fize, and
it is raifed on a focle, or foot of eight deps ; within fide
is a dair-cafe, illuminated with forty four windows. It
is 140 feet high, which is thirty-five Ihort of the Anto-
nine column, but the workmanfhip of the former is much-
more valued. It is adorned from top to bottom with baffo
relievo’s, rep relenting the great adtioas of that emperor-
againft the Dacae;
TRAJECTORY of a comet> is it? path or orbit, or the
. line it delcnbes in its motion. See Astronomy, p.444.
TRAIN,. a line of gan-powder, laid to give fire to a quan¬
tity thereof, in order to do execution by blowing up earth,-
works, buildings, <bc.
Train of artillery, includes the great guns, and other
pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the field.
Train-oil, the oil procured from the blubber of a whale
by boiling.
TRAINING,, or Tracing, in mineralogy, a term ufed
by the miners, to exprefs the tracing up the mineral ap¬
pearances on the furface of the earth to their head, or
original place, and there finding a mine of the metal they,
contain. See Mine.
TRALOS montes, a province of Portugal, bounded by;
Spain on the north-ead; by the province of Beira on the-
fouth ; and by Entreminho Douro on the wed,
TRANSACTION, an accommodation of fome bufinefs,,
T II A ( 902 ) T R E
Or difpute between two patties, by a mutual and volun¬
tary agreement between them.
Transcendental, or transcendant, fomething
elevated, or raifed above other-things ; which paffes aad
tranfcends the nature of other inferior things.
TRANSCRIP f, a copy of any original writing, particu¬
larly that of an a<$, or inftrument, inferted in the body
of anether.
•TRANSFER in commerce, &c. an aft whereby a perfon
furrenriers his right mtereft, or property in any thing
moveable or immoveable to another.
TRANSFORMATION, in g neral, denotes a change of
form, or the afluming a flew form different from a former
one. The chemifts have been for a long time feeking the
transformation of metals ; that is, their tranfmutation,
or >he manner o^ changing them into gold.
TR VNSFERENCE, in Scots law. SccLaw, Tit.xxx. 25.
TRANSFUSION, the aft of pouring a liquor out of one
veffei into another.
TRANSGRESSION, an offence againft fome law, or a
breach or violation thereof.
TRANSILVANIA, a principality bounded by the Carpa¬
thian mountains, which divide it from Poland on the north;
by Moldavia on the eaft ; by Walachia, and part of Hun¬
gary, on the fouth ; and by another part of Hungary on
the north • being about 120 miles long, and almoft as
many broad; and lying between 22 and 2j degrees eaft
long, and between 45 and 48 of north lat.
TRANSIT, in aftronomy, fignifies the paffage of any pla¬
net, juft by, or over a fixed ftar, or the fun, and of the
moon in particular, covering or moving over any planet.
See'Astronomy, p. 438.
TRANSITIVE, in grammar, an epithet applied to fuch
verbs as fignify an aftion which paffes from the fubjeft
that does it, to or upon another fubjeft which receives it.
Under the head of verbs tranfitive, come what we ufually
call verbs aftive and paffive; other verbs, whofe aftion
does not pafs out of themfelves, are called neuters.
TRANSLATION, the aft of transferring or removing.a
thing from one place to another ; we fay the tranflation
of a bifhop’s fee, a council, a feat of jufiice, &c.
Translation is alfo ufed for the verfion of a book or
writing out of one language into another.
TRANSMARINE, fomething that comes from, or belongs
to, the parts beyond fea.
TRANSMIGRATION, the removal or tranflation of a
whole people into another country, by the power of a con¬
queror.
TRANSMIGRATION, is particularly ufed for the paf¬
fage of a foul out of one body into another, being the
fame with what we otherwife call metemphfychofis. See
Metemphsychosis.
TRANSMUTATION, the aft of transforming or chan¬
ging one nature into another.
Transmutation, in alchemy, denotes the art of chan¬
ging or exalting imperfeft metals into gold or filver. This
is alfo called the grand operation, and, they fay, is to be
effefted with the philofopber’s ftone.
TRANSOM, among builders, denotes the piece that is
framed acrofs a double light window.
Transom, in a fhip, a piece of timber which lies athwart
the ftern, between the two fafhion-pieces, dirtftly under
the gun-room port. See-Ship-building.
TRANSPARENCY, in phyfics, a quality in certain bo“
dies, whereby they give paffage to the rays of light; in
contradiftinftion to opacity, or that quality of bodies which
renders them impervious to the rays of light.
TRANSPIRATION, the inlenfible, or almoft infenfible,
paffage of an exerementitious matter through the pores of
the fkin, called alfo perfpiration.
TRANSPLANTATION, in agriculture and gardening,
the aft of removing trees or plants from the places where
they were lowed, or raifed, and planting them in others.
TRANSPORTATION, the aft of conveying or carrying
a thing from one place to another.
TRANSPOSITION, in grammar, a difturbing or diflo-
cating of the words in a difeourfe, or a changing of their
natural order of conftruftion, to pleafe the ear by render¬
ing the contexture more eafy, fmooth, and harmonious.
Transposition, in mufick See Musick.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION, in theology, the conver-
fion or change of the fubftance of the bread and wine in
the eucharift, into the body and blood of Jefus Chrift,
which the Romilh church hold is wrought by the confe-
cration of the prieft
jKlion o/TRANSUMPT, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
XXX. 27.
TRANSVERS ALIS, in anatomy. SeeAsATOMY, p. 193.
TRANSVERSE, fomething that goes a rols another, from
corner to corner : thus bends and bars, in heraldry, are
tranverfe pieces or bearings : the diagonals of a paiallelo-
gram or a fquare, are tranfverfe lines.
TRAPA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria mooogynia
clafs. The corolla conlifts of four petals; and the calix
of four legraenrs ; and the nut has four fpines oppofite to
one another. There is but one fpseies, a native of Alia,
TRAPEZIUM, in geometry, a plane figure contained un¬
der four unequal right lines.
TRAPEZIUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 193.
TRAVERSE, or Transverse, in general, denotes fome¬
thing that goes athwart another ; that is, croffes and cuts
it obliquely.
Traverse, in navigation, is a compound courfe, wherein
feveral different lucceflive courfes and diftances are known.
See Navigation.
TRAVESTY, a French term, derived from the verb fra-
vejlir, to difguife one’s felf, or to appear in mafquerade :
and hence, travefty is applied to the disfiguring of an au¬
thor, or the tranflating him into a ftyle and manner dif¬
ferent from his,own, by which means it becomes difficult
to know him.
TREACLE. See Theriaca.
Some alfo give the name treacle to melaffes.
TREASON, in general, fignifies betraying; but is more
particularly ufed for the aft or crime of infidelity to one’s
lawful fovereign. See.Law, Tit. xxxiii. 9.
TREASURE, in general, denotes a ftore or flock of money
in referve.
TREASURER, an officer to whom the treafure of a prince
or corporation is committed, to be kept, and duly dif-
pofed of.
The lord high treafurer of Great Britain, or firft com-
miffioner of the treasury, when in commiflion, has under
his charge and government all the kings revenue, which
is kept in the exchequer. He holds his place during the
king’s pleafure, being inftitated by the delivery of a white
THE ( 903 ) T R I
fiaft to him : he has the check of alithe officers employ¬
ed in colleaing the cudoms and other royal revenues ;
and in his gift and difpofition are all the officers of the
cuftoms in the fcveral ports of the kingdom ; efeheators
in every county are nominated by him; he alfo makes
leafes of the lands belonging to the crown.
TREASURY, the place wherein the revenues of a prince
are received, preferved, and difburfed.
Lord} of /^Treasury. In lieu of one (ingle dire&or and
adminiftrator of his majefty’s revenues under the title of
lord high treasurer, it is at prefent thought proper to put
that office in commiffion, i. e. to appoint feveral perfons
to difeharge it with equal authority, under the title of
lords commiffioners of the treafury.
[TREATISE, a fet difeourfe in writing on any fubjedt. A
treatife is fuppofed more exprefs, formal, and methodi
cal than an effiay, but lefs fo than a fyftem.
TREATY, a covenant between two or more nations ; or
the feveral articles or conditions P.ipulated and agreed
upon between fovereign powers.
TREBLE, in mufick, the higheft or acuteft of the four
parts in fymphony, or that which is heard the cleared
and ffirilkft in a concert.
TREE, the firft and larged of the vegetable kind, confid¬
ing of a (ingle trunk, out of which fpring forth branches
and leaves.
TREFOIL. SeeTRiFOLiim.
7Ifar/?;-TREFOiL, in botany. See Menyanthes.
Trefoil, in botany. SeeCYTisus,
TREMELLA, Laver, in botany, a genus of fea-plants,
of a middle nature, between the alga and conferva, be¬
ing of a pellucid and membranaceous, and frequently of
a gelatinous drudture. There are nine fpecies, fix of them
natives of Britain.
TREMOR, an involuntary (baking, chiefly of the hands
and head, fometimes of the feet, and fometimes of the
tongue and heart.
TRENCHES, in fortification, are ditches cut by the be-
fiegers, that they may approach more fecurely to the
place attacked ; whence they are alfo called lines of ap¬
proach.
TRENT b 1 shop rick, a province of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Audria, fituated on the Alps, which divides Italy-
from Germany, and fometimes reckoned part of Italy ;
it is bounded by Tyrol on the north, by the territory of
Venice on the ead and fouth, and by the country of the
Grifons on the wed, being feventy miles long and fifty
broad, fubjed to the houfe of Audria.
Trent is alfo the name of one of the larged rivers in
Great Britain, rifing in the moor-lands of Staffordffiire,
and running fouth ead by Newcaftle Under Line, di¬
vides that country almod into two equal parts ; then
entering Derbyffiire, turns about to the north-ead ; and
having run the whole length of Nottingham(hire: con¬
tinues its courfe due north ; at lad joining the rivei'Oufe,
and feveral others, it changes its name to that of Hum¬
ber, and falls into the German fea below Hull,
TREPAN See Surgery, p. 664.
TREPANNING, in furgery See Surgery, ibid.
TRESPASS, inlaw, fignifies any tranfgreilion of the law,
under treafon, felony, or mifprifion of either ; but it is
moff commonly ufed for any wrong or damage that is done
Vox. III. N°., 98. .3
by one private perfon to another, or to the king in-his
fored, <bc.
TRESSURE, in heraldry, a diminutive of an orle, ufual-
ly held to be half the breadth thereof. See it reprefented
in Plate CXLVII. fig. 20.
TRET, in commerce, an allowance made for the wade,
or the dirt, that may be mixed with any commodity,
which is always four pounds in every one hundred aad
four pounds weight.
TRIAL, in law, the examination of a caufe, civil or cri¬
minal, according to the laws of the land, before a proper
judge : or, it is the manner and order obferved in the
hearing and determining of caufes.
TRIANDRIA, in botany. See Botany, p. 63J.
TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure of three fides and three
angles. See Geometry, p. 686.
TRIANGULARIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.
306.
TRIBE, in antiquity, a certain quantity or number of per-
(bns, when a divifion is made of a city or people into
quarters or didrhds.
TRIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, a foot confifting of
three fyllables, and thofe all (hort; as melius.
TRIBULUS, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono-
gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments, and the
corolla of five open petals; it ha; no dylus; and there are
five gibbous, briftiy capfules, containing many feeds.
There are four fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
TRIBUNAL, in general, denotes the feat of a judge, call¬
ed in our courts bench.
TRIBUNE, among the ancient Romans, a magidratecho-
fen out of the commons, to proteft them againd the op-
preffions of the great, and to defend the liberty of the
people againd the attempts of the ienate and ccnfuls.
The tribunes of the people were fird edablifhed in the
year of Rome 259. The firft defign of the creation was
to (belter the people from the cruelty of ufurers, and to
engage them to quit the Aventine mount, whither they
had retired in difpleafure.
Their number, at fird, was but two ; but the next
year, under the confulate of A..Podhurrius Aruncius and
Caffius Vifcellinus, there were three more added; and
this number of five was afterwards increafed by L. Tre-
bonius to ten. The appellation tribune was given them,
by reafon they were at fird chofen out of the tribunes of
the army.
Military Tribune, an officer in the Roman army, who
commanded in chief over a body of forces, particularly
the divifion of a legion, much the fame with our colonel,
' or the French medre de camp.
TRIBUTARY, one who pays tribute to another, in or¬
der to live in peace with him, or (hare in his proteftion.
TRIBUTE, a tax or impod which one prince or date is o-
bliged to pay to another as a token of dependence, or in
virtue of a treaty, and as a purchafe of peace
TRICEPS, in anatomv. See Anatomy, p 205.
TRICHOSTEMA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia
gymnofpermia clafs. The upper iip of the cbrolla is fal¬
cated ; and the damina are very long. There are two
fpecies, bo h natives of America.
TRICUSPIDES valve, in anatomy. Sec Anatomy,
P- 279-
8 P TRIDENT.
T R I ( 904 > T R I
TRIDENT, an attribute of Neptune, being a' kind of
fceptre which the painters and poets put into the hands of
that god, inform of a fpear, or fork, with three teeth;
whence the word.
TR.XEMIMERIS, a kind of csfura in Latin rerfe, wherein
after the fird foot of the verfe there remains an odd fylia-
labie, which helps to make up the next foot.
TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiedy to oillces or em¬
ployments which lalt for threes years.
TRIENS, in antiquity, a copper money of the value of
one third of an as, which on one fide bore a Janus’s head*
and on the other a water-rat.
TRIENTALIS, in botany, a genus of the heptandria mo-
nogyok clafs. The calix confide of feven leaves, and
the corolla of feven equal plane fegments ; and the berry
* is dryifh. /There are two fpecies. Bone of them natives
of Britain,
TRIERS, or Treves, the capital of the electorate of
Triers in Germany, fituated on the river Mofelle, fixty
. miles fouth of Cologne: E. long. 6° ic/, N. lat. 49° jy.
TRIESTE, a port-town oflftria, fituated on the gulph of
Venice, fixty miles north-eaft of that city.
TRICON
‘■’'pRIGONOMETRY is that part' of geometry which
teaches how to-meafure the fides and angles of tri¬
angles.
Trigonometry is either plane or fpherical, according as
the triangles are Plans or Spherical ; of each whereof
wc fliall treat in order.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
Plane Trigonometry, or that which teaches the menfu.
rationqf plane triangles, is commonly divided into rytftfwgB-
lar and oblique-angular.
Of Rectangular Plans Trigonometry.
If in any right-angled triangle, ABC, (Plate CLIX.
fig. 1. nQ 1.) the hypbtheriufe be made the radius* and with
that ^ circle be defcribed on the one end, A, as a centre;
then, it is plain, that BC will be the fine of the angle B AC;
and if with the fame diltaoce, and on the end B as a centre,
a circle be defcribed, it is plain, that-AC will be the fine
of the angle ABC ; therefore, in general, if the hypothe-
nufe of a right-angled triangle be made the radius, the two
legs will be the fines of their oppoSte angles.
Again, if in a right-angled triangle DEF {ibid. n° 2.)
one of the legs, as DF, be made the radios, and on.the ex¬
tremity D (at one of- the oblique angles, viz. that which
is formed by the hypothenufe and the leg made radius) as a
centre, a circle be defcribed; it is plain, that the other leg,
EF, will be the tangent of the angle.at D, and the hypo
thenufe DE will be the fecant of the fame angle. The fame
way,' making the leg EF the radius, and on the center E
defcribing a circle, the other ifg DF will become the tan¬
gent of the angle at E, and the hypothenufe DE the fecant
of the fame.
The chord, fine, tangent,of aay arch, or angle, in
TRIFOLIUM, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia de-
candria clafs. The Sowers are fubcapitated ; the pod.
is hardly longer than the calix, and deciduous. There are
43 fpecies, 16 of them natives of Britain.
TRIGA, in antiquity, denotes akindofcarr, or chariot,,
drawn by three horfes ; whence the name.
TRIGLA, in ichthyology, a genus of hfhes, belonging to
the order of thoracicae. The head is loricated with rough
lines, andthere are feven rays in the membrane of thegills; -
There are nine fpecies. ^
TR1GLOCHIN, in botany, a^enus of the hexandria tri-
gynia clafs. The calix confiiis of three leaves, and the
corolla of three petals; and it has no ftylus. There are
two fpecies, both natives of Britain, viz. the paluftre,
or arrow-headed grafs; and the maritimum, or fea fpiked
grafs.
TP. IGLYPHS, in architecture, a fort of ornaments repeat¬
ed at equal intervals i» the Doric freeze.
TRIGGNELLA, in botany, a genus of the diadeiphia
decandria clafs. The yextllum and .alge are nearly equal,
open, and in the form of a Corolla, w’ith three petals.
There are iq fpecies, none of them natives ofBritair,.
O M E T R Y.
one circle, is proportionable to the chord, fine, tangent,, lire-,
ot the.fame arch in any other circle: from which,,and whar
has been faid above, the folutions of the feveral cafes of
rectangular trigonometry naturally follow. .
Since trigonometry confifts in determining angles andfides
from others given, there arife various cafes; which being
feven in rectangular.trigonometry, areas follow.
Case I. The jingles, and one of the legs, of a right'-
angled triangle being given, to find the other leg.
Example. In the triangle ABC [ibid. n° 3.) right-
angled at B, fuppofe the leg AB=86 equal parts, as feet,
yards, miles, irr. and the angle A=3.3° 40 ; required
the other leg BG, in the fame parts with AB.
I. Geometrically; Draw AB =86, from any line of e-
qual parts; upon the point B, ere6t the perpendicular BC ;
and, kfHy, from.* the point A, draw the line AG, making
with AB an angle of 33° 40' ; and.that line produced will
meet B C in C, and fo conilirute the triangle. The length
ofRCmay be found by taking it in your compafies, and
applying it to the fame line of equal parts that AB was ta¬
ken from.
II. By calculation: Firft, by making the bypothenufe
AC radius, the other two legs will be the fines of their
oppofite angles, viz. AB the fipe of C, and CB the fine
of A. Now fir.ee the fine, tangent, &c. of any arch, in
one cAele is proportionable to the fine, tangent, of the
fame arch in any. other circle, k is plain the fines of the
angles A and G in the circle defcribed by the radius A C,
muft be proportional to the fine of the fame arches or angles,
in the circle, that the table of artificial fines? &c. was cal¬
culated for ; fo the proportion for finding B C will be
S, C: AB :: S, A: B C
i. e. as the fine of the angle C in the tables, ie to the
length of AB (or fine of C in the circle whofe radius is AC)
fo is the fine ef the angle A in the tables, to the length of
BC
TRICON
B C (of fine of the fame angle in the circle whofe radius is
AC.) Now the angle A being 3 3P 4c/, the angle C muft
be 56° 2c/; therefore looking in the table of artificial fines,
for the fines of the two angles, and in the table of lo¬
garithms for the logarithm of 86 the given leg, we fhall find,
by proceeding according to the foregoing proportion, that
the required leg BC is 57.28 ; and the operation will ftanti
as follows:
4.93450 AB 86
9.74380 S,A 330 40'
O M E T R Y, 905
Secondly, making A B the radius, we have this proppr •
tion, viz.
R : fee. A :: A B : A C.
/. e. as the radius 90° ; 0.00000
to the fecant of A 34° so' 10.08314
foisAB 124 , 2.09342
to A C 150.2 2.17656
This may alfo be done, without the help of the recants:
for fince R : fee. :: Cc-S.: R ; therefore, the former pro¬
portion will become.
11.67830
9.92027 S, C 56° 20'
1.75803 BC 57.28
Secondly, making A B the radius, it is plain BC, the leg
required, will be the tangent of the given angle A ; and fo
the proportion for finding B C, when A B is made the ra¬
dius, will be:
R : T, A :: A B : B C
j. e. as the radius in the tables, is to the tangent of the
angle A in ihe fame ; fo the length of B A, or radius in the
fcheme, to the length^>f B C or tangent of A in the fcheme:
therefore kooking in the tables for the parts given in the
foregoing proportion, and proceeding with them according
to that rule, we fhall find B C to be.57.28 as before,, and
the operation will be as follows:
9.82352 T,A 330 40'
1.93450 AB 86
'i_i.75802
10.00000 Rad. 90?
175802 B.C 57.28
Laftiy, by making BC, the leg required* the radius, it is
plain that AB will be the tangent of C, and the proportion
for finding BC will be as follows:
T, C : R :: A B : B C
t. as the tangent of C 56°, 20' lOi^qS
is to radius 90® 10.00000
fo is the length of AB 86 1.93450
11.93450
10.17648
to the length of BC 57 28 1.75-802
Case II. The angles and one of the legs given, to find
the hypoihenufe.
Example : In the triangle ABC, (ibid. n° 4.) fuppofe
AB 124, and the angle A 340 20'; confequently the
angle C 550 40', required the hypotlienufe A C, in the.,
fame parts with A B.
I. Giovi-etrically : This cafe is conftrucled after the fame
manner with the former; and the hypothenufe, AC; is
found, by taking its length in your compaffes, and applying
that to-thefame line of equal parts from which AB was taken.
II. By caeulatien: Fhft, making AC the radius, we
fhall have the fallowing proportion for finding A C, viz.
S', C : R :: A B : A C
i e. as the fine of C 55° 40' 9.91686
is to radius 90° - 10 00000
feris AB 124 2.09342
S<1 AC . '150.3 2.17656
i. e. as the co-fine of A 340, 20 9.91686
is to the radius 90° 10.00000
foisAB 124 2.09342.,
to AC 150.2 2.17656
Thirdly, making B C the radius, we have the following
proportion, viz.
T, C : fee. C :: A B : A C.
i. e. as the tangent of C 550, 40' 16.16558
is to fee. C 550, 40’ 10.24872
fo is AB 124 2.09342
to AC 150.2 2.17656
This likewife may be done without the help of fecants ;
for fince T, : See.:: S,: R ; ^therefore the former analogy
will be reduced to this, viz. .
S, C : R :: A B : A C,
where no fecants do appear ; and it coincides wish that in
the firlt fuppefition of this cafe, fo we fhall not repeat thb
operation.
Case III. The angles and hypothenufe given, to find
either of the legs.
Example. In the triangle ABC, {ibid. 0^ 4.) fuppofe
the hypothenufe AC—146, and the angle A = 36° 25';
eonfequently the angle C = 53° 35'; required the leg A B.
I. Gcevietrically: Draw the line AB at pleafure, and
make the angle B A C equal to 36° 25’; then take A C
equal to 146 from any line of equal parts ; lafily, from the
point C, let fall the perpendicular C B, on the line A B.
So the triangle is conftnnfted, and A B may be meafured
from the line of equal parts.
II. By calculatidn : Firft, making A C the radius, we
fhali have the following proportion, viz.
R : S, C :: A C : A B,
i. e. As radius 90° 10.00000Y
to the fine ol C 53° 35’ 9-90565
fo is A C 146 2.16435
to A B H7-5 2.07000 -
Secondly, making AB the radius, we have the following
analogy, viz.
i. e. As the fecant of.A.
is to radius
fo is A C
to A B
Sec. A:R::AC: AB.
36° 25V
90°
146
117.5 '
IO.09435 :
10.00000 -
2.16435
2.07000 •
This may alfo be done without the help of fecants; for
fince fee. : R :: R : Co-S, the former proportion may be re¬
duced to this, viz.
R : Co-S, A :: A C : A B,
which is the fame with the proportion in the firft fuppofition.
Thirdly, by fuppofing BC the radius, we have the fol¬
lowing proportion, viz.
Sec. C-: T, C :: A C : A13,
/. e. as the fecant of C *53°, 35’
10.22647 :
i)o6
is to tire tangent of C
T R I G O N
53 » 35 10.13212
foisAC 146 2.16435
to A B »17-5 2 07000
Case IV. The two legs being given, to find the angles.
Example. In the triangle AB C, {ibid. n° 5.) fuppofe
AB 94 and BC 56, required the angles A and C.
I. Geometrically . Draw A B equal to 94, from any line
of equal parts; then from the point B raife BC perpendi¬
cular to A B, and take B C from the former line of equal
parts equal to 56 ; laftly, join the points A and C with the
ftraight line AC: fo the triangle is conftrudted, and the
angles may be meafured by a line of chords.
II. By calculation : Firft, fuppofing AB the radius, we
have this analogy, wz.
AB : B C :: R : T, A,
i e. as AB 94 i-973*3
is to BC 56 1.74819
fo is the radius 90° 10.00006
to the tangent of A 30° 47' 9.77506
Secondly, making BC the radius, we have this propor¬
tion, viz.
B C : BA :: R : T, C.
/. <?. as BC 56 1.74819
is to AB 94 1.97313
fo is the radius 90° 10.00000
to the tangent of C 590 13' 10.22494
Case V. The hypothenufe and one of the legs given, to
find the angles.
Example. In the triangle DEF, {Hid. n° 6.) fuppofe
the leg DE=83, and the hypothenufe DF=i26; required
the angles D and F.
I. Geometrically: Draw the line DE=83 from any line
of equal parts ; and from the point E raife the perpen¬
dicular EF: then take the length of DF=i26, from the
fame line of equal parts ; and fetting oge foot of your com-
paffes in D, with the other crofs the perpendicular EF in
E : laflly, join D and F ; and the triangle being thus con-
flrudted, the angles may be meafured by a line of chords.
II. By calculation : Firft, making DF the radius, we
fiiall have this proportion, viz.
DF : DE :: R : S, F.
i. e. as DF
is to DE
fo is radius
to the fine of F
126
83
90°
4i°
2.10037
1.91908
10.00000
9.81871
Secondly, by fuppofing DE the radius, we have the fol¬
lowing analogy, viz.
D E : D F :: R : Sec. D.
i.e. as DE 83 1.91908
is to DF 126 2.10037
fo is radius 90° 10.00000
to the fecant of D 48° qS' 1018129
This may be done without the help of fecants; for fince
R : fee. ::Co-S, : R, the foregoing analogy will become
this, viz.
D F : D E :: R : Co-S, D.
which gives the fame anfwer with that deduced from the
firft fuppofition.
Case VI. The two legs being given, to find the hypo¬
thenufe.
Example : In the triangle ABD, {ibid. n° 7.) fuppofe
the leg A 6 = 64, and BD = 56: required the hypothe-
.«!ufe.
O M E T R Y.
I. Geometrically: The conftruftion of this cafe is per=
formed the fame way as in the fourth cafe, and the length
of the hypothenufe is found by taking it in your compafles,
and applying it to the fame line of equal parts that the two
legs were taken from.
II. By calculation: This cafe being a compound of the
fourth and fecond cafes, we mud firft find the angles by the
fourth, thus:
AB:DB::R:T, A.
/. r. as the leg AB 64 1.80618
is to the leg DB 56 1.74819
fo is the radius 90 10.00000
to the tangent of A 410 11' 9.94201
Then by the fecoad cafe we find the hypothenufe requi¬
red thus :
S, A : R:: B D : A D,
i. e. as the fine of A 410, n' 9.81854
is to the radius 90° 10.00000
fo is the leg B D 56 1.74819
to the hypoth. AD 85.05 1.92965
This cafe may alfo be folved after the following man¬
ner, viz.
From twice the logarithm of the greater
fide AB 3.61236
fubtraft the logarithm of the lefler
fide BD
1.74819
and there remains 1.86417
the logarithm of 73.15; to which adding the lefler fide
BD, we ftiall have 189.15, whofe logarithm is 2.11093
to which add the logarithm of the leffer
fide B D 1.74819
and the fum will be 3.85912
the half of which is 1.92956
the logarithm of the hypothenufe required.
Or it may be done by adding the fquare of the two fides
together, and taking the logarithm of that fum, the half
of which is the logarithm of the hypothenufe required:
thus, in the prefent cafe,
the fquare of A B (64) is 4096
the fquare of B D (56) is 31,36
the fum of thefe fquares is 7232
the logarithm of which is 3.85926
the half of which is 1.92962=
to the logarithm of 85.05, the length of the hypothenufe
required.
Case VII. The hypothenufe and one of the legs being
given, to find the other leg.
Example. In the triangle BGD, {ibid. n° 8 ) fuppole
the leg BG=87, and the hypothenufe 60=142; required
the leg DG„
I Geometrically: The conftrudUon here is the fame as
in cafe V. the fame things being given; and the leg DG is
found by taking its length in your compafles, and applying
that to the fame line of equal parts the others were taken
from
II. By calculation : The folution of this cafe depends up¬
on the i(! and 5th ; and firft we muft find the oblique angles
by cafe 5th thus :
D B : B G :: R : S, D.
i, e. as the hypoth. D B 142
2.15229
TRICON
is to the leg BG 87 1.93952
fo is radius ^ 900, 10.00000
to the fine of D 370, 47' _ 97-8723
Then by cafe ift.^we find the leg DG required, thas :
R : S, B :: B D : D G,
i. e. as radius 90° 10.00000
is to the line of B 520, I3^ 9.89781
fo is the hypoth. DB 142 2.15229
to the leg DG 112.2 2,05010
The leg DG may alfo be found in the following man¬
ner, viz.
To the log of the film of the hypothenufe and 9 2 „ g
given leg, viz. 229 - - j i59 4
add the logarithm of their difference, viz. 55 1*74036
and their fum is 4.10020
the half of that is 2.05010
the log. of 112.2 the leg required.
Or it may be done by taking the fquare of the given leg
from the fquare of the hyp'othenufe, and the fquare root of
the remainder is the leg required : thus, in the prefent cafe.
The fquare of the hypothenufe (142) is 20164
The fquare of the leg BG (87; is 7569
Their difference is 12595
Whofe logarithm is 4.10020
The half of whi h is 2.05010
which anfwers to the natural number 112.2 the leg re-
quned.
Thus have we gone, through the feven cafes of right-
angled plane trigonometry.; from which we may obferve,
X. That to find a fide, when the angles are given, any fide
may be made the radius. 2. To find an angle, one of the
given fides mud of necefiity be made the radius.
Of Oblique angled Plane Trigonometry.
In oblique-angled plane trigonometry there are fix cafes ;
but before we fhew their foiution, it will be proper to pre-
mife the following theorems.
Theorem I. In any triangle ABC {ibid fig. 2. n° 2.)
the fides are proportional to the figns of the oppofite angles:
thus, in the triangle ABC, A B : B C :: S, C : S, A, and
A B : A C :: S, C : S B : alfo A C : B C :: S, B : S, A.
D«monf ration. Let the triangle ABC be inferibed in a
circle ; then, it is plain (from the property of the circle)
that the half of each fide is the fine of its oppofite angle :
but the fines of thefe angles, in tabular pasts, are propor¬
tional to the fines of the fame in any other meafure; there¬
fore, in the triangle ABC, the fines of the angles will be
as the halves of their oppofite fides ; and fince the halves
are as the wholes, it follows, that the fines of the angles
are as their oppofite fides ; r. e, S, C : S, A : : A B :
BC, 6c.
Theor. II In any plane triangle, as ABC {ibid, n® 2.)
the fum of the fides, AB and BC, is to the difference -of
thefe fides, as the tangent of half the fum of the angles
BAC, ABC, at the bafe, is to the tangent of half the dif¬
ference of tlufe angles.
Demon. Produce AB ; and make BH equal to BC ;
join HC. and from B let fall the perpendicular BE; through
B draw BD parallel to AC, and make HF equal to CD,
Vol. HI. m 98. 3
O M E T R Y. 907
and join BF ; alfo take BI equal to BA, and draw XG'
parallel to BD or AC.
1 hen it is plain that AH will be the fum, and HI the
difference of the fides AB and BC ; and fince HB is equal
to BC, and BE perpendicular to HC, therefore HE is e-
qual to EC ; and BD being parallel to AC and IG, and
AB equal to BI, therefore CD or HF is equal to GD,
and confequendy FIG is equal to FD, and half HG is e-
qual to half FD or ED. Again, fince HB is equal to BC,
and BE perpendicular to HC, therefore the angle EBC is
half the angle HBC ; but the angle PIBC is equal to the
fum of the angles A and C, confequently the angle EBC
is equal to half the fum of the angles A and C. Alfo, fince
HB is equal toBC. and HF equal to CD, and the included
angles BHF BCD equal, it follows that the angle HBF
is equal to the angle DBC, which >s equal to BC A : and
fince HBD is equal to the angle A, and HBF equal to.BCA,
therefore FBD is the difference, and EBD half the differ¬
ence of the two angles A and BCA : io making EB the
radius, it is plain EC is the tangent of Half the fum, and
ED the tangent of half the difference of the twa angles at
the bafe. Now IG being parallel to AC, the .triangles
HIG and HAC will be equiangular ; confequeBtly AH;
III:: CH : GH ; bur the wholes are as their halves, there-
f.re AH : IH : : ICH : 4GH ; and fince 4CH is equal ta
EC, ami 4-GH equal to 4 FD=ED, therefore AH : IH::
EC : ED. Now AH is the fum, and IH the difference of
the fides ; alfo EC is the tangent of half the fum, and ED
the tangent of half the difference of the two angles at the
bafe ; cqnfequently, in any triangle, as the fum of the fides
is to their difference, fo is the tangent of half the fum of
the angles at the bafe to the tangent of half their difference.
Theorem III. If to half the fum of two •quantities be
added half their difference, the fum will be the greater of
them; and if from half their fum be fubtratted half their
difference, the remainder will ae the leafi: of them. Sup¬
pose the greater quantity to be x=8, and the leffer z~6;
then is their fum 14, and difference 2 :
wherefore, adding —=7 to 2=i, we
. 2 2
get 8 the greateft of the two quantities :
and, in the fame manner, ——=7—
2 2
1=6, the leaf! of the two quantities.
Theor. IV. In any right-lined triangle, ABD {ibid.
n° 3.) the bafe AD is to the fum of the fides AB and BD,
as the difference of the fides is to the difference of the feg-
mehts of the bafe made by the perpendicular BE, viz. the
difference between AE ED.
Demon. Produce DB till BGbe equal to BA the leffer
leg ; and on B as a centre, with the diflance BA orBG, de-
feribe the circle AGHF, which will cut BD and AD in the
points H and F : then it is plain GD is the fum, and HD
the difference of the fides ; alfo lince AD is equal to EF,
therefore FD is the difference of the fegments of the bafe ;
but AD : GD :: HD : FD ; therefore the bafe is to the
fusn of the fides, 6c. as was to be proved.
Having eftablilhed thefe preliminary, theorems, we (ball
now proceed to the foiution of the fix cafes of oblique-angled
plane trigonometry.
Case I. In any oblique-angled plane triangle, two
8 CL
fides-
and
poS TRICON
and an angle oppofite to one of them being given, to find
the angle oppofite to the other.
Example. In the triangle ABC (ibid. n° 4.) fuppofe
AB=is6, BC=34, and the angle C (oppofue to AB)=56°
go7; required the angle A, oppofite to BC.
2. Geometrically : Draw the fine AC, and at any point
of it, fuppofe C, make the angle C=56° 30' ; then take
CB=84, and with the length of 156 = AB taken in' your
eompaffes from the fame fcale of equal parts, fixing one
point in B, with the other crofs AC in A. Laftly, join
A and B ; fo the triangle is conftrufted, and the required
angle A may be meafured by a line of chords^
2. By calculation : We haye, by theor. 1. the following
proportion for finding the angle A, viz.
v A B :B C :: S, C : S, A.
i. e. as AB 156 2.19312
To BC 84 1.92428
So is S, C 56° 30' 9.92111
To S, A 26° 41' 9.65227
Case II. The angles, and a fide oppofite to one of them,
being given, to find a fide oppofite to another.
Example. In the triangle HBG (ibid. n° 5.) fnppofe
the angle H 46° 15', and the angle B 540 22', confequent-
ly the. angle G 79° 23V and the leg HB 125, required
HG,'
G'eometricdly \ Draw HB 123, from any line of equal
•parts, and make the angle H 46° I5\ and B 54° 2 27, ■
then produce the lines HG and BG till they meet one ano¬
ther in the point G : fo the triangle is conftrufted, and HG
is rrteafured by taking its length in your compafies,„and ap
plying it to the fame line of equal parts that HB was taken
taken from.
2. By calculation : By the firft of the preceding theorems,
we have this analogy for finding HG. viz.
S, G: HB S, B :HG.
790 23 9 992 50
125 2.09691
540 22' 9 9©996
103 4 2.01437
1 angle oppofite to one of them
i. t. As the fine of G
is to the leg HB
fo is the fine of B
to the leg HG
Case III. Twofides and a
given, to find the third fide.
Example. In the triangle KLM (ibid. n° 6.) fnppofe
the fide CL 126 equal parts, and KM 330 of thefe parts,
and the angle L (oppofite to KM) 63° 20', required the
fide ML.
1. Geometrically: The confiruAion of this cafe is the
fame with that in Cafe I. (there beingthe fame things give^n
in both,) and the leg ML may be meafured by applying
it to the fame line of equal parts that the other two were
taken from.
2. By calculation: The folution of this cafe depends up¬
on the two preceding ones; and, firft, we muft fi.\d the other
two angles by Cafe I. thus:
MK:S, L::KL:S, M.
;. e. As the fide M&
To the fine of L
So is the fide KL
To the fine of M
Then by Cafe II. w
S. L:
i. e. As the fine of L
To the fine of K
63° 20
126
6o° 1'
; have the required leg ML, thus:
S. K:iMK:ML.
63° 2o'
53° 39'
2.11394
9.95116
2 10037
9-93759
9 953-6
9.90602
O M E T R Y.
So is KM 130 2 11394
To ML 117.2 v 2.06850
Case IV. Two fides and the contained angle being given,
to find the other two angles.
Example : In the triangle ACD (ibid. n° 7.) fuppofe
AC=io3, AD=i26, and the angle A=540 30' ^required
the angles C and D.
1. Geometrically : Draw AD=i26, and make the angle
As=54° 30'; then fet off 103 equal parts from A to C;
laftly, join C and D ; and fo the triangle is conftru&ed,
and the angles C and D may be meafured by a line of chords.
2. By calculation: The folution of this cafe depends up¬
on the fecond and third of the preceding- theorems; and firf!
v e muft find the fum and difference of the fides, and half
the fum of the unknown angles, thus:
The leg AD s 126,
The leg AC is 103
Their fum is 229
And their difference is 23
The fum of the three angles A, D, and"C, is 180°
The angle A is n 540 30
So the fum of the angles C and D will be 125° 30'
And half their fum is 62° 457
Then by theor. 2. we have the following proportion, v-z.
As the fum of the fides AD and AC=229 2. 35984
To their difference 23 t.36173
So is the tangent ofhalf the fum of
the unknown angles C and D
To tang, ofhalf their difference ii° 2' 9.29005
Now having half the fum and half the difference of the
two unknown angles C and D, we find the quantity of each
of them by theorem 3, thus:
} 62° 45'
io-.288i6
To half the fum of the angles C and D, 1
Add half their difference, viz.
62° 45'
And the fum is the greater angle C 730 47’
Again from half their fum, viz. 62° 45'
Take half their difference, viz. ii° 02
And there will remain the leffer angle D =51° 43’
N B. The grea-er angle is always that fubtended by the
greater fide: thus, in theprefent cafe, the greater angle C,
is fubtended by the greater fide AD ; and the leffer angle
D is fubtended by the leffer fide AC.
Case V Two fides and the contained angle beinggiven,
to find the third fide.
Example, In the triangle BCD (ibid. n° 8.) fuppofe
BCc=i54, BD—133, and the angle B—56° 03’; required
the fide CD
.1. Geometrically: The conftruftion of this cafe is the
fame with that of the laft, and the length of DC is found
by taking its length in your compaffes, and applying it to
the fame line of equal parts that the two legs were taken
from.
2 By calculation : The folution of this cafe depends up¬
on the fecond and fourth ; and firft we muft find the angles
by the laft cafe ; thus:
As the fum of the fides BD and BC 287
2.45788
TRICON
Is to their difference 21 * 1.32222
So is the langent of liaJf ‘he fumof? 6i<? g, ^
the angles D and C 3
To the tangent of half their difference 70 50’ 9.13806
So by theorem 3. we have the angles D and C'thus :
To half the fum of the angles D and C 6i° 58’
Add half their difference 7° 50’
And tlfe fum is the greater angle D 69° 48’
Alfo, from half the Turn 610 j8’
Take half the difference 7° 50’
And there remains the leffer angle C 54'’ 08’
Then by CafeII. w,e have the foilovvi-ng analogy foe find¬
ing DC the leg required, viz.
S. C : B D : : S, B : D C.
i. e. As the fine of C 540 08' 9.90869
To BD 133 2.12385
So is the fine of B 56° 03' 9 91883
To DC 136.2 2 13399
Case VI. Three fides being given, to find the angles.
Example: In the triangle ABC {ibid n® 9.) fuppofe
AB=i56, AC=i8j.7, and BC=84 ; required the angles
A, B, and C.
I. Geometrically : Make AC=i85.7 from any line of e-
qual parts; and from the fame line taking j 56=AB in your
compaffes, fix one foot of them in A, and with another
fweep an arch ; then take 84=BC in your compaffes, and
fixing one foot in C, with the other fweep an arch, which
will crofs the former in B : laftly, join the points B and A,
and B and C; fo the triangle will be conftrufted, and the
angles may be meaiured by a line of chords.
II. By calculation : Let fall the perpendicular, B D,
from the vertex B, upon the bafe'AC; which will divide
the bafe into two fegments AD and DC, the lengths where¬
of may be found by theorem 4. thus:
As the bafe AC 185 7 2 26893
To the fum of the fides AB and BC 240 2 38031
So is the difference of the fides 72 1 85733
To the diff. of the fegments of the bafe 93 1.96871
And having the fum of the fegraents viz. the whole bafe,
and their difference, we find the fegments themfelves, by
theorem 3. thus:
To half the fum of the fegments 92.8
And half their difference 46.5
And the fum is the greater fegment AD I39-3
Alfo from half the fum of the fegment ' 92.8
Take half their difference 46.5
The remainder is the leffer fegment DC 46 3
Now the triangle ABC is divided, by the perpendicular
DB, into two right-angled triangles, ADB and DBC; in
the firfi: of which are given the hypothenufe AB^iyd, and
the bafe.AD=i39.3, to find the oblique angles, for which
we have (by Cafe V. of rectangular trigonometry) the fol¬
lowing analogy, viz.
As AB 156 219312
To AD 139 3 2.14395
So is the radius 99° 10 00000
To the co-fine of the angle A 26° 40' 9.95083
O M E T R Y. 909
Alfo the angle C is found by the fame cafe, thus:
As BC 84 1.92428
To CD 46.3 166558
So is the radius 90° 10 00000
To the co.fine of C 56° 30’ 974130
Having found the ntfo angles A andC, we have the third*
B, by taking the fum of the other two from 180, thus :
The fum of all the^hree angles is x8o°
The fum of A and C is 83° io’
The angle B is 96° 50’
Ail the proportions ufed for the folutions of the feyeral
cafes in plain trigonometry, may be performed by the fcale
and compafs. On the fcale'there are feveral logarithmic
lines, viz one of numbers, another of fines, and one of
tangents, isc.
And the way of working a proportion by thefe is this*
viz, extend your compaffes from the firlt term of your pro¬
portion, found on the fcale, to the fecond; and with that
extent, fixing one foot in the third term, the other will reach
the fourth term required.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Spherical Trigonometry is the art whereby, from:
three given parts of a fphencal triangle, we difeover the.
reft; and, like plane .trigonometry, is either right-angled,,
of oblique-angled. But before we give the analogies for
the foiution of the feveral cafes in either, it will be proper
to premife the following theorems.
Theorem I. In all right-angled fphericaLtriangles,
the fine of the hypothenufe: radius:: fine of a leg : fine of
its opposite angle. And the fine of a leg : radius :: tan¬
gent of the other leg : tangent of its oppofite angle.
Demonstration. Let E D A F G {ibid. fig. 3.) re-
prefent the eighth part of a fphere, where the quadrantai
planes EDFG, EDBC, are both perpendicular to the quad¬
rantai plane ADFB ; and the quadrantai plane ADGC is
perpendicular to the plane EDFG ; and the fpherical tri¬
angle ABC is right-angled at B, where CA is the hypo¬
thenufe, and BA, BC, are the legs.
To the arches G F, C B, draw the tangents H F, OB,
and the fines GM Cl on the radii DF DB ; alfo draw
BL the fine of the arch AB, and CK the fine of AC; and
then join IK and OL Now HF, OB, GM, Cl, are all
perpendicular to the plane ADFB. And HD, GK, OL,.
lie all in the fame plane ADGC. Alfo FD, IK, BL, lie
all in the fame plane ADGC.^ Therefore, the right-angled
triangles HFD, CIK, ODL, having the equal angles
HDF„ CKI, OLB, are fimilar. And C'K : DG :: Cl: GM;
that is, as the fine of the hypothenufe: rad. :: fine of a leg ;
fine of its oppofite angle. For GM is the fine of the arc
GF, which meafures the angle CAB. Alfo, LB : DF::
BO : FH ; that is, as the fine of a leg: radius :: tangent
of the other leg : tangent of its oppofite angle, Q^. E. D,
Hence it follows, that the fines of the angles of any o-
blique fpherical triangle ACD {ibid. n9 2.) are to one ano¬
ther, dire&ly, as the fines of the oppofite fides. Hence it
alfo follows, that, in right-angled fpherical triangles, ha¬
ving the fame perpendicular, the fines of the hafes will be
to each other, inverfely, as the, tangents of the angles at
the bafes.
Theorem
TRICON
Theoreh IT. In any right-angled fpherlcal triangle
ABC (ibid. n° 3.) it will be, As radius is to the co fine of
one leg, fo is the co fine of the other leg to the co-fine of
the bypothenufe.
Hence, if two right angled fpherical triangles ABC, CBD
(ibid. n° 2 ) have the fame perpendicular BC, the co-fines
Of their hypothenufes will be to each other, direftly, as the
co fines of their bafts.
Theorem III. In ony fpherical triangle it will be, Asra-
dius is to the fine of either angle, fo is the confine of the
adjacent leg to the co-fine of the oppofite angle.
Hence, m right-angled fpherical triangles, having the
fame perpendicular, the co-fines of the angles at thebafe will
be to each other, dtreAly, as the fines of the verticalangles.
Theorem IV. In any right-angled fpherical triangle it
will be, As radius is to the co-fine of the hypothenufe fo is
the tangent of either angle to the co-tangent of the other angle.
As the fum of the fines of two unequal arches is to their
difference, fo is the tangent of half the fum of thofe arches
to the tangent of half their difference : and, as the fum of
the co fines is to their difference, fo is the co,tangent of
half the fum of the arches to the tangent of half the diffe¬
rence of the fame arches.
O M E T R Y.
Theorem V. In any fpherical triangle ABC (ibid, n®
4 and j.) It will be, as the co-tangent of half the fum of
half their difference, fo is thl co-tangent of half the b a feta
the tangent of the diflance (D£) of the perpendicular from
the middle of the bafe.
Since the lafl proportion, by permutation, becomes co-
,ang.AC±5£: .c,.ta„g. AE ; ; tang. AC^BC: t>^
DE, and as the tangents of any two arches are, inverfely,
as their co-tangents ; it follows, therefore, that tang. AE :
- AC+BC AC-BC
ang   : rtang.   ; tang. DEf or, that
the tangent of half the bafe is to the tangent of half the fum
of the fides, as the tangent of half the difference of the fides
to the tangent of the diftance of the perpendicular from the
middle of the bafe.
Theorem VI. In any fpherical triangle ABC (ibid, ra®
4 ) it will be, as the co tangent of half the fum of the
angles at the bafe, is to the tangent of half tfeeir differehce,
fo is the tangent of half the vertical angle to the tangent of
the angle which the perpendicular CD makes with the line
CF bifedting the vertical angle.
The Solution of the Cafes of right-angled fpherical Triangles, (ibid. n° 3.)
Given
Sought
Solution
The hyp. A C and
one aeole A
The oppofite leg I As radius : line hyp. AC:: fine A : fine
BC j BC (by the former parr of theor. 1.)
ineftyp AC and
one angle A
The hyp. AC and
one angle A
The hyp AC and
one leg AB
The aUj ecu
AB
The other angle
C
The other leg
BC
The eppoftte an-
glAC
As radius : co-fine ol A : : tang. A C,
tang. AB by the latter part of theo. t
As radius : co-fine of AC :: tang. A
co-tang. C (by theorem 4.)
As co fine AB : radius :: co-fine AC :
co-fine BC (by theorem 2 )
The hyp AC and
one leg AB
The hyp. AC and
one leg AB
The adjacent an
gle A
As fine AC: r dius :: fine AB : line C
(by the former part of theorem x.)
As rang AC: tang. AB :: radius: co-,
fine A (by theorem r.)
As lacliu-. : line AB :: tangent A : tan'j
__| „ .   gent BC (by theorem 4.)
One leg ABTod the The oppofite an As radius:fine A :: co-fine of AB:co j
adjacent angle A gle C fine of C (bv theorem 3.)
One leg AB and the
adjacent angle A
The other leg
BC
I One leg AR and the
adjacent angle A
The hyp.
AC
I As’co fine of A : radius :: tang. AB :|
I tang. AC (by theorem 1.)
tang. /H- (by tneorem 1.)
~As tang. A : tang. BC :: radius : fir
AB (by theorem 4.)
One leg BC and the
oopofite angle A
The other leg
AB
j One leg BC and the
onpofite angle A
The adja ent
gHC
As co-fine BC : radius:: co fine of A
fin. C (by th. orem 3 )
One leg BC and the
oppofite angle A
The hyp.
AC
Both legs
AB and BC
The hyp.
AC
As lin. A : lin. BC :: rahius : lin. AC
(by theorenm 1 )
Both legs
AB and BC
An angle, fuppofe
A
As radms : co-line AB :: co-fine BC:
fine AC (by theorem 2 )
Both angles
A and C
A leg, fuppofe
AB
As fine AB : radius :: tang. BC : tang.
A (by theorem 4.) -
As fine A : co-fine C :: radius: co-fine
AB (by theorem 3 )
Both angles
A and C
The hyp.
AC
As tan. A : co-tang. C :: radius : co-j
fine AC (by theorem 4.)
Note, The 10th, 11th, and 12th cafes are ambiguous; fince.it cannot be determined
by the data, whether A, B, C, and A C, be greater or lefs than 90 degrees each.
911
TRIGONOMETRY,
The Solution of the Cafes of oblique fpherical Triangles, [ibid. n° 4. and 5.)
Cafe
Given
Two fides AC, BC,
and an angle A oppo
fite to one of them.
Two Tides AC, BC,
and an angle A oppo-
fite to one of them.
Two fides AC, BC,
and an angle oppolite
to one of them
Sought
The angle B op-
pofite to the
other
T he included
angle ACB
The other fide
AB'
TwoTides AC, AB,
and the included
angle A
Two fides AC, AB,
and the included
angle A
Two angles A, ACB,
and the fide AC
betwixt them
Two angles A, ACB,
and the fide AC
betwixt them
Two angles A,B, and
a fide AC oppofite
to one of them
Two angles A,B, and
a fide AC oppofite
to one of them
Two angles A,B, and
a fide AC oppofite to
one of them
The other fide
BC
Either of the o-
ther angles, fup-
pofe B
The other angle
B
Either of the o-
tHer fides fup-
pofe BC
Solution
As fine BC : fine A :: fine AC : fine B
(by theor. 1.) Note, this cafe is ambi¬
guous when BC is lefsthan AC; fince
it cannot be determined from the data
whether B be acute or obtufe.
Upon AB produced (if need be) let fall
the perpendicular CD : then (by theor.
4.) rad. : co-fine AC :: tang. A :
tang. ACD, but (by theor. x.) as tang.
BC : tang. AC :: co-fine ACD : co¬
fine BCD. Whence ACB=ACD:
BCD is known.
As rad.: co;fine A :: tang. AC : tang.
AD (by theor. 1.) and (by theor, 2.)
as co-fine AC : co-fine BC :: co-fine
AD : co-fine BD. Note, this and the
lafl: cafe are both ambiguous when the
firft is fo.
As rad. : co-fine A :: tang. AC :
AB (by theor. 1.) whence AD is alfo
known : then (by theor. 2.) as co-fine
AD : co-fine BD :: co-fine AC : co¬
fine BC.
As rad.: co-line A :: tang. A C : tan
AD (by theorem 1.) whence BD is
known : then (by theor. 4.) is fineBD:
fine AD :: tan. A : tan, B.
As rad. : co-fine AB :: tang. A : co¬
tang. ACD (by theor. 4.) whence
BCD is alfo known : then (by theor.
3.) as fine ACD : fine BCD :: co-fine
A : co-fine B.
The fide BC op
polite the other
As rad. : co-fine AC :: tang. A : co¬
tang. ACD (by theo. 4J whence BCD
is alfo known : then, as co-fine BCD:
co fine ACD :: tang. AC : tang. BC
(by theor. 1 )
As fine B : fine AC :: fine A : fine BC
(by theorem 1.)
The fide AB
betwixt them
The other angle
ACB
As rad. : co-fine A :: tang. AC : tan
AD (by theor 1 ) and as : tang. B
tang. A :: fine AD : fine BD (by
theor. 4.) whence AB is alfo known,
V-OL. III. N° 98.
As rad : co-fine AC :: tang. A : eo
tang. ACD (by theor. 4.) and as
fine A : co-fine B :: fine ACD : fine
BCD (by theor. .3.) whence ACB is
alfo known.
8 R
TRIGONOMETRY.
9 r 2
Mf the three (ides
AB, AC, and BC
Sought
An angle, (up-
pofe A
tang. |= AB ; tang.-
AC+BC
AC-BC
tang.
tang. DE, thedif-
All the three angles
A,B, and ACB
tance of the perpendicular from, the
middle of the bafe (by theor. 6.)
whence AD is known : then, astang-
AC : tang. AD ;: rad. : co-fine A (by
theorem i.)
A fide, ftippofe
AC
ABC-hA ABC-—A
As co-tan.   : tan. 
2 2
ACB
: : tang,  : tang, of the angle ii
2 -
eluded by the perpendicular and a line
bifedting the vertical angles ; whence
ACD is alfo known: then (by theor,
5,) tang. A : co-tang. ACD:: rad.
oc-fine AC.
T R I
TRINGA, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of grallte. The beak is fomewh-at cylindrical,
and as long as the head; the noftrils are linear ; and
there are four toes on the feet, the hind one coofifting of
one jo»t, and elevated above the ground. There ate 23
j'pecies, principally diflinguiflied by their colour.
TRINGLE, in architecture, a name common to feveral
little fquare members or ornaments, as regkts, liftels,
and plat-bands. It is more particularly ufed for a little
member fixed exactly over every triglyph, under the plat*
(^and of the architrave, from whence the gutjae or pen¬
dant drops hang down.
TRINIDAD, or Trinity-island, is fituated in the
Atlantic or American ocean, between Co0 and 62° of
well longitude, and between 90 and 11° of north lati¬
tude ; it is.about ninety rniles lpng, and fixty broad.
TRINIDAD, a port-town of Mexico, in America, fitua-
■ ted in the province of Guatimala, ah hundred and twenty
miles fouth-eaft of the, city of Guatirnaia: W. long. 94°,
N. lat. f3o.
TRINITARIANS, thofe who believe in the Trinity ; thofe
who do not believe therein, being called aiititrinitarians.
Trinitarians alfo denote an order of relig’cus infliiuted.
at Rome in the year 1198,’under the pontificate of In¬
nocent III. the founders whereof were John de Matha,
and Felix de Valois. Ilis holioefs gave them permifEon
to eftablffli this order for the deliverance of captives, who
groaned under the tyranny ȣ the infidels': he gave them,
as a habit, a white gown,ornamented with a red and blue
crefs. After the death of . the two founders, pope Ho-
norious III. continued the ofder, and their rule was ap¬
proved by his fuccefTor1 Clement IV- in 1267. At £rft
they were not permitted to eatfitlhy and, when they travel¬
led, were to ride only upon affes. But their rule v/as
, ccfrecled and mitigated by the bifltop of Paris, and the
abbots of St. Vidor and St. Genevieve* who allowed-
them tv tat any kind of food, and to'ufe horfes. This
T R I
order poflefTes about tvo hundred and fifty convents in
thirteen different provinces: fix.of which are in-France »
namely, France, Normandy, Picardy, Champaine, Lan¬
guedoc', and Provence ; three in Spain, viz. New Ca-
flile, Old Caftile, and Arragon ; one is in Italy, and one
in Portugal. There was formerly tlte province of Eng¬
land, where this order had forty-three houfes ; that of
Scotland, where it had nine ; and: tbV of Ireland, where
it had fifty-two; befides a great number of monofieries
in Saxony, Hungary, Bohemia, and other countries.
The convent of Cerfroy in France is- head of the order.
TRINITY, in theology, the ineffable myffery of three per-
fens in one God-; Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Trinity Sunday, a fcfiival obferved-on the Sunday next
after Whitfunday, in honour of the holy Trinity. The
ebfervation of this feftival was firif enjoined in the coun.-
cil of Arles, anno
Fraternity $f the Trinity, a religious fociety inflituted at
Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. I hefe religious
were appointed to take care of the pilgrims who panic to
vifit the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul. The fociety
originally conftfted of only fifteen religious, who a-fiemh-
led on the fitft Sunday of every month, in the church of
St. Saviour del Campo, to hear the exhortations of the
founder; after whofe death pope Paul IV. gave the fra¬
ternity the church of St. Benedidt, near which they have
fince built a large hcfpital, for the reception of pilgrims.
The fraternity is one of the mod confiderable in Rome,
and mod of the nobility of both fexes have’ been, mem¬
bers thereof.
TRIO , in mufick, a part of a concert wherein three per-
fons fing ; 01‘more properly a mufical compofition confid¬
ing of three parts.
TRIONES, in adronomy, a fort of coodellation or adem-
blage of feveral dars in the urfa minor, commonly called
Charles’s wain.
TR.I0YTER.IS,' in botany, a genus of the decandria trl-
gyaia
< V^jr & ohKqtte angled TBlooJSTOMfiTliY
T>
B
jvr 3-
r £af*<K,:6 '{J -
^rfiv’y.: ' ■- , -(.i ■: '. Hs bjiltia V
e« :-»-6 01 ♦ JcdUt wi*. X’’* i- ^ • nl’ v;.
,y. ■ I't a ; :-:ah5v ' ,.!’■• if, • t . .'.OS;; ,•
- , .••. .nr ■ i. • • r i .. i'^, ; ; - IT
ad' {[b -bit* ■"•>- iv.jrci . I T'.' •+'. -v ioi<S
-
■ - ii' ■; • qn'.'iq
-Ustjia •; -..qiiab ••;<»* T{> iojjqi..- ->r tab-.o nt
c«v. .; ' c•:.brtf. wAiio h Sal
navQwism; t?o<' ;.:q'cq rSr.i: „ a* fesfa kv< kisiisg sdT
cid .•tt.aolqxa.tBJT a.d'djfoi .lo saiQd
4a*o» fi iioyt Sik bnfi ( b ;3<j dm’ i^s'd ataw enhftod
oi { btog abt^wmla Jtlti .Istosi y'n.> as# llift Jh-rbirf'v .
'* isriio atf? ni buB ^otBsl 1o. .donKi'd B.9*«od ad bnsrt suo
-s «joh^di 5a»ftin^BnT « oi’ow^iife asw ?H aiostbsctJ
qj yi!-' awB'ib. «i)jo§ Wf.ir'ba6 ytovt 4tiw bagtob
.^als.'. ttts vjdto yd sjmdaHiQl li^uadl ; ssItoH stidw.ow'l
yd ,6jhu\ , .o bs.-iqwtihl ad ani« '.lo'ito •;.rir 8„
-six t’ ■ ; ?{*o:! '.!* .^noj-iA ViBf/i u : n'-: v Htnsi q- b
• <ai. ':c rto 80>'»';JSfi»c-i > a, .:. . ’ iid ■ ■ /:> . u nblriiJ a;H ■
. i s(U y<i qu-a - •; • . , 'i . ahod-to - '
• *•■> .-u,; io sT.e! ■ ■ .; t.i i • . .Mt; orivt
■ ■ Lui w'.'i .a ,a: >i'.d. .• .'s* olid I
a-: U ti.b-vv .sjaiuB) irit oi
•: Mg- . .da.B-Tii.iljtv/bjfnoax
,1-d ’ :•! bj.iSol ^ftOg^BV/ h{i«
ih : •••: a.... ',£.d : rfj.dnvv ,viflsr,^
du. ..'• •. . :.-.'.nnq a-ftfiix ad -d baWd
I 1 . • - ■ ,' ■’ >o: oi i-j • uqtj nj-Ail
. ■ ,:L ... ■■■■<■ ? f;'.6i' i I(|I
. ’.. osi'dib wnirb .
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- -4 ' ■ ^ m.i ;
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rlJ.dT ?'<f«fte»da»9l»l sl^O, fbi.;
-
ad: jnrtSJ yrit -.6 ,^r-? J • .'■ (•• T ‘‘ - . ' •
?
alii ; >!T0& io agsfdo.-ab:- cs i Fi^-J q'f
.-•'m’m... k? : iat- '♦••• 330 -r -in «■:* ,T .IV :
-qoi ,!dO$ lO IBJ1 *>313*1 ,yili p'ai.'i.,oi . '•r V Jii’f
svjw «fydt> bo* iilsr.q adt . i-nfv ,jsj1 .sf'j -jd ba3ic.;
sd? udi b-xjrn wfj o: 3 v/ j .4.-.bsTo. : i ox,-..',
snifi- r.rfj sa/.iii.'i'l srii aii-qT-a c? •••k.. *• w
9ti* dssial ai" yadr Vuv/siada .TOfii.odtaa bes yie4,
.eaoiftib; q i-c' k-yvvnfsb
2i (BaiaV 1- . ,65. ' ik; i.lO'lIff?
-3 yc ak- -» an- no sal iu h ^narL-.M yd fad
' ,-diuol arii-no biii^IrblV '.bn* fiirioH yd .fisa a At no tqyo
lo aiotfi yds gaols gnibnaixa ; arii -ao aiauT yd bar
Jifis-diool arit o: --ran aril ;moft r.-aoitt .jibabS.-arii-
' *3‘im baibmiri cwi 3>tB~ t :‘u4 bou-k/odj * modi
a fit gctHw tiqqiiT ' . ' : " aiUr; "as n‘ b*o/d
. Cf. 0.1.'p ,n-i k ; i‘ta ! -• -obi. ;< ■
to >toil s ..-jfisiqx;• ! Tu^l -M-.'*"
.isf: Ifs 233*1 to aar.il t/y ?sri :«ri: Inal
also lo srin^i -jaif; o/*•-.-/ yil; 41 yri-pitaB ai't?7• . HI.VT
■ ;. ■! .:■ ■ • : ■ t -. " ' .■
. - . . -V - .
taatg lc g i.-bfl lol t»iU&q >i.;-fk-lo agiAow'S:. as jo *
- ■ r --nnrt.n? i'.yro I J .. ’ :5!'
it  ■ if.-, V ■■ ■'. lo afdnoo yli T • -
.- ■. *i . i: !< ' I,-;-i.v Kai r ,
r-.t' • - .! t. .-
it*
T R I (91
gyma clafs. The ciilix confifts of fix fegmeats ; and there
are three feeds, with a double membranous wing. There
is but one fpecies, a native of Jamaica.
TRIP, a fea-term. A fhip is faid to bear her top-fails a-
trip, when fhe carries thehi hoitted up to the higheft.
TRIPARTITE, fomething divided into three parts, or
made by three parties, as indenture tripartite, &c.
TRIPARTITION, a divifibn by three, or the taking the
third part of any number or- quantity.
TRIPHTHONG, ingrammar, anafiemblage or concourfe
of three vowels in the fame fyilable, as quce.
'TRIPLE, in mufick, is one of the fpecies of meafure or
time. SeeMusictc.
TRIPOI}, in antiquity, a famed facred feat or ftool, fup-
ported by three feet, whereon the priefts and fibyls were
placed to render oracles. It was an the tripod that the
gods were faid to infpire the Pythians with that divine
fury and enthfcfiafrh wherewith they were feized at the
delivery of their prediftions,
TRIPOLI, a hate of Africa, which including Barca, is
bounded by the Mediterraneaa-fea on the north, by E-
gypt on the eaft, by Nubia and BilduJgeridon the fouth,
and by Tunis on the weft ; extending along thtrlhore of
the Mediterranean from the north-'weft to the fouth-eaft
about a thoufand mile?, but fcarce two hundred miles
broad in any place. The city of Tripoli, being the ca¬
pital of this ftate, is furrounded with a wall and other
fortifications: E; long, N. lat. 330 3c/.
TRIQUETROUS, among botanifts, exprrffes a fruit or
leaf that has three fides or faces all flat.
TRIREMIS, in antiquity, a gaily with three ranks t>f oars
on a fide.
TR1SMEGISTUS, an epithet or furname given to one of
the two Hermefes, or Mercuries, kings of Thebes in E-
gypt, who is faid to be contemporary with Mofes.
TRISPASTON, in mechanics, a machine with three pul-
fies, or an aftemblage of three pullies for raifing of great
weights.
TRISYLLABLE, in grammar, a word confifting of three
fyllabies.
TRIT ICUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calik confifts of two fefliie valves, contain¬
ing three flowers. There are eleven fpecies, only three
of them natives of Britain, viz. the repens, or cbuch-
grafs ; the canioum, „or bearded wheat-'grafs ; and the
junceum, or fea v/heat-grafs. For-the1 culture of wheat,
fee Agriculture, p. 60.
TRITON, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of
vermes moHufca. The body is oblong ; the tongue is
fpiral; it has 12 temaeuia, fix on each fide', the hind-
moft ones havicg claws like a crab. There is tCc one
fpecies,: found in holes of rocks, about the fea-fhore.
■ Triton, a fea demi-god, held by the ancients to be'an of¬
ficer or trumpeter of Neptune, ^trending on hira, and
carrying his orders and'commands from Tea to fea.
TRITURATION, the a<ft of reducing-a folid body into
a fubtiie powder,; called alfo levigatioo and pulverization.
TRIUMFETTA, in botany, a gerlus of the dodecandria
monogynn clafs. The corolla eon lifts of five petals,
and the calix of five leaves ; and the capfele is hairy,
and opens in four parts. There are two fpecies, both
native? of India;
TRIUMPH, in Roman antiquity,, a public and fokmn ho-.
3 ) T* R O
nour confeited by the Rdmaps on a victorious general*
by allowing him a magnificent entry into the city.
The greater triumph, called alfo curulis, or fimpiy the
triumph, was decreed by the fenat# to a general, upon
the conquering of a province, or gaining a fignal vkftory.
The day appointed for the ceremony being arrived, fcaf
folds were ereflcd in the forum and circus, and all the
other parts of the city, where they cjould belf behold the
pomp: the fenate went to meet the conqueror without
the gate called Capena or Triumphalis, and marched bask
in order to the capitol; the ways being cleared and clean-
fed by a number of officers and tipftaffs, who drove away
fuch as thronged the paflage, or ftraggled.up and down.
The general was clad in a rich purple robe, interwoven
with figures of gold, fetting forth his great exploits ; his
bufkins were befet with pearl ; and he wore a crown,
which at firft was only laurel, but afterwards gold; in
one hand he bore a branch of laurel, and in the other a
truncheon. He was drawn in a magnificent chariot, a-
dorned with ivory and plates of gold, drawn ufualiy by
two while horfes ; though fometimes by other animals,
as that of Pompey, wlten he triumphed over Africa, by
elephants ; that of Marc Antony, by lions ; that of He-
Jioga-balus, by tygers; that of Aurelian, by deer, &c.
His children were at his feet, and fometimes on the cha-
riot-horfes. The prpeeffion was led up by the muficians,
who played triumphal pieces, in praife of the general;
tbefe were followed by young men, who led the victims
to the ftqrifice, with their horns gilded, and their heads
adorned with ribbands and-garSinds; next came the carts
and waggons, loaded with all the Tpoils taken from the
enemy, with their horfes-, chariots, thefe were fol¬
lowed by the kings, princes, and generals, who had beers
taken captives, loaden with chains: after tliefe appeared,
the triumphal chariot, before which, as it paffed, they
all along ftrewed flowers-, and the people, with loud ac¬
clamations, called out lo triumph? I The chariot was
followed by the fenate, clad in white robes ; and the fc-
nate by fach citizens as had been fet at liberty or rlan-
fomsd: and the proceflion was clofed by the priefts and ;
their officers and utenfils, with a white ox led along, for-
the chief victim. In this order they proceeded through
the triumphal gate, along the via facia, to the capitol,
where the. victims were flain. In the mean time all the
temples were open,, and all the altars loaded with offer¬
ings and incenfe’; games and combats were celebrated in
the public places, and rejoicings appeared every where.
TRIUMVIR, one of three perfons who govern abfolutely,
and with equal auffiority, in a ftate. It is chiefly applied
to the Roman government t Csefar, Pompey, ftnd CrafTus
were the firft triumvirs, who- divided the government ,a-
mongft them. There were alfo other officers, called
triumvirs ; as the triumviri or trefviri capitaies, who were
the keepers of the public goal :. they had the office of pn-
nifhing malefaflors ; for which purpofe they kept eight
. lifters under them.
TRIUMVIRATE, an abfolute government, adminiftered-
by three perfons with equal authority.. See the prece¬
ding article.
TROCHANTER, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. jSt.
TROCHE, .in pharmacy, a fort of.rriedicrne, made of glu¬
tinous fubftances, ipto little cakes, and afterwards ex*
Cccated.
TRQCHdEUS
T R O ( 914 ) T U M
TROCFLEUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a foot
confiding of two fyllables, the firft long, and the- fecond
fliort.
TROCHILUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of picse. The beak is Tubulated and thread-fhaped,
with a tubular apex', and longer than the head, the fu-
perior mandible flieathiog _the inferior ; the tongue is
thread-fhaped ; and the feet are fitted for walking. This
genus cojnprehends all the humming birds, which are the
fmalleft of birds, and are diftinguifhed by their , colour
and the fhape of their bills.
TROCHLEA, one of the mechanical powers, ufually cal¬
led a pulley. See Mechanics.
TROCHLEARES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 290.
TROGLODYTES, in the ancient geography, a people of
./Ethiopia, faid to have lived in caves under ground.
Psm. Mela gives a flrange account of the Troglodytes :
he fays, -they did not fo properly fpeak as fhriek, and
that they lived on ferpents.
TROJA, or Trojan games, were games faid to be in-
flituted by Afcanius, fon of /Eneas, and afterwards kept
up by the Romans with great folemnity. They were
celebrated by companies of boys, neatly drefTed, and fur-
r.ifhed with little arms and weapons, who unaltered in the
public circus. They were chofen, for the moft part,
out of the noblefl families, of Rome, and the captain of
them had the honourable title of princeps juventutis, be¬
ing fometimes next heir to the empire, and feldom lefs
than the fon of a principal fenator.
TROIS rivieres, a town of North America, in the pro¬
vince of Canada, fituated on the river of St. Laurence,
fifty miles fouth of Quebec : W. long. 750, and N. lat.
46° 45'-
TRONAGE, an ancient cuftomary toll, paid for weighing
of wool. This word is particularly mentioned in a char¬
ter granted to the mayor and citizens of London; in which
city there is an officer called tronator, whofe bufinefs it
is to weigh the wool that is brought thither.
TRONCONNEE, in heraldry, denotes a crofs, or other
thing, cut in pieces and difmembered, yet fo as all the
pieces keep up the form of a crofs, though fet at a fmall
diflance from one another.
TROOP, a fmall body of horfe cir dragoons, about fifty
or fixty, fometimes more, fometiihes lefs ; commanded
by a captain. Each troop, befides a captain, has alien-
tenant, cornet, quarter-mafler, and three corporals, who
are the loweft officers of a troop. '
TROP/EOLUM, in botany, a genus of the oftandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The calix confifts of one calcarated leaf;
and the corolla of five unequal petals; and there are three
dry berries. The fpecies are three, all natives of Peru.
TROPE, in rhetoric, a kind of figure of fpeech, whereby
a word is removed from its firfl and natural fignification,
and applied with advantage to another thing, which it
: does not originally mean ; but hnly (lands for it, as it
has a relation to or connexion with it: as in this fen
tence, God is my rock. Here the trope lies in the \vord
rock, which being fiim and immoveable, excites in our
minds the notion of God’s unfailing power, and the Ready
fupport which good men receive from their dependence
upon him.
TROPHY-, among the ancients, a pile or heap of arms of
a vanquiffied enemy, raifed by the conqueror in the moft
eminent part of the field of b’attle.
TROPICS, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 469.
TROUT, in ichthyology. -See Salmo.
TRUFFLES. See Lycoperdon.
TRUMPET, a mufical inftrument, the moft noble of all
portable ones of the wind kind, ufed chiefly in war a-
mong the cavalry, to diredt them in the ferviee.
TRUNCATED, in general, is an appellation given to fuel)
things as have, or feem to have, their points cut off:
thus we fay, a truncated cone, pyramid, leaf, eirr.
TRUNCHEON, a fhortftaff, or battoon, ufed by kings,
.generals, and great officers, as a mark of their command.
TRUNDLE, a fort of carriage with low wheels, whereon
heavy and cumberfome burdens are drawn.
TRUNK, among betanifts,-denotes the ftem, or body, of
a tree ; or, that part between the ground and the place
where it divides into branches.
TRUNNIONS, or Trunions of apiece of ordnance, are
thofe knobs or bunches of the gun’s metal, which bea:
her up on the cheeks of the carriage.
TRUSS, a bundle, or certain quantity of hay, ftraw, &e(
A trufs of hay is to contain fifty-fix pounds, or half
an hundred weight ; thirty-fix’-truffes make a load.
Truss is alfo ufed for a fort of bandage or ligature, made
of fteel, or the like matter, wherewith to keep up the
parts in thofe who have hernias or ruptures.
TRUSTEE, one who has an eftate, or money, put or
trufted in his hands for the ufe of another.
TRUTH, a term ufed in oppofition to falfhood, and ap¬
plied to propofitions which anfwer, or accord, to the na¬
ture and reality of the thing whereof fomething is affirm¬
ed or denied.
TUB, in commerce, denotes an indeterminate quantity or
meafure ; thus, a tub of tea contains about fixty pounds;
and a tub of camphor from fifty-fix to eighty pounds.
TUBE, in general, pipe, conduit, or canal ; a cylinder
hollow withinfide, either of lead, iron, wood, glafs, or
other matter, for the air, or fome other fluid, to have a
free paffage or conveyance through.
TUBERCLE, in botany, a kind of round turgid root, in
form of a knob or turnip.
The plants which produce fuch roots are hence deno¬
minated tuberofe, or tuberous, plants. _
TUBERCLES, among phyficians, denote little tumours
which fuppurate and difeharge pus, and are often found
in the lungs, efpecially of confumptive perfons.
TUBIPORA, a genus of fubmarine plants, belonging to
the cryptogamia. clafs, of the hardnefs of coral, and con-
fifting of eylindiic tube* rifing from a thin cruft of the
fame fort of matter with themfelves.
TUBULI lactiferi, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
P-277-
TUCUMAN, the fouth-weft dmfion of the province of
La Plata, or Paraguay, in South America
TULIP A, in botany,-a genus of the hexandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla is bell-fliaped, and confifts of fix pe¬
tals ; it has no ftylus. There are three fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
TUMEFACTION, the ait of fwelling or rifing into a
tumour
TUMOUR, in medicine and furgery, a preternatural
. rifing
TU B; (
rifing or eminence on any part of the body. See Sur¬
gery,,p.663. '
TUN, a large veffd or cafliof an oblong form, biggeft: in the
middle, and diminifbing towards its two ends, girt about
■with hoops, and ufed for flowing feveral kinds of mer-
chandize, for convenience of carriage ; as brandy, oil,
fugar, fltins, hats, (3c. This word is alfo ufed for cer¬
tain veflels of extraordinaiy bignefs, ferving to keep wtne
in for feveral years.
Tun is alfo a certain weight whereby the burden of fhips,
&c. are efleemed.
TUNBRIDGE), a town of Kent, fitnated thirty-three miles
well of Canterbury, much reforted to on account of its
excellent waters.
TUNICA, a kind of waiflcoat, or under garment, in ufe
amongft the Romans. They wore it within doors by it-
felf, and abroad under the gown. The common people
could not afford the toga, and fo went in their tunics,
whence Horace calls them popellus tunicatus.
Tunica, in anatomy, is applied to the membranes which
inveil the veflels, and divers others of the lefs folid parts
of the body ; thus the inteflines are formed of five tunics,
or coats.
TUNIS, the capital of the kingdom of Tunis, thirty miles
fouth of Carthage ruins, 300 miles call of Algiers, and
120 fouth-weft of Trapano, in Sicily ; a populous city,
about three miles in circumference : E. long. io° N.lat.
36° 20 . The kingdom of Tunis is iituated on the coail
of Barbary, in Africa, being bounded by the Mediter¬
ranean fea -on the north. It extends 20:0 miles in
length from eaft to weft, along the fiiore of the Medi¬
terranean ; the breadth is very unequal.
TUNNAGE is ufed for a cuftom or impolt, payable to the
crown, for goods and merchandize imported or exported,
and is to be paid after a certain rate for every tun there¬
of, This duty, as well as that of poundage, was firft
granted for life to king Charles II and has been continu¬
ed in the fame manner to his royal fuccelfors, down to
his prefent majelty king George III.
TURBAN, the head-drefs. of moft of the eaftern nations.
It confifls of two parts, a cap, and a falh of fine linen
or taffety, artfully wound in divers plaits about the cap.
The cap has no brim, is pretty flat, though roundifh-at
top, and quilted with cotton, but does not cover the
ears. There is a good deal of art in giving the turban a
fine air, and the making of them is a particular trade.
The falh of the Turks turban is white linen ; that of
the Perfians red woollen. Thefe are the diftinguifhing
marks of their different religions. Sophi, king of Per-
fia, being of the feft of Ali, was the firft who afl’umed
the lad colour, to diftinguifh himfelf from the Turks,
who are of the fe£t of Omar, and whom the Perfians e-
fteem heretics.
TURBINATED, is a term applied by naturalifls, to fhells
which are fpiral, or wreathed, conically, from a larger
bafis to a kind of apex.
TURB1TH, or Turpeth-root, in the materia mediea,
the cortical part of the root of an Indian convolvulus,
brought to us in oblong pieces, of a brown or afh-colour
on the ourfide, and whitifh within : the bell is ponderous,
not wrinkled, eafy to break, and difcovering a large
quantity of refinous matter to the eye : its tafhf is at firfl:
Iweetilh ; when shewed for a little time, it becomes acid,
Vot. III. N°. 98. 3
915 ) T U R
pungent, and^ftaufeous. This root is a cathartic, not of
the fafeft, or mod certain kind.
Turbith-mineral. See Chemistry, p. 139.
TURBO, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging to the
order of vermes tedacea. This is an animal of the fnaii
kind ; the Audi confifts of one fpiral folid valve ; and-the
aperture is orbicular. There are 49 fpecies, didinguilhed
by peculiarities in their thells.
TURBOT, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes.
TURCICA terra, turky-earth, in the materia me-
dica, a very fine bole or medicinal earth, dug in great
plenty in the neighbourhood of Adrianople, and ufed by
the Turks as a fudonfic and adringent, and famous a-
mong them in pedilential difeafes.
TURCOISE, in natural hidory, an ore of copper.
There are, indeed, two kinds of turcois ; the one a
true and genuine ore’of copper ; the other the bones of
animals tinged to a beautiful blue colour, by having
been buried in places where copper-ore has been near
them.
TURCOMANIA, a province of Afiatic Turky, 'bounded
by Perfia-on the ead, and anlwers to the ancient Armenia j
its capital is Erzerum.
TURDUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order
•of pafleres. The bill is fomewhat cylindrical and cal-
trated ; the nodrils are naked ; the faux is ciliated? and
the tongue is lacerated. There are 28 fpecies, princi¬
pally didinguiflied by their colour.
TURENNE, a town of Guienne, in France: E. long-.i°
20, and N. lat. 450 7'.
TURGESCENCE, among phylicians, denotes a fwelling,
or growing bloated.
TURIN, the capital of Piedmont, in Italy, and of the king
of Sardinia’s dominions, is fituated at the confluence of
the rivers Po and Doria, 100 miles fouth-wed of Milan :
E. long. 70 16', and N. lat. 44“ 50'.
TURIONES. among herbalids, denotes the firft young
tender fhoots which plants annually put forth.
TURKEY, in ornithology. See MeleAgris.
TURKY, a very extenfive empire, comprehending fomeuf
the richeft countries in Europe, Alia, and Africa.
Turky in Eurppe, comprehends Romania, Bulgaria,
Servia, Bofnia Ragufa, Wallacbia, Moldavia, Beflara-
bia, Budz ac, Crim, and little Tartary, with Albania,
Epirus, Macedonia, TheiTaJy, and all the ancient Greece,
with its numerous iflands. See Romania, fyc.
Turky in Afia, comprehends Natoiia, Diarbeck, Sy¬
ria. Turcomania, and part of Georgia and Arabia.
And Turky in Africa, comprehends the fruitful and
.extenfive country of Egypt.
TURMERIC, in the materia medica, the root of a plant,
called by botanifts curcuma. See Curcuma.
TURNEP, in botany, a fpecies of braflica. For the cul¬
ture of them, fee Agriculture, p. 67.
TURNERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigynia
cltfs. The calix is funnel-fhaped, and confifts of five
fegments ; there are five petals inferted into the calix ;
the ftigmata are divided into many parts; and the capfule
has one one cell. There are three fpecies, none of them
natives of Britain.
TURNING, a branch of fculpture, being the art of falhi-
oning hard bodies, as brafs, ivory, wood, &c. into.a
rotind or oval form, in a lathe.
8 .S
TURNSOLE,
T U S (9
TURNSOLE, in botany. See Croton.
TURPENTINE, atranfparent fort of refin, flowing either
naturally or by incifion from feveral undtuous and refin*
ous trees, as the terebinthus, larch, pine, fir, &c.
The turpentine of Chio or Seio, which is the only ge¬
nuine kind, and that which gives the denomination to all
the red, is a whiti/h refin, bordering a little on green,
very clear, and a little odoriferous ; drawn by incifion
from a tree called terebinthus, very common in that
ifland, as alfo in Cyprus,, and fome parts of France and
Spain.
The ufes of turpentine in medicine are innumerable.
It is a great vulnerary, and very detergent, and as fuch
is prefcribed in abfceffes, ulcerations, It promotes
expeftoration, and as fuch'is prefcribed in difeafes of the
lungs and bread ; but it is moll: famous for clearing the
urinary paffages, and as fuch prefcribed in obftrudtions of
the reins, in gonorrhoeas, &c.
Qil of Turpentine, There are two kinds of oil drawn
from turpentine, by diflillation ; the firft white, the fe-
cond red, both ellcemed as balfams proper for the cure
of wounds,, chilblains, eir«\ But they are fo little ufed
among uf,, that it is not eafy to procure either of them.
What is commonly fold under the name of oil of tur¬
pentine, or etherial oil, is only a diftillation of the refin-
ous juice of the tree, frelh as it is gathered. It is ufed
with fuccefs in the cure of green wounds, as alfo by the
painters, farriers, To be good, it mult be clear
and pellucid as water, of a ftrong penetrating fmeli, and'
very inflammable. ,
TURRITIS, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia fili-
quofa clafs. The pod is very long, and angular ; the
calix is connivent and ereft ; and the corolla is ereft.
There are two fpecies, both natives of Britain, viz. the
glabra, or great tower-muftard; and the hirfuta, or hairy
tower-mudard.
TURTLE, in ichthyology. See Testudo.
TUSCAN order, in architedure. See Architectitre,
P- 3S1- "
Tuscan earth, in the materia-medica, ayellowilb, white,
pure bole, confiderably heavy, of a very fmooth furface,
not eafily breaking between the fingers, but adhering
{lightly to the tongue, and melting very readily in the
* mouth. It is dug in many parts of Italy, particularly a-
bout Florence, where there is a dratum of it eight or
ten feet thiclc, at the depth of five or fix from the fur-
face. It is given as a fudorifie, and edeemed a great
medicine in fevers, attended with diarrhoeas.
TUSCANY, a-duchy of Italy, encompatled by the pope’s
territories on the north-ead and Youth, and bounded
by theTufean Sea on the fouth-wed, and by the territo¬
ries of Lucca- and Jvlodena on the north-wed, being .zoo
miles long, iand almod as many broad.
TUSSILAGO, in botany, a genes of the-fyngenefia poly-
gamia fiiperflua cUf*. The receptacle is naked ; the pap¬
pus is fimple ; the fcaies of the calixare equal, andfome-
what membranaceous. There-are nine fpecies,- three of
them natives of BYtain, v/z. the farfara, or common
colt’s foot ; thehybrida, or long-dalked butter-btrr; and
the petafitas, or common butter bur.
The common colt’s foot ftancls recommended in coughs,
aedi other dYorders-of the bread.-and -lungs.
« ) T r L
TUTOR. See Law, Tit. vii. i, «5rr.
TUTTY, a recrement of mixed metals, In which lapis
calaminaris, or zink in its metallic form, is an ingredient,
colle&ed in the furnaces where brafs is made from copper
and calamine, and where the mixed metals are run. In
thefe furnaces they place, under the roof and about the
upper parts of thefides, rods of iron, and fometimes rolls
of dry earth, about which the tutty is afterwards found.
Therefore the uuty which we ufe in the {hops at this
time, owes its origin truly and properly to zink, which
fublimes with averyfmail fire into a kind of flowers, and,
when fufed with any other metal, flies from it in abun¬
dance under this form, and alfo frequently takes fome
part of the metal, more or lefs, up with it. Hence it is
evident, that the tutty or cadmia of the ancients, mud
have been wholly different from oars, as theyafed no zink
nor any of its ores in the furnace where they colledled it.
Our tutty then is a hard and heavy femimetallic recre¬
ment, fometimes met with in the fliops in thin flat pieces or
flakes, but mod abundantly in tubular cylindric pieces,-
refembling fegments of the barks of trees pufhed off from
the. branches without breaking; thefe are of different
lengths and diameters. The fined tutty is that of a fine
deep brown on the outfide, and of a yellowilh tinge with¬
in ; the thicked, brighted, and mod granulated ; the
barded to break, and that which has lead fotilnefs a-
mong it.
Tutty is celebrated as an ophthalmic, and frequently
employed as fuch in unguents and coliyria.-
TUXFORDy a market-town of Nottinghamlhire, twenty -
miles north-ead of Nottingham.
TWEED, a river of Scotland, which rifes on the confines
of the {hire of Clydefdale, and running eadward through
Tweedale, and dividing the fliire of Mers from Tiviot-
dale and Northumberland, falls into the German fea at
Berwick.
TWEEDALE, a county of Scotland, bounded by Lothian
on the north, by Mers and Tiviotdale on the ead, by
Annandale on the fouth, and Clydefdale one the wed.
TWEER, a city of Ruflia, capital of the province of Tweer,
fituated on the river Wolga, ninety miles north of Mof-
cow, in E. long. 30° 37'’, N. lat. 570 25'.
TWELFTH-day, thefedivalof the epiphany, or the ma-
nifedation of Chrid to the Gentiles; fo called, as being
the twelfth day, exclufive, from the nativity or Chrid-
mas-day
TWILIGHT, that light, whether in the morning before
fun-rife, or in the evening after fun-fet, fuppofed to be¬
gin and end when the lead dars that can be feen by the
naked eye ceafe, or begin to appear. By means of the
atmofphere it happens, that though none of the fun’s di¬
re# rays can come to us after it is fet, yet we dill-enjoy
itsTefleded light far fome time, and night approaches by
degrees. For after the fun is hid from oivr eyes, the up¬
per part of our atnvofphere remains for fome time expo-
fed to its rays, and from thence the whole is illuminated-
byreStdion. s
TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth, by an ani¬
mal which ordinarily brings fonh but one.
TYGER, or Tiger in zoology. See Leo.'
TYLE, or Tile, in building, a fort of thin lanrnated
brick, ufed on the roofs of haufes ^ or more properly a-
kit'd*
T Y P ( 9!
kind of fat clayey earth, kneaded and moulded, of a juft
thicknefs, dried and burnt in a kiln like brick, and ufed
in the covering and paving of houfes.
TYMPAN of an arch, is a triangular fpace or table in the
corners or fides of an arch, ufually hollowed, and enrich¬
ed fometimes with branches of laurel, olive-tree, or oak,
or with trophies, ere. fometimes with dying figures, as
fame- isc. or fitting figures, as the cardinal virtues.
Tympan, among printers, a double frame belonging to the
prefs, covered with parchment, on which the blank fheets
are laid in order to be printed off. See Printing-
press.
TYMPANUM, in mechanics, a kind of wheel placed round
an axis or cylindrical beam, on the top of which are two
leyers or fixed ftaves, for the more eafy turning the axis,
in order to raife a weight required. The tympanum is
much the fame with the peritrochium, but that the, cylin¬
der of the axis of the peritrochium is much fhorter, and
lefs than the cylinder of the tympanum.
Typanum, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 296.
TYMPANY, in medicine. See Medicine, p. no.
TYPE, a copy, image, or refemblance of fome model.
The word is much ufed among divines, to fignifya fym-
bol, fign, or figure of fomething to come ; in which fenfe
it is commonly ufed with relation to antitype, which is
the thing itfelf, whereof the other is a type or figure.
Type, among letter-founders and printers, the fame with
letter. See Letter.
7 ) T Y R
Type is alfo ufed to denote the order obferved in the in.
tenfion and remiffion of fevers, pulfes, <bc.
TYPHA, in botany, a genas of the monoecia triandria
clafs. The amentum of both male and female is cylin¬
drical ; the £alix of the male confifts of three leaves ;
and neither of them have any corolla. There are two
fpecies, both of them natives of Britain, viz. the latifo-
lia, or great cat’s-tail; and anguftifoiia, or narrow-lea.
ved cat’s-tail.
TYPHODES, in medicine, a kind of ardent or burning
fever ufually attending on eryfipelafes of any of the vif-
cera.
TYPOGRAPHY, the art of printing. See Printing.
TYRANT, among the ancients, denoted fimply a king or
moharch. But the ill ufe feveral perfons invefted with
that facred charadfer made of it, has altered the import
of the word; and tyrant now carries with it the idea of
an unjoft and cruel prince, who invades the peoples liber¬
ty, and rules in a more defpotic manner than the laws of
nature or the country do allow of.
TYRE, a poft-town of Phoenicia, in Afiatic Turky, fitu.
ated on the eoaft of the Levant, in E. long. 36°, N. lat.
320 ^2 , being anciently the capital of Phoenicia.
TYRONE, an Irilh county, in the province of Ulfter ;
bounded by Londonderry, on the north ; by Armagh and
Laugh-neah, ontheeaft ; by Monaghan and Fermanagh,
on the fouth ; and by Donnagal on the weft.
U,V’
VAX
VACCINTUM, in botany, a genus of the odlandria
monogyrsia clafs. The calix is above the.fruit ; the
corolla confifts of one petal; the filaments are inferted
info the receptacle ; and the berry has four cells, contain¬
ing many feeds. There ar-e twelve fpecies, five of them
_ natives of Britain, viz. the myrtillis, or black whortle¬
berries or bilberries ; the uliginofum, or great bilberry-
bu!h; the cantabricum, or Infli whorts ; the vitis idea, or
red wborts; and the oxycoccus, or craw-berries.
VACUUM, in philofophy, denotes-a fpace empty or de*
void of all matter or body.
VAGINA, properly fignifies a Iheath, or fcabbard: and
the term vagina is ufed, in archite&ore, for the part of a
terminus, becaufe refembling a (heath, out of which the
ftatue feems to iflue.
Vagina, in anatomy, a large canal, formed of a robuft or
ftrong membrane, and reaching from the external orifice,
or os pudendi, in women, to the uterus See Anatomy.
VAGUM, or par. vagum. See Anatomy, 249^
VAIR, in heraldry, a kind of fur, confiding of divers little
pieces, argent, and azure, refembling a dutch U, or a
bell glafs. . See Plate CXLVH. fig. 21..
VAIRY, in heraldry, expmTes a coat, or the bearings of
a- coat, when changed or chequered, with varrs: andhence,
V A L
vairy-cuppy, or vairy-taffy, is a bearing compofed of
pieces reprefenting the tops of crutches. See Plate
CXLVII. fig. 22.
VALAIS, a territory of Switzerland, being a long valley
of an hundred miles extent, lying between the head of
the river Rhone and the lake ofGeneva.
VALANTIA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia mo-
ncecia clafs. Neither the hermaphrodite or male have
any calix ; the corolla of each confifts of four fegments ; .
th; re are four (lamina ; the ftylus of the hermaphrodite is
bifid, and it has but one feed. There are three fpecies,
only one of them, viz. the cruciata or crofs-wort, a na¬
tive of Britain.
VALENCIA, the capital of a province of the fame name,
in Spain, fituated in a fine plain on the. river Guadalavian
W. long 25_/, N lat. jqO 2Q/.
VALENTINIANS. in church-liiftory, a feift of Chriftian
heretics, who fprung up in the lid century, and were fo
called from their leader Valentinus.
The Valentinians were only a branch of the Gnoftics,
who realized or perfonified the platonic ideas concerning
the deity, whom they called Pleroma, or plenitude.
Their fyftem was this: the firft principle is Bythos, i. e.
depth,.which remained many ages unknown, having with
it Ermoe or thought, and Sige or filence ; from thefe
fprung the N-pns, or intelligence, which is the only Ion,
equal to, and alone capable of comprehending, the By-
thos; the filler of Nous they called Alethia, or truth:
and thefe conlBtuted the firft quaternity of aeons, which
were the fource aad original of all the red : for Nous and
Alethia produced the world and life ; and from thefe
two proceeded man and the church. But Ijefides thefe
eight principal oeons, there were twenty two more; the
l.ht of which, ‘called Sophia, being dtfirous to arrive at
the lonowledge of Bythos, g^ve herfelf a great deal of
unqafinefs, which created in her Angerand Fear, of which
was born Matter. But the Horos, or bounder, ftopped
her, preferved her in the pleroma, and reftored her to
her perfeftion. Sophia then produced the Chrift and
( 918 )
VAR
prevents its return; or admits its efcape, and preventsrts
re-entrance.
Valve, in anatomy, a thin membrane applied on feveral
civities and veflels of the body, to afford a paffage to
certain hfimoufs going one way, and prevent their teflux
towards the place from whence they came.
VAN, a term derived fronj the French avant, or avaunt,
fignifymg £<^c>n?, or foremojl of any' thing : thus we fay ,
the van-guard "of an army, &jc.
VANDALId., the ancent name of the countries of Meck¬
lenburg and Pomerania, in Germany.
VANELLUS, in ornithology. SeeTfu.iGA.
VAPOUR, in philofophy. the moiit and moil volatile par¬
ticles of .bodies, feparated by heat, and raffed into th e
atmofphere. ~ "
See Rain
the idoly. Spirit, which brought the sons to their jaft Vapours, in medicine, a difeafe properly called hypo, or
perfedlton, and made every one of them contribute their the hypochondriacal difeafe, and in men particularly the
utmoll to form the Saviour, Here Enthymefe, or thought, fpleen. See Medicine, p. 148.
dwelling ne.a'r; the Pleroma, perfedted by the Chrifl, pro- VARI, in medicine, liitle hard and ruddy tumours, which
duced every ihing that is in the world, by its divers paf frequently infeit the faces of young perions of a hot tem-
iions. The Chriit fent into it the Saviour, accompanied perament of body.
with angels, who delivered it from its paflions, without VARIATION, in geography and navigation, is the devia¬
tion of the magnetical needle, in the mariner’s compafs.
annihilating it: from thence was formed corporeal matter.
And in this manner did they romance, concerning God,
nature, and the myfteries of the Chnltian religion.
VALERIANA, in botany, a genus of the trundria mo-
nogynia clafs. It has no calix ; the corolla confills of
one petal, gibbous at the bafe, and fituate above the fruit.
There are sofpeeies, three of them natives of Europe,
viz. the officinalis, or great wild valerian, whofe rootis
alexipharmic, fadorific, and diuretic ; the dioica, or
marffi valerian ; and the locufta, or lambs-lettuce.
VALET, a French term, ufed as a ccmraon name for all
domeftic men fervants, employed in the more fervde offi¬
ce^, as grooms, footmen, coachmen,
VALETUDINARY, among medical writers, denotes a
• perfon of a weak and fickly conllitution, 'and frequently
out of order.
VALID, in law, an appellation given to a&s, deeds, tranf-
aftions, i&v- which are clothed with all the formalities
reqniiite to their being put into execution.
VALLADOLID, a city of Old Cal'ile, in Spain, eighty-
bx miles north-weft of Madrid: W. long. 40 50', and
N. lat. 410 7,6'.
VALLENGIN, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in Switzerland, fituated near the lake of Neufchattel,
twenty five miles north-weft o! Bern.
VALLISNERIA, in-botany, a genus of the dicecia dian-
dria clafs. The fpatha both of male and female confifts
of two fegments, and the corolla of three petals ; the
fpadix of the male Is covered with ftofCules ; the capfule
has one cell, containing many feeds; and there are three
ftyli. There is but one fpecies, a native of Italy
VALOIS, a duchy of France, fituated on the three great
rivers, the Seine, the Marne, andthe Oyfe.
VALUE, in commerce, denotes the price or worth of any
thinS-
VALUED rent, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xii. 6.
VALVE, in hydraulics, pneumatics, &c. is a kind oflid,
or cover, of a tube or veffel, fo contrived as to open one
way ; bwAvhicb, the more forcibly it is preffed the other
way, the clofer it ihuts the aperture; fo that it either
admits the entrance of a fluid into the tube or vcffel, and
from the true north point, towards either, the eaft t
weft, ; or it is an arch of the horizon, intercepted between
the meriadian.of the place ofobfervation and the magnetic
meridian. See Navigation.
VARIEGATION, among botanifts and florifts, the aft of
ftreaking or diverfifying the leaves, &c. of plants and
flowers with feveral colours.
Variegation is either natural or artificial. Of natural
variegation there are four kinds; rhefirit ffiewing itfeif in
yellow fpots here and there in the leaves of plants called by
gardeners the ye’ iw bloach. ^ The fecond kmd, called the
white bloach, marks the leaves with a great number of
white fpots or ftripes; the whkeft lying next the furfaceof
the leaves, ufually accompanied with*other marks of a
greeniffi white, that lie deeper in the body of the leaves.
The third, and moft beautiful, is where the leaves are
edged with white, being owing to fome diforder or in-
feftian in the juices, which flams the natural complee-
tion or verdure of the plant. The fourth kind is that
called the yellow edge.
a Artificial variegation is performed by inarching or
inoculating a ftriped or variegated plant into a plain
one of the fame fort; as a variegated common jeffamia
into a plain, common, Spaniffi, Brazil, or Indian jeffa-
min .
A fingle bud or eye, Mr Bradly obferved, being pla¬
ced in the efcutcheon of a diltempered tree, where it
can only receive nourilhment from the vitiated juices,
will become variegated proportionably to the nourifhment
it draws; and will partake more of the white and yellow
juice, than if a branch (hall be-fnarched, the bud having
nothing to nourifh it but the juices of the plant it is ino¬
culated on ; whereas a cyon inarched is fed by the ftri¬
ped plant, and the healthful one.
As to the natural ftripes and variegations, there are forae
particular circumftances to be obferved: 1. That fome
plants only appear variegatedor bloached in thefpringand
autumn, the Rains disappearing as they gather ftrength:
of this kind are rue, thyme, and marjoram. 2. Some
plants are continually bioached in the fpongy part of
their
V A R { <
their leaves, the fap-veffels all thl time remaining- of
a healthful green ; which, being 1!lengthened by rich
manure, or being inarched in. healthful plants, throw off
the diftemper. 3. In other plants, the difeafe is fo root¬
ed and inveterate, that it is propagated with the feed :
fuch are the arch-angel, water-betony, bar-k crefs, bor-.
rage, ftriped cellary, and fycomore ; the fides of which
produce liriped plants.
VARIOLaE, the small-pox. See Medicine, p. 75.
VARIX, in medicine, the dilatation of a vein, arifing from
the too great abundance or thicknefs of the blood.
VARNISH, a thick, vifcid, (hining liquor, ufed by pain¬
ters, gilders, and various other artificers, togiveaglofs
and lultre to the works; as alfo to defend them from.tbe
weather, dull, dr<r.
There are feveral kinds of varnifnes in ufe; as the fic-
cativeor (frying varnifh, made ©f oil of afpin, turpentine,
and fandarach melted together. White varnifh, called
alfo Venetian varnifh, made of oil, of turpentine, fine tur¬
pentine, and maflic. Spirit of wine varnifh, made of fan¬
darach, white amber, gum. elmvand maftic ; fervingto
gild leather, pi&ure-frames, withal.
1. To make. the.„white varnifh: take gum fundarach,
of the clearefl: and whitefl fort, eight ounces; gum
maftic, of the cleareft fort, half an ounce ; offarcocolla,
the whitefl:, three quarters of an ounce'; Venice turpen¬
tine, an ounce and a half; benzoin, the cleareft, one
quarter of an ounce : white roiin, one quarter of an
ounce ; gum animas, three quarters of an ouncelet all
thefe be difiblved, and nnxed in the manner following:
Put the farcocolla and rofin into a little more fpirits
than will cover them to diffolve ; then add the benzoin,
gum animae, and venice-turpentine, into either a glafs or
glazed earthen vefTel, and pour oh as much fpirits as will
cover them an inch ; then put the gum maftic into a glafs
or glazed veflel, and-pour ftrong fpirits upon it, covering
it alfo about an inch thick, to diflblve it rightly; then put
your gum elemi into a diftinhl vefiel as before, and cover
it with fpirits to diffolve.
For this purpoie, you need only break the rofin a
little, andjiowder the gum animae, farcocolla, and ben¬
zoin.
Let all Hand three or four days to diflblve, fhaking the
glalfes, <bc. two or three times a-day, and afterwards
put them all together into a glazed veffel, ftirring them
well, and flrain the liquor and gums gently, beginning
with the gums, through a linen cloth.
Then put it into a bottle, and let it fland a week be¬
fore you ufe it, and pour off as much of the. clear only,
as you think fufficient for prefent ufe.
A hard varnifh that will bear the muffle may be thus
made: Take of colophony, an oupce ; ,fet it over the fire
in a well-glazed earthen veflel, till it is melted ; then by
little and little, ftrew in two ounces of powder of amber,
keeping it ftirring all the while with a ftick; and when you
perceive it begin to harden or refill the ftick, then put in
a little turpentine oil, which will thin and foften it imme¬
diately ; then put in two ounces of gum copal, finely
.powdered, fprinkling it in as you did the amber, now and
then pouring in a little oil of turpentine ; and when it is
done, ftra'in it as before diredted.^
This is proper to varnifh over gold ; and the things
done with ic mail be fet into a declining oven, three or
Vox. HI. N» 99. 3'
9 ) VAR
four days fucceflively, and then it will refill even the fire
itfelf.
To make a varnifh for gold, or metals made in imi¬
tation of gold. Take colophony, and, having melted
it, putin two ounces of amber finely powdered, and fome
fpim of turpentine; and, as the amber thickens, keep it
well ftirring: then put in an ounce of gum elemi, well
pulverized, and more fpir t of turpentine; conftamiy Hir¬
ing the liquor til! all is well mixed and incorporated : but
take care, however, to 'ufe as little turpentine as yoa
can, becaufe the thicker the varnifh is made, the har¬
der it will be. Let this be done over a fand-heat, in an
open-glafs . then ftrain it, as is directed for the preceding
varnifh. This varnifh is to be ufed alone, firft warming
the veffels made of paper pafte ; and lay it on with a
paintiog-brufh before the fire, but not too near, left the
fire raife it into blifters. After this has been done, har-
• den it three feyeral times in ovens; firft with a flackbeat,
the next with a warmer, and the third with a very hot
. one; and the vefTels will look like polifned gold.
And as for fuch veflels, fac, as fliall be made with
faw duft. and gums, the varnifh may be made of the fame
ingredients as, above-mentioned, except the gum elemi;
and this will dry in the fun, or in a gentle warmth.
To make a varnifh for any thing covered with leaf-fil-
ver. Fii ft paint the thing over with fize, and ground
chalk or whiting; let them ftand till they are thoroughly
jdry, and then do them over with very good gold-fize of
a bright colour (for there is much difference in the colour
of it, fome being yellow, and others almoft white; the
firft: is moft proper for gold, and the laft for (liver. When
this fize is fo dry as that it will juft ftick a little to the
touch, lay on the leaf-filver, and ciofe it well to-the fize.
To make a varnifh forfilver. Melt, in a well-glazed
pipkin, fome fine turpentine, and put in three ounces of
white amber finely powdered (more or lefs, according
to the quantity your work will require;) put it in by little
and little, keeping it continually ftirring, adding by de¬
grees fome fpirit of turpentine, till all the amber is dif-
folved ; and then add' to it an ounce of farcocolla well
beaten, and an ounce of gum elemi well levigated, adding
now and then a little fpirit of turpentine, till all is diflol-
ved: do this over a gentle fire, and keep it conftandy
ftirring.
This varnifh will be as white and ftrong as the former;
and is to be ufed warm, and hardened by degrees in an
oven, as varnifhed gold, whereby it will look like polifh-
ed filver
'JJiying en'of: Yarni s,hes. i. If you varnifh wood, Jet
your wood be Teryfmooth, clofe-grained, free from .greafe,
and rubbed with rufhes. 2 Lay on your colours as
fmooth as poffible; and, if the varnifh has any blifters
in it, take them off by a polifli with rufhes. 3. While
you are varnifhing, keep your work warm, but not too
hot. 4. In laying on your varnifh, begin in the middle^
and ftroke the bruih to the outfide; then to another ex-
freme part, and fo on till all be covered; for if you be¬
gin at the edges, the brufh will lea^ve blots there, and
make the work unequal,. 5 In fine works ufe the fineft
* tripoli in polifhing: do not pobfh it at one time only; but
after the firft time, let it dry for two or ihreedays, and
pobfh it again for the laft time. 6i In the fi ft polifhmg,
you inuft u-fe a good deal of tfipoli; butin the next avery
8 T little
VAT ( 920 ) V E I
iiitle will ferve: when you have done, wafti off your tri-
poli with afponge and wafer: dry the varnifh with a dry
linen rag; and clear the work, if a white ground, with
oil and whiting ; or, if black, with oil and lamp black.
Varnish alfo (ignifies a fort of fliining coat, wherewith
potter’s ware, delf ware, china ware, &c. are covered,
which givps them a fmoothnefs and luflre. Melted lead
is generally ufed for thefirfi:,, and fmalt for the fecond.
Varnish, among medalifts, fignilles the colours antique
medals have acquired in the earth.
The beauty which nature alone js able to give tome-
dais, and art has never yet attained to counterfeit, en¬
hances the value of them ; that is, the colour, which cer¬
tain foils, in which they haye a long time lain, tinges
the metals withal : fome of which are blue, almoft as
beautiful as the turquoife; others with aninimitableVer-
milion colour; others with a certain fliining polifhed
brown, vaftly finer than brafil figures.
- The moft ufual varnifli is a beautiful green, which
hangs to the fined ftrokes without effacing them, more ac¬
curately thin the fined enamel does on metals.
No metal but brafs is fufceptible of this; for the green
rud that gathers on filver always fpoils it, and it mud be
got off with vinegar or lemon-juice.
FalfiSers of medals have a falfe or modern varnifh,
which they ufe on their counterfeits, to give, them the
appearance, or air, of being antique. But this may be
difcovered by its foftnefs, it being foftner than the natu¬
ral varnifh, vhich is as hard as the metal itfelf.
Some depofit their fpurious metals in the earth for a
confiderabie time, by which means they contrarfl a fort
of varnifh, which may impofe upon the lefs knowing; o-
thers ufe fal armoniac, and others burnt paper.
VAS, a veffel either for mechanical, chemical, culinary, or
any other* ufes’.' In anatomy, all the parts which con
vey a fluid are called veffels, as the veins, arteries, aod
lymphatics,
VASCULAR, fomething confiding of divers veffels ; as
arteries, veiqs, nerves, &c~
-VASCULIFER.OUS plants, fuch whofe feeds are con¬
tained in veffels, which are fometimes divided into cells.
VASE, a t^rm frequently ufed for ancient veffels dug from
under ground, oc otherwife found, and preferved in the
cabinets of the c irious.
In architcclurfe, the -appellation vafe is alfo given to
thofe ornaments placed on corniches, fochles, or pede-
ftals, reprefenting the veffels qf the ancients, particular¬
ly thofe ufed in facrifice: as incenfe-pots, flower pots,
<&e.
VASSAL, denotes a tenant that holds land in fee of his lord.
Vassal, in Scots law. See Law, Tit, x. 3.
VASTUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 207.
VATERIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-
gynia clafs. The corolla confifts df five petals, and the
cahx of live fegments ; the capfule has three valves, and
one cel! containing three feeds. There is but one fpe-
cies-, a native of India.
VATICAN, a magnificent palace of the pope, in Rome,
which is fa id' to confift of feveral thoufand rooms : but
the parts of it moft admired are the grand flair-cafe, the
pope’s apartment; and efpecially -the library, which is
one of the richeft in the world,, both in printed books
and oAmtfcriptSv
VAUDEMONT, the capital of a county of the fame name
in Lor rain, fifteen miles fouth-weft of Nancy.
VAUDOIS, are certain valleys fituated north of the mar-
quifate of Saluzzi, in Italy: the chief town is Lucerne.
VAULT, in architefhife, an arcbed roof, fo contrived
that the ftohes which form it.fufiain each other.
Vaults are, on many occafions, to be preferred to fof-
fits dr flat ceilings, as they give’ a greater height and ele¬
vation, and are befides more firm and durable.
VAUR, a town of Languedoc, in France, eighteen miles
weft of Touloufe.
UBEDA, a city of Andalufia, in Spain, forty-five miles
north-eaft of Granada: W. long. 30 6', N. lat. 38°i
UBERLINGEN, a town of Swabia, in Germany, ten
miles north of Conftance.
UBES, or St. Ubes, a city and port-town of Portugal,
fituated on a fine bay, twenty-one miles fouth of Lifbon.
UBIQUITA.RIANS, in $hurch-biftory, a fed of heretics
who fprung up in Germany about the year 15:90, and
maintained that the body of Jefus Chrift is ubiquce, every¬
where, or in every place, at the fame time. However,
they were not quite agreed among tbemfelves ; fome hold¬
ing, that the body of Jefus Chrift, even during his mor-
tal life, was every where; and others dating the ubiquity
of his body from the time of his afcenfion only
UBIQUITY, omniprefence ; an attribute of the Deity,
whereby he is always intimately prefent to all things.
UDDER, that part tn brutes wherein the milk is prepared;
a ftwering to the mammae, or breads, in women.
VECTOR, in aftronomy, a line fuppofed to be drawn from
any planet moving round a centre, or the focus of an el-
• lipfis, to that centre or focus.
VEDETTE, in the military art, a fentinel on, borfeback,
detached from the main body of the army to difcover
and give notice of the enemy’s defigns.
VEER, a fea term varioufly ufed. Thus veering .out a
rope, denotes the letting it go by hand, or letting it run
out of itfelf. It is not ufed for letting out any running
rope except the fheet.
Veer i$ alfo ufed in reference to the wind ; for, whin it
changes often, they fay t veers about.
VEGETABLE, a term applied to all plants, confidered ks
capable of growth; <?. all .natural bodies which have
parts organically formed for accretion, but not feqfation.
VEGETATION, the a& whereby plants receive nourifti-
ment, and grow See Agriculture p. 40.
VEGETATIVE soul, among philofophers, denotes that
principle in plants, by virtue of v/bich they vegetate, or
receive nouriihmetn and grow
VEHICLE, in general, denotes any thing that carries or
bears another along; but is more particularly uEd in
'.pharmacy for any liquid ferving to dilute fome medicine,
in order that it may be admimfkred more comrnodioufly
to the patient.
VEIL, a piece of 'ftuff, ferving to cover or hide any thing.
-In the Romilh churches, in time of Lent, they have veils
or curtains over the altar, crucifix, images of faints,
A veil or crape is wore on the head by nuns, as a badge
of their profellion :. the novices wear white veils ; but
thofe who have made the vows, black ones
VEIN, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 237.
Vein, among miners, is that fpace which is bounded with
woughs, and contains ore, fp.tr, canck,‘clay, chin, croil,.
brownhen.
V E N (9
brownhen, pitcher-chirt, cur, which the philofophers call
the mother of metals, and fometimes foil of all colours.
When it bears ore, it is called a quick vein; when no
ore, a dead vein.
VELA, a remarkable cape on the coafbof Terra Firma, in
W long. 730 30', and N. lat. 120.
VELARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the court of the
Roman emperors, being a kind of uffier, whofe port was
behind the curtain in the prince’s apartments ; as that of
the chancellor’s was at the entry of the baluftrade, and
that of the oftiarii at the door. The velarii had a fupe-
rior of the fame denomination who commanded them.
VELAY, the riorth-eaft divifion of Languedoc, in France.
VELITES, in the Roman army, a kind of ancient foldiery,
who were armed lightly with a javelin, a calk, cuirafle,
and ffiield.
VELLEITY, in the fchool-philofephy, is ufually defined
a languid, cold, and remifs will. Others fay, it implies
an impotency of obtaining what we require.
VELLA, in botany, a genus of the tetradynamia filiculofa
clafs. The difiepimentum of the pod is about twice as
large as the valves, and oval on the outfide. There are
two fpecies, only one of them, t>;z. the annua, or crefs-
rocket, a native of Britain.
VELOCITY, fwiftneis, or that affection of motion where¬
by a moving body is difp'ofed to fun over a qertain fpace
in a certain time. See Mechanics, and Hydrosta¬
tics.
VELVET, a rich kind of Huff, all filk, covered on the
outfide with a clofe, ffiorr, fine, foft ffiag, the other fide
being a very Erong clofe tilfue.
The principal and belt manufaftories of velvet are in
France and Italy, particularly in Venice, Milan, Flo¬
rence, Genoa, and Lucca: there are others in Holland,
fet up by theTrench refugees, whereof that at Harlem
is the moft confiderable; but they all come ffiort of the
beauty of thofe in France.
VENAL or Venous, among anatoroifts, <&c. fomething
that bears a relation to the veins.
This word is alfo ufed for fomething bought with mo¬
ney, or procured by bribes.
VENEERING, a kind of marquetry, or inlaying, where¬
by feveral thin dices or leaves of fine woods; of different
kinds, are applied and faffened on a ground of fome com-
mon wood
VENEREAL, fomething belonging to venery; as the lues
venerea, &c.
VENERY, is ufed for the a<5i of copulation, or coition, of
the two fexes.
VENESECTION, or Phlebotomy, in furgery. See
Surgery p. 64if
VENETIAN bole, a fine red earth ufed in painting, and
called in the colour-ffiops Venetian fed.
It is dug in Carinthia, and fent from Venice to all
parts of the world, being an excellent colour, and very
cheap : our colour-men, however, find many ways of adul¬
terating it.
VENEZUELA, a province of Terra Firma, lying, on. the
northern, ocean, and having new Andalufia on the eaff,
new Granada on the fouth, and <he river De la Hacha
on the weft.
VENIAL, in the Romiffi theology, aaerm applied to flight
fins, and fuch as eafily obtain pardon.
21 ) V E R
VENICE, the capital of a republic in Italy, of the fame
name, is fituated in the Lagunes, or fmail iflands, of the
gulph of Venice, about five miles from the continent :
E. long. 13°, and N. lat, 45® 40'.
Venice is fo happily fituated, that no army can ap¬
proach it by land ; the avenues to thofe iflands being fo
exceeding difficult, that they have not thought it necef-
fary to indole the city with a wall.
Nothing ean appear more beautiful than this city, as
we approach it either from the continent or the fea, vfith
its numerous palaces and lofty towers: its circomterence
is about fix miles, and its inhabitants are computed at
two hundred tboufand.
VENIRE facias, in law, is a judicial writ lying where
two parties plead and come to iftae; direded to the fhe-
riff, to caufe twelve men, of the fame neighbourhood,
to meet, and try the fame, and to fay the truth upon the
iffiue t.tken.
VENT, Vent-hole, or Spiracle, a littleAperture left
in the tubes or pipes of fountains, to facilitate the air’s
efcape; or. on occafions, to give them air, as in froffy
weather, 6c. for want of which they are apt to burft.
VENTER, in anatomy, the fame with abdomen. See A-
natomy, p. 256.
VENTIDUCTS, in building, are fpiracles or fubterrane-
ous places, where freffi, cool wind being kept; they are
made to communicate, by means of tubes, funnels or
vaults, with the chambers or other apartments of a houfe,
to cool them in fultry weather.
VENTILATOR, a well-known machine, by which the
noxious air of any dole place, as an hofpital, goal, ffiip,
chamber, &£. may be changed for freffi air.
VENTRICLE, properly denotes any liitle cavity ; but is
more particularly ufed. by phyficians and anatomiils, for
the ftomach.
VENUS, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 436.
VERA cruz, a port-town of Mexico, with a ftrong and
commodious harbour, fituated on the gulph of Mexico,.
in W. long. ibo°, N. lat 180 30/.
VERAGUA, a province of Mexico, fituated on the South
Sea, weftward of the gulph of Panama.
VERATRUM, in botany, a genus of the polygamia mo-
noecia clafs. Neither male nor hermaphrodite have any*
calix ; the corolla of each confifts of fix petals; -and they
have each fixftamina; the hermaphrodite has three pi-
ftilii, and three cipfules containing many feeds. There
are three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
VERB; in grammar. See Grammar, p 734.
VERBAL, fomething that belongs to verbs, or even to
.words of any kind fpoken with ’the mouth.
Verbal Agreement, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxi,
1, <bc.
VERBASClfM, in botany, agenus of the pentandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The coiolia is rotated, and fomewhat un¬
equal ; and the capfule has two cells, and two valves.
There are twelve fpecies, four of them natives of Britain,
viz. the thapfus, or great white mullein, the le;rvv.j of
which are emollient; the lychnitisv or hoary mullein
the nigrum, or black mullein; and the bkttoria, or yellow
moth-mullein.
VERBENA; in botany, a genus of the diandria monogy-
nia clafs. The corolla is funnel-ffiaped, and crooked;,
one tooth of the calix is truncated ; and it has two or
four-
V E R ( 922.
four naked feeds. There are 16 fpecies,'only one of
them, viz. the officinalis, or vervain, a native of Bri¬
tain.
VERBERATION, in phyfics, a term ufed to exprefs the
caufe of found, which arifes from a vetberation of the
air, when llruck in divers manners by the feveral parts
of the fonorous body (if ft put into a vibratory motion.
VERBESINA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia poly-
gamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous; the
pappus is furniffied with an awn ; the calix is double ;
and it has about five flofcules in the radius. There are
13 fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
VERD, or Cape-verd, a promontory of Africa, forty
miles north-weft of the mouth of the river Gambia: W.
long. 180, N. lat. 1 50.
- There are a number of iflands in the Atlantic ocean,
r. called Cape-Verd iftands, from their being fituated off
this cape..
VERDIGREASE, a kind of ruft of Copper, much ufed
by painters as a green colour.
Verdigreafe is properly no other than copper diffolved
by a mild acid into the form of an aerugo, or ruft.
This ruft of copper is rarely ufed internally; nor ought
it, unlefs in the mofLdefpcrate cafe, where inftantaneous
vomiting is neceffary.. Externally it is much ufed as a
detergent or deficcative: it eats off fungous fleffi in ul¬
cers, and, mixed with honey, is ufed in aphthae and ulce¬
rations of the mouth.
VERDICT,' is the anfwer of the jury given to the court,
concerning the matter of faff, in any cafe civil or crimi¬
nal, committed hy the court to their trial and examina¬
tion. ,
VERDITER, or Verdeter, a kind of mineral fubftance,
fometimes ufed by the painters, for a blue ; but
more ufually mixed with a yellow for a green colour.
VERDtJY, in heraldry, denotes a bordure of a, coat of
arms, charged with any kinds or parts of flowers, fruits,
ieeds, plants, fac.
VERGETTE, in heraldry, denotes a pallet, or fmall pale;
and hence, a ffiield divided by fuch pallets is termed
vergette. See Pale.
VERIFICATION, in general, is the aff of proving a
thing ; but among the French, it only fignifies the record¬
ing of the king’s ediffs by the parliament.
VERJUICE, a liquor obtained from grapes or apples, un¬
fit for wine or cyder ; or from fweet ones, whilft yet acid
and unripe. Its chief ufe is in fauces, ragouts, &c.
though it is alfo an ingredient in fome medicinal compo-
fitions, and is ufed by the wax-chandlers to purify their
VERMICELLI, a compofition of flour, cheefe, yolks of
eggs, fugar, and faffron, reduced to a pafte, and formed
into long fLnder pieces like worms, by forcing it with a
pifton through a number of httle holes.
Ifwas firft brought from Laly, where it is in great
vogue : it is chiefly ufed in foups and pottages, to provoke
venery, <tc.
VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that bears
a relation or refemblance to worms.
VERM 1FORMIS, in anatomy, a term ap died to various
parts in the human body, bearing fome refemblance to
worms.
VERMILION, a very bright and beautiful red colour.
) v E R
in great efteem among the ancients, under the name of
minium. There are two Skinds of it, the one natural,
the other faffitious. The natural is found in 'fome filver
. mines, in the form of a ruddy fand, which is afterwards
prepared and purified by feveral lotions and coffions.
The artificial is made of mineral cinnabar, ground up
with aqua-vitae and urine, and afterwards dried.
It is alfo made of lead burnt and waffied, or of cerufs
prepared by fire: but this is not properly called vermilion,
but minium, or red-lead.
VERMIN, a colleffive name including all kinds of little
animals, or infeffs, which aje hurtful or troublefome to
men, beads, fruits, as worms, lice, fleas, caterpil¬
lars, ants, flies, &c.
VERNACULAR, is applied to any thing that is peculiar
to fome one country.
VERNAL, fomething belonging to the fpring feafon.
VERONA, a city of Laly, in the territory of Venice, ca¬
pital of the Veronefe, fituated on the Adige: E. long. 11°
15/, N lat. 450 20'.
VERONICA, in botany, a genusofthe diandriamonogynia
clafs. The corolla is rotated, andconfifts of four fegments,
the loweft one being lefs tkan all the reft; and the eap-
fule has two -cells. There are 34 fpecies, 13 of them
natives of Britain.
VERSAILLES, a town of France, in the province of the
ifle of France, fituated eleven miles weft of Paris, where
ftands one of the moft elegant and magnificent palates in
the world, built by Lewis XIV.
VERSE,, in poetry, a line or part of a difeourfe, confiding
of a number of long and ffiort fyllables, which run with
.an agreeable cadence, the like being alfb reiterated in the
courfe of the piece.
Ve rse, is alfo ufed for a part of a chapter, feffion, or pa¬
ragraph, fubdivided into feveral little articles.
VERSIFICATION, the art or manner of making verfe ;
alfo the tune and cadence of verfe.
Verfification is properly applied to what the poet does
more by labour, art, and rule, iffian by-invention.
VERSION, a tranflation of fome book or writing, out of
one language into another.
VERT, in heraldry, the term for a green colour. It is
called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under the de¬
gree of nobles ; but in coats of nobility, it is called eme¬
rald ; andinthofe of kings, venus. In engraving, it is
expreffed by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart from right
to left, from the dexter chief corner to the finifter bafe,
as reprefented in Plate CXLV1I. fig. 23.
VERTEBRAL in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 166.
VERTEX, in anatomy, denotes the crown of the head.
- Hence vertex is alfo ufed figuratively, for the top of
other things: thus, the vertex of a cone, pyramid,
is the top of any one of thefe figures.
Vertex is alfo ufed in aftronomy, for the point of hea¬
ven perpendicularly over our beads, properly called the
zenith..
VERMCILLATE plants. See Botany p.637.
VERTICITY, is that property of the loadftone, whereby
if turns, or direffs itielf to lome peculiar point.
VETIGO, in medicine. See MedicinS, p. 146.
VERVAIN, in botany. See Verbena.
VERU-MON I ANUM, iu anatomy. See Anatomy,
VESICA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 269.
VESLCATORIUM, an external medicine, fervingto raife
a bliller ; whence alfo it is itlelf, though improperly, cal¬
led a blilter,
Wehave veficatories made of cantharides, euphorbium,
figs, fublimate of mercury, lapis infemalis, muftard,
anacardicm, fqmlls, briony,vinegar, pepper, leaven, &c.
VESICULA, a diminutive of vefica, figmfying a little blad¬
der. - . '
VESPA, the wasp, in zoology, a genus of infedls belong¬
ing to the order of hymenoptera. The mouth confifts of
two jaws without any probofcis ; the fuperfor wings are
plaited ; there is a (harp (ting in the tail ; and the eyes
are lunar. There are 28 fpecies. The common wafps
live in focietits like the bee. See Apis.
VESPERS, in the church of Rome, denote the afternoon
fervice; anfwering, in fome meafure, to the evening-
prayers of the church of England.
VESPERTILdO, the bat, in zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of primates. All the
the teeth are eredt, pointed, near each other, and the
firft four are equal; the fore-feet have the toes counedted
by a membrane expanded into a kind of wings, by which
the creature is enabled to fly. They fly about in the
night, and feed upon moths.
VESPERTILIONUMal^e, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
p. 275.
VESSEL, denotes in general anything for holding liquors ;
fuch are our domeftic cups, pots, 6c. as alfo the retorts,
matraffes, crucibles, 6c. For the theory and conflruc-
tion of chemical veffels, fee Chemistry, p. 108.
In anatomy, all the parts which contain or convey a
fluid are called veffels; as the veins, arteries, lymphatics.
Vessel, in navigation, a general name for all forts of (hips.
See Ship.
VESTALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival celebrated in
honour of the goddefs Vefta, on the fifth of the ides of
June :.that is, on the ninth of that month.
VESTALS, among the ancient Romans, were prieftefles
of the goddefs Vefta, and had the perpetual fire commit¬
ted to their charge : they were at firfl: only four in num¬
ber, but afterwards increafcd to fix ; and it does not ap¬
pear that their number ever exceeded fix, among
whom one was fuperior to the red, and called vejlalis
maxima.
The veftals were chofen from fix to ten years of age,
and obliged to firiift continuency for thirty years ; the
firft ten of which were employed in learning the ceremo¬
nies of religion, the next ten in the performance of them,
and the ten laft in teaching them to the younger veftals.
The habit of the veftals confifted of an iread-drefs, call¬
ed infula, which fat clofe to their heads, and from whence
hung certain laces called vittse ; a kind of furplice made
of white linen, and over it a purple mantle with a long
train to it.
VESTIBLE, in archite&ure, a kind of entrance into a
large budding ; being an open place before the hall, or
at the bottom of the (tair-cafe.
Vesti.ble of the ear, in anatomy. , See Anatomy, p.
297.
VES TRY, a place adjoining to a church, where the veft-
ments of the minifter are kept; and alfo a meeting at fuch
place, confiding of the minifter, church-wardens, and chief
men of moft pardhes, who make a pariftt veftry or meeting,.
Vol. HI. N°. 99. 3
) VIC
By cuftom there are feledl veftries, being a certain number
of perfons chofen to have the government of the pariflt,
make rates, and take the accounts of church-wardens, 6c.
VESUVIUS, a famous volcano, or burning mountain, ft-
tuated only fix miles eaft of the city-of Naples, in Italy.
See Volcano,
VETCH, in botany. See Vicia.
VETERAN, among the ancient Romans, an appellation
given to a foldier who was grown old in the fqrvice, or
had made a certain number of campaigns.
VIALES, in mythofogy, a name given among the Romans
to the gods who had the care and guard of the roads and
high-ways.
VIATICUM, in the church of Rome, an appellation given
to the eucharift when adminiftered to perfons at the point
of death.
VIATOR, in Roman antiquity, an appellation given
in common to all officers of any of the magiftrates ; as
lidfors, accenfi, fcribes, criers, 6c.
VIBEX, is fometimes ufed, by phyficians, for a black and
blue fpot in the (kin, occafioned by an afflux or extrava-
fation of blood.
VIBRATION, in mechanics, a regular, reciprocal motion
of a body, as a pendulum, 6c.
VIBURNUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria tri-
gynia clafs. The calix is above the fruit, and confifts
of five fegments ; the corolla has likewife five fegments,
and the berry contains one feed. There are nine fpecies,
two of them natives of Britain, viz. the lantana, or
. way-faring tree ; and the opulus, or water-elder.
VICAR, a perfon appointed, as deputy to another, toper-
form his fundtions in his abfence, and under his authority.
Vicar, in the canon law, denotes a prieft of a parifh, the
predial tithes whereof are impropriated or appropriated ;
that is, belong either to a chapter, religious houfe, 6c.
or to a layman, who receives them, and only allows the
vicar the fmall tithes, or a convenient falary.
VICE, in ethics, is ordinarily defined an eledtive habit,
deviating, either in excefs, or defedt, from the juft me¬
dium wherein virtue is placed.
Vice, in fmithery, and other arts employed in metals, is
a machine, or inftrument, ferving to hold faft- any thing
they are at work upon, whether it is to be filed, bent,
riretted, 6c.
Vice is alfo ufed, in the compofition of divers words, to
denote the relation of fomething that comes inftead. or
in the place, of another; as vice-admiral, vice-chancellor,
vice chamberlain, vice-prefideot, 6c. arc officers who
take place in the abfence of admirals, 6c.
Vice-roy, a governor of a kingdom, who commands in
the name and ftead of a king, with full and fovereign
authority. See King.
VICIA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The under fide of the ftigma is tranfverfely beard¬
ed. There are 18 fpecies, fix of them natives of Bri¬
tain, viz. the eracca, or tufted wood-vetch ; the fepium,
or bufli-vetch ; the fativa, or common vetch; the lathy-
roides, or wild-vetch ; and the lutea, or yellow vetch.
VIC SSITUDE, the regular fuccefiion of one thing alter-
another ; as the viciffitude of day and night, of the fea-
fons. 6c. "
VISCOUNT, a degree of nobility next below a count, or
earl, and above a baron.
VICTIM, denotes a bloody facrifice, offered to fome deity,
8 U .of
V I N (
of a living creature, as a man or bead, which is fliin to
appeafe his wrath, or obtain foma favour.
VICTIMARIU8, in antiquity, a minirter or fervant of
the pried, whofe office was to bind the viftims, and pre
pare the water, knife, and other things neced'ary tor the
lacrifce.
VICTORY, the overthrow or defeat of an enemy, in war
or combat.
VICTUALLING-Office, an office kept on Tower-hill,
London, for the furnifhing his majefty’s navy with vic¬
tuals.
ViC I CALS, (iunifies any hidenanre, or things neceffary
to live upon, as meat and provilions.
VIENNA, the capital city of the circle of Audria and of
the German empire, is fituated on- the Danube, in E.
long, 16° 21 , and N. lat 48° 20 .
Viennk is an archbifhop’s lee, and has a celebrated u
n-iverlii’y.
VIGILS, in church hidofy, are the fads appointed be¬
fore certain fedivals, in order to prepare the mind for a
due qbfervation of the enluing foiemnity.
VIGO, a port-town of Galicia,' in Spain. 70 miles fonth-
ead of Cape Finiderrc: W. long 90 ig', N. lat.
420 15'.
ViLi-ci franca, the name of feveral towns, one in Pied¬
mont, three miies ead of Nice ; another of Catalonia,
eighteen miles wed of Barcelona; a third, the capital of
Sr Michael, one of the Azores ; and a fourth, a town
of Edremadura, in Spain, fifty.four miles louth-ead of
Salamanca.
Villa franche, a town of Orleanois, in France, twelve
mijes north of Lyons.
VILLAGE, an ademblage of houfes, inhabited chiefly by
pe. fants and farmers, and having no marker, whereby
it is di iinguidn-d from a town.
VILLAIN, or Villein, in our ancient cudoms, denotes
a man of fervile and nafe condition, viz. a bondman ©r
fervant.
VILLA real, the name of two towns ; the one in SpaiOj
thirty miles north of Valencia ; and the other in Portu¬
gal, fifty miles ead of Porto.
Villa rica, a port-town of Mexico, fituated on the gulph
of Mexico, in W long, too0, and N. lat. 20°.
VILLEN AGE, a kind of ancient tenure, whereby, the
tenant was bound to do-fucb fervices as the lord com
manded, or fuch as were fit for villains or bondmen to
perform.
VILLI among botanids, a kind of down, like coarfe hair,
with which fome trees abound.
VILLOSE, or Villous, fomething abounding with villi,
or fibres like coarie hairs : fuch is one of the coats of the
domach.
VINALIA, in Roman antiquity, a fedival on the ninth of
the kalends of May, in honour both of Jupiter and Venus.
VINCA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogynia
clafs. It has two ertdl follicles; the feeds are plunvofe;
and the tube of the corolla terminates in a lacerated co¬
rona. There are four fpecies, two of them natives of
Britain, viz. the minor, or periwinkle ; and major, or
greater periwinkle.
Cupe VINCENT, the mod fouth-wedpromontory of Por¬
tugalW. long. io°, and N. lat 36° yj'.
St Vinciint, one of the Caribbee iflands, feventy-five
miles well of Barbadoes.
9M ) V I R
St Vincent, is alfo a province of Brazil, bounded by the
Rio Janiero on the north, by the Atlantic on the ead,
by ti-.e province of del Rey 00 the fouth, and by that of
the Spanifli La Plata on the wed.
VINDEMIA f'ING, the gathering of the grapes, orother
ripe fruits, as apples,' pears, cherries,
VINDEMIATR1X, or Yindemiator, a fixed dar of
the third magnitude in the condellation virgo.
VINE See Vit.is.
VINEGAR, an acid penetrating liquor, prepared from
- wine, cyder, beer, &c. of confiderable ufe both as a
medicine and fauce. See Chemistry, p. 97, 166.
VINEYARD, a plantation of vines.
T e belt fituatian of a vineyard is on the declivity of
an hill, lying on the fouth.
VINOUS, fomething that relates to wine, or that has the'
tafle and fmell thereof. See Wine.
VINTAGE, a crop of wine, or what is got from the vines
each feaion.
VINUM, a liquor or drink commonly called wine. See
Wine.
VIOL, a mufical indrument of the fame form with the
violin, and Itruck like that with a bow.
VIOLA, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia monogynia
ciafs The calix cdhfids of five leaves, and the corolla
of live irregular petals horned behind ; the capfule has
three valves, and one cell. 1 here are 24 fpecies, feven
of them natives of Britain.
ViOLATION, the ail of violating, that is, forcing a
woman, or committing a rape upon her.
T his term is alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a breach or
infringement of a Lw, ordinance, or the like.
VIOLENT, in the fchools, a thing done by force ; in
which fenfe it dands oppofed to fpontaneous.
Violent Profits, fn Scots law See Law, Tit. xiii, 20.
VIOLET,'lit botany. See Viola.
VIOLIN, or Fiddle, a mulical indrument mounted with
four firings, or guts, and (fru-k, or played, with a bow.
VIOLONCELLO, of the Italians is properly our fifth vi-
lin; which is a httle bafs-violin, half the fize of the com¬
mon bafs-violm, and its firings juli half as thick and half
as long, which renders the found jud an oClave higher
than the fame.
VIOLONE in mufi k, a double bafs, almod twice as big
as the common bafs-violin, and the drings bigger and
longer in proportion, and confequenrly its found an oc¬
tave lower than that of our bafs-violin, which has a no¬
ble effedt in great concerts
VIPER, in zoology. See Coluber.
VIRAGO, a woman of extraordinary Itature and courage ;
and who, with the female fex, has the mien and air of a
man, and performs the adtions and exercifes of men.,
VIRGA aurea, in botany. See Solidago,
Virga sanguinea, in botany.. See Cornus.
VIRGIN, a female who has had no carnal commerce with
man.
Virgin is alfo applied figuratively to fev^ral things that re¬
tain their abfolute purity, and have never been made ufe of.
Virgin-islands, very imali iflands of the Canbbees, fitu¬
ated in the Atlantic or Ameriean-ocean, a little to the
eadward of Porto-Rico.
VIRGINIA, one of the Britiffi American colonies, fitua¬
ted between feventy-four and eighty degtees ert long,
and between thirty-fix and thin y nine degrees of north
lat.
V I T ( 925 ) V I V
lat. bounded by the river Patowmack, which feparate's it
from'Maryland, on the north ; by the Atlantic-ocean,
on the eaft ; by Carolina, on the fouth ; and may be ex¬
tended as far weftward as we think fit,
VIRGINITY, the tell or criterion of a virgin, or that
which intitles her to the denomination.
VIRGO, in altronomy, one of the figns or conflellations
of the zodiac. See Astronomy, p. 487.
VIRILE, fomething that belongs or is peculiar to a man,
or the male fex.
VIRTUAL, or Potential, fomething that has a power
or virtue of acting or doing. The term is chiefly under-
Itood of fomething that a<Ss by a fecret invifible caufe,
in oppofition to actual and fenfible.
VIRTUE, a term ufed in various fignifications. In the
general it denotes power, or perfection of any thing, whe¬
ther natural or fupernatural, animate or inanimate, efien-
tial or aceeflbry. But in its more proper or reftrained
fenfe, virtue fignifies an habit, which improves and per¬
fects the pollefibr and bis aCtions.
VIRTUOSO, an Italian term, lately introduced into Eng-
lifh, fignifying a man of curiofity and learning, or oise
who loves and promotes the arts and fciences: but a-
mong us the term feems to be appropriated to thofe who
apply themfelves to fome curious and quaint, rather than
immediately ufiefui, art or ftudy, as antiquaries, collec¬
tors of rarities of any kind, microfcopical obfervers,
VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a
virus, that is, a contagious or malignant pus.
VISCERA, in anatomy, a term fignifying the fame with
entrails, including the heart, liver, lungs, fpleen, inte-
llines, and other inward parts of the body. See An-a-
tomy. Part VI.
VISCIDITY, or Viscosity, the quality of fomething
that is vifcid or vifcous, that is, glutinous and lticky,
like bird-lime, which the Latins call by the name vifcus.
VISCUM, in botany, a genus of the dice tia tetrandria clafs.
The calix of both male and female confifls of four feg:
ments ; neither of them have any corolla ; there are no
filaments in the male, the anth;‘3s being connected to ths
calix j the female has no ftylus ; and the berry contains'
one heart-fhaped feed. There are fix- fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
VISIBLE, fomethiqg that is an objeCt of fight or vifion,.
or fomething whereby the eye is aflFeCted, fo as to pro¬
duce a fenfation.
VISIER, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman empire,
whereof there are two kinds ; the firft’, called by the
Turks vifier-azem, that is, grand vifier, isthe primemi-
nifter of (late of the whole empire. He commands the
■army in chief, and prefixes in the divan or great council.
Next to him are fix other fubordinate vifiers, called vi-
fiers of the bench, who officiate as his counfellors, or af*
TelTors in the divan.
VISION, in optics, the aCt of feeing or perceiving exter¬
nal objeCb, by means of the organ of fight, the eye. See*
Anatomy, p. 289. and Optics.
VISIULA, orWEiSEL, a large river of Poland, Which,
taking its rife in the mountains fonth of Silefia, vifits
Cracow, Warfaw, and continuing its courfe north,
falls into the Baltic lea below Dantzick.
VISUAL, in general, lomething belonging to vifioni
VITAL, in phyfioJogy, an appellation given to whatever
minifters principally to the conftituting or maintaining of
life in the bodies of animals: thus, the heart, lungs,
and brain are called vital parts ; and thofe operations of
thefe parts, whereby the life of animals is maintained,
are called vital functions.
VITEX, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angiofpermla
clafs. The corolla confifts of fix fegments, and the ca¬
lix of five teeth ; and the berry contains four feeds.
There are four fpecies, none of them natives of Britain.
VITIS, the vine, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
monogynia clafs. The petals adhere at the apex ; and
the berry contains five feeds. There are feven fpecies,
none of them natives of Britain.
Vitis iDAtA, in botany. See Vaccinium.
VITIOUS intromission, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xxviii. 20.
WYYKEOXJS Humour of the Eye. See Anatomy, p. 289.
VITRIFICA I ION, in chemiftry, is the converting a body
into glafs, by means of fire.
VITRIOL, a compound body formed of the particles of
metals diflblved by the acid of fulphur, and that either
by the operations of nature within the earth, or in the'
chemifts elaboratory by proper admixtures and affiflances,
and afterwards, by the help of water, brought into the
form of a Lit. See Chemistry, p. 81, 132.
VITRIOLATED. among chemiits, fomething that has
vitriol infufed in.it.
VITRIOLIC, an appellation given to whatever abounds
with, or partakes of, the nature of vitriol: thus fuch.
foflil bodiesr as contain vitriol, are called vitriolic mine^-
Vals, or ores of vitriol;
VITTA, in anatomy*, that part of the amnios which flicks'.
to an infan.’s head when jufl born.
VITUS’/ dance. See Medicine, p. 99.
VIVERRA, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging:
to the order of ferse. They have fix fore-teeth, the in¬
termediate ones being {hotter, and more than three grin¬
ders ; and the claws are exferted. There are fix fpe¬
cies, viz. 1. The ichneumon, with the tail tapering to¬
wards the point, and the toes diftant from each other.
It is a native of Egypt and India, where it is tamed, antR.
follows its mafter like a dog. It feeds upon lizards,
frogs, fee. and is particularly an enemy to ferpents. 2.
The nafua, is reddiffi, with white rings on the tail. It
is a native of Americaj and digs the ground in fearch oF
wqrms ; it feeds likewife upon mice, and fruits ; when
enraged, it fends forth an abominable flench. 3. The
narica is of a dulky colour; it is likewife a native of A-
merica. 4. The putoriiis varies in colour, but has ge¬
nerally four white parallel lines on the back. It is a na¬
tive of North America, is flow in its motion, and emits
its urine, attended with a moft difagreeable fmell, when
enraged '5. The zlbetha; has an annulated tail, and
the back is flreaked with waves of black and affi-colour.
It is a native of China, and Mexico. It is a fierce and1
ungovernable animal, and eredis the hairs of its back’
when angry. 6. The genetta has-an-annulated tail, and;
the body is fpotted with a dirty yellow and black colour. .
It is a native of the Eafl; and fmells of mufk.
VIVIPAROUS, in natural hiftory, an epithet applied to*
fuch animals as bring forth their young alive and p'erfed j,
in contiadiflindlion to them that Jay eggs, which, are cal¬
led oviparous animals.
UKRAIN,,
U N C
UKIiAIN, a province of Mufcovy, lying northwards of
Little Tartary, fo called as being a frontier againfi: Turky.
ULADISLAW, a city of Great Poland, lituated on the
fiver Borifthenes, eighty-miles north-well of Warfaw:
E. long. 190, and N. lat. 530.
ULCER, in forgery. See Surgery, p. 646.
ULCERATION, in furgery, a little hole in thelkin, caufed
by an ulcer.
ULEX, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria
clafs. The calix confifts of two leaves ; and the pod is
about the length of the calix. There are two fpecies,
one of them, viz. the europaeus, or furze, a native of
Britain.
ULIGINOUS, in agriculture, an appellation given to a
moid, moorilh, and fenny foil. -
ULLAGE, in gauging, is fo much of a calk or other vef-
lel, as it wants of being full.
ULM, an imperial city of Swabia, in Germany, ninety
miles fouth- weft of Ratilbon: E. long. 10®, N. lat.
48° 24'.
ULMARIA, in botany. See Filipendula.
ULMUS, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia
clafs. The calix confills of five fegments ; it has no
corolla; and the berry is dry, comprelfed, and mem¬
branaceous. There are three fpecies, two of them na¬
tives of Britain, viz. the campellris, Or common elm;
and the glabra, or broad-leaved elm.
ULNA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 178.
ULNARIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 199.
ULSTER, the moll northern province of Ireland, the chief
town of which is Londonderry.
ULTERIOR, in geography, is applied to feme part of a
country or province, which, with regard to the reft of
that country, is fituated on the farther fide of the river,
mountain, or other boundary, which divides the country
into two parts.
ULTIMUS hasres, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxix.
1, 2. '
ULTRAMARINE, a beautiful blue colour ufed by the
painters, prepared from lapis lazuli by calcination.
ULTRAMONTANE, fomething beyond the mountains.
The term is principally ufed in relation to Italy and
France, which are feparated by the mountains of the
Alps.
ULYA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia algae clafs,
confiding of a merely foliaceous fubdance, formed into
long cylindrical tubes. There are 10 fpecies, all natives
of Britain.
ULULA, in ornithology. See Strix.
UMBELLJL See Botany, p. 637.
UMBELLIFEROUS plants, are fuch as have their
tops branched and fpread out like an umbrella.
UMBILICAL, among anatomids, fomething relating to
the umbilicus or nave!,
UMBILICUS the navel, in anatomy. SccAnatomy,
p 257. and Midwijery.
UMBONE, a nam. ufea by fome for the dyle or piftil of
a flower.
UMPIRE, a third perfon chofcn to decide a controverfy
left to arbitration.
UNCI A. in general, a Latin term denoting the twelfth part
of any thing ; particularly the twelfth pan of a pound,
U M D
called in Englifk an ounce ; or the twelfth part of a foot,
called an inch.
UNCTION, the a& of anointing or rubbing with oil or
other fatty matter.
Unction, in matters of religion, is ufed for the character
conferred on facred things, by anointing them with oil.
Un&ions were very frequent among the Hebrews. They
anointed both their kings and high-priells at the cere¬
mony of their inauguration. They alfo anointed the fa¬
cred veffels of the tabernacle and temple, to fandtify
and conf?crate them to the fervice of God. The unc¬
tion of kings is fuppofed to be a ceremony introduced
very late among the Chriftian princes. It is faid, that
none of the emperors were ever anointed before Judi-
nian, or Juftin. The emperors of Germany took the
practice from thofe of the eallern empire : king Pepin of
France was the firft who received the undtion. In the
ancient Chridian church, undtion always accompanied the
ceremonies of baptifm and confirmation. Extreme unc¬
tion, or the anointing perfons in the article of death,
was alfo pradlifed by the ancient Chridians, in compliance
with the precept of St James, chap. v. 14 and 15 ver-
fes ; and this extreme undtion the Romilh church has ad¬
vanced to the dignity of a facrament. In is adminidred
to none but fuch as are afflidted with fome mortal dif-
eafe, or are in a decrepit age. It is refufed to impeni¬
tent perfons, as alfo to criminals. The parts to be a-
nointed are the eyes, the ears, the nodrils, the mouth,
the hands, the feet, and the reins. The laity are a-
nointed in the palms of the hands, but prielts on the
back of it; becaufe the palms of their hands have been
already confecrated by ordination. The parts above-
mentfoned are anointed in the form of a crofs. The
pried begins anointing the fick perfoa’s eyes, faying,
“ May God, by his holy anointing, pardon you the fins
you have committed by the eyes.” In like manner he
proceeds to the other parts, varying the words according
to the parts he anoints.
UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon, of eleven fides.
UNDECEM VIR, a magidrate among the ancient Atheni¬
ans, who had ten other collegues or aflbeiates joined
with him in the fame commiffion. The fundtion of the
undecemviri at Athens were much the fame as thofe of
the prevots de marechaufle in France: they took care of
the apprehending of criminals, fecured them in the hands
of judice, and when they were condemned, took them a-
gain into cudody, that the fentence might be executed on
them. They were chofen by the tribes, each tribe na¬
ming its own ; and as the number of the tribes after
Callidhenes was but ten, which made ten members, a
fetibe or notary was added, which made the number e-
leven.
UNDER thefea, in the fea-language. Adiip is faid to be fo
when die lies dill, or waits for (ome other Ihips, with her
helm ladled, or tied up a-lee.
UNDERSTANDING. SeeMetap>-ysics,and Logic.
UNDERWALD, a canton of Switzerland, bounded by
Switz and Lucerri on the north, by Uri on the call, and
by another part of Lucern on the weft ; being about 25
miles long, and as many broad.
UNDERWOOD, is coppice, or any wood that is not ac¬
counted timber.
UNDULA-
i ^ )
UNI (
UNDULATION, in phyfics, a kind of tremulous motion
or vibration obfervable in a liquid, whereby it alternately
rifes and falls like the waves of the Tea.
This undulatory motion, if the liquid be fmooth and
at relf, is propagated in concentric circles, as moft peo¬
ple have obferved upon throwing a,ftone or other matter
upon the furface'of a flagnant water, or even upon touch¬
ing the furface of the water lightly with the linger or
the like. The reafon of thefe circular indulations is,
that by touching the furface with your finger, there is
produced a depreffion of the water in the place ofcontadf.
By this depreffion the fubjacent parts are moved fuccef-
fively out of their place, and the other adjacent parrs
thruft upwards, which lying fucceffively on the defcend-
ing liquid, follow it; and thus the parts of the liquid
are alternately raiftd and depreffed, and that circularly.
When a ftone is thrown into the liquid, the reciprocal vi
biations are more confpicuous
Undulatory'motion is likewife applied to a motion in
the air, whereby its parts are agitated after the like man¬
ner as waves in the fea; as is fuppofed to be the cafe when
the firing of a raufical inftrument is ftruck. This un
dulatory motion of the air, is fuppofed the matter or caufe
of found.
UNGUENT, in medicine and furgery, a topical remedy or
compofition, chiefly ufed in the dreffing of wounds and
ulcers.
UNGUIS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 160.
Unguis, among botanifts. See Botany, p. 637.
UNGULA, in geometry, the fedtion of a cylinder cut off
by a plane paffing obliquely through the plane, of the bale
and part of the cylindric furface.
Ungula, in natural hiftory, the claw or hoof of a qua¬
druped.
UNICORN, an animal famous among the ancients, but
looked on by the moderns as fabulous.
Unicorn-fish, in ichthyology. See Monodon.
UNIFORM denotes a thing to be fitniiar, or confiftent,
either with another thing or with itfelf, in refpedt of fi¬
gure, ftruflure, proportion, and the like ; in which fenfe
it Hands oppofed to difform.
UNIFORMITY, a fimilitude, or refemblance, between
the parts of a whole : fuch is that we meet with in figures
of many fidesr and angles refpedtively equal, and anfwer-
able to each other.
UNIOLA. in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia
clafs. The calix confifts of many valves; and the fpica
is oval and carinated. There are four fpecies, none of
them natives of Britain.
UNION, a jundlion, coalition, or afiemblage of two or
more different things in one.
Union of lands, in Scots law. See Law, Tit x. 20.
Union, or the Union, by way of eminence, is more par¬
ticularly ufed toexprefs the adt whereby the two feparate
kingdoms of England and Scotland were incorporated
into one. under the title of Thekingdom of Great-Bntain.
This happy union, in vain attempted by king James I.
was at length effedted in tl-e year 1707, by >he general
confent of the queen and the eftates of each realm The
chief articles of this union are, That the two kingdoms
ftiall be united into one kingdom, by the name of Great-
Britain : that they, in confequence thereof, be reprefen-
ted by one parliament, of which lixteen peers and forty-
Vol. III. N° 99, 3
?27 ) UNI
five commoners are to be eledted for Scotland, and have
the fame privileges with thofe of England: that the fub-
jedls of either nation ftiall have equal freedom of trade,
and be liable to the fame cuftont, and the like laws for
public government, drc. The kirk or church of Scot¬
land is confirmed ; and the courts of juftice are to remain
the fame as they were before the union, yet fubjedt to
tegulation, A court of exchequer is aifo eredted in
Scotland, to be a court of record, revenue, and judica¬
ture, for ever; and barons of the faid court are appointed,
who ftiall be the judges there %
UNISON, in mulick, the effcdl of two found? which
are equal in degree of tune, or in point of gravity and
acuttnefs,
UNIT, or Unity, in arithmetick, the number one, or
one fingle individual part of difcrete quantity.
UNITED Netherlands confift of the provinces of Hol¬
land, Zealand, Frufland Groningen, Overyffel, Gel-
derland, with Zutphen and Utrecht ; thefe are bounded
by the German fea on the north and weft ; by the circle
of Wcftphalia, on the eaft ; and by Flanders. Brabant,
and the duchy of Cleves. on the fouth: lying between 30
cc/ and 70 30' eaft longitude, and between 51° 3j/ and
52s 40' north latitude ; being about fifty miles long, and
as many bread including the Zuyder-fea, which takes
up a confidevable fpace between thefe limits.
UNITY, in poetry. In the drama there are three unities
to be obferved, viz. the unity of atftion, that of time,
and that of place. In the epic poem, the great, and
almoft only unity, is that of the adtion. Some regard
indeed ought to be had to that of time ; that of place
there is no room for. The unity of cbaradter is not rec¬
koned among the unities. See Composition.
UNIVERSAL, fomething that is common to many things,
or it is one thing belonging to many or all things.
UNIVERSE, a colletftive name, fignifying the whole
world, or the aflemblage of heaven and earth, with all
things therein. See Astronomy, and Geography.
UNIVERSITY, a collediive term, applied to an afiemblage
of feverai colleges, eftablifhed in a city, wherein are pro-
fefibrs in the feverai fciences, appointed to teach them to
ftudents, and where degrees or certificates of ftudy in the
divers-faculties are taken up.
In each univerfity four faculties are ufually taught,
theology, medicine, law, and the arts and fciences.
They are called univerfities, or univerfal fchoois, by
reafon the four faculties are fuppofed to take in the whole
compafs of ftudy.
Univerfities had their firft rife intheXIIth and Xlllth
centuries. Thofe of Paris and Bologna pretend to be the
firft that were fet on foot ; but they were on a different
footing from the univerfities among us-
The u, iverfities of Oxford and Cambridge feem enti¬
tled 10 greatert antiquity of any in the world ; and Baliol
and Merton colleges in Oxford, and St Peter s in Cam¬
bridge, all made colleges in the Xlllth century, may be
faid to be the firft regular endowments of this kind in
Europe.
The univerfities of Scotland are four, viz. thofe of St.
Andrews, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Glaigow. See E-
dinburgh.
UNIVOCAL, in thefchooJs, is applied tonvoormore names,
or terms that have but one figmlicauon j in oppofition to
8 X equivocal.
V O I
equivocal, which is where one term has two or morefig-
nifications.
UNLAWFUL, illegal, fomething prohibited by, or con¬
trary to the terms of law, either divine or human.
UNMQOR., a term ufed at fea. When a vefTel which was
riding at anchor, weighs the fame, or gets it up, in order
to fail, they lay (he is unmooring.
VOCABULARY, in grammar, denotes the collection of
the words of a language, wnh their (ignifications, other-
wife called a, dictionary, lexicon, or nomenclature. See
Dictionary.
' A' vocabulary is properly a leffer kind of dictionary,
which does not enter fo minutely into the origins and dif¬
ferent acceptations of words.
VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or fpeech:
thus vocal mufick is that fet to wo ds, efpeciaily verfes,
and to be performed by the voice ; in contradiltinCtion
to inllrumenral muiick, compofed only for inltruments,
without fmging.
VOCATIVE, in grammar, the fifth fiate or cafe of nouns.
When we name the perfon we are fpeaking to, or ad-
drefs ourfelves to the thing we are fpeaking of, as if it
were a perfon, the noun or name requires a new rela¬
tion. which the Latins and Greeks exprefs by h new
termination, called the vocative; as, from dominus, a
lord, is formed the vocative doming, 0 lord.
VOICE, a found produced in the throat and mouth of an
animal, by an aparatus of inflruments for that purpofe.
Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Articulate
voices are thofe whereof feveral confpire together to form
fome affemblage or little fyftem of founds ; fuch are the
voices exprelling the letters of an alphabet, numbers of
which joined together form words. Inarticuia e voices
are fuch as are not organized, or affembled into words ;
fuch is the barking of dogs, the braying of affes, the bif¬
fing of ferpents, the finging of birds, crc.
The formation of the human voice, with all the varie¬
ties thereof obferved in fpeech, mufick, <bc. makes a very
curious article of inquiry ; and the apparatus and orga-
nifm of the parts adrninirtring thereto, is fomething ex¬
ceedingly furprifing. Thofe parts are the trachea or
wind pipe, through which the air pafies.and repafles into
the lungs ; the larynx, which is a fhort cylindric canal
at the head of the trachea; and the glottis, which is a
little oval cleft or chink left between two femicircuiar
membranes ftretched horizontally withinfide the larynx ;
which membranes, though capable of joining clofe toge¬
ther, do generally leave an interval either greater or lefs
between them called the glottis. A particulr defcription
of each part may be feen in Anatomy-, Part IV.
Voice, in grammar, a circumflance in verbs, wherebythey
come to be confidcred as either active or paffive ; /. e. ei
ther expreffing an adion imprdfed on another fubjed, as,
J beat; or receiving it from another, as lam beaten. See
Grammar, p. 738.
Voi.ce m matters of eledion, denotes a vote or fufFrage.
VOIDED in heraldry, is underftood of an ordinary wliofe
inner or middle part is cut out, leaving not hi g but its
edgas to (hew its form, fo that the field appears through
it. Hence- it is needlefs to exprefs the colour or metal
of the voided part, becaufe it muit of courfe be that of
the field.
VOIDER, in heraldry, one of the ordinaries whofe fi-
VOL
gure is much like that of a flalk or (launch, only that ft
doth not bend fo much. See Plate CXLVII. fig. 24.
VOL, among heralds, fignifies the two wings of a fowl
joined together, borne in armory, as being the whole
that makes the flight. Accordingly, ademi-volis a (ingle
wing.
VOLA, the palm or infide of the hand, comprehended
between the fingers and the writ!.
VOLANT, in heraldry, is when a bird in a coat of arms
is drawn flying, or having its wings fpread out.
VOLATILE, in phyfics, is commonly ufed to denotea
mixed body whofe inregral parts are eafily diflipated by
fir*1 or heat ; but is more properly ufed for bodies whofe
elements or firfl component parts are eafily feparated from
each other, and difperfed in air. See Chemistry.
VOLATILISATION, the aft of rendering fixed bodies
volatile, or of refolving ’them by fire into a fine fubtle
vapour or fpirit, which eafily diflipates and flies away.
All bodies, even the moftfixed, as gold, may oe volatili¬
zed ; either of themfelves, or with the admixture of
fome volatile fubflance, or fpirit, by dillillation or iubli-
mation
VOLERY, a great bird-cage, (b large that the birds have
room to fly up and down in it.
VOLHINlA, or Volonia a province of Poland, bound¬
ed by Polefia, on the north; by the lower Volhinia, or
Ukrain, in the territories of Ruffia, on the cart by Po-
dolia, on thefouth ; and by the province of Red Ruflia,
on the weft.
VOLITION the a<ft of willing. SeeMETAPH ysics.
VOLKAMERIA, in botany, a genus of thedidynamiaan-
giofpernra clais. The calix confifts of five fegments ;
and the berry contains two bilocular leeds. There are two
fpecies, none of them native of Britain
VOLLEY, a military falute, made by difcharging a great
number of fire arms at the fame time.
VOLO, in Roman antiquity, an appellation given to the
(laves, who, during the fecond Punic war, offered thenv-
felves to ferve in the army.
VOLT, in the manege, around or circular tread ; and hence
by the phrafe, to make volts, is underftood a gate of
two tr eads, made by a horfe going fideways round a cen¬
ter, in fuch a manner, that thefe two treads make parallel
traits, one larger made by the fore-feet, and another
finaller made by the hind feet, the croup approaching to
wards the centre, and the (boulders bearing outwards.
VOLUME, in matters of1 literature, a book, or writings
of a juft bulk to be bound by itfelf. The name is deri¬
ved from the Latin volvere, to roll up; the ancient
manner of making up books being in rolls of bark or parch¬
ment See Book
VOLUNTARY, in mefick, a piece played by a imrfician
extempore, according to his fancy. This is often ufed
before he begins to fet himlelf to play any particular
compofition, to try the inftrument, ami to lead him into
the key of the piece he intends to perform
VOLUNTEERS, imhe military art, perfonswhoof their
own accord, and at their 0W0 expence, ferve in the army..
VOLUTA in natural hiftory, a genus of inEifs belonging
to the order of vermes teftacea. It is an animal of the
fnail kind, with an unilocular fpiral fliell, of which there
are 46 fpecies, diftmguifhed by peculiarities in their (hells.
VOLUTE, in.architecture, a kind of fpiral fcroil, uied in
the
( 9^8 )
VOW (9
the Ionic and Corapofite capitals, whereof it makes the
principal charadteriftic and ornament. See Architec¬
ture, p. 352.
VOLVULUS, in medicine, a name which feme authors
give to the iliac paffion. See Medicine, p. 1x4.
VOMIR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 163.
VOMICA, in medicine, is commonly taken for a fuppura-
ted impofthume, or an abfeefs with a fuppuration. See
Medicine, p. 104.
Vomica, in pharmacy, a flat comprefled round fruit,
of the breadth of a (hilling, or fomewhat more, and of
about the thickoefs of a crown-piece.
It is the nucleus of a fruit of an Eaft-Indian tree, the
wood of which is the lignum colubrinum of the (hops.
Some have preferibed fmall doles of thenux vomica as
a (pecific againft a gonorrhoea, and others againd quar¬
tan agues. But we have fo many good and fafe medi-
dicines for all thefe purpofes, that there feems no occa-
(ion for our having recourfe tofuch as thefe, which (hew
fo many (igns of mifehief.
VOMIT, in pharmacy. See Emetic.
VOMITING, in medicine, a retrograde fpafmodic motion
of the mufcular fibres of the oefophagus, Itomach, and
intedines. attended with drong convulfions of the muf-
cles of the abdomen and diaphragm, which, when gen¬
tle, create a naufea ; when violent, a vomiting. See Me-
di cine. p. 11 5.
VOORN, one of the iflands of Holland, bounded by the
river Maes, which divides it from the continent and the
ifland of Iflemunde, on the north; by the fea called the
Bies-bofch, on the ead ; by another branch of the Maes,
which divides it from the iflands of Goree and Overflac-
 kee, on the fotuh ; and by the German fea, on the weft ;
being about twenty-four miles long, and five broad.
VORTEX, in meteorology, a whirlwind, or fudden, ra?
pid, and violent motion of the air in gyres, or circles,
Vortex is alfo ufed for an eddy or whirlpool ; or a
body of water, in certain leas or rivers, which runs ra¬
pidly around, forming a fort of cavity in the middle.
Vortex in the Gartefian pbilofophy, is a fylteiii or col-
Jeition of particles of matter moving the fame way, and
roundjhe fame axis.
Such vortices are the grand machines,, whereby thofe
philofophers folvemoft of the motions and other pheno¬
mena of the heavenly bo,dies. A cordingly, the doftrine
of thefe vortices marke a great part of the Cartefian phi-
lofophy.
VOT E, the fuflrrage or rcfolve of each of the members'of
an afiembly, where any affair is to be carried by a ma¬
jority ; but more particularly ufed for the refolvesof the
members of either houfe of parliament.
VOTIVE medals, thofe on which are expreffed the
vows of the people for the emperors or emprefies.. See
Medal
VOW. a folemn and religious promife, or oath. See Oath.
The ufe of vows is found in moft religious. They
make up a confiderable part of the pagan worlhip, being
made either in confequence of fome deliverance, under
Tome prefling neceffuy, or for the fuccefs of fome enter-
prize. Among the jews all vows were to be voluntary,
and made by perfons wholly in their own power ; and if
fuch perfon made a vow, in any thing lawful and poflible,
he. was obliged to fulfil it. If he appointed no particular
29 ) U ,R A
time for accomplifliing his vow, he was bound to do it*
inftantly, left by delay he fhould prove lefs able, or be
unwilling, to .execute his promife. Among the Romanifts,
a perfon is conftituted a religious by taking three vows,
that of poverty, chaftity, and obedience.
VOWS, among the Romans, fignified facrifices, offerings,
prefents, and prayers made for the Caefars and emperors*
particularly for their profperity and the continuance of
their empire. Thefe were at firft made every five years,
then every fifteen, and afterwards every twenty, and
were called quinquennalia, decennalia, and vincennalia.
VOWEL, in grammar, a letter which affords a complete
found of itfeif, or a letter fo fimple as only to need at
Bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and to form
a diftind voice.
The vowels are fix in number, viz. A, E, I, O, U, Y,
and are called vowels, in contradiftindion to certain other
letters, which, depending on a particular application of
fome part of the mouth, as the teeth, lips or palate, can
make no perfed found without an opening of the mouth,
that is, without the addition of a vowel, and are there¬
fore called confonants.
UPHOLSTER, Upholsterer, or Upholder, a tradef-
man that makes beds, and all forts of furniture thereunto
belonging, &c.
UPLAND, denotes high ground, or, as fome call it, terra
firma, by which it (tands oppofed to (uch as is moorifh,
marfhy, or low.
Upland, a province of Sweden, bounded by the province
of Geftricia on the north-weft, by the Baltic fea on the
north-eaft and fouth-eaft, and by Sunderland and Welt-
mania on the fouth and weft..
UPPINGH AM, a market-town of England, in the county
of Rutland, fituated fix miles fouth of Okeham.
UPRIGHT, inheraldiy, is ufed in refped of (hell-fifties,
as crevices, &c when (tanding ered in a coat. Inafmuch
as they want fins, they cannot, according to Guillim, be
properly faid to be hauriant, that being a term appropri¬
ated to fcaly fifties,
UPSAL, a city orcc the capital of the province of Upland,
and of all Sweden, being the only archbifhop’s fee in
Scandinavia, and an univerfity; fituated in E. Jong. 17s
30', N. lat. 6o°.
UPTON, a market-town of Worcefterftiire, nine miles
fcuih ofWorceller.
UPUPA, in omitho!ogyr a genus belonging to the order
of picae. The beak is arcuated, convex, and fornewhat
Blunt; the tongue is obtufe, entire, triangular, and very
(hort ; and the feet are fitted for walking. There are
two fpecies, both natives of India.
URACHUS, a membranous canal in the foetus of quadru¬
peds in general, of a pyramidal figure, extended imme¬
diately from the fundus of the bladder to the navel; and
after pafling through this, it is by degrees enlarged, and
makes its way into the allantois at right-angles each way,
or nearly fo, and conveys the urine from the bladder in¬
to the cavity of this membrane.
URANBURG, or Uraniburg, a caftle of Denmark, fi¬
tuated on the little ifland of Huen, in the Sound, fix-
teen miles north-eaft of Copenhagen. Here was the ce¬
lebrated obfervatory built by that noble Dane Tycho
Brahe, and furnifhed with inftruments for obferving the
ccurfe and motions of the heavenly bodies.
U.RANG-
U R I ( 930 ) U R T
'URANOSCOPUS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to
the order of jugulares, The head is large, rough, and
deprefled, the upper jaw being ihorter than the under
one ; there are live dentated rays in the membrane of
the gills ; and the anus is in the middle of the body.
There is but one fpecies, found in the Mediterranean fea.
URBINO, a province of Italy, in the pope’s territory,
bounded by Romania and the gulph of Venice on the
north and call, by the marquifate of Ancona on the fonth,
and by Tufcany on the welt, being feventy miles long,
and from twenty to fifty broad.
Urbino is alfo the capital of this province.
URDE', or Urde'e, in heraldry. A crofs urde feems to
be the fame with what we ocherwife call chleche, or
chlechee. See Chleche.
URENA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia polyan-
dria clafs. The calix is double, the exterior one con¬
fiding of five fegments ; the capfule has five cells con-
tainirrg one feed. There are three fpecies, all natives of
China.
URETERS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 268.
URETHRA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 272.
URG1L, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia,
capital of the territory of Urgel, fituated on the river
Segra, feventy-five miles north of Barcelona.
URI, one of the cantons of Switzerland ; bounded by that
of Switz, on the north ; by Claris and the Grifons, on
the call ; by Underwald, on the fourh ; and by the
Canton of B;rn, on the weft.
URIM and thummim, among the ancient Hebrews, a cer¬
tain oracular mannner of confuiting God, which was done
by the high prieft drtfled in his robes, and having on his
peAoral or breaft-plate.
Various have been the fentiments of commentators
concerning the urim and thummim. Jofephus, and fe-
veral others, maintain, that it meant the precious (tones
fet in the high prieft’s breaft-plate, which by extraordi¬
nary luftre made known the will of God to thofe who
confulted him. Spencer believes that the urim and thum-
mim were two little golden figures Ihut up in the pe&oral
as in a purfe, which gave refponfes with an articulate
voice. In flrort, there are as many opinions concerning
the urim and thummim as there are particular authors
that wrote about diem. The fafeft opinion, according to
Broughton, feems to be, that the words urim and thum¬
mim lignify feme divine virtue and power annexed to the
breaft-plate of the high prieft, by which an oraculous an-
fwer was obtained from God when he wa; confulted by
the high-prieft; and that this was called urim andthum-
mim to exprefs the clearnefs and perfe&ion which thefe
oracular anfwers always carried with them ; forurim fig-
nifies light, and thuramim perfetffion ; thefe anfwers not
being imperfedt and ambiguous, like the heathen oracles,
but clear and evident. The ufe made of the urim and
thummim was to confult God in difficult cafes relating to
the whole ftate of lirael; and fometimes in cafes relating
to the king, the fanhedrim, the general of the army, or
fome other great perfonage.
URINAL, in medicine, aydfel fit to receive and hold u-
rine, and ufed accordingly for the convenience of fick per-
fons. It is ufually of glals, and crooked ; and fome¬
times it is filled with milk, to affwage the pain of the
gravel.
Urinal, in chemiftry, is an oblong glafs vefiel, clofed
for making folutions, and fo called from its refemblance
to the glafles in which urine is fet to fettle for the inflec¬
tion of thephyfician.
URINE, a ferous and faline flu’d, of a citron-colour, fe.
parated from the blood, and carried by the emulgent ar¬
teries to the kidneys, from whence it defeends to the
bladder by the ureters, and is from time to time emitted
thence by the canal of the urethra. See Anatomy,
p. 268. For the analyfis of urine, fee Chemistry,
P. 177.
URN, a kind of vafe, of a roundifii form, but biggeft in
the middle, like the common pitchers, now feldom ufed
but in the way of ornament over chimney pieces, in buf¬
fets, drc. The great ufe of urns among the ancients,
was to preferve the allies of the dead after they were
burnt; for which reafon they were called cineraria, and
runae cineraria:, and were placed fometimes under the
tomb-ftonc whereon the epitaph was cur; and fometimes
in vaults in their own houfes. Urns were alfo ufed at
their facrifices to put liquid things in.
UROGALLUS, in ornithology. See Tetrad.
URSA, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, p. 487.
URSULINES, in church-hiftory# an order of nuns, found,
ed originally by St Angela of Brefcia, in the year fif¬
teen hundred thirty feven, and fo called from St Urfula,
to whom they were dedicated. They obferve the rules
of St Auguftine, and are chiefly noted for taking on them
the education and inftruftion of young maids: theirmo-
nafteries are a kind of fchools where young ladies of the
beft families receive their education.
URSUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to
the order of fera:. There are fix foreteeth in the upper
jaw alternately hallow on the infide, and fix in the under
jaw, the two lateral ones being labated ; the dog-teeth
are folitary and conical ; the grinders are five or fix; the
tongue is fmooth ; the eyes are furniftied with a nidfita-
. ting membrane ; the nofe is prominent; and there is a
crooked bone in the penis. There are four fpecies, viz.
1. The ardfas, or white bear, with an abrupt tail. He
is a native of the northern parts of Europe, and feeds up¬
on berries, infedts, and the bodies of dead cattle. He
is naturally a lazy animal ; but when enraged, he be¬
comes agile and furious, (landing credt and fighting with
his forefeet. When lying, heconftantly licks his paws.
The female admits the male about the end o( Odfober, and
fhe brings forth in 112 days. He never attacks a man, tan-
lefs he be provoked. 2. The meles, has the tail of an
uniform colour ; the body is afti-coloured above and black
below, with a longitudinal black belt acrofs the eyes and
ears. He is likewife a native of Europe, and dwells in
woods and the clifts of rocks. He feeds upon eggs, in-
ftdts, the leaves of the lathynus, 6c- In the night he
preys upon rabbits, 6c. and feldom appears in the day.
He (huts himfelf up in a den dug in the t-arth during the
winter, and fucks a pellicle or bladder ficuate above the
anus. 3. The lator, has an annular tail, and a black belt
acrofs the eyes. He is found about the fea (hores of A-
meriea. He feeds upon eggs, fowls, fnails, 6c. 4. The
lufeus, has a long tail; and the body is iron coloured.
He is a native of Hudfon’s bay.
URTICA in botany, a genus of the moncecia tetrandria
' clafs. The calix of the male conlilts of four leaves, and
that
U S U (
that of the female of two valves ; neither of them have
any corolla; the male has acup-fhaped neftartum, and the
female bears onefmooth feed. The fpecces are 18, three
of them natives of Britain, viz. the pilafera, or Roman
nettle; the arens, or leffer nettle ; and the dioica, or
common nestle.
USANCE, ia commerce, is a determinate time fixed for
the payment of bills of exchange, reckoned either from
the day of the bills being accepted, or from the day of
their date ; and thus called becaufe regulated by the u-
fage and cuftom ot the places whereon they ar- drawn.
USE, in law, the profit or benefit ot lauds and tenements ;
or a trull and confidence repofed in a perfon for the hold¬
ing of lands, that he to vvhofe ufe the trull is made
(hall.receive the profits.
USEDOM, an iflmd of Pomerania, in Germany, fituated
at the mouth of the river Qder, in the Baltic-fea: fubjetS
to the king’of Prullia.
USHANT, an ifland of France, fifteen- miles well of the
coall of Britany, at th • entrance of the Britilh channel.
USHER, an officer, or feivant, who has the care and di¬
rection of the door of a court, hall, chamber, or the like.
Usher of the black rod, ihz eldelt of the gentlemen ufhers,
daily waiters at court, whofe duty is to bear the rod before
the king at thefeaflof St George, and other foiemnities.
USK, a river of Wales, which rifes on the well of Breck-
noCklhire, and runs fouth call through that country and
Monmouthfhire, falling into the mouth of the Severn.
USQUEBAUGH, a llrong compound liquor, chiefly ta¬
ken by way of dram.
There are feveral different methods of making this
liquor; but the following is elleemed one of the bell: To
ivvo gallons of brandy, or other fpirits, put a pound of
Spanilh-liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun, four
ounces of currants, and three of flieed dates ; the tops of
baum, mint, favory, thyme, and the tops of the flowers
of rofemary, of each two ounces ; cinnamon and mace,
•well bruifed, nutmegs, anifeeds, and coriander-feeds,
bruifed likewife, of each four ounces; of citron, or lemon,
and orange-peel, fcraped, ®f each an ounce: letallthefe
infufe forty-eight hours in a warm place, often lhaking
them together: then let them Hand in a cool place for a
week : after which the clear liquor is to be decanted off,
and toil is to be put an equal quantity of neat white port,
and a gallorvpf canary; after which it is to be fweetened
with a fufficient quantity of double-refined fugar.
USTION, in pharmacy, the preparing of certain fubftan-
ces by burning them.
USTULATION, a word ufed by pharmaceutic writers, to
exprefs the roafling or torrefying of humid or moill fub-
ffances over a gentle fire, fo as to render them fit for
powdering.
USUCAPFION, in the civil law, is an acquifition of the
property of a thing, by a poffelfion and enjoyment thereof
for a certain term of years prefcribed by law.
USUFRUIT, in the civil law, the ufe or enjoyment of
any lands or tenements ; or the right of receiving the
fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other thing,
without a power of alienating or changing the property
•thereof.
USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or aft of ufury.
Ses Usury.
Vol. III. N® 99. 3
) V U L
USURIOUS cost ract, is any bargain or contraft where¬
by a man is obliged to pr.y more interell for money than
the (latute allows.
USURPATION, in law, is an injurious ufing or enjoy¬
ment of a thing for continuance of time, that belongs
of right to another.
USURY, in the general, denotes a gain or profit which a
perfon makes of his money, by lending the fame ; or it is
an increafe of the principal, exafted for the loan thereof;
or the price a borrower gives for the ule of a fum credit¬
ed to him by the Under, called alfo interell.
The word ulury is generally taken in an evil fenfe,
viz. for an unlawful profit which a perfon makes of his
money ; in which fenfe it is, that ufury is forbidden by
the civil and eeclefiaftical, and even by the law of nature.
See Law, Tit. xxxiii. 37.
UTERINE, fomething belonging to the uterus or womb
of a woman.
Brother or Sifter Uterine, in Scots law. See Law,
Tit. xxvii. 3.
UTERUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p 274.
UTILE, a Latin term, fignifying profitable or ulefu! ; in
which fenfe it isfometimes ufed by Engliffi writers.
UTOXETER, a maiket-town of Staffordfhire, twelve
miles fomh-eaft of Stafford.
UTRECHT, the capital of a province of the fame name,
in the united Netherlands, fuuated twenty^ three miles
fouth-eall of Amflerdam.
UTRICULARIA, in botany, a genus of the diandria mo-
nogynia clafs. The corolla is ringent and calcarated;
the calix confills of two equal leaves; and the capfuleof
one cell. There are five fpecies, two of them natives
of Britain, viz. the vulgaris, or common hooded milfoil;
and the minor, or leffet hooded milfoil.
UVAursi, in botany. See Vaccinium.
UVEA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.,289.
VULCANO, or Volcano, m natural hiflory, a burning
mountain, or one that vomits forth fire, flame, allies,
cinders, fee.
As to the caufe ofvolcanos, it is found by experience,
that there are feveral inflammable bodies, which, being
mixed together in due proportion, will kindle into flame
by fermentation alone, without the help of any fiery par¬
ticles. Thus M. Lemery having covered up in the
earth about fifty pounds of a mixture, compofed of equal
parts of fulphur and filings of iron, tempered with water;
after eight or nine hours time, the earth where it lay
vomited up flames. From this experiment we fee the
true caufe ot the fire of lEtna, Vefuvius, and other burn¬
ing mountains, which probably are made up of fulphur
and fome other matter proper to ferment with it, and
take fire.
VULGATE, a very ancientLatin tranflation of theB ble,
and the only one the church of Rome acknowledges au¬
thentic. See Bible.
VULNERARY, in medicine, an epithet given to remedies
proper for the cure of wounds and ulcers.
VULPES, theFox. SccCanis.
VULTUR, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
accipitres. The beak is flrsit, and crooked at the point-
the head has no feather?,/6n the forepart being only na¬
ked flein ; and the tongue is bifid. There are eight fpe-
8 Y cies,
U V U (93
cies clifKnpu!{hed principally by their colour and fitua
tion of caruncles.
VULVA, in anatomy. SeeANATCMY, p. 375
UVULA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.303.
UVULARIA, in botany, a genus of the h xandria
monogynia clafs. The corolla confljts of fix Itiaight
petals ; the nedfarii are little pits at the bafe of each
petal: and the filaments are very Ihort. There are
) U Z B
three fpecies, none of them natives of Britain,
UXBRIDGE, a market-town of Middlefex, fituated on
the river Colne, fifteen miles well of London.
UZBECK, Tartary, a large country of Alia, bound¬
ed by Calmuc Tartary on the north, by Tibet on the-
eall, by India and Perfia on the fouth, and by a great
defart, which feparates it from the Calpian lea, on the
welt.
W-
WAG
WAAG, a river of Hungary, which rifes in the Car¬
pathian mountains, on the confines of Poland, and
running firlt from call to welt, then turns fouth, and paf-
fing by Leopoldfladt, falls into the Danube, oppofite to
the illand of Schut.
WAAL, a river of the United Netherlands, being one of
the branches of the Rhine, Which runs from call to well,
through the Betu, in the province of Guelderland, palling
by Nimeguen, Tiel, Bommel, and Gorcum, and conti¬
nuing its courfe eallward, unites its waters with the Maes,
and, palling by Dort, falls into the German fea below
the Briel.
WADD, or Wadding is a Hopple of paper, hay, draw,
or the like, lorced into a gun upon the powder, to keep
it < lofe in the chamber; or to'put up clofe to the Ihot,
to keep it from rolling out.
WADSET, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xv. 1, &£•.
WAFT. To waft a Ihip, is to convoy her fafe, as men of
war do merchant Ihips. To make a waft, is to hang out
fome coat, fea gown, or the like, on the main Ihrouds
of the Ihip. as a fignal for people to come aboard, and
fignifying that the Ihip is in great diftrefs.
WAFERS, or £><*//»£ Watfers, are made thus: take
very fine flower, mix it with glair of eggs, ifinglafs, and
a little yeall; mingle the materials; beat them well to¬
gether; fpread the batter, being made thin with gum-
water, on even tin plates , and dry them in a ftove; then
cut them out for ufe.
You may make them of what colour you p’eafe, by
tinging the pafle with brazil or vermilion for red ; indigo
or verditer, drc. for blue ; faffron, turmerics, or gam-
booge, <bc. for yellow.
WAGGON, a wheel-carriage, of which there are va¬
rious forms, accommodated to the different ufes they are
intended for. The common waggon confifts of the (hafts
or rads, being the two pieces which the hind horfe bears
up ; the welds ; the flotes, or crofs pieces, which hold
the fhafis together; the bolder, beingthat part on which
the fore wheels and the axle-tree turn in wheeling the
waggon acrofs the road:, the cheif or body of the wag¬
gon, having the daves or rails fixed thereon ; the bales,
or hoops, which compofe the top : the tilt, the place co¬
vered with cloth, at the end of the waggon, See Me¬
chanics, p. 50.
W A L
W \GRIA, the eadern divifion of the duchy of Holftein,
in the circle of Lower Saxt ny, in Germany, bounded
by the Baltic fea on the north, tail, and fouth.
WAGTAIL, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
WAIF, in law a term applied to fuch goods us a thief ha¬
ving felonioufly Holen, on his being elofely purfued are
waved or left by the felon, which become forfeited to the
king, or lord of the manor.
WA1GRA FS straits, fituated between Nova Zembla
and Ruilia, through which the Dutch failed to the north,,
as high as 750, in order to difcover a north-eafl paf-
fage to China and the Ealt Indies.
WAINSCOT, in building the timber work that ferves to
line the walls of a room, being ulualiy made in pannels,
and painted, to ferve indead ot hangings,
WAKE of a Jhip, is the fnaooth water allern when fhe is
under fail: this fhews the way fhe has gone in the fea,
whereby the mariners judge what way fhe makes.
Wake, is the eve-fead of the dedication of churches,
which is kept with feafting and rural diverfions.
WAKEFIELD, a market-tows in the weft-riding of York-
fhire, fituated on the river Caulder, twenty-four miles
fouth-wefl of York.
Atlion of WAKENING, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
xxx. 26
WALACHIA, a province of Tutky in Europe, bounded
by the Irongate mountains, which ieparate it from Tran-
filvania, on the north-weft ; by Moldavia, on the nonh¬
ead ; by the river Danube, which feparates it from the
province of Bulgaria, on the fouth-eaft ; and the fame ri¬
ver fepara es it from the province of Servia on the fouth-
weft. It is two hundred miles long, and one hundred
broad.
WALCOURT, a town of the bifhopric of Liege, fituated
on the confines of Namur, eighty miles fouth of Charleroy..
WALDEC, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Up¬
per Rhine, and landgraviate of Heffc Caffel> twenty miles
fouth *’eft ot Heffe CafTel city.
WALDEN a market-town of EfTex, fituated twenty-five
miles nonh-weft of Chelmsford
WALE, or Wales in a (hip, thofe outermoft timbers in
a fhip’s fide, on which the failors let their feet in climbing
up. They are reckoned.from the wat. r, and are called
her firft, lecond, and third wale, or bend.
Wale-
WAR ( 933 ) WAR
Wale-knot, around knot or knob made with three ftrands
of a tope, fo that it cannot flip, by which the tacks, top-
fail flieets, and ftbppers are made faff, as alfo feme other
ropes.
Wale reared, on board a fhip, a name the feamen give
to a fhtp, which, after (he comes to her bearing, is built
ftrait up : this way of building, though it does not look
well, nor is, as the feamen term it, ftiip-fhapen; yet it
has this advantage, that a (hip is thereby more roomy
within board and becomes thereby a wholefome (hip at
fea, efpecially if her bearing be well laid out.
WALES, a principality in the wefl of England, compre¬
hending 12 counties, bounded by Chefhire, Shropfhire,
Herefordfliire, and Monmouthfhire, on the eaft, and lur-
rounded by the fea called the Irifti channel, on the north,
weft, and fouth.
New Wales the fouth-wefl: coaft of Hudfon’s Bay, in
North America, fo called ; now pofleffed by the Englifli
Hudfon’s Bay company.
WALL in archite&ure, the principal part of a building, as
ferving both to inclofe it, and fupport the roof, floors, ebc.
Walls are diftinguifhed into various kinds, from the
matter whereof they confift, as plaftered or mud-walls,
brick- walls, ftone walls flint or boulder walls, and board¬
ed walls. See Architecture.
WALLINGFORD, a borough town of Berklhire, floa¬
ted on the river Thames, twelve miles north of Reading.
WALLOONS, the inhabitants of a confiderable part of
the Spanilh Netherlands, viz thofe of Artois, Hainault,
Namur Luxemburgh, and part of Flanders and Brabant.
The Walloon language is faid to have been that of the
ancient Gauls or Celts.
WALRUS, in zoology. See Phoca.
WALNUT tree in botany See Juglans.
WALSALL, a market-town of Staffbrdlh:re, thirteen
miles fouth of St fFord
WALSH AM a market-town of Norfolk, eleven miles
north of Norwich.
WALSINGHAM, a market town of Norfolk, eighteen
miles north-weft of Norwich.
WALTHAM, a market town of Leicefterfhire, fixteen
miles nor h eaft of Leicefter.
WALTHERIA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia
pentandria clafs.
WAPENTAKE, (from the Saxon) the fame with what
we call a hundred, and more efpecialiy ufed in the nor¬
thern counties beyond the river Trent. There have been
feveral conjectures as to the original of the word ; one
of which is, that anciently mu lers were made of the ar¬
mour and weapons of the inhabitants of every hundred ;
and from thbfe that could not find fufficient pledges of
their good abearing, their weapons were taken away, and
given to orhets ; whence, it is faid, this word is derived.
See Hundred
WAR. a eonteft or difference between princes, ftates, or
large bodies of people ; which not being determined by
the ordinary meafures of equity and juftice, is referred
to the decilion of the fword.
WARD, a word of divers fignifications: thus, a ward in
London, is a part of the city committed to the fpecial
charge of one of the aldermen of the city. There are
twenty.fix wards in London, which are as hundreds, and
the parilhes thereof as towns. A foreft is alfo divided'
into wards, and fo are moft of our hofpitals.
Ward.holding, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xi. 1.
Ward-hook, or Wadd-hook, in gunnery, a rod or ftaff
with an iron end turned ferpent-wife, or like a ferew, to
draw the wadding out of a gun when it is to be unloaded.
See Wadd.
WARDEN, or Guardian, one who has the charge or
keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. See Guar¬
dian.
Such is the warden of the fleet, the keeper of the fleet-
prifon ; who has the charge of the priioners there, elpe-
cially fuch as are committed from the court of chancery-
for contempt.
Wardens. See Church.
Wardhuys, a port of Norwegian Lapland, 120 miles
fouth-ealt of the north cape: E. long. 28°,' and N.
lat. 710.
WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called, which is
kept in every.ward or the city, anfwtring to the curiata
comitia in ancient Rome
WARDROBE, a clofet, or little room adjoining to a bed¬
chamber, ferving to difpoie and keep a perion’s apparel in ;
or, for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to wait,
Wardrobe, in a prince’s court, is an apartment where¬
in his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceflaries, are
preferved under the care and diredtion of proper officers ;
as the mafter of the wardrobe, clerk, fcc. of the wardrobe.
WARE, a market-town of Hertfoidfl^re, under the meri¬
dian of London, and twenty, miles north of that city.
WAREHAM, a borough of Dorfetflure, feventeen miles,
call of Do chefter
WARMINSTER, a market-town of Wiltffiire, feventeen
m les noith-weft of Sai.fbury.
WARN, in law, is to lummon a perfon to appear in a court;
of juftice.
Warning of Tenants, in Scots law. See Law, Tit.
xiii. 16.
WARP, in the manufadtures, is the threads, whether of
filk, wool, linen, hemp, <bc. that are extended length-
wife on the weaver’s loom ; and a-crofs which the work¬
man by means of his fhuttle pafles the threads of the woof*
to form a cloth, ribband, fuftian, or other matter.
WARRANDICE, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. x. 11.
WARRANT, an aft, inftrument, or obligation, whereby
a perfon authonfes another to do fomethmg which he 0-
therwife had not a right to do.
WARRANTY, a promife or covenant by deed, made by
the bargainer for himfelf and his heirs, to warrant and;
fecure the bargainee and hiS heirs againft ail men for en-
joying the thing agreed on between them
WARREN, a franchife, or place privileged either by pre-
feription or grant from the king, to keep beafts and fowl
of warren in ; as rabbits, hares, partridges, pheafants,
WARRINGTON, a market-town of Lancafhire, feven¬
teen miles eaft of Liverpool.
WARSAW, the capital of Warfovia, and of the kingdom
of Poland: E. long. 210 j', and N. lat. 52° 15'.
WARSOVIA, a province of Poland, bounded by Pruffia,
on the north ; by Polachia, on the eaft ; by the province
of Little Poland, on the fouth j and by that of Great Po¬
land, on the weft.
WART.
WAS ( 934 ) WAT
WART, in furgery, a little round hard excrefcence arifing
from the flefh like a pea.
WARWICK, the capital of Warwickfliire, fituated on the
river Avon, eighty miles north-weft of London : W.
long. i° gaA N. lat. 530 20'.
WASH, among diftillers, the fermentable liquor ufed by
the mah-diftiilers. See Brewery.
WASHING, in painting, is when a defign, drawn with a
pen or crayon, has fome one colour laid over it with a
pencil, as Indian ink, biftre, or the like, to make it ap¬
pear the more natural, by adding the Ihadow of promi¬
nences, aperture, ind by imitating the particular
matters whereof the thing is fuppofed to confift.
Thus they wafh with a pale red, to imitate brick and
tile ; with a pale Indian-blue, to imitate water and flate ;
with green, for trees and meadows; with faffron or
W A T C II and C
A Clock is a machine conftrufted in fuch a manner, and
1%. regulated by fuch uniform movements, as to meafure
time and all its fubdivifions with great exadtnefs. The
fame definition comprehends watches of all kinds ; and in¬
deed they are both made upon the fame principles. We ftiall
therefore give a view of the conftrudlion of both thefe ma¬
chines under this article.
Of the Mickanifm of Clock s, and hive they meafure Time.
The firft figure of Plate CLX is a profile uf a clock ;
P is a weight fufpended by a rope that winds about the cy¬
linder or barrel _C, which is fixed upon the axis a a ; the
pivots b b go into holes made in the plates TS, TS, in which
they turn freely. Thefe plates are made of brafs or iron,
and are connedled by means of four pillars ZZ ; and the
whole together is called the frame.
The weight P, if not refttained, would necelTarily turn
the barrel C with an uniform accelerated motion, in the
fame manner as ifthe weight was failing freely from a height.
But the barrel is furnilhed with a ratchet wheel K K, the
right fide of whole teeth ftrikes againft the click, winch is
fixed with a fcrew to the wheel D D, as reprefented in
fig- 2. fo that the adtion of the weight is communicated to
the wheel D D, the teeth of which adt upon the teeth of
the fmall wheel d which turns upon the pivots c c. This
communication of the teeth of one wheel with another is
called engrenage or pitching; and a fmall wheel, like d, is
called a pinion.
The wheel E E is fixed upon the axis of the pinion d;
and the motion communicated to the wheel D D by the
weight is f anfmitied to the pinion o', confequently to the
wheel E E, as hkewife to the pinion e, and wheel F F, which
moves the pinion/-, upon the axis of which the crown or-ba-
lance wheel G H is fixed. The pivots of the pinion/play in
holes of the plates L M which are fixed horizontally to the
plates T S. In a word, the motion begun by the weight
is tranfmitted from the wheel G H to the palettes I K,
which communicates.its motion by means of the fork U X
riveted on the palettes, to the pendulum A B. which is fuf¬
pended upon the hoo'k A. The pendulum A B deferibes,
round the point A, an arc of a cirdf alternately going and re¬
French berries, for gold or brafs; and with fereral co¬
lours, for marbles.
Washing of Ores, the purifying an ore of any metal, by
means of water, from earths and ftones, which would o»
therwife render it difficult of fufion. See Chemistry,
p. 130.
WASP, in zoology. See Vespa.
WASTE of a Ship, is that part of her between the main
and fore mart.
Waste-boards, are boards fometimes fet upon the fide
of a boat, or other veflel, to keep the lea from breaking
into her.
WATCH, in the art of war, a number of men polled at
any paflage, or a company of the guards who go on the
patrol.
LOCKWORK.
turning. If then the pendulum be once put in motion by a
puffi of the hand, the weight of the pendulum at B will
make it return upon itfelf, and it will continue to go alter¬
nately backward apd forward till the refiftance of the air
upon the pendulum, and the fridtion at the point of fufpen-
fion at A, deftroys the original imprefled force. But as, at
every vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balan c-
wheel G H adt fo upon the palettes I K, (the pivots upon the
axis of thefe palettes play in two holes of the potence / /,)
that after one tooth H has communicated motion to the pa¬
lette K, that tooth efcapes; then the oppofite tooth G adls
upon the palette I, and efcapes in the fame manner ; and thus
each tooth of the wheel efcapes the palettes I, K, after ha¬
ving communicated their motion to the palettes in fuch a man¬
ner that the pendulum, inftead of being ftopt, continues to
move.
The.wheel E E revolves in an hour ; the pivot e of this
wheel pafles through the plate, and is continued to r;
upon the pivot is a wheel N N with a long focket fa-
ftened in the centre; upon the extremity of this focket r the
minute-hand is fixed. The wheel N N adls upon the wheel
O ; the pinion of which, p, adls upon the wheel fixed
upon a focket which turns along with the wheel N This ,
wheel g g makes its revolution in 12 hours, upon the barrel
of which the hour-hand is fixed.
From the above defeription it is eafy to fee, 1. That the
weight p turns all the wheels, and at the fame time conti¬
nues the motion of the pendulum 2. That the quicknefs
of the motion of the wheels is determined by that of the
pendulum. 3 That the wheels point out the parts of time
divided by the uniform motion of the pendulum
When the cord upon which the weight is fufpended is
entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound up again
by means of a key, which goes on the fquare end of the ar¬
bor at by turning it in a contrary diredlion from that ia
which the weight defeends. For'this purpofe, the inclined
fide of the teeth of the wheel R (fig. 2 ) removes the cli. k .
C, fo that the ratchet-wheel R turns while the wheel D is
at reft: But as foon as the cord is wound up, tb click fal's
in between the teeth of the wheel D and he right fide of
the teeth again aft upon the end of the click, which obliges
WATCH and C
the wheel D to turn along with the barrel ; and the fpring
A keeps the crank between the teeth of the ratchet-wheel R.
We ftiall now explain how time is meafured by the mo¬
tion of the pendulum ; and how the wheel E, upon the axis
of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but one precife
revolution in an hour. The vibrations of a pendulum are
performed in a (hotter or longer time in proportion to the
length of the pendulum itfelf. A pendulum of 3 feet 84
French lines in length, makes 3600 vibrations in am hour ;
i. e. each vibration is performed in a fecond of time, and
for that reafon it is called a fecond pendulum. But a pen¬
dulum of 9 inches 24 French lines makes 7200 vibrations
in an hour, or two vibrations in a fecond of time, and is
called a half-fecond pendulum. Hence, in conftrudhng a
wheel whole revolution mult be performed in a given time,
the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which regulates
its motion muft be conlldered. Suppofing, then, that the
pendulum AB makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, let us
confider how the .wheel E (hall take up an hour in making
one revolution. This entirely depends on the number of
teeth in the wheels and pinions. If the balance-wheel con-
fills of 30 teeth, it will turn once in the time that the pen
duium makes 60 vibrations: for at every turn of the wheel,
the fame tooth a<5ts once on the palette I, and once on the
palette K, which occalions twofeparate vibrations in the pen¬
dulum ; and the wheel having 30 teeth, it occafions twice
30, or 60 vibrations. Confequently, this wheel mull per
form 120 revolutions in an hour ; becaufe 60 vibrations,
which it occafions at every revolution, are contained 120
times in 7200, the number of vibrations performed by the
pendulum in an hour. Now in order to determine the
number of teeth for the wheels E F, and their pinions
e f, it muil be remarked, that one revolution of the wheel
E mull turn the pinion e as many times as the number of
teeth in the pinion is contained in the number of teeth in
the wheel. Thus, if the wheel E contains 72 teeth, and
the pinion e 6. the pinion will make twelve revolutions in
the time that the wheel makes one ; for each tooth of the
wheel drives forward a tooth of the pinion, and when the
fix teeth of the pinion are moved, a complete revolution
is performed ; but. the wheel E has by that time only ad¬
vanced fix teeth, and has flil! 66 to advance before its re¬
volution be compleated, which will occafion 11 more re
volutions of the pinion. For the fame reafon, the wheel
F having 60 teeth, and the pinion f the pinion will make
to revolutions while the wheel performs one. Now, the
wheel F being turned by the pinion tt, makes 12 revolutions
for one of the wheel E ; and the pinion /makes ten revo¬
lutions for one of the weel F ; confequently, the pinion f
performs 10 times 12 or 120 revolutions in the time the
wheel E performs one. But the wheel G, which is turned
by the pinion f, occafions 60 vibrations in the pendulum
each time it turns round; confequently the wheel G oc
fafions 60 times 120 or 7200 vibrations of the pendulum
while the wheel E performs one revolution ; but 7200 is
the number of vibrations made by the pendulum in an hour,
and confequently the wheel E performs buf one revolution
in an Four ; and fo of the reft.
From this reafoning, it is eafy to difeover how a clock
may be made to go for any length of time without being
wound up : 1 By increafing the number of teeth in the
wheels. 2. By dimimfhing the number of teeth in the
pinions. 3. By increafing the length of the cord that fuf-
Vol. III. N°. 99. 3
LOCK WOR K. 935
pends the weight ; and laftly, by adding to the number of
wheels and pinions. But, in. proportion as the time is
augmented, if the weight continues the fame', the force
which it communicates to the Jail wheel GH will be dimi-
nilhed.
It only remains to take notice of the number of teeth
in the wheels which turn the hour and minute hands.
The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour ; the
wheel NN, which is turned by the axis of the wheel E,
muft hkewffe make only one revolution in the fame time ;
and the minute-hand is fixed to the barrel of this wheel.
The wheel N has 30 teeth, and arts upon the wheel O,
which has Itkewife 30 teeth, and the fame diameter ; con-
fequectly the wheel O takes one hour to a revolution: now
the wheel O carries the pinion />, which has fix teeth, and
which ads upon the wheel 77 of 72 teeth ; confequently
the pinion / makes 12 revolutions while the wheel qq makes
one, and of courle the wheel qq takes 12 hours to one re¬
volution;-and upon the barrel of this wheel the hour-hand
is fixed. . W-; fhall conclude with remarking, that ail that
has been faid here concerning the revolutions of the wheels,
fac. is equally applicable to watches as to clocks.
Of the Mechanijm 0/ « Watch.
Watches, as well as docks, are compofed of wheels
and pinions, and a regulator to dired the quicknefs or flownefs
of the wheels, and of a fpring which communicates motion
to the whole machine. But the regulator and Ipring of u
watch are vaftly inferior to the weight and pendulum of a
clock, neither of which can be employed in watches. In
place of a pendulum, therefore, jwe are obliged to ufe a ba¬
lance (tig. 4.) to regulate the motion of a watch ; and of
a fpring (fig. 6.) which ferves in place of a weight, to give
motion to the wheels and balance.
The wheels of a watch, like thofe of a clock, are placed
in a frame formed of two plates and four pillars Fig. 3.
reprefents the infide of a watch, after the plate (fig. 5.) is
taken off. A is the barrel which contains the fpring (fig.
6.) the chain is rolled about the barrel, with one end of it
fixed to the barrel A, and the other >o the fufee B.
When a wateftis wound up, the chain which was upon the
barrel winds about the fufee, and by this means the fpring is
ftretched ; for the interior end of the fpring is fixed by a
hook to the immoveable axis, about which the bai rel revolves;
the exterior end of the fpring is fixed to the infide of the
barrel, which turns upon an axis. It is therefore eafy t
perceive how the fpring extends ftfelf, And how its elalhci-
ty forces the barrel to turn round, and confequently obi ges
the chain which is upon the fufee to unfold and turn the
fufee ; the motion of the fufee is communicated to the
wheel CC ; then, by means of the teeth, to the pinion
c, which carries the wheel D; then- to the pinion d,
which carries the wheel E ; then to the pinion e, which
carries the wheel F; then to the pinion /, upon which is the
balance-wheel G, whofe pivot runs in the pieces A called a po-
tance, and Beaded the follower, which are fixed on the plate,
fig. 5. This plate, of which only a partis reprefemed, isappli-
edtothat of (fig. 3.) in luch a manner, that the pivois o; the
wheels enter into holesmade in the plate (fig, 3 ) Thustheim-
prefied force of the fpring is communicated to the wheels ;
and the pinion / being then connefled to the wheel F,
obliges it to turn, (fig 7.) This wheel afis upon the palettes
of the verge i. 2, (tig 4.) the axis of which carries the balance
8 z FU3,
WATCH and CLOCK WORK.
93*
HH, (ftg. 4 ) The pivot I, in the endof the verge, enters into
the hole c in :he potance A (fig 5.) In this figure the palettes
sire rep re fen ted ; but the balance is on the other fide of the
plate, as may be feen in fig. 1 1. The pivot 3 of the balance
enters into a hole of the cock BC, (fig 10 ) a peripedtive
view of which is reprefented in (rig. 12.) Thus the balance
turns between the cock and the potance c, (fig. 5 ) as in a
kind of cage. Tbea&ion, of the balance-wheel upon the
palettes 1, 2, (fig. 4.) is the fame with what we have de-
imbed with regard to the fame wheel in the clock ; i. e.
in a watch the balance wheel obliges the balance to vibrate
backwards and forward like a pendulum. At each vibra¬
tion of the balance a palette allows a tooth of the balance-
•wheel to efcape, fo that the quicknefs of the motion of the
■wheels is entirely determined by the quicknefs of the vi¬
brations of the balance, and thefe vibrations of the balance
and motion of the wheels a. e produced by the action of the
fpring.
But the quicknefs -or flownefs of the vibrations of the
balance depend not folely upon the adtion of the great
fpring, but chiefly upon the addon of the fpring a, b. c,
called the fpiral fpring, (fig. 14 ) fituated under the
balance H, and reprefented in perfpedfive (fig. 11.) The.
exterior end of the fpiral is fixed to the pin a, ^fig- 14.)
WAT
WATCHING, in medicine, is produced by too great a
determination of the nervous fluid to the organs ot the
fenfes; whereby thefe organs are prepared to receive,
readily, any impreffions from external obj.dts, which
they propagate to the brain, and furnifh the foul with
divers occafions of thinking. See Medicine, p. 157.
WATER, in phyfiology, a Ample fluid, and liquid body,
re| uted the third of the four vulgar cements. See Che¬
mistry, p. 67. and Hydrostatics.
Holy Water, a water pn pared every Sunday in the Ro-
mifh church, with divers prayers, exorcifms, <bc. ufed
by the people to crofs themfelves withal at their entrance
to and going out of church ; and pretended to have the
virtue of wafhing away venial fins, driving away devils,
preferving from thunder, d flblving charms, fecuring from,
or curing difeafes, <bc. Many of the reformed take thft
ufe of holy water to have been borrowed from the luftral
water of the ancient Romans.
Water ordeal, or Trial, among our anceftors, was
of two kinds, by hot and by cold water. Trial or pur-
gatioo, by boiling or hot water, was a way of proving
crimes, by immerging the body, or the arm, in hot wa¬
ter, with divers religious ceremonies. In the judgment
by ^oiling water, the accufed, or he who perfonated the
accufed, was obliged to put his naked arm into a caldron
full of boiling water, and to draw out a {[one thence pla¬
ced at a greater or lefs depth, according to the quality
of the crime. .This done, the arm tvas wrapped up, and
the judge fet his Teal on the cloth ; and at the end of three
days they returned to view it; when if it were found with¬
out any feald, the accufed was declared innocent. The
nobles or great pe'rfonages purged themfelves thus by
hot water, and the populace by cold water. The trial,
or purgation, by cold water, was thus: After certain praye s
end other ceremonies, the accufed was Twaddled or tied
This pin is applied near the plate in a, (fig. n.) the inte¬
rior end of the fpiral is fixed by a peg to the centre of the
balance. Hence if the balance is turned upon itfelf, the
plates remaining immoveable, the fpring will extend itfelf,
and make the balance perform.one revolution. JSfow, af¬
ter the fpiral is thus extended, if the balance be left to
itfelf, the elafiicity of the fpirai will bring back the balance,
and in this manner the alternate vibrations of the.balance
are produced.
In fig 7 all the wheels above deferibed are reprefented
in inch a manner, that you may eafily perceive at firlt fight
how the motion is communicated from the barrel to the
balance.
In fig 8. are reprefented, the wheels under the dial-
plate by which the hands are moved. The pinion a is ad¬
jured to the force of the prolonged pivot of the wheel D,
(fig 7.) and is called a cannon pinion. This whi.el revolves
in an hour. The end of The axis of the pinion upon
which the minute-hand is fixed, is fquare ; the pinion
(fig. 8.) is indented into the wheel b, which is carried by
the.pinion a. Fig. 9. is a wheel fixed upon a barrel, into
lie cavity of which the pinion (*) enters, and upon which
t turns freely. This wheel, (d) revolves in 12 hours, and
carries along with it the hoar-hand.
WAT
up all in a pelotoon or lump, and thus caff into a river,
lake, or vtfTd of cold water ; where if he funk, he was
held criminal . if he floated, innbeent.
In the Levitical law, we find mention made of water
which ftived to prove whether or no a wpman was an
adulterefs ; the formula, as it was performed by the prieif,
may be Ren in the fifth chapter of the book of Numbers.
Water, among jewellers, is properly the colour or luftre
ot diamonds ana pearls. The term, though lefs properly,
is fometimes ufed for the hue or colour of other (tones.
Water Beetle, in zoology. See Dytiscus.
Water borne, in the fea-language. A (hip is faid to be
water-borne, when fhe is where there is no more water
than will barely bear her from the ground ; or when lying
even with the ground, (he firfl begins to float or fwim.
Water colours m painting, are fuch colours as are
only diluted and mixed up with gum-water, in contradi-
ftimMion to oil-colours.
Water gang, a channel cut to drain a place by carrying
off a ftream of water.
Water line of a Ship, a line which diftinguifhes that
part of her under water from th at above, when (he is
duly laden.
Water-men, are fuch as row in boats, or ply on the ri¬
ver Thames, in the government of whom the lord-mayor
of London, and court of aldermen there, had always
great power. They ftill have the appointing of their
fares, the taking more than which makes them liable to
a fine of 40s. and half a year’s imprifonment.
Water shoot, a young fprig which fprings out of the
root or flock of a tree
Water shot in the fea-language, a fort of riding at an¬
chor, when a. fhip is moored neither crofs the tide, nor
right up and down, but quartering betwixt both.
Water-table, in archue&ure, a ftTrt of ledge left in
ftone
//i,//.A
WAV
fbne or brick-walls, about eighteen or twenty inches
from the ground, from which place the thicknefs of the
Wall begins to abate.
Water wax, in a Ihip, is a fmall ledge of timber, lying
fore and aft on the deck, clofe by her fides, to keep the
water from running down there.
Water-works, in general, denote all manner of machines
moved by, or employed in raifmg or fuftaining water;
in which fenfe, water-mills of all kinds, fluices, aquse-
dudts, &£. may be called water-works. See Hydro¬
statics.
WATERFORD, a port-town of Ireland, capital of the
county of Waterford, fituated on the river Sure, eight
miles north of the fea: W. long. 70, N. lat. 52° is'.
It is one of the largeft cities in Ireland, and has a good
foreign trade.
WATERING, in the niacufadtures, is to give a luftre to
fluffs, &c. by wetting them lightly with gum-water, and
then puffing them through the prefs, or calender, whether
hot or cold.
The gum water ought to be pure, thin, and clear, o-
therwife the folds of the fluff will flick together: the o-
peration muft alio be performed when the water is very
hot, that it may penetrate.
WATLINGTON, a market-town of Oxfordfltire, fitua¬
ted twelve miles fomh-eaft of Oxford.
WATTON, a market-town of Norf olk, lixteen miles fouth-
weft of Noruich.
W WE, in philofophy, a cavity in the furface of water,
or other fluid, with an elevation afide thereof.
The waves of the fea are of two kinds, natural and
accidental The natural waves are thofe which are ex¬
actly proportioned in fize to the ftrength ot the wind,
whofe blowing gives origin to them. The accidental
waves are thofe occafioned by the wind’s re-a£ting upon
itfelf by repercuflion from hills and mountains, or high
fhores, and by the wafhing of the waves themfelves, o-
therwife of the nauiral kind, againft rocks and fhoals:
all thefe cafes give the waves an elevation, which they
can never have in their natural ftate.
Mr. Boyle has proved, by numerous experiments, that
the moft violent wind never penetrates deeper than fix feet
into the water; and it (hould feem a natural confequence
of this, that the water moved by it can only be elevated
to the fame height of fix feet from the level of the fur-
face in a calm: and this fix feet of elevation being added
to the fix of excavation, in the part whence that water
fo elevated was raifed, fhould give twelve feet for the ut-
moft elevation of a wave. This is a calculation that does
great honour to its .mthor ; for count Marfigli meafured
carefully the elevation of the waves near Provence, and
found, that, in a very violent tempeft, they arofe only to
feven feet above the natural level of the fea, and this ad¬
ditional foot in height he eafily refolved into the acciden¬
tal fhocks of the water againfl the bottom, which was,
in the place he meafured them in, not fo deep as to be out
of the way of afftfting the waves; and he allows that
the addition of one (ixth of the height of a wave, from
fuch a diftutbance from the bottom, is a very moderate
alteration from what would have been its height in a deep
fea; and concludes, that Mr. Boyle’s calculation holds
perfefily right in deep feas, where the waves are purely
natural, and have no accidental caufes to render them
WAX
larger than their juft proportion. In deep water, under
the high Ihores of the fame part of France, this author
found die natural elevation of the waves to be only five
feet ; but he found alfo, that their breaking againft rocks,
and other accidents to which they were liable in this place,
often riifed them to eight feet high.
We are not to fuppoie, from this calculation, that no
wave of the fea can rife more than fix feet above its na¬
tural level in open and deep water ; for waves immenfely
higher than thefe are formed, in violent tempefts, in the
great feas. Thefe, however, are not to be accounted,
waves in their natural ftate ; but they are firigle waves
formed of many others : for in thefe wide plains of wa¬
ter, when one wave is raifed by the wind, and would e-
levate itfelf up to the exadt height of fix feet, and no
more, the motion of the water is io great, and the fuc-
ceflion of the waves fo quick, that, during the time this
is rifing, it receives into it fevetal other waves, each of
which would have been at the fame height with itfelf;
thefe run into the firft wave, one after another, as it is
rifing; by this means its rife is continued much longer
than it naturally would have been, and it becomes terri¬
bly great. A number of thefe complex waves arifing to¬
gether, and being continued in a long fucceffion by the
continuation of the ftorm, make the waves fo dangerous
tothips, which the failors in their phufe call mountains-
fi'gh
Wave-offering, in Jewifh antiquity, a facrifice offered
by agitation, or waving, towards the four cardinal points
of the compafs.
WAVED, in heraldry, is fald of a bordure. or any ordi¬
nary, or charge, m a coat of arms, having its outlines-
indented in manner of the rifing and falling of waves :;
it is ufed to denote, that the firft of the fana.ly in whofe
arms it (lands, acquired its honours for fea iervice.
WAVING, in the lea-language, is the making figns to a-
veffel to come near or keep off.
WAX, or Bees Wax, in natural hiftory, a firm and folid
fubftance, moderately heavy, and of a tine yellow colour,,
formed by the bees Irom the farina of flowers. See Apis.
The heft fort is that of a lively yellow colour, and an
agreeable (mell, fomewhat like that of honey: when new,
it is toughifh, yet eafy to break ; but by age it becomes
harder and more brittle, lofes its fine colour, and in a
great meafure its Smell.
From the common yellow wax, by the mere effefi of
fun and pir, or by what is called bleaching, is formed
what we term white-wax-, and fome, very improperly,
virgin-wax. The greater the furface is in proportion
to the quantity, the fooner and more perfectly this ope¬
ration is performed. The ufual way is to melt the wax
in hot water ; when melted, they prefsit through a ftrainer
of tolerable fine linen, and pour it into round and very
fhallow moulds. When hardened by cooling, it is taken
out and expofed to the fun and air, fprinkling it now and
then with water, and often turning it : by this means it
foon becomes white. The heft fort is of a clear and al-
moft tranfparent whitenefs, dry, hard, brittle, and of an
agreeable fmell, like that of the yellow wax, but much
weaker.
The common yellow wax is of. very great ufe both in
medicine and in many of the arts and manufatfures. It
is fometimcs given internally, as in dyfenteries, and other
erofions
( 937 )
W E A ( 958) W E A
erosions of the inteftines; but its great-ufe is in the ma¬
king ointments and plaflers for external ufe, and the greater
part of thofe of the (hops owe their confidence to it.
The white-wax is alfo an ingredient in fotne of the ce¬
rates and ointments of the (hops; and is ufed in making
candles, and in many of the nicer arts and manufactures,
where wa£ is required.
Sea ling--Wax is made in the following manner: Take one
pound of bees wax ; three ounces of fine turpentine ; o-
live-oil, and rofin, finely powdered, of each one ounce:
when they are well melted, and the drofs taken off, put
in an ounce and a half of ,vermilion, or red lead, finely
ground, and ftir them together till they are well incor¬
porated : and when this mixture grows a little cool, roll
it into iticks. or in any other form. If you would have
it black, indead of vermilion, or red-lead, put in lamp¬
black. The fofr, red, and green-wax, ufed in large
feals to fome of our law writings, are thus made: Mdt
bees-wax over a gentle heat, with fuch a proportion of
Venice turpentine as, when cold, will give it the due
confidence: this is determined by repeated trials, firft
putting in but little turpentine, and afterwards more and
more, till by dropping a piece upon a marble to cool, it
is found of the true confidence They then colour it
with red-lead, or vermilion, or with yerditer, or what¬
ever colours they pleafe, the mixture in this date re¬
ceiving any,
'WAX work, the reprefentation of the faces, be. of
perfons living or dead; made by applying plafter of
Paris in a kind of padg, and thas forming a mould con¬
taining the exaCt reprefentation of the features. Into
this mould melted wax is poured, and thus a kind of
mafks are formed ; which being painted and fet with
glafs eyes, and the figures dreded in their proper habits,
they bear fuch a refemblance that it is difficult to dtdin-
guiffi between the copy and the original.
WAY, a paffage 01 road.
The Roman ways are dirided intocoofular, praetorian,
military, and public; and of thefe we have four remark¬
able ones in England: the firft, Watling-ftreet, or Wa-
theling-ftreet, leading from Dover to London, Dundable,
Toucefter, Atterfton, and the Severn, extending as far
as Anglefea in Wales. The fecond, called Hikenild, or
Ikenild-ftreet, ftretches from Southampton over the river
Ills at Newbridge; thence by Camden and Litchneld ;
then paffes the Derwent, near Derby, and ends at Tin
mouth, The third, called Fode-way, because in lome
places it was never perfefted/but lies as a large ditch,
leads from Cornwal through Devonffiire, by Tethbury,'
rear Scow in the Wolds ; and belideCoventry to Leiccf-
ter, Newark, and fo to Lincoln. The fourth, called
Erming, or Erminage-ftreet, extends from St. David’s,
in Wales, to Southampton.
Way of a Jhip,' is fometimes the fame as her rake, or run
forward or backward : but this term is moft commonly
underftood of her failing.
Way-wode, a title given to the governors of the chief
places in the empire of Mufcovy, as alfo in Poland.
WEAR, or Weer, a great ftank or dam in a river, fitted
for the taking of fiffi, or for conveying the ftream to a
mill.
New wears are not to be made, dr others altered, to
- the cufance -of the public, under a certain penalty.
WEASEL, in zoology. SeeMusTEtA.
WEATHER, the ftate or difpofition of the atmofphere with
regard to heat, cold, wind, rain, froft, be.
As it is in the atmofphere that all plants and animals
live, and as that appears to be the great principle of mod
anfmal and vegetable prodmflions, alterations, be. there
does not feem any thing, in all philofophy, of more im¬
mediate concernment to us than the ftate of the weather,
and a knowledge of the great influence it has on our bo¬
dies. What vaft, but regular, alterations a little turn of
weather makes in a tube filled with mercury, or fpirits
of wine, or in a piece of firing, be. every body knows,
in the common inftance of barometers, thermometers, be.
and it is owing partly to our inattention, and partly to
our unequal and intemperate courfe of living, that we do
not feel as great and regular ones in the tubes, chords,
and fibres of our own bodies.
Weather-cock, a moveable vane in form of a cock, or
other fhape, placed on high, to be turned round accord-
ding to the direftion of the wind, and point out what
. quarter the wind blows from,
Weather-glasses. See Barometer, andTHERMo-.
METER
WEATHERING, among failors, fignifies the doubling,
or failing by a head land, or other place.
WEAVING, the art of working a web of cloth, filk, or
other ItufF, m a loom with a ihuttle For the manner of
performing which, fee Cloth
WEB, a fort of tiflue or texture formed of thr-ads inter¬
woven with each other ; fome whereof are extended in
length, and called the warp; and others drawn acrofs,
and called the woof. See Cloth.
Spider's Web. See A rank a
WEDGE, one of the mechanical powers. See Mecha¬
nics.
WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, fo called
from a Saxon idol named Woden, fuppofed to be Mars,
worfhipped on this day.
Wednesday, the firft day of Lent, fo called from
the cuftom obierved in the ancient chriflian church of
penitents expreffiag their humiliation at this time, by ap¬
pearing in fackcloth and allies.
WEED, a common name for kll rank and wild herbs, that
grow of themfelves, to the detriment of other ufeful herbs
they grow among.
Weed, in the miners language, denotes the degeneracy
of a load or vein of fine metal into an ufelefs marcafite.
WEEK, in chronology, a divifion of time comprifing fe-
ven days See Astronomy, p. 489.
The origin of this divifion of weeks, orof computing
time byfevenths, is greatly controverted. Some will have
it to take its Yife from the four quarters Or intervals
of the moon, between her changes or phafes, which, be¬
ing about feven days diftant, gave occafion to the divifion.
Be this as it will, the divifion is certainly very an¬
cient. The Syrians, Egyptians, and moft of the orien¬
tal nations, appear to have ufed it from all an iquity:
though it did not get footing in the weft till Chriftianity
brought it in : the Romatis^reckoned, their days no. by
fevenths, but by ninths, and the ancient Greeks by de-
cads or tenths.
Indeed, the Jews divided their time by weeks, but it
was upon a different principle from the eaftern nations.
God
W E L ( 9^9 ) WES
God himre!f appointing them to work fix days, and to
reft the fabbath, in order to keep up the fenfe and re¬
membrance of the creation; which being effetted in fix
days, he refted the feventh.
Patfion Week, or the Holy Week, is the laft week in
Lent, wherein the church celebrates the myftery of our
Saviour’s death and paffion.
Week, or Wyck, in geography, a parliament and port-
town of Scotland, in the (hire of Cathnefs : W. long.
2° 45^, N. lat. 58° 40'.
WEEVER, in ichthyology. See Trachinus.
WEIGH, a weight of cfeeefe, wool, be. containing 256
-pounds avoirdupoife. Of corn, the weigh contains for¬
ty bufhels; of barley or malt, fix quarters. In f5me
places, as Eflex, the weigh of cheefe is 300 pounds.
WEIGHING, the aft of examining a body in the balance
to find its weight.
• Weighing-anchor, is the drawing it out of the ground
it had been caft into, in order to fet fail, or quit a port,
road, or the like.
WEIGHT, in phyfics, a quality in natural bodies where¬
by they tend downwards, towards the centre of tfie
earth. Or, weight may be defined, in a lefs limited
manner, to be a power inherent in all bodies whereby
they tend to fome common point, called the centre of
gravity ; and that with a greater or Tefs velocity, as they
are more or lefs denfe, or as the medium they pafs thro’
is more or lefs rare. See Mechanics.
Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known weight,
appointed to be put in the balance againft other bodies
whofe weight is required.
WEIL, orWEYL, an imperial city of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia, and duchy of Wirtemburg : E. long.
8° 40'; N. lat. 48° 4G/.
WEIMAR, a city of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, the capital of the Weimar: E. long. 110 25^
N. lat. 510.
WEISEL, a river of Poland, and the fame wi:h the viftula.
S e Vistula.
WEISSENBURG, or Stulweissenburg, a city of
Lower Hungary, fituated near the eaft end of the Flat¬
ten fea, thirty-fix miles fotith-weft of Buda.
WEISSENFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Mifnia, feventeen
miles fouth-weft ofLeipfick.
WELCHPOLE, a market-town of Montgomeryfhire, fi-
tu ited fix miles north of Montgomery.
WELD, or Wold, in botany. See Reseda.
WELDING heat, in Imithery, a degree of heat given
to iron, be. iufficient only for bending, or doubling
it up.
WELL, a hole underground, ufually of a cylindrical fi¬
gure, and walled with (lone and mortar: its uie is to
eolleft the water of the ftrata around it.
Well in the military art, a depth which the miner finks
under ground with branches or galleries running out
from it; either' to prepare a mine, or to difeover and
diiappoint the enemies mine.
Well hole in building, is the hole left in a floor for the
fta;rs to come up through.
-WELLS, a ity of Somerfetfhirt, fituated fixreen miles
fouth weft of the city of Bath, both which cities have
but one n (hop.
Vol. ill. N° 99,
Tins is alfo the name of a town of Germany, in the
circle of Auftria, fituated eleven miles fouth of Linez.
WELLAND, a river which riling in LeicefterThire, and
running eaftward between the counties of Rutland aid
Northampton, and afterwards north-eaft by Stamford,
falls into a bay of the German Sea, which divides the
counties o‘ Lincoln and Norfolk.
WELLINBOROUGH, a market-town of Northampton-
flure,- fituated on the river Nen, ten miles north-eaft of
Northampton.
WELLINGTON, a market-town of Sliropftiire, fituated
ten miles eaft of Shrewfbury.
WEM, a market-town of Shropftiire, fituated eight miles
north of Shrewlbury.
WEN, a tumour or excrefcence that arifes on different
parts of the body, and contains a cyftus or bag filled
with fome peculiar matter.
WENDOVER, a borough town of Bucks, fix miles fouth
of Aiielbury -, which fends two members to parliament.
WENER, a 1 ike in Sweden, in the province of Gothland,
feventy miles in length, and fifty in breadth.
WENLOCK, a borough-town of Shropftiire, ten miles
fouth-eaft of Shrewfbury ; which fends two members to
pailiament.
WENSUSSEL, the north divifion.of Jutland, in Den¬
mark, having the Categate fea on the north, the Schag-
gerrackTea on the eaft, the province of Wiburg on the
fouth, and the German Sea on the weft.
WEOBLEY, a borough-town of Herefordfhire; 12 miles
north-weft of Hereford ; which fends two members to
parliament.
WERMELAND, a province of Sweden, lying between
the province of Dalecarlia on the north, and the lake
Wener on the fouth.
WESEL, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Cleves: E.
Jong. 6° y7, N. lat. yi® 37'.
WESER, a river of Germany, which rifes in the Land-
gravate of HefTe, runs between the circles of Weftphaiia
and Lower Saxony, and falls into the German fea below
Carlftat.
WESi', one of the cardinal points of the horizon, diame¬
trically oppofite to the eaft ; and flriftiy defined, the in-
terfeftion of the prime vertical with the horizon, on that
fide the fun fets in.
WESTRURY, a borough-town of Wiltfhire, twenty
miles north-weft of Salifbury; which fends two members to
parliament.
WESTLOW, a borough town of Cornwal, twenty-three
miles fouth-weft of Launcefton; which fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
WESFMANIA, a pio/vinceof Sweden, having Upland on
the eaft, and Wermeland on the weft.
WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, bounded by Longford and Cavan on the north;
by Eaftnleath, on the eaft ; by King’s County, on the
fouth; and by the river Shannon, which divides it from
Rofcommon, on the weft
WESTMINSTER, a city which forms the weft part of
the town which goes by the general name of London; but
is under a diftindt government; the dean and chapter ap¬
pointing the hqh fteward, high bailiff, and other offi¬
cers, who have the government of the city. Here ate
the king’s palaces, and the houfes of molt of the no-
9 A bility.
3
W H I ( 940 ) W H I
bility, the high coinr of parliament, and the fupreme
courts of juilice ; bpt there is no bifhop of this ci;y It
elefls two members of parliament.
WESTMORELAND, an Englifh county, bounded by
Cumberland on the north, by Yorkfhire on the call,, by
Lancafeire on the fouth, and by the Infh channel on the
well.
WESTPIJALIA, the north-weft circle of the empire of
Germany, bounded by the German ocean, on the north;,
by the circle of Lower Saxony, on the eafl; by the Land-
gravate of HelTe, the Palatinate of the Rhine, and the
deflorate of Triers, bn the fouth; and by the Nether¬
lands, on the weft: being 200 miles in length, and trom
1 50 to 200 in breadth.
WESTRAM, a market town of Kent, under the meridian
Or London, 44 miles weft of Canterbury.
WETTERAVlA, the fouthern divifron of the Ifandgra-
vate of Heffe, in Germany, lying along the northern
hank of the river Maine, comprehending the counties of
Hanau and Naffau,
WETZL AR, an imperial city ofG rmany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine and territory of Wetteravia f)mated on
the Viver Lohn, E. long. 8° 1 s’, N' lat, 50® 30'.
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland, inthe province of Mun-
fter, bounded by the county of Wicklow on the north,
by the ocean on the eaft and iouth, and by Kilkenny and
Waterford on the weft.
Wexford, the capital of this county, is fituated at
the mouth of the river SLney, lixty five miles fouth of
Dublin.
WEYMOUTH, a port-town of Dorfetfhire, fituated on a
fine bay of the Englifh channel, feven miles fouth of Dor-
chefter. It fends two members to parliament.
WHALE, in ichthyology. See Baljena, and Physe-
ter
WHARF, a fpace on the b^nks of a haven, creek, or bithe,
provided for the convenient loadng and unloading of
veffels upon.
WHEAT, in botany. See Triticum, For the culture
of wheat, fee Agriculture, p. 60.
WHEEL, in mechanics, a (imple machine, confiding of a
round piece of wood, metal, or other matter, which re¬
volves on an axis. Se* Mechanics.
WHELP, the young of a dog, fox, lion, or any wild
beaft.
Whelps, in a fhip, the feaman’s term for thofe brackets
which are fet up on the capftanciofe under the bars; they
give the fweep to it, and are fo contrived that the cable
winding about them may not furge fo much as it might
otherwife do 1! the body of the capftan were quite round
andfmoorh.
WHETSTONE, a done which ferves for the whetting of
knives and other tools upon.
WHEY, the ferum, or watery part, of milk. See Whey.
WHIG, a party in Britain, oppofite to ihe tories, from
'whom they differ chiefly in their political principles. See
Tories.
The names df whig and tory were not known till a
bout the middle of the reign of Charles II. when thefe
were given as party-diftinftions. 1 hefe parties may be
confidered either with regard to the date, or to religion
The (late tories are either viclem, or moderate: the firft
would have the king to te abfolute, and therefore plead
for paffive obedience, non-refiftance, and the hereditary
right of the houfe of Sceuart. The moderate tories
would not fyffer the king to lofe any of his pererogative;
but then they would not facrifice thofe of the people.
The ftate wings are either ftrong repubhsans, or moderate
ones The firft, fays Rapin, are the remains of the
party of the long parlirment, who attempted to change
monarchy to a commonwealth: but thefe make fo (lender
a figure, that they only ferve to (Lengthen the party
of toe other whigs. The tories would pevfuade the
world, that all the whigs are of this kind; as the whigS.,
would make us hchevt that all the tories are violent The
moderate ftate-whigs are much in the fame fentiments with
the moderate tones and defire that the government may
be maintained on the ancient foundation: all the diffe¬
rence is, that the firft bear a little more tothe parliament
and people, and the latter to that of the king. In Abort,
the old whigs were always jealous of the encroachments
of the royal prerogative, and watchful over the preferva-
tion of the liberties and properties of the people.
WHIP, or whip-staff, in a fhip, a piece of timber, in
form of a ftrong ftaff, faftened into the helm, for the
fteeifman, in fmall (hips, to hold in his hand, in order
to move the rudder and direft the fhip.
WHIRLPOOL an eddy, vortex, or gulph, where the
water is continually turning round
Thefe in rivers are very common, from-various acci¬
dents, and are ufually very trivial, and of little confe-
quence. In the fea they are more rare, but more dan¬
gerous. Sibbaid has related the effetfls of a very remark¬
able marine whirlpool among the Orcades, which would
prove very dangerous to ftrangers, though it is of no’con-
fequence to the people who.are ufed to it. This is no*
fixed to any pa. ticui-ir place, but appears in various part
of the hmits of the fea among thofe iflands. Wherever
it appears, it is very furious; and boats, drc. would ine¬
vitably be drawn in and pevifti with it ; but the people
who navtg.: e them are prepared for it, and always carry
an empty vtff l, a log of wmod, or large bundle of llraw;,
or fome fuch thing, in the boat with them ; as foon as
they perceive the whirlpool they tofs this within its
vortex, keeping themfeives out : this fubftance, what¬
ever it be, is immediately received into the centre, and
carried under water; and as foon as tb s is done, the
furfaee of >he place where the whirlpool was becoqtes
fmooth, and they row over it with fafety ; and in about
an hour they fee the vortex begin again in fome other
place, ufually at about a mile’s diftance from the firft.'
WHIRLWIND, a wind that rifes fnddenly is exceeding
' rapid and impetuous when rifen, but is foon fpent. $ee
Pneumatics, p. 495.
W'HISPERING. See the articles Hearing, Atten¬
tion,
Whispering places depend upon this principle. If the
vibrations of the tremulous bod) are propagated through
a long tube, they will be'continually reverberated from
the (ides of the tube into its axis and by that means pre¬
vent- d from fpreadmg, till they get out of it ; w'bereby
they will be exceedingly tncrealed, and the found render¬
ed much louder than it would otherwife be.
Hence it is that found is conveyed from one fide of
a wiufpering ga lery to the oppofite one, without .bti -g
perceived by thofe who (land in the rujddle.
WHIST,
WIG r 5
WHIST, a well-known game at cards; fo called from the
filence obferred during the play.
WHITBY, a port-town of the north riding of Yorkfliire,
fituated on the German fea, thirty-eight miles north-eaft
of York.
WHITCHURCH, a borough-town of Hampihire, fitua.
ted ten miles north of Winchefter. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
WHITE, one of the, colours of natural bodies.
White of the eye, denotes the firft tunic or coat of the
eye, called albuginea. See Anatomy, p. 289.
White friers, a name common to feveral orders of
monks, from their being clothed in a white habit.
White-horse, in ichthyology. See Raia.
White lead. See Ceruse.
White-sea, in geography, a bay of the frozen ocean, in
the north of Mufcovy, between Ruffian Lapland and
Samoieda.
White wiHE, wine of a bright tranfparent colour, bor¬
dering on white, thus called to diftinguiffi it from the red
wines. See Wine.
WHITEHAVEN, a port-town of Cumberland, fituated
on the Inffi channel: W» long. 30 ib', N.lat. 540 30'.
WHITENESS, the quality which denominates a body white.
WHITING, in ichthyology. SeeGAous.
WHITES, in medicine, the fame with flucr albus. See
Medicine, p. 164.
WHITSUNDAY, afolemn feftival of the Chriflian church,
observed on the fiftieth day after Eafter, in memory of
the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the apoftles in the
vifible appearance of fiery cloven tongues, and of thofe
miraculous powers which were then conferred upon them.
It is called Whitfunday, or White Sunday, becaufe
this being one of the dated times for baptifrn in the an¬
cient church, thofe who were baptifed put on white gar¬
ments, as types of that fpiritual purity they received in
baptism. A<i the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the a-
poftles happened upon the day which the Jews called pen-
tecod, this fedival retained the name of pemecod among
the Chridians
W BURG, the capital of the territory of the fame name
in Jmland : E long 90 i6/, N. lat 56* 20'’.
Wiburg, a city and port-town of Ruffian Finland, fitua-
ted on the gulph of Finland : E long. 290, N- lat 6i°.
Win COMB chipping, a borough town of Bucks,
twelve miles iouth of Ailefbury. It lends two members
to parliament.
WICK de duerstede, a town of the United Nether¬
lands, in the province o‘ Utrecht, fifteen miles fouth-eaft
of the city of Utrecht,
WICKER, a twig of the ofier ffirub, fingle or wrought.
WICKET, a fmail door in, the gate of a fortified place,
<bc. or a hole in a door, through which to view what
paffes without.
WICKLIFFISTS, or Wickliffites, a religious fed
which fprung up in England in the reign of Edward III.
and took its name from John WicklifF, dodor and pro-
feflor of divinity in the univerfity of Oxford,, who main¬
tained that the fubdance of the facramental bread and
wine remained unaltered after confecration ; and oppofed
the dodrinc of purgatory, indulgences, auricular con-
feffion, the invocation of faints, and the worfhip of ima-
14 r ) W I L
ges. He maintained, that the children of the religious .
may be faved without being baptized ; that prieds may
admimder comirmation ; that there ought to be only two
Orders in the church, that of prieds, and that of deacons.
He made an Englifh verlaon of the Bible; and compofed
tw ovolumes, called Aletheia, that is, Truth, from which
John HufTe learned mod of his doftrines. In fhort, to
this reformer We owe the fird hint of the reformation,
which was effected about two hundred years after,
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Lemder, bounded by the county of Dublin on the north,
by the Iriffi channel on the ead, by Wextord on the
fourh, and by Kildare and Katerlagh on the wed.
WICKWARE, a market town of Gloeederffiire, iituated
twenty miles fouth of Gloceder,
WIDGEON, in ornithology. See Anas.
WIDOW, a woman who has lod her hufoand.
WIFE, a married woman, or one joined with, and under
the prote&ion of, ao hufoand. See Husband.
WIGGaN, a borough-town of Lancafture, twenty nine
miles fouth of Lancader. It fends two members to par¬
liament.
IJle <?/’WIGH T, part of the county of Southampton, and
feparated from it by a narrow channel, is about twenty
miles long, and twelve broad. The chief iown is New-
poi-t.
WIGTOWN, a borough and port-town of Scotland, in
the Ihire of Gallo -ay, (ituated on a bay of the Iriffi
channel, mneiy miles fouth-wed of Edinburgh.
WILDERNESS, in gardening, a kind of grove of large
trees, in a tpacious garden, in which the walks are com¬
monly made either to interfeit each other in angles, or
have the appearance of meanders and labyrinths
WILKOMERS. a city o' Poland, in the dutchy of Li¬
thuania : E. long. 25*0, N lat. 55° 3c/.
WILL, or Will, in law, ligmlles the declaration of
a man’s mind and intent relating to the difpolition of his
lands, goods, or otlier edate, or of what he would have
done after his death.
In tire common law, there is a didindHon made between
a will and a tedamem ; as that is called a will, where-
lands or tenaments are given ; and when the difpofitiom
concerns goods and chattels alone, it is termed a tedanaent.
See Tf.STAMENT.
V?\hi.-'with-a-!wifp, or Jack-’with-a-lanthorn, a meteor
known among the people under thefe names, but more
ufually among authors under that of ignis fatuus.
This meteor is chiefly feen in fummer-nights, frequent¬
ing meadows, marffies, and other mold places. Itfeems -
to arife from a vifeous exhalation, which being kindled
in the air, refledts a fort of thin flame in the dark, with¬
out any fenftble heat.
It is often found flying along rivers, hedges, &c. by
reafon it there meets with a dream of air to dirett it.
The ignus fatuus, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, is a vapour-
fhining without heat ; and there is the fame difference-
between this vapour and flame, as between rotten wood:
fliining without heat and burning coals of fire.
WILLIAMSBURG, capital of the colony of Virginia,;,
fituated in Jaraes-county, between James-river and York-
river: W. long. 76° 30', N. lat. 370 20.
WILLI.AM’s fort, a fort belonging to the Engliffi Eafb
India-
WIN ( 942 ) WIN
India company, fituated on the weftern branch of
the river Ganges, in the province of Bengal: E, long.
87°, N, lai 2 0 45:'.
WILLIAMSTAT, a port-town of Hoiland, fituated on
the fea called Hollands Deep, fourteen miles fouth of
Rotterdam.
WILLi’W, in bota y See Salix.
WILNA, a city of Poland, capital of the great duchy of
Lithuania, fituated on a river of the fame name: E.
long 25° 15', N. lat. 550.
WILTON, a borough-town of Wiitfhire, fituated on the
nver Willey, fin miles north-weft of Sahfbury. It fends
two members to parliament.
WILTSHIRE, a county of England, bounded by Glo-
cefterfhtre and Oxfordfhire on the north, by Berkfture
and Hampfhire on the eaft, by Dorfetfhire on the
fouth, and by Somerfetfhire on the weft.
WINCHELSEA, a boro .gh and port-town of SufTex, fi¬
tuated on a bay of the Englifli channel, thirty miles eafl
of Lewes. It fends two members to parliament.
WINCHESTER, the capital city of Hampfhire, fituated
on the river Itching, fix y-five miles fouth-weft of Lon¬
don.
WIND. See Pneumatics, p. 495.
Wind mill, a kind of mill, the internal parts of which
are much the fame with thofe ef a water-mill ; from
which however it differs, in being moved by the impulfe
of the wind upon its vanes, or fails, which are to be
- confidered as a wheel on the axle. See Mechanics.
Wind-flower, in botany. See Anemone.
W ind gall, a name given by our farriers to a diftempe-
rature of horfes. See Farriery, p. 575.
Wind sails, in a fhip, are made of the common fail-cloth,
and are ufually between twenty-five and thirty feet long,
according to the fize of the fhip, and are of the form of
a cone ending obtulely: when they are made ufe of, they
are hoifted by ropes to about two thirds or more of their
height, with their bafis diftended circularly by hoops,
and their apex hanging downwards in the hatch ways of
the Ihip ; above each of thefe, one of the common fails
is fo difpofed, that the greateft part of the air rufhing a-
gainlt it, is diredted into the wind-fail, and conveyed, as
through a funnel, into the upper parts of the body of
the Ihip.
Wind tackle-blocks, in a fhip, are the main double
blocks which being made fait to the end of a fmall ca¬
ble, ferve for hoiftmg of goods into the fhip, <bc.
To Wind, or Wend a Jhip, fignifies to bring her head a-
bout Ho-w winds or wends the Jhip ? is a queftion aflced
by mariners, concerning a fhip under fail ; fignifying as
much as, upon what point of the compafs does (he lie
with.her head ?
Windward, in the Tea-language, denotes any thing to¬
wards that point from whence the wind blows, in refpedt
of a flup: thus windward-tide, is the tide which runs a-
gainft the wind.
WINDAGE of a gun, the difference between the diameter
of the bore, and the diameter of the ball.
WINDLASS, a machine ufed to raile huge weights withal,
as guns, Hones, an hors, fee.
It is very fimple, confining only of an axis, or roller,
fupponed horizontally at the two ends, by two piecesof
Wood and a puiJy: the two pieces of wood meet at top,
being placed diagonally fo as to prop each other; the
axis, or roller, goes through the two pieces, and turns
in them. The puliy is faftened at top where the pieces
join. Laftly, there are two Haves or handfpikes which go
through the roller, where-y it is turned, and the rope
wi ich comes over the pulley is wound off and on the fame.
Windlass, in a fh p, is an inHrument in fmall fhips. pla¬
ced upon the deck, jufi abaft the fore mafl. It is made
of a piece of timber fix or eight feet fquare, in form of
an axle-tiee, whofe length is placed horizontally upon
two pieces of wood at the ends thereof, and upon which
it is turned about by the help of handfpikes put into holes
made for that purpofe. This inHrument ferves for weigh¬
ing anchors, or hoiHing of any weight in or but of the
fhip, and will purchafe much more than any capHao, and
that without any danger to thofe that heave ; for if in
heaving the windlafs aoout, any of the handfpikes (hould
happen to break, the windlafs would pall of itfelf.
WINDOW, an aperture or open place in the wall of a
houfej to let in the wind and light. See Architec¬
ture, p. 357.
WINDSOR, a borough-town of Berkfhire, twenty miles
weH of London, moft remarkable for the magnificent pa¬
lace or caHle fituated there on an eminence, which com¬
mands the adjacent country for many miles, “the river
Thames running at the foot of the hill. The knights of
the garter are infialled in the royal chapel here. It fends
two members to parliament.
WINE, a brifk, agreeable, fpirituous and cordial liquor,
drawn from vegetable bodies, and fermented.
All forts of vegetables, fruits, feeds, roots, fee. af¬
ford wine ; as grapes, currants, mulberries, elder-berries,
cherries, apples, puife, beans, peafe, turneps, radifhes,
and even grafs itfelf. Hence under the clafs of wines,
or vinous liquors, come not only wines abfolutely fo cal¬
led, but alfo ale, cyder, fee. See Brewing, and Che¬
mistry, p 9j, 161.
Wine in France is diftinguifhed, from the feveral de¬
grees and Heps of its preparation, into, 1. Mere goutte,
mother-drop, which is the virgin wine, or that which
runs of itfelf out at the top of the vat wherein the grapes
are laid, before the vintager enters to tread or flamp the
grapes. 2. Mutt, furmutt, or ttum, which is the wine
or liquor in the vat, after the grapes have been trod or
Hamped. 3. Prefled wine, being that fqueezed with a
prefs out of the grapes half bruited by the treading. The
hulks left of the grapes are called rope, murk, or mark ;
by throwing water upon which and prefling them afrelh,
they make a liquor for fervants ufe, anfwerable to our
cyderkin, and called boiffon. 4. Sweet wine, is that
which has not yet worked nor fermented. 5. Bouru,
that which has been prevented working by cafling in cold
water. 6. Worked wine, that which has been let work
in th& vat, to give it a colour. 7. Boiled wine, that
which has had a boiling before it worked, and which by
that means Hill retains its native fweetnefs. 8 Strained
wine, that made by Heeping dry grapes in water/and
letting it ferment of itfelf. Wines are alfo diHinguilh.d
with regard to their colour into white wine, red wine,
claret wine, pale wine, rofe, or black wine ; and with
regard to-their count!y, ot the foil that produces them,
into French wints, Spamfli wines, Rhe hh wines, Hun¬
gary wines, Greek wines, Canary wines, fee. and more
particularly
W I R ( 9-43 ) W I T
particularly into Port wine, Madeira wine, Burgundy
wine, Champain wine, Falernian wine, Tockay wine,
Schiras wine, <&c.
Spirit of ine. See Chemistry, p. 163.
WING, that part of a bird, in edt, he. whereby it is e-
nabled to fly. See Natural History.
Wings, in heraldry, are borne fometimes Angle, fometimes
in pairs; in which cafe, they are called conjoined When
the points are downward, they are faid to be inverted ;
when up, elevated.
Wings, in military affairs, are the two flanks or extremes
of an army, ranged in form of a battle ; being the right
and left fides thereof.
Wings, in fortification, denote the longer fides of horn-
works, crown-works, tenailles, and the like out-works;
including the ramparts and parapets ; with which they
are bounded on the right and left, from their -gorge to
their front. . .
WINSLOW, a market-town of Bucks, fix miles north of
Ailefbury.
WINSTER, a market-town of Darbyfliire, fituated ten
miles north of Darby.
WINTER, one of the four feafons or quarters of the year.
See Astronomy, p. 546.
Winter’s Bark, in botany, a name given to the bark of
the white or wild cinnamon tree. See Cinnamon.
WINTERTONNESSE, the north cape of the county of
Norfolk, four miles north of Yarmouth.
WIRE, a piece of metal drawn through the hole of an iron
into a thread of a finenefs anfwerable to the hole it pallid
through.
Wires are frequently drawn fo fine, as to be wrought
along with other threads of fiik, wool, flax, <fac.
The metals moft commonly drawn into wire, .are gold,
lilver, copper, and iron. Gold-wire is made of cylin¬
drical ingots of filver, covered over with a fkm of gold,
and thus drawn fucceflively through a valt number of
Koies, each fmaller and fnaaller, till at laft it h brought
to a finenefs exceeding that of a hair. That admirable
dudtihty which makes one of the ddfinguifliing charaiflers
of gold, is no where more confpicuous than in this gut
wire. A cylinder of forty-eight ounces of filver, cover
ed wish a coat of gold, only weighing one ounce, as Dr.
Hailey informs us, is ufually drawn into a wire, two
yards of which weigh no more than one grain ; whence
ninety-eight yards of the wire weigh no more than forty-
pine grains, and one firgle grain of gold covers the nine¬
ty-eight yards ; fo that the ten thoufandth part of a grain
is above one-eighth of an inch long.
Wire of Lapland. The inhabitants of Lapland have a
fort of Aiming (lender fubftance in ufe among them on Se¬
veral occafions v hich is much of the thicknefs and ap¬
pearance of our filver-wire, and is therefore called, by
thofe who do not examine its itrufhire or fubftance, Lap-
land-wire. It is made of the finews of the rein-deer,
which being carefully feparated in the eating, are, by the
women, after foaking in water, and beating, fpun into
a fort of thread, of admirable finenefs, and ftrength, when
wrought ro the fmalleft filaments : but when larger, is
very ftrong, and fit for the purpofes of ftrength and force.
Their wire, as it is called, is made of the fineft of thefe
threads, covered with tin. The women do this bufinefs,
and the v ay they take is to melt a*piece of tin, and pla-
Vol. III. N° 100. g
cing at the edge of it a horn with a hole through it, they
draw thefe finewy threads, covered with the tin, through
the hole, which prevents their coming out too thick co¬
vered. This drawing is performed wish their teeth ; and
there is a fmall piece of bone placed at the top of the
hole, where the wire is made flat, fo that we always find
it rounded on all fides but one, where it is flat.
This wire they ufe in embroidering their cloaths as we
do gold and filver; they often fell it to ftrangers, under
the notion of its having certain magical virtues.
WIRKSWORTH a market-town of Darbyfhire, fituated
fix miles north of Darby.
WISBEACH: a market-town of the ifle of Ely, in Cam-
bndgtfhire, fituated fifteen miles north of Ely.
WISDOM, ulually denotes a higher and more refined no¬
tion of things immediately prefented to the mind, as it
were, by intuition without the afliifance of ratiocination.
WISTON. a market-town of Pemorokefttire, fituated ten
miles north of Pembroke.
WIT is a quality of certain thoughts and expreflions : the
term is never applied to an adtion nor to a paflion, and as
little to an external objedt.
However difficult it may be, in every particular inftance,
to dirtmguilh a witty thought orexpteflion from one that
is not fo yet n general it may be laid down, that the
term wit is appropriated to fuch thoughts and expreflions
a: are ludicrous, and alfo occafion Tome degree of fur-
prile by their fingulanty, Wn alfo, in a figurative (enfe,
exprefles that talent which lome men have of inventing
ludicrous thoughts or expreflions: we fay commonly, a
witty man. or a man of wit.
Wh in its proper fenfe, as explained above, is diftin-
guilhable into two kinds , wit in the thought, and wit in
the words or expreflion. Again, wit in the thought is of
two kinds ; ludicrous images, and ludicrous combinations
of things that have little or no natural relation.
Ludicrous images that occafion furprife by their fingu-
larity, as having little or no foundation in nature, are fa¬
bricated by the imagination : and the imagination is well
qualified for the office ; being of all our faculties the moft
adtive, and the lealt under reftraint. Take the following
example.
Shy lock You knew (none fo well, none fo well as
you) of my daughter’s flight.
Salino. That’s certain : I, for my part, knew the
tailor that made the wings fhe flew withal.
Merchant of Venice, aft fc. 1.
The image here is undoubtedly witty. It is ludicrous:
and it muft occafion furprife ; for having no natural foun¬
dation, it is altogether unexpedled.
The other branch of wit m the thought, is that only
which is taken notice of by Addifon, following Locke,
who defines it “ to lie in the aflemblage of ideas ; and
putting thofe together, with quicknefsand variety, where¬
in can be found any refemblance or congruny, thereby to
make up pleafant pidferes and agreeable vtfions in the fan¬
cy.” _ It may be defined more curtly, .and perhaps more
accurately, “ a jundfion of things by dirtant and fanciful
relations, which furprife becaufe they are unexpedted.”
The following is a proper example.
We grant although he had much wit,
H’ was very flty of ufing it,
9 B
As
WIT ( 944
As being loth to wear it out;
And therefore bore it not about,
Unlefs on holidays, or fo.
As men their belt apparel do.
Hudibras, canto i.
Wit is of all the moft elegant recreation: the image en¬
ters the mind with gaiety, and gives a fudden flalh which
is extremely pleafant. Wit thereby gently elevates with¬
out draining, railes mirth without diflblutenefs, and relaxes
while it entertains.
Wit in the expreflion, commonly called a play of words,
being a baltard fort of wit, is icferved for the la ! place.
We proceed to examples of wit in the thought; and iirft of
ludicrous images.
Falltaff, fpeaking of his taking Sir John Colevile of the
Dale:
Here he is, and here I yield him ; and I befeech your
Grace, let it be book’d with the reft of this day’s deeds;
or, by the Lord, I will have it in a particular ballad
clfe, with mine own pidlure on the top of it, Colevile
killing my foot: to the which courfe if I be enforced, if
you do not all (hew like gilt twopencesto me ; and I, in
the clear Iky of fame, o’erlhine you as much as the full
moon doth the cinders of the element, which Ihew like
pins’ heads to her ; believe not the word of the noble.
Therefore let me have right, and let defert mount.
Second Part, Henry IV. aft 4. fc. 6.
I knew, when feven jultices could not take up a quar¬
rel, but when the parties were met themfelves, one of
them them thought but of an if; as, if you had faid fo,
then I faid fo; and they Ihook hands, and fwore brothers.
Your if is the only peace-maker ; much virtue is in if
Shakefpear.
For there is not through all nature another fo callous
and infenlible a member as the world’s pofteriors, whe¬
ther you apply to it the toe or the birch.
Preface to a Tale of a Tub.
The other branch of wit in the thought, viz ludicrous
combinations and oppofitions, may be traced through various
ramifications. And, firft, fanciful caufes affigncd that have,
no natural relation to the effe&s produced:
Lancafler. Fare you well, FalftafF; I, in my condition,
Shall better fpeak of you than you deferve [£*//.
Falftaff. I would you had but the wit ; ’twere better
than your dukedom. Good faith, this fame young fo-
ber-b'ooded boy doth not love me ; nor a man cannot
make him laugh ; but that’s no marvel, he drinks no
wine. There’s never any of thefe demure boys come to
any proof; for thin drink doth fo overcool their blood,
and making many fifh-meals, that they fall iato a kind
of male green-ficknefs; and then, when they marry, they
get wenches. They are generally fools and cowards;
which fome of us fhould be too, but for inflammation.
A good fherris-fack hath a twofold operation in it: it a-
fcends me into the brain ; dries me there all the foolfth,
dull, and crudy vapours which environ it ; make it ap-
prehenfive, quick, forgetire, full of nimble, fiery, and
dele&able-fhapes; which delivered o’er to the voice, the
tongue, which is the birth, becomes excellent wit The
fccond property of your excellent fherris is, the warming
of the blood; which before cold and fettled, left the
liver white and pale ; which is the badge of pufillanimity
) WIT
and cowardice: but the fherris warms it, and makes it
courfe from the inwards to the parts extreme ; it illu-
minateth the face, which, as a beacon, gives warning to
all the reft of this little kingdom, man, to arm ; and
then the vital commoners and inland petty fpirits murter
me all to their captain, the heart; who, great, and
puff’d up wiih this retinue, doth any deed of courage :
and thus valour comes of fherris. So that fkill in the
weapon is nothing without fack, for that fats it a-work ;
and learning a mere hoard of gold kept by a devil, till
fack commences it, and lets it in a£t and ufe. Hereof
comes it that Prince Harry is valiant; for the cold blood
he did naturally inherit of his father, he hath, like lean,
fteril, and bare land, manured, hufbanded, and till'd
with excellent endeavour of drinking good and good ftore
of fertile fherris, that he is become very hot and valiant.
If I had a thoufand fons, the firft human principle E
would teach them, fhould be to forfwcar thin potations,
and to addi& themfelves to fack.
Second Part of Henry IV. aft 4. fc. 7.
The trenchant blade, toledo trufty.
For want of fighting was grown nifty.
And ate into itfdf, for lack
Of fome body to hew and hack.
The peaceful fcabbard where it dwelt
The rancor of its edge had felt:
For of the lower end two handful
It had devoured, t’was fo manful;
And fo much fcorn’d to lurk in cafe.
As if it durft not fhew its face.
Hudibraj, canto r.
To account for effe&s by fuch fantaftical caufes, being
highly ludicrous, is quite improper in any ferious compofi-
tion. Therefore the following paffage from Cowley, in his
poem on the death of Sir Henry Wooton, is in a badtafte.
He did the utmoft bounds of knowledge find.
He found them not fo large as was his mind.
But, like the brave PelJaian youth, did moan,
Becaufe that art had no more worlds than one.
And when he faw that he through all had paft.
He dy’d, left he ihould idle grow at laft.
Fanciful reafoning:
Faljiaff. Imbowell’d !: if thou imbowel me to day.
I’ll give you leave to powder me, and eat me to-morrow!
S’blood, ’twas time to counterfeit, or that hot terma¬
gant Scot had paid me fcot and lot too. Counterfeit ?
I lie, I am no counterfeit : to die is to be a counterfeit ;
for he is but the counterfeit of a man, who hath not the
life of a man ; but to counterfeit dying, when a man
thereby liveth, is to be no counterfeit, but the true and
perfect image of life indeed.
Firjl Part Henry IV. aft 1. fc. 10.
Clown. And the more pity that great folk fhould have
countenance in this world to drown or hang themfeives,
more than their even Chriftians.
Hamlet, ail 5. fc. 2.
_ Pedro. Will you have me, Lady ?
Beatrice. No, my Lord, unlef* I might have another
for working days. Your Grace is too coftly to wear e-
very day.
Much ado about nothing, AH 2. fc. 5.
Jejfca.
WIT ( 955 ) WIT
Jeffic*. I (hall be faved by my hufband; he hath made
me a Chriftian.
Launcelot. Truly the more to blame he; we were
Chridians enough before, e’en as many as could well live
by one another: this making of Chridians will raife the price
of hogs ; if we grow all to be pork-eaters, we fliall not
have a ralher on the coals for money.
Merchant cf Venice, Aft 3./^. 6.
But Hudibras gave him a twitch,
As quick as lightning, in the breech,
Jud tn the place where honour’s lodg’d.
As wife philofophers have judg’d ;
Becaufe a kick in that part, more
Hurts honour, than deep wounds before.
Hudibras, canto 3.
Ludicrous jun&ionof ftnaJl things with great, as of equal
importance:
This day black omens threat the brighteft fair
That e’er deferv’d a watchful fpirit’s care:
Some dire difader, or by force, or flight:
But what, or where, the fates have wrapt in night:
Whether the nymph fliall break Diana’s law;
Or fome frail china jar receive a flaw :
Or ftain her honour, or her new brocade ;
Forget her pray’rs, or mifs a mafquerade ;
Or lofe her heart, or necklace, at a ball ;
Or whether Heav’n has doom’d that Shock muft fall.
Raft of the Lock, canto ii ioi.
One fpeaks the glory of the Britifh Queen,
And one defcribes a charming Indian fcreen
Ibid, canto iii. 13.
Then flafh’d the living lightning from her eyes.
And fcreams of horror rend th’affrghted flues.
Not louder fhrieks to pitying heav’n are caft,
When hufbands, or when lapdogs, breathe their laft^.
Or u hen rich china veflels fall’n from high.
In glittering dull and painted fragments lie !
Ibid, canto iit. 155.
Not youthful kings in battle feiz’d alive.
Not fcornful virgins who their charms furvive.
Not ardent lovers robb’d of all their blifs.
Not ancient ladies when refus’d a kifs.
Nor tyrants fierce that unrepenting die.
Nor Cynthia when her manteau’s pinn’d awry.
E’er felt fuch rage, refentment, and defpair.
As thou, fad virgin! for thy ravifh’dhair.
Ibid, canto iv. 3.
Joining things that in appearance are oppofite. As for
example, where Sir Roger de Coverley, in the fpeftator,
fpeaking of his widow,
That he would have given her a coal-pit to have kept
her in clean linen; and that her finger (hould have fparkled
with one hundred of his richeft acres.
PremifTes that promife much and perform nothing. Ci¬
cero upon this article fays,
Sed fcitis efle nntiflimum ridiculi genus, cum aliudex-
pedtamus, aliud dicitur: hie nobifmetipfis nofter error
rifum movet. De or at ore, /. 2. c. 63.
Beatrice. With a good leg and a good foot, uncle,
and money enough in his purfe, fuch a man would win any
woman in the world, if he could get her good will.
Much ado about nothing, AH. 2.ft. 1.
Beatrice. I have a good eye, uncle, I can fee a
church by day light.
Having difeufled wit in the thought, we proceed to what
is verbal only, commonly called a flay of words. This
fort of wit depends, for the rnoft part, upon chufing a word
that hath differentiigoifications : by this artifice, hocus-po¬
cus tricks are played in language ; and thoughts plain and
Ample take on a very different appearance. Play is necef-
fary for man, in order to refrefh him after labour; and ac¬
cordingly man loves play : he even relifhes a play of words:
aad it is happy for us, that words can be employed, not
only for ufeful purpofes, but alfo for our amufement. This
amufement sltcordingly, though humble and low, is relifh-
ed by fome at all times, and by ail at fome times, in order
to unbend the mind.
It is remarkable, that this low fpecies of wit, has, at one
time or other, made a figure in molt civilized nations, and
has gradually gone into difrepute. So foon as a language
is formed into a fyftem, and the meaning of words is afeer-
tained with tolerable accuracy, opportunity is afforded for
expreffions. which, by the double meaning of fome words,,
give a familiar thought the appearance of being new ; and
the penetration of the reader or hearer is gratified, in de-
teding the true fenfe difguifed under the double meaning.
That this fort of wit was in England deemed a reputable
amufement, during the reigns of Elifabeth and James I is
vouched by the works of Shakefpear, and even by the wri¬
tings of grave divines. But it cannot have any long endu¬
rance: for as language ripens and the meaning of words is
more and more aicertaintd. words held to be fynonymous
diminifh daily ; and when thole that remain have been
more than once employed, the pleafure vanifheth with the
novelty.
We proceed to examples, which, as in the former cafe,
fhall be diftributed into different claffes.
A Teeming refemblance from the double meaning of a
word:
Beneath this ftone my wife doth lie ;
She s now at reft, and fo am I.
A Teeming contraft from the fame caufe, termed <7 twia/
antithefts, which hath no defpicable effedt in ludicrous fub-
jedts :
Whilft Iris his cofmetic wafh would try
To make her bloom revive, and lovers die.
Some afk for charms, and others philters chufe.
To gain Corinna, and their quartans lofe.
Diffenfary, canto 2,
And how frail nymphs, oft, by abortion, aim
To lofe a fubftance, to preferve a name.
Ibid, canto 3-.
While nymphs take treats, or aflignations give.
Rape of the Lock.
Other feeming connexions from the fame caufe :
Will you employ your conqu’ring fword.
To break a fiddle and your word ?
Hudibras, canto sv
To whom the knight with comely grace
Put off his hat to put his cafe.
Hudibras, part 3. canto 3.
Here
W I T
( 94$ )
Here Britain’s ftatefmen oft the fall foredoom
Of foreign tyrants, and of nymphs at nome ;
Here thou, great Anna whom three realms obey,
Doft fometimes counfel take— nd fometimes tea.
Rape of the Lock, canto 3. /. 5.
O’er their quietus where fat judges dofe,
And lull their cough and conlcience to repofe. ,
Difpenfary, canto 1.
Speaking of Prince Eugene :
This general is a great taker of fnuff as well as of
towns.
Pope', Key to the'Lock,
Ex.ul mentifque domufque.
Metamorphofes, lib. ix. 409.
A feeming oppofition from the fame caule :
Hie quiefcit qui nunquam quievit.
Again,
So like the chances are of love and war,
That they alone in this dillinguifh’d are ;
In love the vidtors from the vanquilh’d fly,
They fly that wound, and they purfue that die.
Waller.
What neW-found witchcraft was in thee.
With thine own cold to kindle me ?
Strange art; like him that (hould devife
To make a burning glals of ice.
Cowley.
Wit of this kind is unfuitable in a ferious poem; witnefs
•the following line in Pope’s Elegy to the memory of an
unfortunate lady:
Cold is that bread which warm’d the world before.
This fort of writing is finely burlefqued by Swift:
Her hands, the fofteft ever felt,
Though cold would burn, though dry would melt.
Strephon and Chloe.
Taking a word in a different fenfe from what is meant,
comes under wit, becaufe it occafions fome flight degree of
furprife :
Beatrice. I may fit in a corner, and cry Heigh ho! for
a hulband.
Pedro Lady Beatrice, I will get you one.
Beatrice. I would rather have one of your father’s get¬
ting. H-uh your Grace ne’er a brother like you ? Your
father got excellent hufbands, if a maid could come by
them.
, Much ado about nothing, aft 2. fc. 5.
Faljlaff. My honeft lads, I will tell you what I am
about.
Pijlol. Two yards and more.
Fpljlaff. No quips now, Piftol: indeed, I am in the
,wafte..two yards about: but I am now about no wafle ; I
am about thrift.
Merry Wives of Windfor, aft 1. fc. 7.
Lo. Sands. By your leave, fweet ladies,
If t chance to talk a little wild, forgive me :
I.had it from my father.
Anne bullen. Was he mad, Sir ?
W I T
Sands. O, very mad, exceeding mad, in love too;
But he wouid bite none -
K. Henry VIII.
An aflertion that bears a double meaning, one right, one
Wrong, but fo connedled with other matters as to oireifl
us to the wrong meaning, is a fpeties of baftard wit which
is diftinguithed from all others by the name pun. For'ex¬
ample,
Paris.- Sweet Helen, I muft woo you
To help unarm our H dor : his Stubborn buckles.
With thefe your white inchaptmg fingers touch’d.
Shall mote obey, than to the edge of fteel,
Or force of Greekifh fineWs ; you fhail do more
Than all the ifland kings, difarm great Hedor
Troilus and Grefida, aft 3, fc. 2:
The pun is in the clofe. The word difarm has a double
meaning: it fignifies to take off a man’s armour, and alfb
to fubdue him in fight. We are direded to th. latter ienfe
by the context ; but with regard to Helen, the word
holds only true in the former fenfe. We go on with other
examples :
Efie nihil dicis quicquid petis, imprebe Cinna:
Si nil, Cinna, pecis, ml tibi, Cinna, nego.
Martial, l. 3. epigr'6l.
Chief Juf ice. Well! the truth is, Sir John, you live
in great infamy.
Faljlaff. He that buckles him in my belt cannot live ia
lefs.
Chief Juffice. Your means are very flender, and your
wafte is great.
Faljlaff. I would it were otherwife: I would my means
were greater, and my wafte flenderer.
Second part Henry IV. aft 1. fc 5.
Celia. I pray you bear with me, I can go no further.
Clown. For my part, I had rather bear with you than
bear you: yet I (hould bear no crofs if I did bear you ;
for I think you have no money in your purfe.
As you like it, aft 2. fc.
He that impofes an oath makes it,
Not he that tor convenience takes it.
Then how can any man be faid
To break an oath he never made ?
Hudibras, part 2. canto 2.
The feventh fatire of the firft book ot Horace is purpofely
contrived to introduce at the clofe a molt execrable pun.
Talking of fome infamous wretch whofe name was Rex Ru-
pilius,
Perfius exclamat, Per magnos. Brute, decs te
Oro, qui reges confueris tollere, cur non
Hunc regem jugulas ? Operum hoc, mihi crede, tuorum
eft.
Though playing with words is a mark of a mind at eafe,
and difpofed to any lort of amufement, we mult nor thence
conclude that playing with, words is always ludicrous.
Words are fo intimately connected with thought, chat if
the fubjeft be really grave, it will not appear ludicrous even
in this fantaftic drets. We are, how, vei, far from recom¬
mending it in any ferious performance: on the contrary,
the difcordance between the theughr and expreifion muft
be difagreeable ; witneis the following fpecmien.
W I T ( 947 ) W O R
He hath abandoned- his phyficians. Madam, under
whofe practices he hath perfecuted time with hope ; and
finds no other advantage in the procefs, but only the lo-
fing of hope by time.
All's •well that ends •well, acl \ . fc I.
K. Henry. O my poor kingdom, fick with civil blows!
When that my care could not with-hold thy riots,
What wilt thou do when riot is thy care ?
Second part K Henry 1V.
If any one fhall obferve, that there is a third fpecies
of wit, different from thofe mentioned, confifting in founds
merely, we are willing to give it place. And indeed it
muff be admitted, thatmanyofHudibras’s double rhymes
come under the definition of wit given in the beginning of
this article: they are ludicrous, and their Angularity oc-
cafions fome degree of furpnfe. Swift is not lels fuc-
cefsful than Butler in thfs fort of wit ; witnefs the fol¬
lowing inftances: Goddefs—-Boddice. Pliny—Nicclini.
Jfcariots—Chariots. Mitre—Nitre. Dragon—Suf¬
fragan.
A repartee may happen to be witty: but it cannot be
confidered as a fpecies of wit ; becaufe there are many
repartees extremely fmart, and withal extremely ferious.
V/e .give the following example. A certain petulant
Greek, obje<5ting to Anacharfis that he was a Scythian:
True, fays Anacharfis, my country difgraces me, but you
difgrace your country. This fine turn gives furprile ;
but it is far from being ludicrous.
WITCHCRAFT, a kind of forcery, efpecially in women,
in which it is ridiculoufly fuppofed that an old woman,
by entering into a contradl with the devil, is enabled,
in many inftances, to change the courfe of nature; to raife
winds ; perform adfions that require more than human
ftrength ; and to a’fflid thofe who offend them with the
fharpeft pains, Tn the times of ignorance and fuper-
ftition, many fevere laws were made againft witches, by
which great numbers of innocent perfons, diftreffed with
poverty and age, were brought to a violent death ; but
thefe are now happily repealed. See Law, Tit. xxxiii 8.
W1TENA MOT, or Witena-gemot, among our Saxon
anceltors, was a term which literally fignified the affembly
of the wife men, and was applied to the great council of
the nation of latter-days called the parliament.
WITEPSKI, the capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
in the duchy of Lithuania, in Poland : E. long 30°, N.
lar 56°
WITH AM, a market-town of Effex, ten miles north-eaft
of Chelmsford.
WI PHERS of a horfe, the junfture of the Iboulder-bones
at the bottom of the neck and main, towards the upper
part of the ftioulder.
WITNESS, in law, a perfon who gives evidence in any
caufe, and is fworn to fpeak the truth be whole truth,
and nothing but the truth. See Law Tit. xxi. 4, &c.
and Tit. xxxi 1, fac.
WITNEY, a market-town of Oxfordftiire. feven miles weft
of Oxford. Here is the greateft manufadture of blankets
in England.
WI PTENBURG, a city of Germanv, in the circle of
U.-per Saxony, fifty miles north ofDrefden.
WITTLESEYMERE, a lake in the ifle of Ely, on the
ci nfines of Huntingdonlhire, fix miles long and three
broad.
Vol, HI. N°. 100.
WIVELSCOMB, a market-town of Somerfetlhire, fitua-
ted twenty-feven miles fouth-weft of Wells.
WOAD, in botany'. See Isatis.
WOBURN, a market-town of Bedfordlhire, ten miles
fouth of Bedford.
WOLAW, the capital of a duchy of the fame name, in
Bohemia: E. long. 16° 38', N. lat. 510 22 .
WOLF, in zoology. SeeCAtus.
WOLFEMBUTTLE, a city of Germany, in the circle
of lower Saxony, and duchy of Brunfwick: E. long. 10°
32'. N. lat. 520 20'.
WOLFERDYKE, an iftand of the united Netherlands, in
the province of Zealand, fituated between the ifiands of
north Beveland and fouth Beveland.
WOLGA, a large river of Ruffia, which rifmg in the north
of that empire, runs fouth-eaft till it falls into the Caf-
pian fea, about fifty miles below Aftracan, after its ha¬
ving run a courfe of between two and three thoufand
miles
WOLGAST, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, fubjedt
to Sweden : E. long. 140 f, N. lat. 540 i2/.
WOLKOWSKA, a city of Poland, in the duchy of Li¬
thuania, and palatinate of Novogrodeck: E. long. 240,
N lat. 530.
WOLLIN, a town and ifland of Pomerania, fituated in
the Baltic fea, at the mouth of the river Oder, fubjeft
to the king of Pruffia.
WOLODOMIR. the capital of a province of the fame
name in Ruflia : E. long. 30° 5', N. lat. yy0 4c/.
WOLOGDA, the capital oi a province of the fame name
in Ruflia, fituated on the river Dwina : E. long. 420 20 ,
N. lat 5:9°.
WOLVERHAMPTON, a market-town of Staffordihire,
eleven miles fouth of Stafford.
WOLVES-teeth, of an horfe, are over-grown grinders,
the points of which being higher than the reft, prick his
tongue and gums in feeding, fo as to hinder bis chewing.
They are feldom met with in any befides young horles ;
but if they be not daily worn by chewing, they will grow
up even to pierce the roof of the mouth.
WOMAN, the female of man. See Homo.
WOMB. See Anatomy, p. 274.
WOOD, a folid fubftance, whereof the trunks and branches
of trees confift.
The wood is all that part of a tree included between
the bark and the pith For the ftrudture of he the pith,
bark, wood, %c. of plants, fee Agriculture, p. 40.
WOODBRIDGE, a market-town of Suffolk, fuuated
tw;nty-lix miles fouth-eaft of Bury.
WOOD COCK, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
Wood louse, in zoology. See Oniscus
Wood pecker, in ornithology. See Picus.
WOODSTOCK, a borough-town of Qxfcrdfhire, fituated
leven miles north of Oxrord It fends two members to
parliament.
WO. F, among manufadlurers, the threads which the
weave’s fh ;ot acrofs with an inftrument called the Ihuttle,
Sc- Cloth
WOOI., the coverirg of Iheep. See Oyis
WOOLWICH, a market-town of Kent, fituated on the
r ver -Thames, fix miles eaft of London.
WORCESTER, the capital,city of worcefteilhire, fitua-
9 C ted
3
W R A
ted on the river Severn, no miles north-weft of Lon
don: W long. 2° ij', N. lat. 520 s'.
WORCUM, a town of Holland, firuated on the river
Waal, twenty-three miles ealt of Rotterdam. This is
alfo the name of a port-town of the United Netherlands,
firuated on the province of Friezland, on the Zuyder-fea,
twenty miles fouth-weft of Lewardtn.
WORD, in language, an artirulate found d-^figned to re-
prefent feme idea See Grammar and Language.
WORKSOP, a market-*own of Nomnghamfhire, fituated
twenty miles north of Nottingham.
WORLD, the afiemblage of parts which compofe the globe
1 1 ihe earth. See Geography, and Astronomy.
WORMS. See Natural History.
Worms in medicine. See Medicine, p. 160.
Worm. See Lumbricus.
Worm, in gunnery, a icrew of iron, to be fixed on the
end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a firelock, ca¬
rabine, or pillol, being the fame with the wad-hook, on
ly the one is more proper for fmall arms, and the other
for cannon.
Worm, in chemiftry, is a long, winding, pewter pipe, pla¬
ced in a tub of water, to cool and condenfe the vapours
in the difHilation of fpints.
WORMS, in geography, an imperial city of Germany, in the
palatinate of the Rhine: E. long. 8° j'’, N. lat. 49° 38'.
WORMWOOD, in botany. See Artemisia.
WORSTED, a kind of woolen thread, which, in the
fpinning, is twilled harder than ordinary. It is chiefly
ufed'either wove or knit into (lockings^ caps, gloves, or
the like
Worsted, a market-town of Norfolk, fituated feven miles
north of Norwich.
WOT TON, a market.town of Gloucefterfhire, fituated fe-
ventecn miles fouth of Gloucefter.
WOTTON B ASSET, a poi ough-iownof Wd fliire. twen¬
ty five miles north of Salifbary ; which lends two mem
bers to parliament.
WOUND, in forgery. See Surgery, p. 645.
WRASSE, or Old wife, in ichthyology. SccLabrus.
WYE
WREATH, in heraldry, a roll of fine linen or (ilk (like
that of a Turkilh turbant) confiding of the colours borne
in the efcutcheon, placed in an atchievement between the
helmet and the creft, and immediately fupporting the erelh
WREN, in ornithology See Motacilla.
WRES FLING, a kind of combat or engagement between
two perlonsunarmtd, body to body, to prove their ftrength
and dexterity *nd try which can throw his opponent to
the ground. See Games, dff
WREXHAM, a market-town of Denbighfliire, in Wales,
fituated twenty-three miles fouth ealt of St. Afaph.
WRINTON, a market-town of Somerfetlhire, fituated fe¬
ven miles north of Wells.
WRIST, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p.179.
WRIT, in law, fignifies, in general, the king’s precept in
writing under feal, ifluing out of fome court, direded to
the fheriff, or other officer, and commanding fomething
to be done in relation to a fuit or adtion, or giving com-
miflion to have the fame done
WRITING, the art or adt of fignifying and conveying our
ideas to others, by letters, or charadters, vifible to the
eye. See Composition, Grammar, and Language.
WRONG, in a logical icnfe. See Error, Falsehood,
Truth,
Wrong, in a legal fenfe, the fame with injury, or tort.
Wrongous Impiijonment, m Scots law. See Law, Tit.
xxxiii. 23.
WURTEMBURG, in Germany, is the north part of the
circle of Swabia.
WUR FZBURG, a city of Germany in the circle of Fran¬
conia, capital of the biftiopric of that name, fituated on
the river Maine: in E. long. 90 yc/, N. lat. 49° 46/.
WYE, a market-town of Kent, fituated twenty miles fouth-
ealt of Maidftone.
Wye is alto a river of Wales, which, nfing on the confines
of Caidiganflure, and running fouth eaft, divides the
counties of Radnor and Brecknock then croffing Here-
fordfhire it turns fouth, and falls into the mouth of the
Severn at Chcpftow.
( 94s )
x.
X A N
X A V
XACA, a port-town of Sicily in the province of Maza-
ra, forty miles fouth of Palermo: E. long. 130, N.
lat. 370.
XALISCO, a city of Mexico, in America, fituated near
ihe Pacific ocean, four hundred miles well: of the capital
city of Mexico: W. long. 110°, and N. iat. 220 20 .
XANSI, a province of China, bounded by the province of
Peking on the eaft, by the great wail on the north, by
the province of Honan on the fouth, and by the river
Crocei, which divides it from the province of Xenfi, on
the weft.
X ANTHIUM, in botany, a genus of the moncecia pentan-
dria ciafs. The common calix of the male is imbricated
the corolla is funnel fhaped, and divided into five feg-
ments; and the receptacle is paleaceous: The cahx of
the female confills of two leaves, including two floweis ;
it has no corolla; the drupa is dry, muncated, and di¬
vided into iwo fegments ; and the nucleus has two ceils.
There are three fpecies, only one of them, viz. the
ftrumarium, or leffer burdock, a native of Britain.
XANTUM, a province of China, in Afia, bounded by the
Kang fca on the north, by the gulf of Nankin on the eaft,
by the province of Nankin on the fouth, and by the pro¬
vince of Pekin on the weft.
S/. XAVIER, a town of the province of La Plata, or
Guayra, in South America, lituated on the coniines of Bra-
fil.
X Y L ( 949 ) X Y S
£1, two hundred miles weft of Rio Janeiro: W. long.
50°, S. lat. 24®.
XENSI a province of China, bounded by the great wall
on the north, by the province of Xanfi on the eaft, by
the province of Suchuen on the fouth, and by Tibet on
the we(f.
XERANTHEMUM, in botany, a genus of the fyngenefia
polygamia fuperflua clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ;
the pappus is fetaceous ; and the ealix is imbricated, and
radiated. There are eleven fpecies, none of them na¬
tives of Britain.
XEROPHAGIA, in church-hiffory, the eating of dried
foods : fo the ancient Chriftians called certain faft-days,
on which they eat nothing but bread and fait, and drank
only water: fometimesthry added pulfe, herbs, and fruits.
This fort of farting was obferved chiefly in the holy-week,
out of devotion, and not by obligation.
XICHU, a city of China, in the province of Huguam: E.
long. 1120, N lat. 27°.
XINYAN, a city of Afia, in the province of Laotung: E.
long. 1200, N lat 31°.
XIPHIAS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order'
of apodes. The upper jaw terminates in a long fword-
fhaped roftrum ; from which it is called the fword-fifh :
there are no teeth in the mouth ; the gill-membrane has
eight rays ; and the body is fomewhaf cylindrical. There
is but one fpecies, found in the European ocean.
XIPHOIDES, in anatomy See Anatomy, p. 175.
XYLQ.AL.OES, or Aloe-wood, in pharmacy. See
Aloe.
This drug is diftinguiflied into three forts, the calam-
bac, the common lignum aloes, and Calambour.
The ealamhae, or finert aioes.wood, called by authors
lignum aloes praertantiflimum, and by the Chintfe luk
hiang, is the molf refinous of all the woods we are ac¬
quainted with: it is of a light fpongy texture, very po¬
rous, and its pores fo filled up with a foft and fragrant
redh, that the whole may be prefied and dented by the
fingers like wax, or moulded about by cbesving in the
mouth, in the manner of ma ich. This kind, laid on
the fire, melts in great parts like refin, and burns away
in a few moments, wi h a bright flame and perfumed
fmell Its feent, whib in the mafs, is very fragrant and
agreeable ; and its tafie acrid and bitterilb, but very aro¬
matic and agreeable: it is fo variable in its colour, that
fome have divided it into three kinds, the one variegated
with black and purple ; the fecond, with the fame black,
but with yellowifh tnftead of purple; and the third, yel¬
low alone, like the yolk of an egg: this lart is the leart.
feented of the three: the fubrtance however, in them
all, is the fame in every refpedt, except their colour It
is brought from Cochinchina
The lignum aloes ,ulgare is the fecond in value. This
is of a more denfe and compaft texture, and confequeptly
lefs refinous than the other ; there is Tome of it, howe¬
ver, that is fpongy, and has the holes filled up with the
right refinous matter; and all of it, when good, has
veins of the fame refin in it. We meet with it in fmall
fragments, which have been cut and fplit from larger ;
thefe are of a tolerably denfe texture in the more folid
pieces, and of a dafky brown colour, variegated with re¬
finous black veins. It is in this rtate very heavy, and
lefs fragrant than in thefe pieces which (hew a multitude
of little boles, filled up with the fame blackifh matter
that forms the veins in others. The woody p-rt of thefe
laft pieces is fomewhat darker than the other, and is not
unfrequently purplifh, or even biackifh. The-fmcilof
the common aloe-wood is very agreeable, but nor fo
ftrongly perfumed as the former. Its tafte is fomewhat
bitter and acrid, but very aromatic. This wood is alfo
brought from Cochinchina, and fometimes from Sumatra.
The calambour, or, as fome write it, calambouc is
alfo called agallocbum fylvertre, and lignum aloes mexi-
canum It is a light and friable wood, of a dufley and
often mottled colour, between a duiky green black, and
a deep brown. Its fmell is fragrant and agreeable, but
much lefs fweet than that of either of the others ; and its
tarte bitterilh, but not fo much acrid or aromrtic as ei¬
ther of the two former. We meet with this very fre¬
quent, and in large logs : and thefe fometimes entire,
fometimes only theheart of the tree, the cortical part be¬
ing feparated. This is brought from the ifland of Ti¬
mor, and is the aloe-wood uled by the cabinet-makers
and inlayers
The Indians ufe the calambac by way of incenfe, bui n-r
ing fmall pieces of it in the temples of their gods , and
fometimes their great people burn it in their houfes, in
times of feafting It is eftt emed a cordial, taken inward¬
ly ; and they fometimes give it in diforders of the rtomach
and bowels, and fo deitroy worms. A very fragrant oil
may be procured from it, by diftiilation; which is recom¬
mended in paralytic cafes, from five to nfteen drops. Ic
is at prefent, however, but little ufed; and would fcarce
be met with any . here in the fhops, but that it is an in¬
gredient in fome of the old compolitions
XYLO-BALSAMUM, a name which naturafrts give to
the wood of the tree which yields that precious gum
known to the L tins by the name of opobalfamum, and
to us by die balm of Gilead. Sec Balsam.
We nave branches of this tree br ought us from Cairo:
they are very (trait, brittle, unequal, and full of knots;
their bark reddifli without, and greenifli within. The
xylo-balfamum is reputed good to rtrengthen the brain
and itomach, and to expel poifon.
XYLOCASIA, m the materia medica, thq fame with the
caflia ligna. See Cassia.
XYLON, the prickly cotton-tree, in botany, a ge¬
nus of the polyandria monogynia clafs of plants, the co¬
rolla whereof confifts of a fingle petal, divided into five
oval, hollow, patent fegments , the fruit is a large, ob¬
long, turbinated capfule, formed of five woody valves,
and containing five cells ; the feeds are roundifh, and fix¬
ed to a columnar pentagonal receptacle, and have a quan¬
tity of fine down, or cotion, adhering to them.
XYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, an anniverfary feart,
obferved by the Athenians, in honour of Minerva, upon
the fixteenth of Hecatombason, in memory that, by the
perfuafion of Thefeus,. they left their country-feats, ia
which thty lay difperfed here and there in Attica, and u-
nited together in one body.
XYRIS, in botany, a genus of the triandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla confifts of three equal crepated pe¬
tals; and the gluma confifts of two valves. There is but
one fpecies, a native of India.
XYSTARCHA, in antiquity, the mafter or dire&or of the
xyftus. In the Greek gymnafium, the xyftarcha was the
fecond
X Y S ( 950
fecond officer, and the gymnafiarcha the firft; the former
was his lieutenant, and prefided over the two xyfti, and
all exercifes of the athleta; therein.
XYSTUS, among the Greeks, was a long portico, open
or covered at the top, where the athletas praftifed wrefthng
) x y s
and running: the gladiators, who prafttfed therein, were
called xylhci.
Among the Romans, the xyftus was only an alley, or
double row of trees, meeting like an arbour, and forming
a ihade to walk under.
Y-
YAW Y E O
7' ACHT, or Yatch, a veflel with one deck, carrying
m four to twelve guns. See Sh ip.
YARD, a meafure of length ufed in Britain and Spain,
confining of tiree feet, chiefly to meafurecloth, huffs, <bc.
Yard, in anatomy • See Anatomy p. 270.
Yar.es of a Jhip are thofe long pieces of timber which are
made a little tapering at each end, and are fitted athwart
its proper mart, with the fails made fall to them, fo as
to be hoifted up, or lowered down, as occafion ferves.
They have their names from the malts unto which they
belong.
Yard-arm is that half of the yard that is on either fide of
the malt, when it lies athwart the (hip.
Yarixs a!fo denote places belonging to the navy, where
the (hips of war, he. are laid up in harbour. There
are, belonging to his majefty’s navy, fix great yards, viz.
Chatham, Deptford, Woolwich, Portfmouth, Sheernefs,
and Plymouth : thefe yards are fitted with feveral docks,
wharfs, lanches, and graving places for the building, re¬
pairing, and cleaning of his majefty’s (hips ; and therein
are lodged great quantities of timber, mads, planks, an¬
chors, and other materials: there are alfo convenient
ftore-houfes in each yard, in which are laid up vaft quan¬
tities of cables, rigging, fails, blocks, and all other forts
of (lores needful for the royal navy.
YARE, among failors, implies ready or quick: as, be yare
at the helm ; that is, be quick, ready, and expeditious at
the helm. It is fometimes alfo ufed for bright by fea-
men : as, to keep his arms yare ; that is, to keep them
clean and bright.
Yare, a river of Norfolk, which runs from weft to eaft,
through that country, palling by Norwich, and falling
into the German fea at Yarmouth.
YARMOUTH, a borough and port town of Norfolk, fi
tuated on the German fea, at the mouth of the river
Yare, twenty miles eaft of Norwich. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
Yarmouth is alfo a borough-town of the Ifle of Wight,
in Hamplhire, fituated on the north-weft coaft of the
Ift md, fix miles weft ofNewport. It fends two members
to parliament.
YARN, wool or flax fpun into thread, of which they
weave cloth. See Cloth.
YARUM, a maiket.town of the north riding of York-
(hire. fituated on the river Tees, thirty miles north, of
Yoik
YAWNING, an involuntary opening ©f the mouth, occa-
fioned by a vapour or ventofity endeavouring to efcape,
and generally witnefling an irkfome weannels, or an in¬
clination to fleep. Yawning, according to Boerhaave, is
performed by expanding at one and the lame time all the
mufcles capable of fpontaneous motion; by greatly extend¬
ing the lungs ; by drawing in gradually and (lowly a large
quantity of air ; and gradually and (lowly breathing it
out, after it has been retained for feme time, and rati¬
fied; and then reftoring the mufcles to their natural (fate.
Hence the effed of yawning is to move, accelerate, and
equally diftnbute all the humours through all the vef-
fels of the body, and confequently to qualify the muf¬
cles and organs of fenfation for their various fundions.
Sandonus oblerves, that a great deal is infenfibly dif-
charged, when nature endeavours to get rid of the re¬
tained perfpirable matter, by yawning and ftretching of
the limbk. fo thefe a perfon is moft inclined juft after
deep, becaufe, a greater quantity going off by the pores
of the fkin than at other times, whenfoever a perfon
wakes, the increafed contradion that then happens clofes
a great deal of the perfpirable matter in the cutaneous paf-
fages, which -will continually give fuch irritations as
excite yawning and (tretching ; and (uch motions, by
(baking the membranes of the whole body, and (hifting
the contads of their fibres, and the inclofed matter, by
degrees throw it off. Hence we fee the reafan why
healthful ftrong people are moft inclined to fudi mo¬
tions, becaufe they perfpire moft in time of deep, and
therefore have more of the perfpirable matter to lodge in
the pores, and greater irritations thereunto.
YAWS, in the fea language A (hip is faid to make yaws,
when (he does not fteer fteady, but goes in and out when
there is a ftiff gale.
Yaws, a diftemper endemial to Guinea and the hotter cli¬
mates in Africa See Medicine, p. 137.
YEAR. See Astronomy, p.489.
and Day in Scots law. See Law, Tit. vi. 21, 22.
YELLOW, one of the original colours of light.
Yellows, a difeafe in a horfe, much the lame with that
called the jaundice in man. See Farriery p. 561.
Yellow-hammer, in ornithology Set Fringilla.
YEOMAN, the firtl or higheft degree among the pJebe ans
of England, next in order to the gentry.
The Yeomen are prqperly freeholders, who having
land of their own, Jive on good hufbandry
Yeoman is alfo a title of office m the king’s houfeh Id, of
a middle place or rank betwten.an ulher and a vroom.
Y EOMA;N
Y O A ( s
Yeomeh ^ tJ>f guard were anciently two hundred and
fifty men of the bed rank under gentry, and of larger
ftature than ordinary, each being required to be fix feet
high.
At prefent there are but one hundred yeomen in con-
flant duty, and (eventy more not in duty ; and as any
of the hundred dies, his place is fupplied out of the fc*
venty.
'They go drefied after the manner of king Henry VIII’s
time. They formerly had diet as well as wages when
in waiting, but this was taken off in the reign of queen
Anne.
YEOVIL, a market-town of Somerfetfhire, fituated eigh-
ten miles fouth of Wells.
YEST, a head or fcura rifing ppon beer or ale, while
working or fermenting in the vat. See Brewing
It is ufed fora leavenor ferment in the baking of bread,
as^ferving to fwell or puff it up very confiderably in a
little tini^ and to make it much lighter, fofter, and
more delicate.
YEW, in botany. See Taxus.
YLA, one of the weftern ifiands of Scotland, fituated in the
Irifh-fea, weft of Cantire.
YNCA, an appellation anciently given to the kings of Peru,
and the princes of their blood ; the word literally figni
fying lord, king, emperor, and royal blood.
YOAK, or Yoke in agriculture, a frame of wood, fitted
over the necks of oxen, w”hereby they are coupled toge
ther, and harneff.d to theyiough.
Yoak of land in our ancient cuftoms, was the fpace which
a yoke of oxen that is, two oxen, may plow in one day.
Sea XoKK. When the fea is fo rough that the helm can
not be governed by the hands, the feamen make a yoak
to fteer by ; that is, they fix two blocks to the end of
the helm, and reeving two (mall ropes through them.
51 ) Y U C
which they call falls, by having fome men at each tackle,
they govern the helm by direftion. They have another
way of making a fea yoak, by taking a double turn a-
bout the end of the helm with a ftngle rope, the ends be¬
ing laid to the fliip’s fides, by means whereof they guide
the helm.
YOANGFU, a city of China, in the province of Huguam,
fituated on the river Kiam E. long. ii4°,N. lax 50° 40'.
YOLK, the yellow part in the middle of an egg. See Egg.
YONNE, a river in France, which rifing in Burgundy, and
running north through Nivernois and Champaign, falls
into the Seyne at Monterau fur Yonne.
YORK, the capital cijy of Yorkfhire, fituated on the p’ver
Oufe, 180 miles north of London: W long. 50', N.
lat. 540. It is a large city, and h. s fome good buildings
in it, particularly the cathedral, which is a Gothic pile,
equal to any thing of the k nd in England It is the fee
of an archbifhop, and fends two members to parliament.
New York, one of the Britifh oolonies in North America,
which comprehending the Jerfeys, that frequently hive
the fame governor, is fituated between 720 and 74° of
W long, and between 410 and 440 of N. lat. bounded
by Canada on the north. New England on the eaft, the
American Sea on the fouth, and Penfilvania and the
country of the Iroquois on the weft.
New York, the capital cityef this province, is fituatedon
an ifland in the mouth of Hudlon’s river, in W. Ion. 720
qb', N.Lt. 410
YUCCA, in botany, a genus of thehexandria monogynia
clafs. The corolla is open and bell-fhaped ; it has no
ftylus; and the capfule has three cells. There are four
fpecies, all natives of America.
A kind of bread is made from the dried root of this
plant by the Indians, which much refembies that made
from the root of the cafiida or fcutellaria of Linnaeus.
Z.
Z A M
ZAARA, one of thedivifions of Africa, fituated under the
tropic of cancer, is bounded by Bildulgerid on the north,
by the unknown parrs of Africa on theeaft, by Nigritia
or Negrolaad on the fouth, and by the Atlantic ocean
on the weft. This is a barren defart i and fo deftitute of
water, that the c-amels which pafs over it from Morocco
to traffic with Negroland, are half loaded with water
and provifions.
ZAFFER, or Zafrs, in chemiftry, the name of a blue
fubftance, of the hardnefs and for™ of a ftone ; and ge¬
nerally fuppofed to be a native foftil.
It is in reality, however, a preparation of cobalt; the
calx of that mineral being mixed with powdered flints and
wetted with water to bring it into this form.
ZAMORA, a cityof Spain, in the province of Leon, fitua¬
ted on the river Douro, thiny-two miles north of Sala¬
manca: W long. 6°, N. lat. 410 30'.
Vol. III. N°. loo. 3 .
Z A N
ZANGUEBAR, a country on the eaft coaft of Africa, fi¬
tuated in fouthern latitude between the equator and
the tropic of capricorn, being bounded by the country
of Anian on the north, by the Indian ocean on the weft,
by Caffraria on the fouth, and by the unknown parts of
Africa on the weft.
ZANNICHELLIA. in botany, a genus of the moncecia
monandria clafs. The male has neither calix nor corolla.
The calix of the female confifts of one leaf; it has no
corolla ; and there are four germina, and as many feeds.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the paluflris, or horned
pond-weed, a native of Britain
ZANONIA, inbotany, agenus of thed-oecia pentandriaciafs.
The calix of both male and female confifts ofthree leaves,
and the corolla of five fegmentsy the female has three
ftyli; and the berry contains two leeds. There is but
-one fpecies. a native of Malabar.
9 D
ZANTE*
Z £ C ( ;,
Z \NTE, an ifland in the Mediterranean Tea, fituated E.
long. 21° 30', N. lat. 370 50, being about twenty four
miles long, and twelve broad. The chief town is Zant,
and is fituated on the eaft fide of the illand, being well
fortified and defended by a caftle.
ZAPATA, a kind of feaft or ceremony held in Italy, in
the courts of certain princes, on S» Nicholases day ;
wherein people hide prefents in the Ihoes or flippers of
thofe they would do honour to, in Inch a manner as may
furprife them on the morrow when they come to drefs;
being done in imitation of the pra&ice of St Nicholas,
who ufed in the night-time to throw purfes of money in
at the windows, to marry poor maids withal.
ZAR A, a city of Dalmatia, fituated on the gulpb of Ve¬
nice : E. long. 170, N. lat. 440.
ZARN.tW, a city of Poland, in the province of Little
Poland and palatinate of Sandomir, fituated E. long 20°,
N lat. 51° 30'.
ZEA, Indian corn, in botany, a genus of the monoecia
triandria clafs. The calix of the male is a double flow¬
ered glume, without any awn the corolla is likewife
a glume, without any awn ; the calix and corolla of the
male confifh each of two valves ; the flylus is filiform,
and pendulous ; and the feeds arc folitary, being funk in
an oblong receptacle. There is but one fpecies, a native
of America.
ZEAL, the exercife of a warm animated affe&ion, or paf-
fion, for any thing.
ZEALAND the (hief of the Dantfli iflands, is fiuiated at
the entrance of t -e Baltic-fea, rounded by the Schagger-
rac-fea, on-the north ; by the Sound, which feparates it
from Schonen, on the ealf; by the Baltic-fea, on the
fouth ; and by the ffrait called the Great Belt, which
feparates it from the ifland of Fatten, on the weft; being
of a round figure, near two hundred miles in circumfe
rente : the chief town is Copenhagen.
Zealand, is alfo a province of the United Netherlands,
confiding of eight iflands, which lie in the mouth of the
river Scheld, bounded by the province of Holland, from
which they are fe pa rated by a narrow channel, on the
north ; by Brabant, on the call by Flanders, from
which they are feparated by one of the branches of rhe
Scheld, on the fouth ; and by the German ocean, on the
weft.
ZEALOTS, an ancient fe<5t of the Jews, fo called from their
pretended zeal for God’s law, and the honour of religion.
ZEBRA, in zoology. See Equus
ZECHARIAH, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
containing the predidbons of Zechanah, the fon of Bara-
cbia, and grandfon of Iddo. He is the eleventh of die
twelve Idler prophets. Zecharuh entered upon the pro-
pbeac office at the fame time withTLggai, and was fent
to the Jews upon the fame melTage, to reprove them for
tHeir backwardnefs in erediing the temple, and reftoring
divine worfhip ; but efpecially for the diforder of their
lives and manners, which could not but derive a cutfe
upon them. By feveral notable vifions and types, he
endeavours to confirm their faith, and effablifh their af-
furame concerning God’s providence with them, and
care over them ; and as a proof and demonftr'ation of this,
he interfperfes the moft comfortable promifes the co¬
ming of the kingdom, the temple, the prEfthood the vic¬
tory, the glory of Chiift'the Branch. Nor docs he for-
■2 ) ZEN
get to allure them of the ruin of Babylon, their moft im¬
placable enemy. This prophet is the longeft and moft
obfeure of all the Idler prophets, his ftyle being inter¬
rupted and without connexion.
ZEDOARY, in the materia medica, a root, the feveral
pieces of which differ fo much from one another infhape,
that they have been divided into two kinds, as if two
different things, under the names of the long and round
zedoary, being oniy the feveral parts of the lame root.
Zedoary is to be chofen frefh found, and hard, in large
pieces ; it matters not as to ftiape, whether long or round ;
of a fmooth furface, and of a fort of fatty appearance
within, too hard to be bitten by the teeth, and of the
brifkeft fmell that may be ; fuch as is friable, dufty, and
worm eaten, is to be rejetfted.
Zedoary, both of the long and round kind, is brought
us from China; and we find by the Arabians, that they
alfo had it from the fame place. The round tubera are
lefs frequent than the long, and fome of them have there¬
fore fuppofed them the produce of a different and more
rare plant ; but this is not fo probable as that the gene¬
ral form of the root is long, and the round tubera are on¬
ly lufus naturae, and lefs frequent in it.
Zedoary, dillilled with common water, affords a thick
and denfe eiTential oil, which foon concretes of itfelf into
a kind of camphor, and on this oil its virtues principally
depend. It is a fudorific, and is much recommended by
fome in fevers, efpecially of the malignant kinds. It is
alfo given with fuccefs as an expedtorant in all diforders
of the bread:, arifing from a tough phlegm, which it
powerfully incides and attenuates; it is alfo good againft
flatulences, and in the clioiic ; it ftrengthens the ftomach,
and aflifts digeftion ; and, finally, is givenVith fuccefs in
nervous cafes of all kinds.
ZELL, a cuy of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxo¬
ny. capital of th: duchies of Zell and Lunenburg, fitua¬
ted at the confluence of the rivers After and Fuhfe, thir¬
ty miles north of Hanover, and forty fouth of- Lunen¬
burg: E long, io°, N, lat. 520 52'.
ZEND, or Zendavesta, a book containing the religioR
of the Magians, or worfhippers of fire, who were dif-
ciples of the famous Zoroafter. See Magi.
This book was cotnpofed by Zoroafter- during his re¬
tirement in a cave, and contained all the pretended reve¬
lations of that uppoftor. The firft part contains the li¬
turgy of the magi, which is ufed among them in all their,
oratories and fire-temples to this day; they reverence it
as the Chriftians do the Bible, and the Mahometans the
Koran. There are found many things in the zend taken
out of the feriptures of the Old Teftament, which Df.
P'ndeaux thinks is an argument that Zoroafter was ori¬
ginally a Jew. Great part of the Pfalms of David are
inferred: he makes Adam and Eve to have been the firlt
parents of mankind, and gives the fame hiftory of the
creation and deluge as Mofes does, and commands the
fame obfervances about clean and unclean hearts, the fame
Jaw of paying tythes to the facerdotal order, with many
other inftiiutions of Jewifh extraftion. The reft of its
contents are an hiftorical account of the life, aftions, and
proph .ciesof its author, with rules and exhortations to
moral living. The Mahometans have a feft which they
calf Zendikites, who are laid to be the Sadducees of Ma-
hometanifm, denying providence and the refurredion,'be-
Z O D ( 953 > Z Y G
Ileving the tranfmigration of fouls, and following the
zend of the magi. ,
ZENITH, in agronomy, the vertical point; or a point in
the heavens diredly over our heads.
ZEPHANIAH, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
containing the predictions of Zephaniah the fon of Cufhi,
and grandfon of Gedaliah ; being the ninth of the twelve
leffer prophets. He prophefied in the time of king Jo-
fiah, a little after the captivity of the ten tribes, and be¬
fore that of Judah ; fo that he was co-temporary with
Jeremiah. He freely publilhes to the Jews, that what
increafed the divine wrath again!! them, was their con¬
tempt of God’s fervice, their apoftacy, their treachery,
their idolatry, their violence and rapine, and other enor-
rrities: fuch high provocations as thefe rendered their
deftrudion terrible, univerfal, and unavoidable : and
then, as moft of the prophets do, he mingles exhorta¬
tions with repentance, as the only expedient in thefe cir-
cum/tances.
ZEPHYR, the weft wind, or that which blows from the
cardinal point of the horizon oppofite to the eaft.
ZEST, the woody thick !kin, quartering the kernel of a
walnut ; prefcribed by fome phyficians, when dried and
taken with white-wine, as a remedy again!! the gravel.
ZETETIC method, in mathematics, the method made
ufe of to invedigate or folve a problem.
ZEUGMA, a ,;gure in grammar, whereby an adjeCHve or
verb which agrees with a nearer word, Is alfo, by way
of fupplement, referred to another more remote.
ZEUS, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the order of
thoracici. The head is comprefFed, and declines, the tip
per lip being vaulted over by a tranfverfe membrane ; the
tongue isfubulated ; there are feven rays in the gill-men-
brane ; and the body is comprefted. The fpecies are
four, diftinguifhed by the ftiape of their rails.
ZERETHICUS, in zoology. See Castor.
ZINGIBER, in botany. See Am'mum.
ZINK See Chemistry, p, 90, 106, 143.
ZINZIBER, or Zingiber, Ginger, in botany, the na
ked ftdked oval fpited amomum. See Amomum, and
Ginger.
ZIRANIA, in botany a genus of the monoecia hexanin'a
clafs The male has no calrx ; the corolla confifts if a
double valved glume, without any awn. The fei^alfbas
no calix ; the corolh confifts of a fingle-valved guma
with an awn ; the ft/lus is bifid ; and there is bu one
feed. The fpecies a e two, none of them natives ofBri-
tain.
Z1ZIPHORA, in botaty, a genus of the diandria nono-
gynia clafs. The coolla is ringent the luperior 1 ilium
being reflected and enire ; the cahx is filiform; andshere
are four feeds. Tbefpecies are four, none of thm na¬
tives of Britain.
ZODIAC in aftronomy a fafcia or broad circle, whofe
Huddle is the ecliptic and its extremes two circrs pa
ralkl thereto, at fad a diftance from ir as to band or
comprehend the excufions of the fun and planets See
ASTJeONOM Y,
ZOLLERN, a city of Germany, in the circle of Swabia
capital of the county of Zollern, and fubjeCl to its count:
* (bunted E. long. 8° 55', N lat. 48° 18'.
ZONE, in geography and aftronomy, a divifion of the
terraqueous globe, with refpeCt to the different degrees
of heat found in the different parts thereof. See Geo¬
graphy.
ZOOLOGY, the fcience of animals. See Natural Hi¬
story
ZOOPHIT, in natural hiftory, a kind of intermediate body,
partaking of the nature of a fenfitive and a vegetable.
See Natural History.
ZOOTOMY, the art of difTcCIing animals or living crea¬
tures, being the fame with anatomy. See Anatomy.
ZUG, one of the cantons of Switzerland, is furrounded
'by the cantons of Lucern, Zurich, andSwitz; and is eigh¬
teen miles long, and feven broad,
ZUINGLIANS, a branch of the ancient Chriftian reform¬
ers, or proteftants ; fo called from their author Huldric
Zuinglius, a divine of Switzerland, vvhofoon after Luther
had declared again!! the church of Rome ; and being then
minifter of the church at Zurich, fell in with him, and-
preached openly again!! indulgences, the mafs, the celi¬
bacy of the cergy, ebc. What he differed from Luther
in, concerned ihe eucharift : for interpreting 60c eji cor¬
pus mcum, by hoc Jignificat corpus meum, he maintained
that the bread and wine were only fignifications of the bo¬
dy and blood of Jefus Chrift ; whereas Luther held.a
confubftantiation.
ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland, bounded by the canton
of SchafFhaufen on the north, by the canton of Appen-
zel on the eaft, by Zug and Switz on the fouth, and by
B trn and Lucern on the weft; being fifty miles long, and
forty broad Zurich is alfo the name of the capital city
of this canton, fituated E. long. 8° 3c/, and N. Jat. 47°
52 It is likewife the name of a lake, twenty-four miles
long, and three broad; at the fouth.end of which the :
city of Zurich ffands.
ZUTPHEN, a city of a county of the fame name, in Gel-
derland, fituated on the river Ylfel, fixteen miles north-
eal! of Arnheim : E. long. 6°, N. lat. 52° 15'.
ZUYDERSEE, a great bay of the German ocean, which
lies in the middle of the United provinces, having the
illands of Texel, Flie, and Schelling, at the entrance of
it, on the ntirth ; the provinces of Friefland, Overylfel,
and Gelderland, on the eaft ; Utrecht, and part of Hol¬
land, on the fouth ; and another part of Holland on the
weft. The chief town is Amfterdam.
ZWEIBRUGGEN, a county of the palatinate of the.
Rhme, in Germany, fubjeft to the duke of Deuxponts.
ZYGAlNA, in ichthyology. See Sq_alvs.
ZYGOMA, in anatomy. See Anatomy p. 152.
ZYGOMATICUS, in anatomy. See An atomy, p. 306.-
ZYGOPHVLLUM, in botany, a genus of the decandria
nionogynia clafs. The corolla confifts of five leaves and
the corolla of five petals ; the nedlarium confifts of ten
leaves, covering the germen , and the capfule has five celis,,
There are 8 fpecies, none of them natives of Britain;,
F
I
N
I
COR R I G E N D A.
Page 132. col. 1. !. 25,26. 0$ from the falivary Metaphysics, 1. 10. Tot metiphyjict, rt%& phyjtcs.
glands, from /making, &c. read, at to the falivary glands P. 588. col. 2. I. ult. Inilead of which is almoys really'
from ftnoking, See. a diphthong, read, which is always, when long, really a
P. u°- col. 2. 1. ult. Tot [Hid. n° 2.) read (Plate diphthong.
CXLVIL fig. I. «° I.) P. 59b. col. 1. 1. 41. Tot curve line, read curvilineaL
N 0 T A N D A
1. In the Table of Errata at the end of Vol. I. it wai faid, “ That Plate XLVII. reprefented a different Orrery
from the one deferibed.” This was a midake the Printer was fomehow led into : for the Orrery there reprefented is
the right one, and correfponds with the deferiptioo.
; . In Flax-dressing, plans of two machines relating to that article were referred to, bat which feveral circumftances
now render it difficult for the Editors to give. It is therefore hoped thefe will be difpenfed with, as they are not of
the moft general importance, and the article is fufficiently explained and illuftrated without them ; and efpecially as
10 plates more than the propofed number, and 16 pages of letter-prefs, are given gratis.
DIRECT 10 If S to the BINDER.
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larly in Book-keeping, to enlarge the page beyond the meafure of the reft of the book.
2. Title-pages for the Three Volumes are printed. Place them refpe&ively at the beginning of the Volume; and after
the title in Vol. I. infert the Preface.
In Book-keeping, Vol. I. can el pages 585, 586; and in their place infert the leaves marked with an after-ftc and
inclofed with parenthefis, viz. (*585) (*586), (#A) (#A), ,(*B) (*B), (*C) (*C), (*D; (*D), (*E) (*E),
4. Infert the Plates as directed below.
Plate
[Vol. I.]
to face
[Vol. I.] Page |Plate [Vol. II.] Page Plates .[Vol. III.] Page
*